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In telecommunication, alongitudinal redundancy check(LRC), orhorizontal redundancy check, is a form ofredundancy checkthat is applied independently to each of a parallel group of bit streams. The data must be divided intotransmission blocks, to which the additional check data is added.
The term usually applies to a s... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Longitudinal_redundancy_check |
Thecyclic redundancy check(CRC) is a check of theremainderafterdivisionin thering of polynomialsoverGF(2)(thefinite fieldofintegers modulo2). That is, the set ofpolynomialswhere eachcoefficientis either zero or one, andarithmetic operationswrap around.
Anystring of bitscan be interpreted as the coefficients of a poly... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mathematics_of_cyclic_redundancy_checks |
Simple file verification(SFV) is a file format for storingCRC32checksumsof files to verify the integrity of files. SFV is used to verify that a file has not beencorrupted, but it does not otherwise verify the file'sauthenticity. The.sfvfile extensionis usually used for SFV files.[1]
Files can become corrupted for a va... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Simple_file_verification |
Innumber theory, theKronecker symbol, written as(an){\displaystyle \left({\frac {a}{n}}\right)}or(a|n){\displaystyle (a|n)}, is a generalization of theJacobi symbolto allintegersn{\displaystyle n}. It was introduced byLeopold Kronecker(1885, page 770).
Letn{\displaystyle n}be a non-zero integer, withprime factorizatio... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kronecker_symbol |
Inalgebraic number theorythen-th power residue symbol(for an integern> 2) is a generalization of the (quadratic)Legendre symbolton-th powers. These symbols are used in the statement and proof ofcubic,quartic,Eisenstein, and related higher[1]reciprocity laws.[2]
Letkbe analgebraic number fieldwithring of integersOk{\di... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Power_residue_symbol |
Inmathematics, adiffeomorphismis anisomorphismofdifferentiable manifolds. It is aninvertible functionthat maps one differentiable manifold to another such that both the function and its inverse arecontinuously differentiable.
Given two differentiable manifoldsM{\displaystyle M}andN{\displaystyle N}, acontinuously diff... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diffeomorphism |
Incryptography,homomorphic secret sharingis a type ofsecret sharingalgorithmin which the secret is encrypted viahomomorphic encryption. Ahomomorphismis a transformation from onealgebraic structureinto another of the same type so that the structure is preserved. Importantly, this means that for every kind of manipulatio... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Homomorphic_secret_sharing |
Inmathematics, amorphismis a concept ofcategory theorythat generalizes structure-preservingmapssuch ashomomorphismbetweenalgebraic structures,functionsfrom a set to another set, andcontinuous functionsbetweentopological spaces. Although many examples of morphisms are structure-preserving maps, morphisms need not to be ... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Morphism |
Ingroup theory, given agroupG{\displaystyle G}, aquasimorphism(orquasi-morphism) is afunctionf:G→R{\displaystyle f:G\to \mathbb {R} }which isadditiveup to bounded error, i.e. there exists aconstantD≥0{\displaystyle D\geq 0}such that|f(gh)−f(g)−f(h)|≤D{\displaystyle |f(gh)-f(g)-f(h)|\leq D}for allg,h∈G{\displaystyle g,h... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quasimorphism |
Inabstract algebra, thefundamental theoremon homomorphisms, also known as thefundamental homomorphism theorem, or thefirst isomorphism theorem, relates the structure of two objects between which ahomomorphismis given, and of thekernelandimageof the homomorphism.
The homomorphism theorem is used toprovetheisomorphism t... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fundamental_theorem_on_homomorphisms |
Ring homomorphisms
Algebraic structures
Related structures
Algebraic number theory
Noncommutative algebraic geometry
Free algebra
Clifford algebra
Inmathematics, aring homomorphismis a structure-preservingfunctionbetween tworings. More explicitly, ifRandSare rings, then a ring homomorphism is a functionf:R→Sthat... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ring_homomorphism |
Ininformation theory, theasymptotic equipartition property(AEP) is a general property of the output samples of astochastic source. It is fundamental to the concept oftypical setused in theories ofdata compression.
