page_content stringlengths 12 2.63M | metadata unknown |
|---|---|
T cell-dependent activation of B cells plays an important role in both the primary and secondary responses associated with adaptive immunity. With the first exposure to a protein antigen, a T cell-dependent primary antibody response occurs. The initial stage of the primary response is a **lag period**, or latent period... | {
"Header 1": "**Adaptive Specific Host Defenses**",
"Header 2": "**Primary and Secondary Responses**",
"token_count": 472,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/biochem/Microbiology-LR.pdf"
} |
All forms of adaptive immunity can be described as either active or passive. **Active immunity** refers to the activation of an individual's own adaptive immune defenses, whereas **passive immunity** refers to the transfer of adaptive immune defenses from another individual or animal. Active and passive immunity can be... | {
"Header 1": "**Adaptive Specific Host Defenses**",
"Header 2": "**18.5 Vaccines**",
"Header 3": "**Classifications of Adaptive Immunity**",
"token_count": 1992,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/biochem/Microbiology-LR.pdf"
} |
In 1796, Jenner tested his hypothesis by obtaining infectious samples from a milkmaid's active cowpox lesion and injecting the materials into a young boy (**[Figure 18.26](#page-814-0)**). The boy developed a mild infection that included a low-grade fever, discomfort in his axillae (armpit) and loss of appetite. When t... | {
"Header 1": "**Adaptive Specific Host Defenses**",
"Header 2": "**18.5 Vaccines**",
"Header 3": "**Classifications of Adaptive Immunity**",
"token_count": 1576,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/biochem/Microbiology-LR.pdf"
} |
#### **Classes of Vaccines**
| Class | Description | Advantages | Disadvantages | Examples |
|--------------------|---------------... | {
"Header 1": "**Adaptive Specific Host Defenses**",
"Header 2": "**18.5 Vaccines**",
"Header 3": "**Classifications of Adaptive Immunity**",
"token_count": 575,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/biochem/Microbiology-LR.pdf"
} |
- · What is the risk associated with a live attenuated vaccine?
- · Why is a conjugated vaccine necessary in some cases?
#### **Micro Connections**
#### **DNA Vaccines**
DNA vaccines represent a relatively new and promising approach to vaccination. A DNA vaccine is produced by incorporating genes for antigens int... | {
"Header 1": "**Adaptive Specific Host Defenses**",
"Header 2": "Check Your Understanding",
"token_count": 1057,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/biochem/Microbiology-LR.pdf"
} |
#### **[18.1 Overview of Specific Adaptive Immunity](#page-783-0)**
- **Adaptive immunity** is an acquired defense against foreign pathogens that is characterized by **specificity** and **memory.** The first exposure to an antigen stimulates a **primary response**, and subsequent exposures stimulate a faster and stro... | {
"Header 1": "**Adaptive Specific Host Defenses**",
"Header 2": "Check Your Understanding",
"Header 3": "**Summary**",
"token_count": 1576,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/biochem/Microbiology-LR.pdf"
} |
| • | ••• | _ | - | | T | • | _ | _ | • | _ | • | ı | ٦ |
|---|-----|---|---|--|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Т | | | | | | | | | | | | | |
- **1.** Antibodies are produced by \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_.
