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Such an area of intensification is called a *frontal zone* or a *front*. The boundary between the warm and cold air masses always slopes upwards over the cold air. This is due to the fact that cold air is much denser than warm air. The sloping of warm air over the cold air leads to a forced uplifting (*frontal lifting*... | {
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*Precipitation* is located at the center of the low and along the fronts where air is being uplifted.
Mid-latitude cyclones can produce a wide variety of precipitation types. Precipitation types include: *rain*, *freezing rain*, *hail*, *sleet*, *snow pellets*, and *snow*. Frozen forms of precipitation (except hail) ... | {
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The top of the cloud takes on the familiar anvil shape, as strong stratospheric upper-level winds spread ice crystals in the top of the cloud horizontally. At its base, the thunderstorm is several kilometers in diameter. The mature air mass thunderstorm contains heavy rain, thunder, lightning, and produces wind gusts a... | {
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| 1 | Weak | 119-181 (74-112) | Shingles on roofs blown off; mobile homes pushed off foundations or overturned; moving cars pushed off roads. |
| 2 ... | {
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The temperature of the tropics does not vary much from season to season because considerable solar insolation is received by locations regardless of the season. Weather in the tropics is dominated by convective storms that develop mainly along the *intertropical convergence zone*, the *subtropical high pressure zone*, ... | {
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Rainfall within a hurricane can often exceed 60 centimeters in a 24 hour period. If this rainfall occurs on land, flooding normally occurs. **Storm surge** is increase in the height of the ocean's surface in the region beneath and around the eye of the storm. It occurs when low atmospheric pressure causes the ocean sur... | {
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**ET** or **polar tundra** is a climate where the soil is permanently frozen to depths of hundreds of meters, a condition known as permafrost. Vegetation is dominated by mosses, lichens, dwarf trees and scattered woody shrubs. **EF** or **polar ice caps** has a surface that is permanently covered with snow and ice.
#... | {
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mm | 5 | 2 | 9 | 40 | 233 | 982 | 1059 | 577 | 267 | 206 | 71 | 18 | 3467 |
#### **Cuiaba, Brazil** 13.5 degrees S , Elevation: 165 m
| {PRIVATE} | Jan. | Feb. | Mar. | Apr. | May June | | July | Aug. | Sept. | Oct. | Nov. | Dec. | Year |
|------------|------|------|------|------|-------... | {
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mm | 98 | 101 | 136 | 116 | 111 | 113 | 171 | 136 | 128 | 72 | 85 | 104 | 1371 |
**Williston, North Dakota** 47.5 degrees N , Elevation: 579 m
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mm 78 | | 85 | 57 | 30 | 4 | 2 | 0 | 1 | 6 | 10 | 27 | 73 | 373 |
#### **Rome, Italy** 42 degrees N , Elevation: 131 m
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#### **(x) Earth's Climatic History**
#### **Reconstructing Past Climates**
A wide range of evidence exists to allow climatologists to reconstruct the Earth's past climate. This evidence can be grouped into three general categories.
The first category is **meteorological instrument records**. Common climatic el... | {
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Proxy and instrumental data indicate that 1998 was the warmest year globally in 1200 years of Earth history. In the following year, a La Nina developed and global temperatures dropped slightly. Nevertheless, the mean global temperatures recorded for this year was the sixth highest measurement since 1880. Many scientist... | {
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**{**PRIVATE**}Figure 7y-3:** The following graph illustrates the rise in atmospheric carbon dioxide from 1744 to 1992. Note that the increase in carbon dioxide's concentration in the atmosphere has been **exponential** during the period examined. An extrapolation into the immediate fut... | {
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Some scientists believe that the periodic droughts on the Great Plains of the United States are in someway correlated with this 22 year cycle.
