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The Mid-Atlantic Ridge is composed of discrete spreading segments that are tens of kilometers long, and offset by transform faults and non transform offsets. The axis of the Mid-Atlantic Ridge is marked by a major rift valley 1 to 1.5 kilometers deep, a central floor 4 to 15 kilometers across, and ranges of crestal mou... | {
"Header 1": "3.4.5.3Mid-Atlantic belt",
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"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/Geography_v1/Geography/GE-101.pdf"
} |
Volcanic landforms are divided into extrusive and intrusive landforms based on weather magma cools within the crust or above the crust.
#### **Extrusive Volcanic Landforms**
- Extrusive landforms are formed from material thrown out during volcanic activity.
- The materials thrown out during volcanic activity includ... | {
"Header 1": "3.5VOLCANIC FEATURES",
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"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/Geography_v1/Geography/GE-101.pdf"
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- Sometimes, a very thin magma escapes through cracks and fissures in the earth's surface and flows after intervals for a long time, spreading over a vast area, finally producing a layered, undulating (wave like), flat surface.
- Example: Deccan traps (peninsular India), Snake Basin, U.S.A, Icelandic Shield, Canadian S... | {
"Header 1": "**5-Fissure Type Flood Basalt Landforms [Lava Plateaus]**",
"token_count": 432,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/Geography_v1/Geography/GE-101.pdf"
} |
Volcanoes can cause multiple hazards (both primary and secondary hazards). Each hazard can have varying impacts. Below is a summary of volcanoes major hazards and their likely impact:
**Primary Hazards:** Hazards that are a direct result of the eruption and are caused by the released of substances during the eruption... | {
"Header 1": "3.6 HAZARDOUS EFFECTS OF VOLCANIC ERUPTIONS",
"token_count": 507,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/Geography_v1/Geography/GE-101.pdf"
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There are two basic kinds of seismic waves:
- Body waves occur inside the earth
- Surface waves travel across the surface
Different types of waves have different ways of travel, different intensity, and different speeds. The medium for seismic waves is almost always solid rock, but occasionally can include water. ... | {
"Header 1": "3.7.2Measuring and locating earthquakes",
"token_count": 459,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/Geography_v1/Geography/GE-101.pdf"
} |
| Interplate | Intraplate |
|--------------------------------------------------|------------------------------------------------|
| An interplate earthquake is one that occurs at a | An intraplate earthquake is |
| plate bounda... | {
"Header 1": "**BASED ON LOCATION:**",
"token_count": 262,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/Geography_v1/Geography/GE-101.pdf"
} |
| Shallow Earthquake | Deep Earthquake |
|------------------------------------------------|------------------------------------------|
| Shallow-focus earthquakes occur at depths less | Deep-focus earthquakes occur at greater |
| than 70 km ... | {
"Header 1": "**BASED ON FOCAL DEPTH:**",
"token_count": 552,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/Geography_v1/Geography/GE-101.pdf"
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Earthquakes have a definite distribution pattern. There are three major belts in the world which are frequented by earthquakes of varying intensities. These belts are:
- 1. The Circum-Pacific Belt
- 2. The Mid-Atlantic Belt
#### 3. The Mid-Continental Belt
#### 1. The Circum-Pacific Belt:
This belt is located a... | {
"Header 1": "3.7.4World distribution of earthquakes",
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- (1) Damage to human structures Earthquakes cause great damage to human structures such as buildings, roads, rails, factories, dams, bridges etc, and thus cause heavy damage to human property.
- (2) Landslides-The shocks produced by earthquakes particularly in hilly areas and mountains which are tectonically sensitive... | {
"Header 1": "3.7.6 Effects of earthquakes",
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Prediction is concerned with forecasting the occurrence of an earthquake of a particular intensity over a specific locality within a specific time limit. Normally prediction is of three
types viz long, medium and short range prediction.
While long range prediction is concerned with forecasting the occurrence of an ... | {
"Header 1": "3.7.7 Prediction of earthquake and Preparedness",
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"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/Geography_v1/Geography/GE-101.pdf"
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The process of disintegration and decomposition of rocks, due to physical, chemical or biological factors, in situ (at their own place) is known as weathering. As soon as the rocks are exposed on the surface and are affected by the climate factors, this process starts.