- a. plasma cells
- b. T cells
**Multiple Choice**
- c. bone marrow
- d. B cells
- ... | {
"Header 1": "**Adaptive Specific Host Defenses**",
"Header 2": "Check Your Understanding",
"Header 3": "**Review Questions**",
"token_count": 2019,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/biochem/Microbiology-LR.pdf"
} |
| antigens can stimulate B cells to become activated but require cytokine assistance delivered by helper |
|----------|--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------... | {
"Header 1": "**Adaptive Specific Host Defenses**",
"Header 2": "Check Your Understanding",
"Header 3": "**Review Questions**",
"token_count": 427,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/biochem/Microbiology-LR.pdf"
} |
**Figure 19.1** Bee stings and other allergens can cause life-threatening, systemic allergic reactions. Sensitive individuals may need to carry an epinephrine auto-injector (e.g., EpiPen) in case of a sting. A bee-sting allergy is an example of an immune response that is harmful to the h... | {
"Header 1": "**Diseases of the Immune System**",
"token_count": 235,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/biochem/Microbiology-LR.pdf"
} |
An allergic reaction is an immune response to a type of antigen called an allergen. Allergens can be found in many different items, from peanuts and insect stings to latex and some drugs. Unlike other kinds of antigens, allergens are not necessarily associated with pathogenic microbes, and many allergens provoke no imm... | {
"Header 1": "**Diseases of the Immune System**",
"Header 2": "**Introduction**",
"token_count": 207,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/biochem/Microbiology-LR.pdf"
} |
#### **Learning Objectives**
• Identify and compare the distinguishing characteristics, mechanisms, and major examples of type I, II, III, and IV hypersensitivities
In **[Adaptive Specific Host Defenses](#page-782-1)**, we discussed the mechanisms by which adaptive immune defenses, both humoral and cellular, protec... | {
"Header 1": "**Diseases of the Immune System**",
"Header 2": "**19.1 Hypersensitivities**",
"token_count": 252,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/biochem/Microbiology-LR.pdf"
} |
When a presensitized individual is exposed to an **allergen**, it can lead to a rapid immune response that occurs almost immediately. Such a response is called an **allergy** and is classified as a **type I hypersensitivity**. Allergens may be seemingly harmless substances such as animal dander, molds, or pollen. Aller... | {
"Header 1": "**Diseases of the Immune System**",
"Header 2": "**19.1 Hypersensitivities**",
"Header 3": "**Type I Hypersensitivities**",
"token_count": 2000,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/biochem/Microbiology-LR.pdf"
} |
| Common<br>Cause<br>Name | | Signs and Symptoms | | | |
|------------------------------------------------------|------------------------------------------|--------------... | {
"Header 1": "**Diseases of the Immune System**",
"Header 2": "**19.1 Hypersensitivities**",
"Header 3": "**Type I Hypersensitivities**",
"token_count": 725,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/biochem/Microbiology-LR.pdf"
} |
Immune reactions categorized as **type II hypersensitivities**, or cytotoxic hypersensitivities, are mediated by IgG and IgM antibodies binding to cell-surface antigens or matrix-associated antigens on basement membranes. These antibodies can either activate complement, resulting in an inflammatory response and lysis o... | {
"Header 1": "**Diseases of the Immune System**",
"Header 2": "**19.1 Hypersensitivities**",
"Header 3": "**Type II (Cytotoxic) Hypersensitivities**",
"token_count": 2014,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/biochem/Microbiology-LR.pdf"
} |
Within 1 to 24 hours of an incompatible transfusion, the patient experiences fever, chills, pruritus (itching), urticaria (hives), dyspnea, hemoglobinuria (hemoglobin in the urine), and hypotension (low blood pressure). In the most serious reactions, dangerously low blood pressure can lead to shock, multi-organ failure... | {
"Header 1": "**Diseases of the Immune System**",