Roughly speaking, the theorem states that although there are many series of results that may be produced ... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asymptotic_equipartition_property |
Ininformation theory,Fano's inequality(also known as theFano converseand theFano lemma) relates the average information lost in a noisy channel to the probability of the categorization error. It was derived byRobert Fanoin the early 1950s while teaching aPh.D.seminar in information theory atMIT, and later recorded in ... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fano%27s_inequality |
Rate–distortion theoryis a major branch ofinformation theorywhich provides the theoretical foundations forlossy data compression; it addresses the problem of determining the minimal number of bits per symbol, as measured by the rateR, that should be communicated over a channel, so that the source (input signal) can be ... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rate%E2%80%93distortion_theory |
Ininformation theory,Shannon's source coding theorem(ornoiseless coding theorem) establishes the statistical limits to possibledata compressionfor data whose source is anindependent identically-distributed random variable, and the operational meaning of theShannon entropy.
Named afterClaude Shannon, thesource coding t... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shannon%27s_source_coding_theorem |
Ininformation theory, theShannon–Hartley theoremtells the maximum rate at which information can be transmitted over a communications channel of a specifiedbandwidthin the presence ofnoise. It is an application of thenoisy-channel coding theoremto the archetypal case of acontinuous-timeanalogcommunications channelsubjec... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shannon%E2%80%93Hartley_theorem |
Ininformation theory,turbo codesare a class of high-performanceforward error correction(FEC) codes developed around 1990–91, but first published in 1993. They were the first practical codes to closely approach the maximum channel capacity orShannon limit, a theoretical maximum for thecode rateat which reliable communic... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Turbo_code |
The following is a list ofmobile telecommunicationsnetworks usingthird-generationUniversal Mobile Telecommunications System(UMTS) technology. This list does not aim to cover all networks, but instead focuses on networks deployed on frequencies other than 2100 MHz which is commonly deployed around the globe and on Multi... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_UMTS_networks |
CDMA2000++(also known asC2KorIMT Multi‑Carrier(IMT‑MC)) is a family of3G[1]mobile technology standards for sending voice, data, andsignalingdata betweenmobile phonesandcell sites. It is developed by3GPP2as a backwards-compatible successor tosecond-generationcdmaOne(IS-95) set of standards and used especially in North A... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CDMA2000 |
Wi-Fi calling, also calledVoWiFi,[1]refers tomobile phonevoice calls and data that are made overIPnetworks usingWi-Fi, instead of thecell towersprovided bycellular networks.[2]Using this feature, compatible handsets are able to route regular cellular calls through a wireless LAN (Wi-Fi) network withbroadband Internet, ... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Generic_Access_Network |
Opportunity-Driven Multiple Access (ODMA)is aUMTScommunications relaying protocol standard first introduced by the European Telecommunication Standards Institute (ETSI) in 1996. ODMA has been adopted by the 3rd-Generation Partnership Project,3GPPto improve the efficiency of UMTS networks using theTDDmode. One of the ob... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Opportunity-Driven_Multiple_Access |
Aduplexcommunication systemis apoint-to-pointsystem composed of two or more connected parties or devices that can communicate with one another in both directions. Duplex systems are employed in many communications networks, either to allow for simultaneous communication in both directions between two connected parties ... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Time-division_duplex |
Awireless ad hoc network[1](WANET) ormobile ad hoc network(MANET) is a decentralized type ofwireless network. The network isad hocbecause it does not rely on a pre-existing infrastructure, such asroutersorwireless access points. Instead, eachnodeparticipates in routing byforwardingdata for other nodes. The determinatio... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wireless_ad_hoc_network |
High Speed Packet Access(HSPA)[1]is an amalgamation of twomobileprotocols—High Speed Downlink Packet Access (HSDPA) and High Speed Uplink Packet Access (HSUPA)—that extends and improves the performance of existing3Gmobile telecommunication networks using theWCDMAprotocols. A further-improved3GPPstandard calledEvolved H... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/HSDPA |
High Speed Packet Access(HSPA)[1]is an amalgamation of twomobileprotocols—High Speed Downlink Packet Access (HSDPA) and High Speed Uplink Packet Access (HSUPA)—that extends and improves the performance of existing3Gmobile telecommunication networks using theWCDMAprotocols. A further-improved3GPPstandard calledEvolved H... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/HSUPA |
Packet Data Convergence Protocol(PDCP) is specified by3GPPin TS 25.323[1]forUMTS, TS 36.323[2]forLTEand TS 38.323[3]for5G. PDCP is located in the Radio Protocol Stack in the UMTS/LTE/5Gair interfaceon top of theRLClayer.