#### **(z) El Nino, La Nina and the Southern Oscillation**
*El Nino* is the name given to the occasional development of warm ocean surface waters along the coast of Ecuador ... | {
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#### **(a) Physical Properties of Water**
We live on a planet that is dominated by water. More than 70 % of the Earth's surface is covered with it. Scientists estimate that the *hydrosphere* contains about 1.36 billion cubic kilometers of this substance mostly in the form of a liquid that occupies topographic depress... | {
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On average water is renewed in rivers once every 16 days. Water in the atmosphere is completely replaced once every 8 days. Slower rates of replacement occur in large lakes, glaciers, ocean bodies and groundwater. Replacement in these reservoirs can take from hundreds to thousands of years. Some of these resources (esp... | {
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If there is a deficiency of nuclei, *super-saturation* can result and condensation, freezing, or deposition can only occur with a relative humidity that is greater than 100 %
#### **(e) Cloud Formation Processes**
*Condensation* or *deposition* of water above the Earth's surface creates clouds. In general, clouds... | {
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(**Source**: *NOAA Photo Collection Website*)**.**
*Snow pellets* are white, spherical grains of ice 2 to 5 millimeters in diameter. They can be distinguished from packed snowflakes since snow pellets are firm enough to bounce when they hit the ground. Snow pellets develop as *supercooled* droplets freeze on ice crys... | {
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In the 1960s, the problems associated with acid deposition became an international problem when fishermen noticed declines in fish numbers and diversity in many lakes throughout North America and Europe.
#### **Acid Deposition Formation**
Acid deposition can form as a result of two processes. In some cases, hydroch... | {
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In some areas of eastern North America and Europe, large diebacks of trees have occurred.
Finally, acid deposition effects a number inanimate features of human construction. Buildings and head stones that are constructed from limestone are easily attacked by acids, as are structures that are constructed of iron or st... | {
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For example, the burrowing of worms and other organisms and penetration of plant roots can increase the size and number of macro and micro-channels within the soil. The amount of decayed *organic matter* found at the soil surface can also enhance infiltration. Organic matter is generally more porous than mineral soil p... | {
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*Stream discharge* represents the volume of water passing through a river channel during a certain period of time. Stream discharge can be expressed mathematically with the following equation:
$$Q = W \times D \times V$$
where,
**Q** equals stream discharge usually measured in cubic meters per second, **W** equal... | {
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For example, oxygen and carbon dioxide may be temporally generated or depleted by such processes to varying concentrations at specific locations within the ocean.
#### **(q) Surface and Subsurface Ocean Currents**
#### **Surface Ocean Currents**
An *ocean current* can be defined as a horizontal movement of seawat... | {
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In parts of the northern Gulf of Mexico and Southeast Asia, tides have one high and one low water per tidal day (**Figure 8r-4**). These tides are called *diurnal tides*.
**Figure 8r-4:** Cyclical tidal cycles associated with a diurnal tide.
*Semi-diurnal tides* have two high and two ... | {
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#### **(a) Origin and Definition of Life**
#### **Origin of Life**
The sun and its planets formed between 5 and 4.6 billion years ago as matter in our solar system began to coalesce because of *gravity*. By about 3.9 billion years ago, the Earth had an atmosphere that contained the right mix of hydrogen, oxygen, ca... | {
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Because the state of environment is always changing temporally, natural selection is always influencing the genetic characteristics of the population over time. Thus, natural selection acts to adapt the population to its ever changing surrounds.
Evolutionary change is also a change in *gene frequency*. The pattern of... | {
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*Biotic* factors also regulate the size of populations more intensely. Finally, the influence of biotic interactions can occur at two different levels. *Interspecific* effects are direct interactions between species, and the *intraspecific* effects represent interactions of individuals within a single species.
#### *... | {
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The green area describes the actual combinations of these two variables that the species utilizes in its habitat. This subset of the fundamental niche is known as the realized niche.