"Header 2": "**19.1 Hypersensitivities**",
"Header 3": "**Type II (Cytotoxic) Hypersensitivities**",
"token_count": 2037,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/biochem/Microbiology-LR.pdf"
} |
Type III hypersensitivities are immune-complex reactions that were first characterized by Nicolas Maurice Arthus (1862–1945) in 1903. To produce antibodies for experimental procedures, Arthus immunized rabbits by injecting them with serum from horses. However, while immunizing rabbits repeatedly with horse serum, Arthu... | {
"Header 1": "**Diseases of the Immune System**",
"Header 2": "**19.1 Hypersensitivities**",
"Header 3": "**Type III Hypersensitivities**",
"token_count": 1367,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/biochem/Microbiology-LR.pdf"
} |
Type IV hypersensitivities are not mediated by antibodies like the other three types of hypersensitivities. Rather, **type IV hypersensitivities** are regulated by T cells and involve the action of effector cells. These types of hypersensitivities can be organized into three subcategories based on T-cell subtype, type ... | {
"Header 1": "**Diseases of the Immune System**",
"Header 2": "**Type IV Hypersensitivities**",
"token_count": 1556,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/biochem/Microbiology-LR.pdf"
} |
Some disease caused by hypersensitivities are not caused exclusively by one type. For example, **hypersensitivity pneumonitis (HP)**, which is often an occupational or environmental disease, occurs when the lungs become inflamed due to an allergic reaction to inhaled dust, endospores, bird feathers, bird droppings, mol... | {
"Header 1": "**Diseases of the Immune System**",
"Header 2": "**Type IV Hypersensitivities**",
"Header 3": "**Hypersensitivity Pneumonitis**",
"token_count": 1026,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/biochem/Microbiology-LR.pdf"
} |
Diagnosis of type I hypersensitivities is a complex process requiring several diagnostic tests in addition to a welldocumented patient history. Serum IgE levels can be measured, but elevated IgE alone does not confirm allergic disease. As part of the process to identify the antigens responsible for a type I reaction al... | {
"Header 1": "**Diseases of the Immune System**",
"Header 2": "**Diagnosis of Hypersensitivities**",
"token_count": 530,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/biochem/Microbiology-LR.pdf"
} |
Allergic reactions can be treated in various ways. Prevention of allergic reactions can be achieved by **desensitization** (hyposensitization) therapy, which can be used to reduce the hypersensitivity reaction through repeated injections of allergens. Extremely dilute concentrations of known allergens (determined from ... | {
"Header 1": "**Diseases of the Immune System**",
"Header 2": "**Diagnosis of Hypersensitivities**",
"Header 3": "**Treatments of Hypersensitivities**",
"token_count": 934,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/biochem/Microbiology-LR.pdf"
} |
#### **Learning Objectives**
- Explain why autoimmune disorders develop
- Provide a few examples of organ-specific and systemic autoimmune diseases
In 1970, artist Walt Kelly developed a poster promoting Earth Day, featuring a character from *Pogo*, his daily newspaper comic strip. In the poster, Pogo looks out acr... | {
"Header 1": "**Diseases of the Immune System**",
"Header 2": "**19.2 Autoimmune Disorders**",
"token_count": 549,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/biochem/Microbiology-LR.pdf"
} |
Some autoimmune diseases are considered organ specific, meaning that the immune system targets specific organs or tissues. Examples of organ-specific autoimmune diseases include celiac disease, Graves disease, Hashimoto thyroiditis, type I diabetes mellitus, and Addison disease.
#### **Celiac Disease**
Celiac disea... | {
"Header 1": "**Diseases of the Immune System**",
"Header 2": "**19.2 Autoimmune Disorders**",
"Header 3": "**Organ-Specific Autoimmune Diseases**",
"token_count": 1760,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/biochem/Microbiology-LR.pdf"
} |
Whereas organ-specific autoimmune diseases target specific organs or tissues, **systemic autoimmune disease**s are