Weathering as a process of denudation, comprises... | {
"Header 1": "4.3 WEATHERING: MEANING AND CONCEPT",
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"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/Geography_v1/Geography/GE-101.pdf"
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Ground slope controls mechanical disintegration of rocks and mass movement of weathered products down the slope. The rocks in the regions of steep hillslope are easily disintegrated due to mechanical weathering and the weathering materials are instantaneously moved down the hill slopes in the form of rock fall, debris ... | {
"Header 1": "4.4.2 Nature of Ground Slope-",
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By temperature changes when an arid region has high day and low night temperatures, rock surfaces alternately heat and cool. This causes the outer parts of the rocks to expand during the day and to contract during the night setting up powerful internal stresses in the top few centimetres of the rocks. The heating and c... | {
"Header 1": "4.5.1 Physical Weathering",
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"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/Geography_v1/Geography/GE-101.pdf"
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Some rocks decompose when they come into contact with water $(H_2O)$ , or oxygen $(O_2)$ and carbon dioxide $(CO_2)$ , two of the gases which make up air. Some minerals in rocks undergo chemical change with water and air, and when this happens, they may be removed from the rocks which results in the rocks being red... | {
"Header 1": "4.5.2 Chemical Weathering",
"token_count": 262,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/Geography_v1/Geography/GE-101.pdf"
} |
#### • Solution:
Only a few minerals are directly soluble in water, but some, especially calcium carbonate, are freely soluble when carbon dioxide is dissolved in water. Rain dissolves both carbon dioxide and oxygen as it falls through the air, so that when it reaches the ground it consists of very weak acid, called ... | {
"Header 1": "Chemical weathering consists of five processes: solution, hydration, hydrolysis, oxidation and carbonation.",
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"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/Geography_v1/Geography/GE-101.pdf"
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In this process hydrogen (from water) combines with certain metal ions (from minerals) to form different chemical compounds. Hydrolysis is therefore quite different to hydration e.g. the hydrolysis of potassium feldspar produces kaolin. Hydrolysis causes some rocks to decay to as much as 100 m below the surface, especi... | {
"Header 1": "• Hydrolysis:",
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"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/Geography_v1/Geography/GE-101.pdf"
} |
Weathering is a critical base to our ecology, and our existence depends on it, the continents would be bare hard rock, for no soil cover could develop, consequently, earth would be devoid of plants and animal life, weathering produces soil on which agriculture depends, weathering produces some other very practical prod... | {
"Header 1": "4.6 GEOMORPHIC IMPORTANCE OF WEATHERING",
"token_count": 274,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/Geography_v1/Geography/GE-101.pdf"
} |
- 1) Abrasion and Corrosion: when any agent of erosion moves ahead loaded with sand, pebbles and fragments of rocks, the rocks coming in contact of these particles are degraded by the friction. This process is known as Abrasion.
- 2) Attrition: when the particles flowing with an agent of degradation get reduced in thei... | {
"Header 1": "**4.7.1 Erosional Processes**: Different activities which take part in the process of erosion are.",
"token_count": 329,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/Geography_v1/Geography/GE-101.pdf"
} |
- 1) The **climatic factors** that influence erosion are rainfall amount, intensity, and frequency. During periods of frequent rainfall, a greater percentage of the rainfall will become runoff. This is due to high soil moisture or saturated conditions. Temperature also influences the amount of organic matter that colle... | {
"Header 1": "4.7.2 Factors Effecting Erosion Rate",
"token_count": 550,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/Geography_v1/Geography/GE-101.pdf"
} |
The whole process of the formation of relief features by the endogenetic processes and their deformation by exogenetic processes is called cycle of erosion. The endogenetic
forces, such as-diastrophic forces, vulcanicity, earthquakes etc. creates vertical irregularities on the surface of the earth. Mountain plateaus ... | {
"Header 1": "4.7.3 Erosion Cycle: Interruption and Rejuvenation",
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"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/Geography_v1/Geography/GE-101.pdf"
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Erosional processes from different various agents' leads to develop many types of landforms in different areas. It can be classified under these head, which is given below in fig. 4.11.
Fig 4.11: Landforms associated with different agents of erosion Source: Compiled by Author
*Table 4.... | {
"Header 1": "4.8 ASSOCIATED LANDFORMS",
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"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/Geography_v1/Geography/GE-101.pdf"
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Glaciers: The moving ice mass down slope under the impact of gravity is called glacier. They are formed due to accumulation of snow above the snowline. Snowline is generally defined as a zone between permanent and seasonal snow. Snow line denotes that
height above which these is a permanent snow cover and thus it cor... | {
"Header 1": "4.8.1 Glacial Landforms",
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A hill with steep face on one side and a comparatively gentle downward slope on the other, formed where a highly resistant rock mass (the crag) on a valley floor has obstructed the glacier movement and afforded some protection from erosion to the softer sediments (the tail) immediately behind the resistant rock. Altern... | {