PDCP provides its services to theRRCand user plane upper layers, e.g.IPat theUEor to the relay at ... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PDCP |
ASIM cardorSIM(subscriber identity module) is anintegrated circuit(IC) intended to securely store aninternational mobile subscriber identity(IMSI) number and its related key, which are used to identify and authenticate subscribers onmobile telephonedevices (such asmobile phones,tablets, andlaptops). SIMs are also able ... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Subscriber_Identity_Module |
TheUniversal Mobile Telecommunications System(UMTS) is a3Gmobile cellular system for networks based on theGSMstandard.[1]UMTS useswideband code-division multiple access(W-CDMA) radio access technology to offer greater spectral efficiency and bandwidth tomobile network operatorscompared to previous2Gsystems likeGPRSandC... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/UMTS-TDD |
TheUMTS frequency bandsareradio frequenciesused bythird generation (3G)wirelessUniversal Mobile Telecommunications Systemnetworks. They were allocated by delegates to theWorld Administrative Radio Conference(WARC-92) held in Málaga-Torremolinos, Spain between 3 February 1992 and 3 March 1992.[1]Resolution 212 (Rev.WRC-... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/UMTS_frequency_bands |
TheUMTS channelsare communication channels used bythird generation (3G)wirelessUniversal Mobile Telecommunications System(UMTS) networks.[1][2][3]UMTS channels can be divided into three levels: | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/UMTS_channels |
TheUniversal Mobile Telecommunications System(UMTS) is a3Gmobile cellular system for networks based on theGSMstandard.[1]UMTS useswideband code-division multiple access(W-CDMA) radio access technology to offer greater spectral efficiency and bandwidth tomobile network operatorscompared to previous2Gsystems likeGPRSandC... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/W-CDMA |
TheUniversal Mobile Telecommunications System(UMTS) is a3Gmobile cellular system for networks based on theGSMstandard.[1]UMTS useswideband code-division multiple access(W-CDMA) radio access technology to offer greater spectral efficiency and bandwidth tomobile network operatorscompared to previous2Gsystems likeGPRSandC... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/TD-SCDMA |
A5/2is astream cipherused to provide voice privacy in theGSMcellular telephoneprotocol. It was designed in 1992-1993 (finished March 1993) as a replacement for the relatively stronger (but still weak)A5/1, to allow the GSM standard to be exported to countries "with restrictions on the import of products with cryptograp... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/A5/2 |
KASUMIis ablock cipherused inUMTS,GSM, andGPRSmobile communicationssystems.
In UMTS, KASUMI is used in theconfidentiality(f8) andintegrityalgorithms (f9) with names UEA1 and UIA1, respectively.[1]In GSM, KASUMI is used in theA5/3key stream generator and in GPRS in theGEA3key stream generator.