#### **(h) Species Diversity and Biodiversity**
**{**PRIVATE**}**Biologists are not completely sure how many different *species* live... | {
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After about 5 to 15 years, the sites were then colonized by a number of different softwood *tree* species including loblolly pine (Pinus taeda), shortleaf pine (Pinus echinata), Virginia pine (Pinus virginiana), and sweetgum. As the softwoods increased in their numbers and grew in height, they began forming a forest ... | {
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**{**PRIVATE**}Table 9i-1:** Comparison of plant, community, and ecosystem characteristics between early and late stages of
| succession | | | |
|-----------------------------------------------------... | {
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Heterotrophs who obtain their energy from living organisms are called *consumers*. Consumers can be of two basic types: Consumer and decomposers. Consumers that consume plants are know as *herbivores*. *Carnivores* are consumers who eat herbivores or other carnivores. *Decomposers* or *detritivores* are heterotrophs th... | {
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Prior to modern man, the tall grass prairie was dominated by species of Bluestem (Andropogon spp.) (**Figure 9k-4**). This particular species dominated much of the tall grass prairie forming dense covers 1.5 to 2.0 meters tall. In the western end of the prairie, where precipitation is less, Buffalo Grass (Buchloe dacty... | {
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Decomposition is rapid in the tropicals because high temperatures and an abundance of moisture. Because of the frequent and heavy rains, tropical soils are subject to extreme *chemical weathering* and *leaching*. These environmental conditions also make tropical soils *acidic* and *nutrient* poor.
#### (1) Primary ... | {
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*Primary consumers* or *herbivores* form the second link in the grazing food chain. They gain their energy by consuming primary producers. *Secondary consumers* or *primary carnivores*, the third link in the chain, gain their energy by consuming herbivores. *Tertiary consumers* or *secondary carnivores* are animals tha... | {
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#### **(p) Biogeochemical Cycling: Inputs and Outputs of Nutrients to Ecosystems**
**{**PRIVATE**}**The patterns of cycling *nutrients* in the *biosphere* involves not only *metabolism* by living organisms, but also a series of strictly *abiotic* chemical reactions. Understanding the cycle of a single *element* req... | {
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Within the soil, nutrients are stored on the soil particles, dead *organic matter*, or in chemical compounds.
Organic matter decomposition is the main process that recycles nutrients back into the soil. Decomposition of organic matter begins with large soil organisms like **earthworms**, **arthropods** (ants, beetles... | {
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*Decomposers*, found in the upper soil layer, chemically modify the nitrogen found in *organic matter* from *ammonia* (NH3 ) to *ammonium* salts (NH<sup>4</sup> + ). This process is known as *mineralization* and it is carried out by a variety of *bacteria*, *actinomycetes*, and *fungi*.
Nitrogen in the form of *ammon... | {
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#### **(a) The Rock Cycle**
**{**PRIVATE**}**The *rock cycle* is a general model that describes how various geological processes create, modify, and influence rocks (**Figure 10a-1**). This model suggests that the origin of all rocks can be ultimately traced back to the solidification of molten *magma*. Magma consist... | {
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Instead, the theory of **uniformitarianism** suggested that the landscape developed over long periods of time through a variety of slow geologic and geomorphic processes.
The term **uniformitarianism** was first used in 1832 by **William Whewell**, a University of Cambridge scholar, to present an alternative explanat... | {
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However, some organic substances that are found naturally on the Earth that exist as crystals that resemble and act like true minerals. These substances are called organic minerals. **Amber** is a good example of an organic mineral.
**Table 10d-2:** Classification of some of the important minerals found in rocks.
|... | {
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This model, known as the *Bowen reaction series*, suggests that the type of igneous rocks that form from magma solidification depends on the temperature of crystallization and the chemical composition of the originating magma. Bowen theorized that the formation of minerals, which make up *igneous rocks*, begins with tw... | {
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Because of the nature of the dissipation process, the level of metamorphic alteration in the influenced rock decreases with distance fro m the igneous intrusion.
#### **Pressure and Metamorphism**
Rocks that buried are subjected to pressure because of the weight of overlying materials. Pressure can also be exerted ... | {
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If the weight is removed, the crust becomes more buoyant and floats higher in the mantle.
This process explains recent changes in the height of *sea-level* in coastal areas of eastern and northern Canada and Scandinavia. Some locations in these regions of the world have seen sea-level rise by as much as one meter ove... | {
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At other plate boundaries, plates may move away from each other because of **sea-floor spreading** or horizontally move past one another creating *transform faults* and **earthquakes**.
#### **(j) Crustal Formation Processes**
**{**PRIVATE**}**Studies of *seismic waves* have discovered that the Earth's crust consis... | {
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*Orogeny* stopped in the Appalachians about 250 million years ago. The long passage of time without active uplift has allowed *weathering* and *erosion* to remove large amounts of bedrock from the Appalachians. These processes have also significantly lowered and rounded the peaks of the various mountains found in this ... | {
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Note how the rock layers dip away from the center of the fold are roughly symmetrical.