"Header 1": "4.8.1 Glacial Landforms",
"token_count": 369,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/Geography_v1/Geography/GE-101.pdf"
} |
Glacial deposits are distinctive and seldom need be confused with other types. The debris is usually a mixture of dirt, rock-flour, and sub-angular boulders, unsorted and without stratification. Some of the important depositional landforms of glaciers are described below:
• Terminal Moraines (End Moraines): An accumu... | {
"Header 1": "**Depositional Landforms of Glaciers**",
"token_count": 2026,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/Geography_v1/Geography/GE-101.pdf"
} |
Figure 4.19: Yardangs
• Zeugens or Rock Mushrooms- Zeugens is a German term used to describe desert rock pillars, rock mushrooms or such yardangs that are considerably undercut because of differential erosion (abrasion) of their less-resistant beds by wind. Zeugens are characteristics... | {
"Header 1": "**Depositional Landforms of Glaciers**",
"token_count": 2041,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/Geography_v1/Geography/GE-101.pdf"
} |
|
| Star dune | Star | The giant of dunes. Pyramidal or star-shaped with three or more sinuous radiating arms extending outward from a central peak. Slipfaces in multiple directions. Results from effective winds shifting in all directions. Tends to form isolated mounds in high effec... | {
"Header 1": "**Depositional Landforms of Glaciers**",
"token_count": 2024,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/Geography_v1/Geography/GE-101.pdf"
} |
This gently sloping accumulation of course alluvium deposited by braided streams in known as *alluvial fans* or *alluvial cones*. In some cases, the neighbouring alluvial fans may meet and coalesce with each other as they develop and form an extensive alluvial plain in the foot hills or piedmont area. This type of land... | {
"Header 1": "**Depositional Landforms of Glaciers**",
"token_count": 2042,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/Geography_v1/Geography/GE-101.pdf"
} |
#### **Marine Erosion**
Erosion along coasts results from the abrasive action of sand and gravel, moved by the waves and currents and, to a lesser extent from solution and hydraulic action. The undercutting action of waves and currents typically produces sea cliffs. As a sea cliff recedes, a wave cut platform devel... | {
"Header 1": "**Depositional Landforms of Glaciers**",
"token_count": 2030,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/Geography_v1/Geography/GE-101.pdf"
} |
connecting bar, bay bar and tombolo
- Evolution of Shoreline: Evolution of shoreline involves a series of stages in which the configuration of the coast is modified by both erosion and deposition processes until, finally, only a minimum of energy is expanded on it. The most stable shoreline form has a smooth straight... | {
"Header 1": "**Depositional Landforms of Glaciers**",
"token_count": 747,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/Geography_v1/Geography/GE-101.pdf"
} |
There are five conditions which contribute to the maximum development of karst landform. These are:
- 1. There must be present at or near the surface a soluble rock, preferably limestone. The limestone must be massive, thickly bedded, hard, tenacious and well cemented.
- 2. The soluble rock should be dense, highly jo... | {
"Header 1": "**Conditions for the Development of Karst**",
"token_count": 2045,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/Geography_v1/Geography/GE-101.pdf"
} |
Atmosphere is an important component of physical environment and it directly affects our life and activities in different way as discussed below:
- 1. Atmosphere provides the life of both animals and plant species on the earth surface because it contains oxygen for man and animals and carbon-di-oxide for the plants.
... | {
"Header 1": "5.3 OVERVIEW OF THE EARTH'S ATMOSPHERE",
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"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/Geography_v1/Geography/GE-101.pdf"
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The atmosphere is the composition of different kinds of materials like solid, liquid and gases. These elements in the atmosphere are having their definite contributions in the composition of it and play a vital role in controlling the human activities on this unique planet. The description of different constituents of ... | {
"Header 1": "5.4 COMPOSITION OF THE ATMOSPHERE",
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"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/Geography_v1/Geography/GE-101.pdf"
} |
Troposphere is derived from Greek words Tropein (turning or rotating) and spheurous (sphere). It is the lowest atmospheric layer, in which temperature decreases with increasing elevation. It is closest to the earth surface. Since almost all human activity occurs in this layer, it is of primary important to us. Everyday... | {
"Header 1": "5.7.1 Troposphere",
"token_count": 292,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/Geography_v1/Geography/GE-101.pdf"
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Ionosphere extends between 80 km to 640 km above sea level. It is ionized and electrically charged layer. It is very important atmospheric layer which reflects the radio waves of various frequencies on the earth's surface, so that broad casting communication system is persisted. This layer consisting of different sub-l... | {
"Header 1": "5.7.5 Ionosphere",
"token_count": 370,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/Geography_v1/Geography/GE-101.pdf"
} |
Average composition of dry atmosphere (mole fractions)
| GAS | PER NASA |
|----------------------------------|--------------------------------------------|
| Nitrogen, N <sub>2</sub> | 78.084% |
| Oxygen, O <sub>... | {
"Header 1": "**Atmospheric Composition**",
"token_count": 304,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/Geography_v1/Geography/GE-101.pdf"
} |
**Chloro-fluorocarbons, CFCs:** Chemical compounds which, although essentially stable at ground level, undergo an exothermic photochemical reaction in the upper atmosphere, releasing free chlorine radicals which break down ozone in the ozone layer; a reaction potentially hazardous to human health.