KASUMI was designed for3G... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/KASUMI_(block_cipher) |
Incryptography, theCellular Message Encryption Algorithm(CMEA) is ablock cipherwhich was used for securingmobile phonesin theUnited States. CMEA is one of fourcryptographicprimitives specified in aTelecommunications Industry Association(TIA) standard, and is designed toencryptthe control channel, rather than the voice ... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cellular_Message_Encryption_Algorithm |
Inmathematics, more specifically inring theory, aEuclidean domain(also called aEuclidean ring) is anintegral domainthat can be endowed with aEuclidean functionwhich allows a suitable generalization ofEuclidean divisionofintegers. This generalized Euclidean algorithm can be put to many of the same uses as Euclid's orig... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Euclidean_domain |
Inmathematics, theChinese remainder theoremstates that if one knows theremainders of the Euclidean divisionof anintegernby several integers, then one can determine uniquely the remainder of the division ofnby the product of these integers, under the condition that thedivisorsarepairwise coprime(no two divisors share a ... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Linear_congruence_theorem |
Kuṭṭakais analgorithmfor findingintegersolutions oflinearDiophantine equations. A linear Diophantine equation is anequationof the formax+by=cwherexandyareunknown quantitiesanda,b, andcare known quantities with integer values. The algorithm was originally invented by the Indian astronomer-mathematicianĀryabhaṭa(476–550 ... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ku%E1%B9%AD%E1%B9%ADaka |
Incomputer security, anattribute certificate, orauthorization certificate(AC) is adigital documentcontaining attributes associated to the holder by the issuer.[1]When the associated attributes are mainly used for the purpose ofauthorization, AC is calledauthorization certificate. AC is standardized inX.509. RFC 5755 f... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Authorization_certificate |
RFC4210(CMPv2, 2005)RFC9480(CMPv3, 2023)
RFC2510(CMPv1, 1999)
TheCertificate Management Protocol(CMP) is an Internet protocol standardized by theIETFused for obtaining X.509digital certificatesin apublic key infrastructure(PKI).
CMP is a very feature-rich and flexible protocol, supporting many types of cryptography.... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Certificate_Management_Protocol |
RFC 5272
RFC 2797
TheCertificate Management over CMS(CMC) is anInternet Standardpublished by theIETF, defining transport mechanisms for theCryptographic Message Syntax(CMS). It is defined inRFC5272, its transport mechanisms inRFC5273.
Similarly to theCertificate Management Protocol(CMP), it can be used for obtainin... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Certificate_Management_over_CMS |
Simple Certificate Enrollment Protocol(SCEP) is described by the informationalRFC8894. Older versions of thisprotocolbecame a de facto industrial standard for pragmatic provisioning of digital certificates mostly for network equipment.
The protocol has been designed to make the request and issuing ofdigital certificat... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Simple_Certificate_Enrollment_Protocol |
TheEnrollment over Secure Transport, orESTis acryptographicprotocolthat describes anX.509certificate management protocol targetingpublic key infrastructure(PKI) clients that need to acquire client certificates and associatedcertificate authority(CA) certificates. EST is described inRFC7030. EST has been put forward as ... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Enrollment_over_Secure_Transport |
TheAutomatic Certificate Management Environment(ACME) protocol is acommunications protocolfor automating interactions betweencertificate authoritiesand their users' servers, allowing the automated deployment ofpublic key infrastructureat very low cost.[1][2]It was designed by theInternet Security Research Group(ISRG) f... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Automatic_Certificate_Management_Environment |
Resource Public Key Infrastructure(RPKI), also known asResource Certification, is a specializedpublic key infrastructure(PKI) framework to support improved security for theInternet'sBGProutinginfrastructure.
RPKI provides a way to connect Internet number resource information (such asAutonomous Systemnumbers andIP addr... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Resource_Public_Key_Infrastructure |
In mathematics, asemigroupis analgebraic structureconsisting of asettogether with anassociativeinternalbinary operationon it.
The binary operation of a semigroup is most often denoted multiplicatively (just notation, not necessarily the elementary arithmeticmultiplication):x⋅y, or simplyxy, denotes the result of apply... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Semigroup |
Inabstract algebra, amonoidis a set equipped with anassociativebinary operationand anidentity element. For example, the nonnegativeintegerswith addition form a monoid, the identity element being0.
Monoids aresemigroupswith identity. Suchalgebraic structuresoccur in several branches of mathematics.
The functions from... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Monoid |
Inmathematics,racksandquandlesare sets withbinary operationssatisfying axioms analogous to theReidemeister movesused to manipulateknotdiagrams.