A *syncline* is a fold where the rock layers are warped downward (**Figure 10l-4** and **10l-5**). Both anticlines and synclines are the result of compressional stress.
**{**PRIVATE**}Figure 10l-4:... | {
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| {PRIVATE}M<br>agnitude in<br>Richter Scale | Energy Released<br>in Joules | Comment |
|--------------------------------------------|------------------------------|-----------------------------------------------------------... | {
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Most occur along tectonic plate boundaries where plate *subduction* creates rising *plumes* of *magma*. The volcanoes that do not occur along plate boundaries are the result of localized *asthenosphere hot spots* that melt through the Earth's crust. The Hawaiian Island chain of volcanoes was create by a hot spot.
Ove... | {
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Plate subduction created enough heat to melt rock into magma beneath the margins of the continents. This magma then migrated upward through the crust to form *intrusive* and *extrusive igneous* features and deposits. This process also added significant mass to the continents.
#### **Mountain Belts**
Numerous mounta... | {
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The *continental rise* is found at the base of the continental slope (see **Figure 10p-1** and **Figure 10p-2**). The depth of the rise ranges from 2000 to 5000 meters deep. Its breadth is up 300 kilometers wide. This feature was created by the merging of accumulated deposits at the mouths of the many submarine canyo... | {
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#### **(a) Models of Landform Development**
**{**PRIVATE**}**The landforms that are found on the surface of the Earth can be grouped into 4 categories:
- **(1)** *Structural Landforms* **-** landforms that are created by massive earth movements due to *plate tectonics*. This includes landforms with some of the foll... | {
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Most salt weathering occurs in hot arid regions, but it may also occur in cold climates. For example, cavernous salt weathering of granite is widespread in the dry valley regions of South Victoria Land, Antarctica. At this location outcrops and large boulders are pitted by holes up to 2 meters in diameter. Researchers ... | {
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A mass of mineral particles alone do not constitute a true *soil*. True soils are influenced, modified, and supplemented by living organisms. Plants and animals aid in the development of a soil through the addition of *organic matter*. Fungi and bacteria reduce this organic matter to a semi-soluble chemical complex cal... | {
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**Living Organisms** have a role in a number of processes involved in pedogenesis including organic matter accumulation, profile mixing, and *biogeochemical nutrient cycling*. Under equilibrium conditions, vegetation and soil are closely linked with each other through nutrient cycling. The cycling of nitrogen and car... | {
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The litter of the coniferous vegetation is low in base cations and contributes to acid accumulations in the soil. In these soils, mixt ures of organic matter and aluminum, with or without iron, accumulate in the *B horizon*. The *A horizon* of these soils normally has an eluvial layer that has the color of more or less... | {
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Solonetzic soils are common in the dry regions of the prairies where evapotranspiration greatly exceeds precipitation input. The movement of water to the earth's surface because of capillary action, transpiration, and evaporation causes the deposition of salts when the water evaporates into the atmosphere.
![](_page_... | {
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The graph also indicates that the transport of particles requires lower flow velocities then erosion. This is especially true of silt and clay particles. Finally, the line labeled "settling velocity" shows at what velocity certain sized particles fall out of transport and are deposited.
#### **Transport**
Once a pa... | {
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"token_count": 2035,
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The erosive potential of sheetwash is usually quite limited because this type of flow is shallow and non-turbulent and cannot readily
*entrain* surface particles. However, topographic irregularities can quickly transform sheetwash into small channels called *rills*. Rills then coalesce into larger *stream channels* a... | {
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Losses of material carried by the stream system occurs through a number of processes. Water is lost by *evaporation*, *seepage*, and *flooding*. Streamflow ends when the water carried by stream enters a receiving basin like a *lake* or an *ocean*. Sediment is lost by various types of *deposition*.
#### **The Long P... | {
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In a braided stream, the main channel divides into a number of smaller, interlocking or braided channels. Braided channels tend to be wide and shallow because bedload materials are often coarse (*sands* and gravels) and non-cohesive.