**Chlorophyll:** Th... | {
"Header 1": "5.11 GLOSSARY",
"token_count": 398,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/Geography_v1/Geography/GE-101.pdf"
} |
The heat and energy emitted in the radiation by the sun is called Insolation. Insolation refers to the flow rate of incoming solar radiation. Insolation is a flow rate and has units of watts per square meter (w/m²). It is high when the sun is high in the sky. Insolation reaches the Earth from the sun in the form of wav... | {
"Header 1": "6.3 INSOLATION: MEANING AND CONCEPT",
"token_count": 211,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/Geography_v1/Geography/GE-101.pdf"
} |
The whole of the insolation falling on the earth is not received on its surface. A lot of energy is lost in absorption, reflection and scattering. X-Rays, Gamma Rays and Ultra-violet rays are absorbed in the upper layers of the atmosphere and when insolation passes through atmospheric layers 18 to 45 km high, all the u... | {
"Header 1": "6.4 MECHANISM OF SOLAR RADIATION",
"token_count": 381,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/Geography_v1/Geography/GE-101.pdf"
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On the earth surface the amount of insolation is the product of various factors like angle of sun rays, length of days, transparency of the atmosphere etc. these all factors are directly or indirectly related with the distribution of the latitudes. The amount of insolation decreases from equator to poles. Insolation is... | {
"Header 1": "6.5 DISTRIBUTION OF INSOLATION",
"token_count": 431,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/Geography_v1/Geography/GE-101.pdf"
} |
The earth is inclined at an angle of $66\frac{1}{2}^{0}$ at its orbital plane. Earth rotates around its axis and revolves around the sun. The length of the days or duration of sun shine is not uniform on every latitudes in a given time. On the equator days and nights are equal throughout the year because the circle o... | {
"Header 1": "1. Length of the Days:",
"token_count": 436,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/Geography_v1/Geography/GE-101.pdf"
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Here, the amount of insolation strikes the top of atmosphere is 100 units. Out of which 27 units are reflected by clouds, 6 units are scattered and diffused by dust particles in the atmosphere and 2 units are reflected back by earth surface as short wave to the space. Thus 35 units of short wave radiation do not reach ... | {
"Header 1": "**Heat Budget**",
"token_count": 421,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/Geography_v1/Geography/GE-101.pdf"
} |
Earth's net radiation, sometimes called the Flux, is the balance between incoming and outgoing energy at the top of the atmosphere. It is the total energy that is available to influence the climate. Energy comes into the system when sunlight penetrates the top of the atmosphere. Energy goes out in two ways: reflection ... | {
"Header 1": "6.7.1 Net Radiation and Global Energy Balance",
"token_count": 519,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/Geography_v1/Geography/GE-101.pdf"
} |
In this process of transmission of heat, energy moves from particle to particle. This process is continued unless the both ends of a body are heated equally. The lower layer of air closed to earth surface is heated by conduction process. Upper portion of the atmosphere is not affected by this process.
#### **Convecti... | {
"Header 1": "**Conduction:**",
"token_count": 263,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/Geography_v1/Geography/GE-101.pdf"
} |
The temperature also increases with increasing height instead of decreasing temperature due to some certain reasons. This kind of event is described as inversion of temperature in meteorological field. On the basis of reasons involved for such types of vertical distribution of temperature, inversion of temperature may ... | {
"Header 1": "**Inversion of Temperature:**",
"token_count": 249,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/Geography_v1/Geography/GE-101.pdf"
} |
Sun is the main source of energy for all planets of the solar system. The earth is 150,000,000 kms away from the sun but due to such long distance only minute fraction of solar energy reaches to the earth surface. This energy is an important element for the life of the earth. The energy emitted in the radiation by the ... | {
"Header 1": "6.10 CONCLUSION",
"token_count": 212,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/Geography_v1/Geography/GE-101.pdf"
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This unit describes the sun as the source of energy. Earth receives its energy and reflected in the atmosphere. We understand the meaning, concept and distribution of Insolation. Mechanism of solar radiation is also described. Angle of sun rays, length of the
days, atmospheric transparency, distance between the sun a... | {
"Header 1": "6.11 SUMMARY",
"token_count": 294,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/Geography_v1/Geography/GE-101.pdf"
} |
**Absorption:** The process of a liquid, gas or other substance being taken in.
Anthropogenic Change: Change brought about by human agency.
**Antartic Circle:** The parallel or live of latitude 66<sup>o</sup>32'S, commonly assumed to be 66<sup>o</sup>30'S. Owing to inclination of earth's axis, the sun does not set ... | {
"Header 1": "6.12 GLOSSARY",
"token_count": 1456,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/Geography_v1/Geography/GE-101.pdf"
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Atmospheric pressure is the force per unit area that is applied perpendicularly to a surface by the surrounding gases present in the atmosphere and thus it has its own weight. The air exerts pressure through its weight. Air pressure is, defined as total weight of a mass of column of air above per unit area at sea level... | {
"Header 1": "7.3 ATMOSPHERIC PRESSURE: MEANING AND CONCEPT",
"token_count": 273,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/Geography_v1/Geography/GE-101.pdf"
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Sub-tropical high pressure belt extends between the latitudes of 25°-35° in both the hemispheres. This high pressure belt is not thermally induced because this zone, besides two to three winter months, receives fairly high temperature throughout the year. Thus, this belt owes its origin to the rotation of the earth and... | {
"Header 1": "7.4.2. Sub-Tropical High Pressure Belt",
"token_count": 430,
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The surface pattern of the air pressure as discussed in above lines and find it seldom remains stationary in its latitudinal zone. There are daily, seasonal and annual changes in air pressure because of northward and southward movement of the overhead sun ( summer and winter solstices), contrasting nature of the heatin... | {
"Header 1": "7.5 SHIFTING OF PRESSURE BELTS",
"token_count": 249,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/Geography_v1/Geography/GE-101.pdf"
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A belt of low pressure, popularly known asequatorial trough of low pressure extends along the equator within a zone of 5<sup>0</sup>N and 5<sup>0</sup>S latitudes. This belt is called the belt of calm or doldrums because of light and variable winds.