While mainly used to obtain invariants of knots, they can be viewed asalgebraicconstructions in their own right. In particular, the definition of a quandle axiomatizes the pr... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Racks_and_quandles |
Inmathematics, especially inabstract algebra, aquasigroupis analgebraic structurethat resembles agroupin the sense that "division" is always possible. Quasigroups differ from groups mainly in that theassociativeandidentity elementproperties are optional. In fact, a nonempty associative quasigroup is a group.[1][2]
A q... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quasigroup |
The theory ofassociation schemesarose instatistics, in the theory ofexperimental designfor theanalysis of variance.[1][2][3]Inmathematics, association schemes belong to bothalgebraandcombinatorics. Inalgebraic combinatorics, association schemes provide a unified approach to many topics, for examplecombinatorial designs... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Association_scheme |
Inmathematics, specificallygroup theory,Cauchy's theoremstates that ifGis afinite groupandpis aprime numberdividing theorderofG(the number of elements inG), thenGcontains an element of orderp. That is, there isxinGsuch thatpis the smallest positiveintegerwithxp=e, whereeis theidentity elementofG. It is named afterAugus... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cauchy%27s_theorem_(group_theory) |
Inmathematics, theclassification of finite simple groups(popularly called theenormous theorem[1][2]) is a result ofgroup theorystating that everyfinite simple groupis eithercyclic, oralternating, or belongs to a broad infinite class called thegroups of Lie type, or else it is one of twenty-six exceptions, calledsporadi... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Classification_of_finite_simple_groups |
Inmathematicsand more precisely ingroup theory, thecommuting probability(also calleddegree of commutativityorcommutativity degree) of afinite groupis theprobabilitythat two randomly chosen elementscommute.[1][2]It can be used to measure how close toabeliana finite group is. It can be generalized to infinitegroupsequip... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Commuting_probability |
Afinite-state machine(FSM) orfinite-state automaton(FSA, plural:automata),finite automaton, or simply astate machine, is a mathematicalmodel of computation. It is anabstract machinethat can be in exactly one of a finite number ofstatesat any given time. The FSM can change from one state to another in response to somein... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Finite-state_machine |
Incommunication complexity, thegap-Hamming problemasks, ifAlice and Bobare each given a (potentially different) string, what is the minimal number of bits that they need to exchange in order for Alice to approximately compute theHamming distancebetween their strings. The solution to the problem roughly states that, if ... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gap-Hamming_problem |
Application-Layer Protocol Negotiation(ALPN) is aTransport Layer Security(TLS) extension that allows the application layer to negotiate whichprotocolshould be performed over a secure connection in a manner that avoids additional round trips and which is independent of the application-layer protocols. It is used to esta... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Application-Layer_Protocol_Negotiation |
Bullrun(stylizedBULLRUN) is aclandestine, highly classified program to crack encryption of online communications and data, which is run by the United StatesNational Security Agency(NSA).[1][2]The BritishGovernment Communications Headquarters(GCHQ) has a similar program codenamedEdgehill. According to the Bullrun classi... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bullrun_(decryption_program) |
Incryptography, acertificate authorityorcertification authority(CA) is an entity that stores, signs, and issuesdigital certificates. A digital certificate certifies the ownership of a public key by the named subject of the certificate. This allows others (relying parties) to rely upon signatures or on assertions made... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Certificate_authority |
Certificate Transparency(CT) is anInternet securitystandardfor monitoring and auditing the issuance ofdigital certificates.[1]When an internet user interacts with a website, a trusted third party is needed for assurance that the website is legitimate and that the website's encryption key is valid. This third party, cal... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Certificate_Transparency |
Datagram Transport Layer Security(DTLS) is acommunications protocolprovidingsecuritytodatagram-based applications by allowing them to communicate in a way designed[1][2][3]to preventeavesdropping,tampering, ormessage forgery. The DTLS protocol is based on thestream-orientedTransport Layer Security(TLS) protocol and is ... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Datagram_Transport_Layer_Security |
Delegated credentialis a short-livedTLScertificateused to improve security by faster recovery fromprivate keyleakage, without increasing thelatencyof theTLS handshake. It is currently anIETFInternet Draft,[1]and has been in use byCloudflare[2]andFacebook,[3]with browser support byFirefox.[4]
Modern websites and other ... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Delegated_credential |
HTTP Strict Transport Security(HSTS) is a policy mechanism that helps to protect websites againstman-in-the-middle attackssuch asprotocol downgrade attacks[1]andcookie hijacking. It allowsweb serversto declare that web browsers (or other complyinguser agents) should automatically interact with it using onlyHTTPSconnect... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/HTTP_Strict_Transport_Security |
Akey ringis a file which contains multiple public keys ofcertificate authority(CA).