**Figure 11j-2:** Braided stream channel.
*Meander... | {
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A drainage basin is the topographic region from which a stream receives *runoff*, *throughflow*, and *groundwater flow*. Drainage basins are divided from each other by topographic barriers called a *watershed* (**Figure 11k-1**). A watershed represents all of the stream tributaries that flow to some location along the ... | {
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"Header 2": "**Organic Activity**",
"token_count": 2020,
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The **animation** in *Figure 11m-2* shows an indented coast with a uniform underwater slope along its length. The wave crests are shown approaching the shore perpendicular to the general trend of the coast. The segments of the crests approaching the *headlands* begin to physically encounter the sea floor when they are ... | {
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The merger of many alpine glaciers creates the third type of glacier, *piedmont glaciers* (**Figure 11n-3**). Piedmont glaciers are between several thousand to several tens of thousands of square kilometers in size.
**Figure 11n-2:** Small alpine valley glacier.
![](_page_346_Picture... | {
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"Header 2": "**Organic Activity**",
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This indicates that the mass balances of these glaciers are negative because of less snow accumulating or higher levels of ablation. During the *Little Ice Age*, when global temperatures were cooler than present, many glaciers over much of the world made strong advances.
#### **(p) Landforms of Glaciation**
*Glacie... | {
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"Header 2": "**Organic Activity**",
"token_count": 2031,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/Geography_v1/Geography/Fundamentals of Physical Geography By Michael j Pidwirny.pdf"
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*Outwash* deposits are formed when sand is eroded, transported, and deposited by meltwater streams from the glacier's snout and nearby till deposits to areas in front of the glacier. *Outwash plain* develops when there are a great number of meltwater streams depositing material ahead of the glacier (**Figure 11p-5**). ... | {
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"Header 2": "**Organic Activity**",
"token_count": 2035,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/Geography_v1/Geography/Fundamentals of Physical Geography By Michael j Pidwirny.pdf"
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In fact, repeated thawing allows further fracturing because the liquid water is able to fill newly developed cracks.
**{**PRIVATE**}Figure 11q-3:** Frost-shattered granite bedrock (**felsenmeer**), northern Manitoba. This is a close-up of frost-shattered bedrock, consisting of angular ... | {
"Header 1": "**8) Introduction to Hydrology**",
"Header 2": "**Organic Activity**",
"token_count": 2037,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/Geography_v1/Geography/Fundamentals of Physical Geography By Michael j Pidwirny.pdf"
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Running water then picks up the loose particles and carries them off. Material is also
removed from the developing hollow by gelifluction. As the summer season progresses, the patch of snow reduces in size and the excavation of material continues inward. Enlargement of the hollow involves several different mechanisms... | {
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"Header 2": "**Organic Activity**",
"token_count": 2033,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/Geography_v1/Geography/Fundamentals of Physical Geography By Michael j Pidwirny.pdf"
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At ground level, the roughness of the surface plays an important role in controlling the nature of wind erosion. Boulders, trees, buildings, shrubs, and even small plants like grass and herbs can increase the frictional roughness of the surface and reduce wind velocity. Vegetation can also reduce the erosional effect... | {
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Barchans usually form where there is a limited supply of sand, reasonably flat ground, and a |
| | fairly even flow of wind from one direction. Single slipface. |
| Transverse | Long asymmetrical dunes that form at right angles to the wind direction. For... | {
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"Header 2": "**Organic Activity**",
"token_count": 1118,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/Geography_v1/Geography/Fundamentals of Physical Geography By Michael j Pidwirny.pdf"