#### 7.7.1.2 Inter-tropical convergence (ITC)
ITCZ, known by sailo... | {
"Header 1": "7.7.1.1 Doldrum and equatorial westerlies",
"token_count": 1247,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/Geography_v1/Geography/GE-101.pdf"
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The relative position of the earth with the sun changes within a year due to earth's revolution and thus the position of all the pressure belts except the polar high pressure belts changes with the northward and southward migration of the sun. At the time of summer solstice the sun is vertical over the tropic of Cancer... | {
"Header 1": "7.8 SEASONAL SHIFTING OF WIND BELTS AND THEIR CLIMATIC SIGNIFICANCE",
"token_count": 284,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/Geography_v1/Geography/GE-101.pdf"
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The word 'monsoon' is used to indicate the winds in the areas where they change their direction twice each year. The word 'monsoon' which has been derived from Arabic word 'mausim' refers to such an atmospheric circulation which reverses its direction completely every 6 months or say during summer and winter seasons .T... | {
"Header 1": "7.10 MONSOON WINDS",
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Local winds are small scale convective winds of local origin caused by temperature and pressure differences. They are limited to small areas and are known by local names in that area. Land and sea breezes, slope and valley winds, thunderstorm, loo, harmattan and chinook are few examples of local winds.
| <b>Types</b>... | {
"Header 1": "7.11 LOCAL WINDS",
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The strong and rapidly moving circumpolar westerly air circulation in a narrow belt of a few hundred kilometers width in the upper limit of troposphere is called jet stream. The circulation of westerly jet stream is confined between poles and $20^0$ latitudes in both the hemispheres at the height of 7.5-14km. Jet str... | {
"Header 1": "7.12 JET STREAM",
"token_count": 213,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/Geography_v1/Geography/GE-101.pdf"
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Humidity refers to the content of water vapour present in the air in gaseous form at a particular time and place. The atmospheric humidity is expressed in a number of ways e.g. absolute humidity, specific humidity, relative humidity etc.
**Humidity Capacity - The** moisture content (humidity) of the air is measured i... | {
"Header 1": "7.13 HUMIDITY: THE CONCEPT",
"token_count": 245,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/Geography_v1/Geography/GE-101.pdf"
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Rain is the most common form precipitation and both are classified on the basis of conditions and mechanisms of upward movement of air. There are three ways in which air is forced to move upward movement of air. There are three ways in which air is forced to move upward and thus cools according to adiabatic lapse rate ... | {
"Header 1": "7.15 TYPES OF RAINFALL",
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Rainfall is highly correlated with air temperature and atmospheric humidity while humidity is closely related with temperature through the process of evaporation. The regions having high temperature and abundance of surface water for evaporation receive higher amount of annual rainfall, Equatorial regions are typical e... | {
"Header 1": "7.16 WORLD DISTRIBUTION PATTERN OF PRECIPITATION",
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"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/Geography_v1/Geography/GE-101.pdf"
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Thus we can say that atmospheric pressure is a most important phenomena and completely responsible for all weather activities as wind, rain, cyclone etc. Sometimes it also called as barometric pressure, is the pressure within the atmosphere of Earth. In most circumstances atmospheric pressure is closely approximated by... | {
"Header 1": "7.17 CONCLUSION",
"token_count": 398,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/Geography_v1/Geography/GE-101.pdf"
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**Absolute humidity:** The total weight of moisture content per volume of air at definite temperature and point of time is called absolute humidity, generally expressed in gram per cubic meter volume.
**Chunook/ Foehn:** Warm and local dry winds blowing on the leeward slopes of the mountains are called 'chinook' in t... | {
"Header 1": "7.19 GLOSSARY",
"token_count": 475,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/Geography_v1/Geography/GE-101.pdf"
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Climate is the statistics of weather, usually over a 30 years interval. It is measured by assessing the patterns of variation in temperature, humidity, atmoshpheric pressure, wind, precipitation, etc. atmospheric condition of a vast region. Climate covers the vast area where as weather describes the short-term atmoshph... | {
"Header 1": "8.3 CLIMATE AND CLIMATIC CLASSIFICATION",
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"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/Geography_v1/Geography/GE-101.pdf"
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The German botanist and climatologist Wladimir Koeppen presented the descriptive scheme of the classification of world climates first in 1900 based on vegetation zones of French plant physiologist Candolle presented in 1874. He revised his scheme in the year
1918 wherein he paid more attention to monthly and annual a... | {
"Header 1": "8.4 CLIMATIC CLASSIFICATION OF KOPPEN",
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This type of climate is defined by little precipitation.
Multiply the average annual temperature in Celsius by 20, then add
- (a) 280 if 70% or more of the total precipitation is in the spring and summer months (April –
- (b) 140 if 30% 70% September in the Northern Hemisphere, or October-March in the Southern), or... | {
"Header 1": "8.4.2 Group B: Dry (arid and semiarid) climates",
"token_count": 365,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/Geography_v1/Geography/GE-101.pdf"
} |
This type of climate has the coldest month averaging between $0^{0}$ C ( $32^{0}$ F) and at least one month averaging above $10^{0}$ C ( $50^{0}$ F).