A key ring is a file which is necessary forSecure Sockets Layer(SSL) connection over the web. It is securely stored on theserverwhichhosts the website. It contains thepublic/private key pairfor the particular website. It also contains ... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Key_ring_file |
Private Communications Technology(PCT) 1.0 was a protocol developed byMicrosoftin the mid-1990s. PCT was designed to address security flaws in version 2.0 ofNetscape'sSecure Sockets Layerprotocol and to force Netscape to hand control of the then-proprietary SSL protocol to an open standards body.[citation needed]
PCT ... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Private_Communications_Technology |
QUIC(/kwɪk/) is a general-purposetransport layernetwork protocolinitially designed byJim RoskindatGoogle.[1][2][3]It was first implemented and deployed in 2012[4]and was publicly announced in 2013 as experimentation broadened. It was also described at anIETFmeeting.[5][6][7][8]TheChrome web browser,[9]Microsoft Edge,[1... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/QUIC |
Server-Gated Cryptography(SGC), also known asInternational Step-UpbyNetscape, is a defunct mechanism that was used to step up from 40-bit or 56-bit to 128-bit cipher suites withSSL. It was created in response toUnited States federal legislation on the export of strong cryptographyin the 1990s.[1]The legislation had lim... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Server-Gated_Cryptography |
Incomputer networking,tcpcryptis atransport layercommunicationencryptionprotocol.[1][2]Unlike prior protocols likeTLS(SSL), tcpcrypt is implemented as aTCPextension. It was designed by a team of six security and networking experts: Andrea Bittau, Mike Hamburg,Mark Handley, David Mazières,Dan Bonehand Quinn Slack.[3]Tcp... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tcpcrypt |
TLS acceleration(formerly known asSSL acceleration) is a method of offloading processor-intensivepublic-key encryptionforTransport Layer Security(TLS) and its predecessor Secure Sockets Layer (SSL)[1]to a hardware accelerator.
Typically this means having a separate card that plugs into aPCI slotin a computer that cont... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/TLS_acceleration |
Access codemay refer to: | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Access_code_(disambiguation) |
Acombination lockis a type oflocking devicein which asequenceof symbols, usually numbers, is used to open the lock. The sequence may be entered using a single rotating dial which interacts with several discs orcams, by using a set of several rotating discs with inscribed symbols which directly interact with the locking... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Combination_lock |
Dicewareis a method for creatingpassphrases,passwords, and other cryptographic variables using ordinarydiceas ahardware random number generator. For each word in the passphrase, five rolls of a six-sided die are required. The numbers from 1 to 6 that come up in the rolls are assembled as a five-digit number, e.g.43146.... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diceware |
Anelectronic lock(orelectric lock) is alocking devicewhich operates by means of electric current. Electric locks are sometimes stand-alone with an electronic control assembly mounted directly to the lock. Electric locks may be connected to anaccess controlsystem, the advantages of which include: key control, where keys... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electronic_lock |
Kerberos(/ˈkɜːrbərɒs/) is acomputer-networkauthenticationprotocolthat works on the basis ofticketsto allownodescommunicating over a non-secure network to prove their identity to one another in a secure manner. Its designers aimed it primarily at aclient–servermodel, and it providesmutual authentication—both the user an... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kerberos_(protocol) |
Akeyfile(orkey-file) is a file on a computer which containsencryptionor license keys.
A common use is web server software running secure socket layer (SSL) protocols. Server-specific keys issued by trusted authorities are merged into the keyfile along with the trusted root certificates. By this method keys can be up... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Keyfile |
PassMap/ˈpæsmæp/is a map-based graphical password method ofauthentication, similar topasswords, proposed byNational Tsing Hua Universityresearchers. The wordPassMaporiginates from the wordpasswordby substitutingwordwithmap.