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The major aim of this chapter is to introduce the students to a new perspective of the world of physical geography. Geography is amongst the oldest earth science and much of the geographical work is actually the contribution made by different Greek scholars. The word geography was coined by Eratosthenes, a famous Greek... | {
"Header 1": "1.2 INTRODUCTION",
"token_count": 201,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/Geography_v1/Geography/GE-101.pdf"
} |
Every person on this earth always wonders that, there are areas on this earth which are extremely dry and on the other hand, there are areas which face heavy rain throughout the year. Then, there are areas which are completely plain and on the other hand there are areas dominated by mountains and plateaus. The answers ... | {
"Header 1": "1.3 MEANING AND DEFINITION OF PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY",
"token_count": 316,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/Geography_v1/Geography/GE-101.pdf"
} |
The history of geography spans across many centuries and over the time the subject has greatly evolved and developed. A deep analysis of its historical evolution gives a clear insight into the character as well as methodologies of the subject. These valuable insights can help us in a more meticulous understanding of Ph... | {
"Header 1": "**Growth and Development of Physical Geography**",
"token_count": 1114,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/Geography_v1/Geography/GE-101.pdf"
} |
In present world, geography is the only discipline which brings a perfect combination of physical and human geography on a common platform. In order to understand the true nature of geography it is essential to know the two major approaches of geography which are
systematic and regional geography. Systematic geograph... | {
"Header 1": "1.4.1 Nature of Physical Geography",
"token_count": 2026,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/Geography_v1/Geography/GE-101.pdf"
} |
Greater improvement in techniques of field surveys, laboratory and other practical experiences, has led to emergence of a new branch quantitative geomorphology. These have drastically improved the standards of research by improving the level of measurement and understanding geomorphic concepts with greater precision an... | {
"Header 1": "1.4.1 Nature of Physical Geography",
"token_count": 1450,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/Geography_v1/Geography/GE-101.pdf"
} |
The main focus of geography has always been on man and environment relationship due to which it has developed a vast scope. Humans are greatly influenced by their physical environment and hence physical geography studies provide an insight into reasons essential for understanding the different cultural patterns that ha... | {
"Header 1": "1.4.2 Scope of physical geography",
"token_count": 538,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/Geography_v1/Geography/GE-101.pdf"
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- 1. There has been a continuous development especially in field of applied physical geography. A lot of work is being carried out in order to solve many human-induced environmental problems.
- 2. Development in field of Remote Sensing and Geographical Information System has given further impetus in scope of physical g... | {
"Header 1": "1.5 RECENT TRENDS IN PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY",
"token_count": 286,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/Geography_v1/Geography/GE-101.pdf"
} |
1. As regards the relevance of physical geography, it can be claimed that, it has lot of relevance in present times due to its interdisciplinary nature. It is an interesting subject and highly useful in day to day life of human beings.
- 2. Relevance of Physical geography is explained in the popularity of weather and... | {
"Header 1": "Relevance of physical geography:",
"token_count": 312,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/Geography_v1/Geography/GE-101.pdf"
} |
**Disasters**: A sudden incident or a natural calamity which causes a great damage or loss to life and property.
**Food Security**: The condition of having reliable access to a sufficient quantity of, nutritious and reasonable food.
**Energy:** The strength and vivacity required for performing a sustained physical ... | {
"Header 1": "1.8 GLOSSARY",
"token_count": 307,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/Geography_v1/Geography/GE-101.pdf"
} |
- 1. Geography is largely the study of the interaction of all physical and human phenomena and landscapes created by such interactions.
- 2. The two major branches of geography are physical and Human geography.
- 3. Two distinct traditions and methodologies followed by Greeks are:
- a. Mathematical and Statistical tech... | {
"Header 1": "1.9 ANSWERS TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS",