Cfa = Humid subtropical climate; coldest month averaging above $0^{0}$ C ( $32^{0}$ F) and at least one month's average temperature above $22^{0}$ C ( $71.6^{0}$ ... | {
"Header 1": "**8.4.3** Group C: Mild Temperate / mesothermal climates",
"token_count": 1013,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/Geography_v1/Geography/GE-101.pdf"
} |
This type of climate has at least one month averaging below 0 $^{0}$ C (32 $^{0}$ F), and at least one month averaging above 10 $^{0}$ C (50 $^{0}$ F),
Dfa = Hot-summer humid continental climate; coldest month averaging below $0^{0}$ C ( $32^{0}$ F), and at least one month's average temperature above $22^{0}$ ... | {
"Header 1": "8.4.4 Group D: Continental/microthermal climates",
"token_count": 1176,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/Geography_v1/Geography/GE-101.pdf"
} |
Koeppen used two easily measurably weather elements e.g. temperature and precipitation as the basis for statistical parameters for the delineation of different climatic regions. So these elements are used by him most frequently and they also control the climatic condition. He also paid due consideration to the loss of ... | {
"Header 1": "8.4.6 Evaluation of Koeppens's Scheme",
"token_count": 228,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/Geography_v1/Geography/GE-101.pdf"
} |
Precipitation effectiveness refers to only that amount of total precipitation which is available for the growth of vegetation. He used precipitation efficiency ratio for the calculation of this amount of water available to vegetation. This ratio is calculated by dividing total monthly precipitation by monthly evaporati... | {
"Header 1": "(i) Precipitation Effectiveness",
"token_count": 1522,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/Geography_v1/Geography/GE-101.pdf"
} |
Thorthwaite presented his modified scheme of climatic classification in 1948. Though he reused three indices of precipitation effectiveness, thermal efficiency and seasonal distribution of precipitation in the second classification but in different way. Now the new scheme of climatic classification was based on the con... | {
"Header 1": "8.5.2 1948-Classification",
"token_count": 1862,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/Geography_v1/Geography/GE-101.pdf"
} |
Thus in many ways the 1931 classification scheme of Thornthwaite was almost similar to Koeppen's scheme because both had a few common points. (i) Thornthwaite's scheme is also empirical as well as quantitative as the boundaries of different climates are determined on the basis of quantitative parameters derived from pr... | {
"Header 1": "8.5.3 Evaluation of Thornthwaite's Scheme",
"token_count": 344,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/Geography_v1/Geography/GE-101.pdf"
} |
The objectives for the unit were to study the Climate & its classification;
Climate classification of Koppen; Evaluation of the Koppen's scheme; Climate classification scheme presented by Thornthwaite; 1931 classification and 1948 classification and finally Evaluation of the Thornthwaite's scheme. Climate is a study ... | {
"Header 1": "8.7 SUMMARY",
"token_count": 606,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/Geography_v1/Geography/GE-101.pdf"
} |
Hydrosphere is far more extensive than lithosphere on the surface of the earth. It is calculated that about 71% of the earth's surface is occupied by seas and oceans. The oceans have a greater extent of water in the southern hemisphere than in the northern one.
An extension of saline water on earth is called sea. Lar... | {
"Header 1": "9.2 INTRODUCTION",
"token_count": 303,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/Geography_v1/Geography/GE-101.pdf"
} |
- **1. Glaciers** Due to change of climate the glaciers contract by melting or expand on freezing. Melting of glaciers causes rise of sea level and the expansion of glaciers lowers the sea level.
- **2. Uplift and subsidence** Due to the uplift or subsidence of coastal areas, the sea level undergoes a change of level, ... | {
"Header 1": "**Causes of Sea Level Changes**",
"token_count": 920,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/Geography_v1/Geography/GE-101.pdf"
} |
Some different topographic features of ocean and sea floor give us an idea of the surface configuration of ocean bottoms. According to depth, the ocean is divided into these sections or zones are given below:
The structure, configuration and relief features of the different oceans vary from each other. The oceans rid... | {
"Header 1": "9.3 SURFACE CONFIGURATION OF OCEAN BOTTOMS",
"token_count": 365,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/Geography_v1/Geography/GE-101.pdf"
} |
Oceans are full of water. Some of it spreads on to the neighboring land. The portions of the land which are submerged under sea water constitute Continental Shelf. The continental shelf is shallow and its depth is not more than 200 meters. Its slope from the land to the sea is about 2 meters per km. The breadth of the ... | {
"Header 1": "9.3 SURFACE CONFIGURATION OF OCEAN BOTTOMS",
"Header 3": "1. Continental Shelf",
"token_count": 550,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/Geography_v1/Geography/GE-101.pdf"
} |
The continuously sloping portion of the continental margin, seaward of the continental shelf, and extending down to the deep sea floor of the abyssal plain, is known as continental slope. The continental slope is beyond the continental shelf, where the sea floor slopes downwards. This is abrupt and its depth is sometim... | {
"Header 1": "2. Continental Slope",
"token_count": 286,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/Geography_v1/Geography/GE-101.pdf"
} |
Ocean deeps are the deepest portion of the ocean. These are limited in area and consist of very steep gradient. These are most common near the coasts where volcanic and earthquake disturbances are quite frequent. A depression, long and narrow, existing on the deep ocean basins are called ocean deeps. The deeps are comm... | {
"Header 1": "4. The Ocean Deeps",
"token_count": 381,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/Geography_v1/Geography/GE-101.pdf"
} |
There are many mountains found on ocean floors. The mountains which are above 1000 metres in height and have conical summits are known as sea mounts but if the summits are flat, they are known as guyots.