PassMap was proposed byNational Tsing Hua Universityresearchers Hung-Min Sun, Yao-Hsin Chen, Ch... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PassMap |
Password fatigueis the feeling experienced by many people who are required to remember an excessive number ofpasswordsas part of their daily routine, such as tolog into a computer at work, undo abicycle lockor conduct banking from anautomated teller machine. The concept is also known aspassword chaos,or more broadly as... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Password_fatigue |
Password notification emailor password recovery email is a commonpassword recoverytechnique used bywebsites. If a user forgets theirpassword, a password recoveryemailis sent which contains enough information for the user to access theiraccountagain. This method of password retrieval relies on the assumption that only t... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Password_notification_e-mail |
Living in the intersection ofcryptographyandpsychology,password psychologyis the study of what makespasswordsorcryptographic keyseasy to remember or guess.
In order for apasswordto work successfully and provide security to its user, it must be kept secret and un-guessable; this also requires the user to memorize their... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Password_psychology |
Password synchronizationis a process, usually supported by software such aspassword managers, through which a user maintains a single password across multipleIT systems.[1]
Provided that all the systems enforce mutually-compatible password standards (e.g. concerning minimum and maximum password length, supported chara... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Password_synchronization |
Arandom password generatoris asoftwareprogram orhardwaredevice that takes input from arandomorpseudo-randomnumber generator and automatically generates apassword. Random passwords can be generated manually, using simple sources of randomness such asdiceorcoins, or they can be generated using a computer.
While there ar... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Random_password_generator |
Ashibboleth(/ˈʃɪbəlɛθ,-ɪθ/ⓘ;[1][2]Hebrew:שִׁבֹּלֶת,romanized:šībbōleṯ) is anycustomor tradition, usually a choice of phrasing or single word, that distinguishes one group of people from another.[3][2][4]Historically, shibboleths have been used aspasswords, ways of self-identification, signals of loyalty and affinity, w... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shibboleth |
Usability of web authentication systemsrefers to the efficiency and user acceptance of online authentication systems.[1]Examples of web authentication systems arepasswords,federated identity systems(e.g.GoogleOAuth2.0,Facebook Connect,Sign in with Apple), email-basedsingle sign-on(SSO) systems (e.g. SAW, Hatchet),QR co... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Usability_of_web_authentication_systems |
Inmathematics,Light's associativity testis a procedure invented by F. W. Light for testing whether abinary operationdefined in afinite setby aCayley multiplication tableisassociative. The naive procedure for verification of the associativity of a binary operation specified by a Cayley table, which compares the two prod... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Light%27s_associativity_test |
Inmathematics, atelescoping seriesis aserieswhose general termtn{\displaystyle t_{n}}is of the formtn=an+1−an{\displaystyle t_{n}=a_{n+1}-a_{n}}, i.e. the difference of two consecutive terms of asequence(an){\displaystyle (a_{n})}. As a consequence the partial sums of the series only consists of two terms of(an){\displ... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telescoping_series |
Inmathematics, aseriesis, roughly speaking, anadditionofinfinitelymanyterms, one after the other.[1]The study of series is a major part ofcalculusand its generalization,mathematical analysis. Series are used in most areas of mathematics, even for studying finite structures incombinatoricsthroughgenerating functions. Th... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Series_(mathematics) |
Inmathematics, abinary operationiscommutativeif changing the order of theoperandsdoes not change the result. It is a fundamental property of many binary operations, and manymathematical proofsdepend on it. Perhaps most familiar as a property of arithmetic, e.g."3 + 4 = 4 + 3"or"2 × 5 = 5 × 2", the property can also be ... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Commutativity |
Inmathematics, thedistributive propertyofbinary operationsis a generalization of thedistributive law, which asserts that the equalityx⋅(y+z)=x⋅y+x⋅z{\displaystyle x\cdot (y+z)=x\cdot y+x\cdot z}is always true inelementary algebra.
For example, inelementary arithmetic, one has2⋅(1+3)=(2⋅1)+(2⋅3).{\displaystyle 2\cdot (1... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Distributivity |
Inmathematics, specifically inabstract algebra,power associativityis a property of abinary operationthat is a weak form ofassociativity.