"token_count": 309,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/Geography_v1/Geography/GE-101.pdf"
} |
Solar system is a group of stars and planets. It consists of a sun and 8 planets e.g. (Mercury, Venus, Earth, Mars, Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus and Neptune) which are round and shape like disc. Sun is also a star in our solar system. The luminous bodies are stars and non-luminous bodies are Planets. Except Venus and Uranus... | {
"Header 1": "2.3 THE EARTH: A MEMBER OF OUR SOLAR SYSTEM",
"token_count": 850,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/Geography_v1/Geography/GE-101.pdf"
} |
Philosopher Emmanuel Kant was from Germany on the other way he is also known as German philosopher. Article entitled 'The General Natural History and Theory of the Heaven or the Essay on the Working and Mechanical Origin of the Entire Universe' was presented in 1755 by the German philosopher Emmanuel Kant. Newton's Law... | {
"Header 1": "2.4.1 Gaseous Hypothesis of Emmanuel Kant",
"token_count": 202,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/Geography_v1/Geography/GE-101.pdf"
} |
Solar system was formed from spinning cloud of gases (nebula) is a famous concept of a French mathematician Marquis de Laplace (1796). It is only updated version of hypothesis of Emmanuel Kant. He told that, with gradual cooling, the nebula shrank and started spinning even more rapidly. The motion of spinning caused ne... | {
"Header 1": "2.4.2 Nebular Hypothesis of Laplace",
"token_count": 253,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/Geography_v1/Geography/GE-101.pdf"
} |
British scientist, Sir James Jeans, proposed his 'tidal hypothesis' to explain the origin of the earth in the year 1919 while Harold Jeffreys, another British scientist, gave an idea of modifications in the 'tidal hypothesis'. One of the modern hypotheses of the origin of the earth and the solar system is Tidal Hypothe... | {
"Header 1": "2.5.1 Tidal theories of Jeans and Jeffrey",
"token_count": 581,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/Geography_v1/Geography/GE-101.pdf"
} |
'Collision hypotheses' a concept of British scientist Harold Jeffrey presented by the modification of the original tidal hypothesis of James Jeans in 1929. He said that, before the origin of the solar system there were 3 stars in the Universe. The 3 stars namely of which Harold Jeffrey was talking about are:
- 1-Prim... | {
"Header 1": "**Modification by Jeffreys:**",
"token_count": 299,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/Geography_v1/Geography/GE-101.pdf"
} |
In 1946 'supernova hypotheses' a theory was presented by mathematician F.Hoyle. Principles of 'nuclear physics' was base of his hypothesis and was described in his essay entitled 'Nature of the Universe'. Initially there were two stars in the universe as told by F.Hoyle. They are:
- (i) The primitive sun
- (ii) The c... | {
"Header 1": "2.5.2 Nova star hypothesis of Hoyle and Lyttleton",
"token_count": 255,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/Geography_v1/Geography/GE-101.pdf"
} |
'Inter-Stellar Dust Hypothesis' was proposed by a Russian scientist Otto Schimidt in 1943 to explain the complex problems of the origin and characteristics of the solar system and the earth. Ample evidences of the presence of 'dark matter' in the form of 'gas and dust cloud' (gas and dust particles) in the universe are... | {
"Header 1": "2.5.3 Inter-stellar dust hypothesis of Otto Schimidt",
"token_count": 701,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/Geography_v1/Geography/GE-101.pdf"
} |
Big Bang theory has a great importance. In 1950's and 1960's the Big Bang theory was postulated. Big Bang theory was validated in 1972 through considerable evidences got from Cosmic Back-ground Explorer (COBE) explains the universe's origin and everything in it including ourselves on the basis that the universe contain... | {
"Header 1": "2.5.4 Big Bang theory",
"token_count": 300,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/Geography_v1/Geography/GE-101.pdf"
} |
Sources through which the knowledge about the mystery of the earth's interior of the earth may be classified into 3 group's i.e.
- 1-Artificial Sources
- 2- Evidences from the theories of the origin of the earth
- 3- Natural Sources
#### **Artificial Sources of the Earth's interior:**
Number of interferences can ... | {
"Header 1": "2.6 EVIDENCES OF THE EARTH'S INTERIOR",
"token_count": 455,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/Geography_v1/Geography/GE-101.pdf"
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Different hypotheses and theories of the origin of the earth have assumed that the original form of the earth is to be solid or liquid or gaseous. Laplace's 'Nebular Hypothesis', 'Tidal Hypothesis' and 'Planetesimal Hypothesis' are some examples of these theories.