The ocean floor is dotted with thousands of islands that do not rise above the sea. These projections are called s... | {
"Header 1": "6. Sea Mounts and Guyots",
"token_count": 346,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/Geography_v1/Geography/GE-101.pdf"
} |
These ridges are submerged under sea water. Some important ridges in North and South Atlantic Ocean are Dolphin and Challenger and are thousands of metres high as measured from the ocean floors. The Mid-Atlantic ridge is famous. No such ridge exists in Pacific Ocean. Some ridges in the form of small plateaus have been ... | {
"Header 1": "7. Ocean Ridges",
"token_count": 2024,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/Geography_v1/Geography/GE-101.pdf"
} |
Small marginal seas are Persian Gulf, Red Sea, Gulf of Aden, Andaman Sea, etc. Very small marginal seas are the Gulf of Oman, Gulf of Kutch, Gulf of Cambay, etc.
- **6) Continental Shelf** The breadth of the shelf is not the same everywhere. Shelf is the broadest in the Arabian Sea and the Bay of Bengal. It extends to ... | {
"Header 1": "7. Ocean Ridges",
"token_count": 275,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/Geography_v1/Geography/GE-101.pdf"
} |
Oceanography involves the considerations a wide range of oceanic phenomena, both physical and biological. From the point of view of the physical geographer, the most important feature is the extent and shape of the ocean basins, for the distribution of land and sea is for him a fundamental concept. The structure and re... | {
"Header 1": "9.4 CONCLUSION",
"token_count": 369,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/Geography_v1/Geography/GE-101.pdf"
} |
Sea The salt water that covers large parts of the surface of the earth. Ocean The mass of salt water that covers most of the surface of the earth Sea level The average level of the sea, used for measuring the height of places on land. Continental Shelf The gently sloping submarine fringe of a continent. = Hydrosphere A... | {
"Header 1": "9.6 GLOSSARY",
"token_count": 286,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/Geography_v1/Geography/GE-101.pdf"
} |
The temperature of oceanic water is important for marine organisms including plants (phyto plankton) and animals (zoo plankton). The temperature of sea water also affects the climate of coastal lands and plants and animal therein. The study of both, surface and subsurface temperature of sea water is significant. Standa... | {
"Header 1": "10.2 INTRODUCTION",
"token_count": 403,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/Geography_v1/Geography/GE-101.pdf"
} |
The difference of maximum and minimum temperature of a day (24 hours) is known as daily range of temperature. The daily range of temperature of surface water of the oceans is almost insignificant as it is around 1°C only. On an average, the maximum and minimum temperature of sea surface water are recorded at 2 P.M. and... | {
"Header 1": "10.3 TEMPERATURE OF THE OCEAN WATER: DAILY AND ANNUAL RANGES",
"token_count": 205,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/Geography_v1/Geography/GE-101.pdf"
} |
The distributional pattern of temperature of ocean water is studied in two ways viz. (i) horizontal distribution (temperature of surface water) and (ii) vertical distribution (from surface water to the bottom). Since the ocean has three dimensional shape, the depth of oceans, besides latitudes in also taken into accoun... | {
"Header 1": "10.4 CONTROLLING FACTORS OF DISTRIBUTION OF TEMPERATURE",
"token_count": 941,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/Geography_v1/Geography/GE-101.pdf"
} |
The horizontal temperature distribution is shown by isothermal lines, i.e., lines joining places of equal temperature. The sea surface isotherms in February, for the Atlantic Ocean, reveal that the isothermal lines are closely spaced in the south of Newfoundland, near the west coast of Europe and North Sea and then an ... | {
"Header 1": "10.5 HORIZONTAL DISTRIBUTION OF THE TEMPERATURE",
"token_count": 814,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/Geography_v1/Geography/GE-101.pdf"
} |
The temperature in the oceans falls steeply with depth except in polar seas. The falls of temperature upto a depth of 300 to 800 meters is distinctly visible but the temperature from 1000 to 1600 metres is so low that it is difficult to measure it. It is estimated that 5/6 of ocean water has a temperature ranging from ... | {
"Header 1": "10.6 VERTICAL DISTRIBUTION OF TEMPERATURE",
"token_count": 953,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/Geography_v1/Geography/GE-101.pdf"
} |
Sea water or salt water is water from a sea or ocean. On an average, sea water in the world's oceans has a salinity of about 3.5% (35 g/L, or 0.600M). This means that every kilogram (roughly one liter by volume) of sea water has approximately 35 frams (1.2oz) of dissolved salts (predominantly sodium (Na+) and chloride ... | {
"Header 1": "10.7 COMPOSITON OF THE SEA WATER",
"token_count": 1065,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/Geography_v1/Geography/GE-101.pdf"
} |
Salt in the ocean comes from rocks on land. The rain that falls on the land contains some dissolved carbon-di-oxide from the surrounding air. This causes the rain water to be slightly acidic due to carbonic acid (which forms from carbon dioxide and water).