Analgebra(or more generally amagma) is said to be power-associative if thesubalgebragenerated by any element is associative. Concretely, this means that if an elementx{\displaystyle ... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Power_associativity |
Inabstract algebra,alternativityis a property of abinary operation. AmagmaGis said to beleft alternativeif(xx)y=x(xy){\displaystyle (xx)y=x(xy)}for allx,y∈G{\displaystyle x,y\in G}andright alternativeify(xx)=(yx)x{\displaystyle y(xx)=(yx)x}for allx,y∈G{\displaystyle x,y\in G}. A magma that is both left and right alter... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alternativity |
Inmathematics, particularlyabstract algebra, abinary operation• on asetisflexibleif it satisfies theflexible identity:
for any two elementsaandbof the set. Amagma(that is, a set equipped with a binary operation) is flexible if the binary operation with which it is equipped is flexible. Similarly, anonassociative alg... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flexible_algebra |
Inalgebra,n-ary associativityis ageneralizationof theassociative lawton-ary operations.
Aternary operationisternary associativeif one has always
that is, the operation gives the same result when any three adjacent elements are bracketed inside asequenceof five operands.
Similarly, ann-ary operation isn-ary associati... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/N-ary_associativity |
Inmathematics, aMoufang loopis a special kind ofalgebraic structure. It is similar to agroupin many ways but need not beassociative. Moufang loops were introduced byRuth Moufang(1935). Smooth Moufang loops have an associated algebra, theMalcev algebra, similar in some ways to how aLie grouphas an associatedLie algebr... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moufang_loop |
This is a list of possiblynonassociative algebras. An algebra is amodule, wherein you can alsomultiplytwo module elements. (The multiplication in the module is compatible with multiplication-by-scalars from the basering).
This is a list of fields of algebra. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_algebras |
Inmathematics, there existmagmasthat arecommutativebut notassociative. A simple example of such a magma may be derived from the children's game ofrock, paper, scissors. Such magmas give rise tonon-associative algebras.
A magma which is both commutative and associative is a commutativesemigroup.
In the game ofrock pap... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Commutative_non-associative_magmas |
In thehistorical study of mathematics, anapotomeis a line segment formed from a longer line segment by breaking it into two parts, one of which iscommensurableonly in power to the whole; the other part is the apotome. In this definition, two line segments are said to be "commensurable only in power" when the ratio of t... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Apotome_(mathematics) |
Inmathematics, acube rootof a numberxis a numberythat has the given number as itsthird power; that isy3=x.{\displaystyle y^{3}=x.}The number of cube roots of a number depends on thenumber systemthat is considered.
Everyreal numberxhas exactly one real cube root that is denotedx3{\textstyle {\sqrt[{3}]{x}}}and called t... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cube_root |
Inmathematics, afunctional square root(sometimes called ahalf iterate) is asquare rootof afunctionwith respect to the operation offunction composition. In other words, a functional square root of a functiongis a functionfsatisfyingf(f(x)) =g(x)for allx.
Notations expressing thatfis a functional square root ofgaref=g[1... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Functional_square_root |
Innumber theory, theinteger square root(isqrt) of anon-negative integernis the non-negative integermwhich is thegreatest integer less than or equalto thesquare rootofn,isqrt(n)=⌊n⌋.{\displaystyle \operatorname {isqrt} (n)=\lfloor {\sqrt {n}}\rfloor .}
For example,isqrt(27)=⌊27⌋=⌊5.19615242270663...⌋=5.{\displaystyle... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Integer_square_root |
Inalgebra, anested radicalis aradical expression(one containing a square root sign, cube root sign, etc.) that contains (nests) another radical expression. Examples include
5−25,{\displaystyle {\sqrt {5-2{\sqrt {5}}\ }},}
which arises in discussing theregular pentagon, and more complicated ones such as
2+3+433.{\dis... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nested_radical |
Inmathematics, annth rootof anumberxis a numberrwhich, whenraised to the powerofn, yieldsx:rn=r×r×⋯×r⏟nfactors=x.{\displaystyle r^{n}=\underbrace {r\times r\times \dotsb \times r} _{n{\text{ factors}}}=x.}
Thepositive integernis called theindexordegree, and the numberxof which the root is taken is theradicand.A root o... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nth_root |
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