#### **Natural Sources of the Earth's interior:**
T... | {
"Header 1": "Evidences from the theories of the origin of the earth, of the Earth's interior:",
"token_count": 333,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/Geography_v1/Geography/GE-101.pdf"
} |
E.Suess, has thrown light on the chemical composition of the earth's interior. The crust is covered by a thin layer of sedimentary rocks. Its density is very low. The composition of this layer has crystalline rocks and most of the silicate matter. 3 zones of different matter below the outer thin sedimentary cover have ... | {
"Header 1": "2.7 CHEMICAL COMPOSITION AND LAYERING SYSTEM OF THE EARTH",
"token_count": 583,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/Geography_v1/Geography/GE-101.pdf"
} |
The solid outer layer of the Earth is called crust. In relative terms, crust is equivalent to the skin of an apple. Usually its depth is never more than 1 per cent of the Earth's radius, or an average 40–50 km, but around the globe this varies considerably. Two different types of crust:
- 1- Continental
- 2- Oceanic ... | {
"Header 1": "2.9.1 Crust",
"token_count": 563,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/Geography_v1/Geography/GE-101.pdf"
} |
In all rocks, the igneous rocks are roughly hard rocks and with great difficulty along the joints they are water penetrates also. It is crystalline or granular rocks. There are size variations, form and texture of grains because these properties depend largely upon the rate and place of cooling and solidification of la... | {
"Header 1": "**Characteristics of Igneous rocks:**",
"token_count": 216,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/Geography_v1/Geography/GE-101.pdf"
} |
Due to aggregation and compaction of sediments the sedimentary rocks are formed. They are also called as stratified or layered rocks. Sedimentary rocks have different layers or strata of different types of sediments. The sediments and debris derived through the decomposition and disintegration of the rocks by the agent... | {
"Header 1": "2.10.2 Sedimentary rocks",
"token_count": 550,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/Geography_v1/Geography/GE-101.pdf"
} |
- **1- Barysphere:** The innermost zone of the interior of the earth and extends from 2800 km with average density ranges between 8 and 11 is represented by Barysphere.
- **2- Core:** The deepest and most inaccessible zone of the interior of the earth.
- **3- Crust:** The outermost layer of the earth.
- **4- Density:**... | {
"Header 1": "2.14 GLOSSARY",
"token_count": 303,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/Geography_v1/Geography/GE-101.pdf"
} |
- 1. The diameter of whole solar system is near about 1,173 core kilometers.
- 2. The distance between sun and the earth is near about 149, 600,000 km (1.496x10<sup>8</sup> km).
- 3. The diameter of the earth is 12,742 km.
- 4. The average density of the earth is 5.52 respectively.
- 5. The ninth planet of the solar sy... | {
"Header 1": "2.15 ANSWER TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS",
"token_count": 432,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/Geography_v1/Geography/GE-101.pdf"
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Epeirogenic movements are movements which involv forces acting along a radius from the Earth's centre to the surface, and are characterized by large-scale upliftment or submergence of land areas. The movements involved are often so slow and widespread that no obvious folding or fracturing is produced in the rocks. Epei... | {
"Header 1": "3.3.1Epeirogenetic movements",
"token_count": 222,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/Geography_v1/Geography/GE-101.pdf"
} |
**Magma** - Molten rock beneath Earth's surface.
Parasitic Cone - A small cone-shaped volcano formed by an accumulation of volcanic debris.
**Sill** - A flat piece of rock formed when magma hardens in a crack in volcano.
**Vent** - An opening in Earth's surface through which volcanic materials escape's.
**Flank... | {
"Header 1": "**3.4.1**Components of volcanoes",
"token_count": 221,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/Geography_v1/Geography/GE-101.pdf"
} |
Three basic kinds of materials may erupt from a volcano. They are:
- (1) Lava,
- (2) Rock fragments, and
- (3) Gases.
1-Lava is the name for magma that has reached the earth's surface. When lava comes to the surface, it is red hot and may have a temperature of more than 1100 C. Therefore, highly fluid lava flows ra... | {
"Header 1": "3.4.2Erupted materials",
"token_count": 551,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/Geography_v1/Geography/GE-101.pdf"
} |
Understanding how volcanoes work and how their eruptions can be predicted is essential for the well-being and preservation of people who inhabit volcanically vulnerable areas. Eruptions can occur without any preceding signals, making them extremely difficult to predict. However, sometimes there are useful clues for jud... | {
"Header 1": "**Predicting eruptions**",
"token_count": 369,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/Geography_v1/Geography/GE-101.pdf"
} |
The Pacific "Ring of Fire" is a string of volcanoes and sites located on most of the Earth's subduction zones having high seismic activity, around the edges of the Pacific Ocean.
The Pacific Plate hits other plates nearby and that causes them to sink because of O-O or O-C convergence. The crust melts producing the ma... | {
"Header 1": "3.4.5.1Circum-pacific belt",
"token_count": 367,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/Geography_v1/Geography/GE-101.pdf"
} |
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