1. Sea water is a weak, but complex solution made up of many ... | {
"Header 1": "10.8 SOURCES OF OCEAN SALINITY",
"token_count": 579,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/Geography_v1/Geography/GE-101.pdf"
} |
The salinity for normal Open Ocean ranges between 33 and 37. In the land locked Red Sea (don't confuse this to Dead Sea which has much greater salinity) it is as high as 41. In hot and dry regions, where evaporation is high, the salinity sometimes reaches to 70. In the estuaries (enclosed mouth of a river where fresh a... | {
"Header 1": "10.10: HORIZONTAL DISTRIBUTION OF THE SALINITY",
"token_count": 342,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/Geography_v1/Geography/GE-101.pdf"
} |
- The North Sea, inspite of its location in higher latitudes, records higher salinity due to more saline water brought by the North Atlantic Drift.
- Baltic Sea records low salinity due to influx of river waters in large quantity.
- The Mediterranean Sea records higher salinity due to high evaporation.
- Salinity is, h... | {
"Header 1": "**Marginal Seas**",
"token_count": 211,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/Geography_v1/Geography/GE-101.pdf"
} |
The main source of heat for the oceans is the sun but due to certain special characteristics, the heating of water is quite different from that of land. That specific heat of water is five times as much as that of land. Besides, evaporation, which is always going on over the surface of the ocean, is a cooling process. ... | {
"Header 1": "10.12 CONCLUSION",
"token_count": 482,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/Geography_v1/Geography/GE-101.pdf"
} |
Two of the most important characteristics of sea water are: temperature and salinity—together they control its density, which is the major factor governing the vertical movement of ocean waters. Because the seawater signature of temperature and salinity are acquired by processes occurring at the air-sea interface, we c... | {
"Header 1": "10.13 SUMMARY",
"token_count": 370,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/Geography_v1/Geography/GE-101.pdf"
} |
Electromagnetic = Waves of energy propagated through space at the speed of
light.
Insolation = From incoming solar radiation, this is the solar radiation
received at the earth's surface. The amount of insolation varies with latitude, since the angle of the sun's rays and the
duration of daylight change with lat... | {
"Header 1": "10.14 GLOSSARY",
"token_count": 422,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/Geography_v1/Geography/GE-101.pdf"
} |
Can we think of life without water? It is said that water is life. Water is an essential component of all life forms that exist over the surface of the Earth. The creatures on the Earth are lucky that it is a water planet; otherwise we all would have no existence. Water is a rare commodity in our solar system. The Eart... | {
"Header 1": "11.2 INTRODUCTION",
"token_count": 298,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/Geography_v1/Geography/GE-101.pdf"
} |
Waves are actually the energy, not the water as such, which moves across the ocean surface. Water particles only travel in a small circle as a wave passes. Wind provides energy to the waves. Wind causes waves to travel in the ocean and the energy is released on shorelines. The motion of the surface water seldom affects... | {
"Header 1": "11.4 OCEAN WAVES",
"token_count": 579,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/Geography_v1/Geography/GE-101.pdf"
} |
Ocean currents are like river flow in oceans. They represent a regular volume of water in a definite path and direction. The general movement of a mass of oceanic water in a definite direction is called ocean current. Ocean currents are the most powerful of all the dynamics of oceanic waters because these drive oceanic... | {
"Header 1": "11.5 OCEAN CURRENTS: MEANING",
"token_count": 228,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/Geography_v1/Geography/GE-101.pdf"
} |
The prevailing planetary winds (trade winds, westerlies and polar winds) play vital roles in the origin and development of ocean currents. Most of the Earth's surface energy is concentrated in each hemisphere's trade winds and westerlies. Tiny irregularities in the sea surface, called *capillary waves*, transfer some o... | {
"Header 1": "1. Planetary Winds (Trade Winds, Westerlies and Polar Winds)",
"token_count": 537,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/Geography_v1/Geography/GE-101.pdf"
} |
There is a marked variation in the horizontal and vertical distribution of the oceans. In general, the temperature decreases from the equator towards the poles and from the surface towards the bottom of the seas and oceans. Thus, in the equatorial region the density of water decreases due to high temperature. There is ... | {
"Header 1": "2. Variations in Sea Water Temperatures",
"token_count": 255,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/Geography_v1/Geography/GE-101.pdf"
} |
The shape and configuration of the coastlines also have a close influence on the direction and movement of the ocean currents. For example, the equatorial current after being obstructed by the Brazilian coasts is bifurcated into two branches. The northern branch is known as the Caribbean current flowing along the north... | {
"Header 1": "5. Configuration of the Coastlines",
"token_count": 217,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/Geography_v1/Geography/GE-101.pdf"
} |
South Equatorial Current flows from the western coast of Africa to the eastern coast of South America between the equator and 20°S latitude. This current is more constant, stronger and of great extent than the north equatorial current. In fact, this current is the continuation of the Benguala current. The warm current ... | {
"Header 1": "2. South Equatorial Current (warm)",
"token_count": 775,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/Geography_v1/Geography/GE-101.pdf"
} |
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