15. P. Martorell et al. "Autoimmunity in Addison's Disease." *Netherlands Journal of Medicine* 60 no. 7 (2002):269—275.
more generalized, targeting multiple organs or tissues throughout the body. Examp... | {
"Header 1": "**Diseases of the Immune System**",
"Header 2": "**Systemic Autoimmune Diseases**",
"token_count": 1813,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/biochem/Microbiology-LR.pdf"
} |
#### **Select Autoimmune Diseases**
| Disease | Cause | Signs and Symptoms ... | {
"Header 1": "**Diseases of the Immune System**",
"Header 2": "**Systemic Autoimmune Diseases**",
"token_count": 720,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/biochem/Microbiology-LR.pdf"
} |
#### **Learning Objectives**
- Explain why human leukocyte antigens (HLAs) are important in tissue transplantation
- Explain the types of grafts possible and their potential for interaction with the immune system
- Describe what occurs during graft-versus-host disease (GVHD)
A graft is the transplantation of an org... | {
"Header 1": "**Diseases of the Immune System**",
"Header 2": "**19.3 Organ Transplantation and Rejection**",
"token_count": 287,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/biochem/Microbiology-LR.pdf"
} |
The different types of grafts described above have varying risks for rejection (**[Table 19.7](#page-852-0)**). Rejection occurs when the recipient's immune system recognizes the donor tissue as foreign (non-self), triggering an immune response. The major histocompatibility complex markers MHC I and MHC II, more specif... | {
"Header 1": "**Diseases of the Immune System**",
"Header 2": "**19.3 Organ Transplantation and Rejection**",
"Header 3": "**Transplant Rejection**",
"token_count": 628,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/biochem/Microbiology-LR.pdf"
} |
A form of rejection called **graft-versus-host disease (GVHD)** primarily occurs in recipients of bone marrow transplants and peripheral blood stem cells. GHVD presents a unique situation because the transplanted tissue is capable of producing immune cells; APCs in the donated bone marrow may recognize the host cells a... | {
"Header 1": "**Diseases of the Immune System**",
"Header 2": "**19.3 Organ Transplantation and Rejection**",
"Header 3": "**Graft-versus-Host Disease**",
"token_count": 547,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/biochem/Microbiology-LR.pdf"
} |
There are currently more than a dozen different tissues and organs used in human transplantations. Learn more about them at **[this \(https://openstax.org/l/](https://openstax.org/l/22organstransp) [22organstransp\)](https://openstax.org/l/22organstransp)** website.
#### **Clinical Fo... | {
"Header 1": "**Diseases of the Immune System**",
"Header 2": "**19.3 Organ Transplantation and Rejection**",
"Header 3": "**Link to Learning**",
"token_count": 403,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/biochem/Microbiology-LR.pdf"
} |
Primary immunodeficiencies, which number more than 250, are caused by inherited defects of either nonspecific innate or specific adaptive immune defenses. In general, patients born with primary immunodeficiency (PI) commonly have an increased susceptibility to infection. This susceptibility can become apparent shortly ... | {
"Header 1": "**Diseases of the Immune System**",
"Header 2": "**Primary Immunodeficiency**",
"token_count": 1266,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/biochem/Microbiology-LR.pdf"
} |
A **secondary immunodeficiency** occurs as a result an acquired impairment of function of B cells, T cells, or both. Secondary immunodeficiencies can be caused by:
- Systemic disorders such as diabetes mellitus, malnutrition, hepatitis, or HIV infection
- Immunosuppressive treatments such as cytotoxic chemotherapy, b... | {
"Header 1": "**Diseases of the Immune System**",
"Header 2": "**Secondary Immunodeficiency**",
"token_count": 1318,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/biochem/Microbiology-LR.pdf"
} |
#### **Learning Objectives**
- Explain how the adaptive specific immune response responds to tumors
- Discuss the risks and benefits of tumor vaccines
Cancer involves a loss of the ability of cells to control their cell cycle, the stages each eukaryotic cell goes through as it grows and then divides. When this cont... | {
"Header 1": "**Diseases of the Immune System**",
"Header 2": "**19.5 Cancer Immunobiology and Immunotherapy**",
"token_count": 318,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/biochem/Microbiology-LR.pdf"
} |
Cell-mediated immune responses can be directed against cancer cells, many of which do not have the normal complement of self-proteins, making them a target for elimination. Abnormal cancer cells may also present tumor antigens. These tumor antigens are not a part of the screening process used to eliminate lymphocytes d... | {
"Header 1": "**Diseases of the Immune System**",
"Header 2": "**Cell-Mediated Response to Tumors**",
"token_count": 416,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/biochem/Microbiology-LR.pdf"
} |
There are two types of cancer vaccines: preventive and therapeutic. Preventive vaccines are used to prevent cancer from occurring, whereas therapeutic vaccines are used to treat patients with cancer. Most preventive cancer vaccines target viral infections that are known to lead to cancer. These include vaccines against... | {
"Header 1": "**Diseases of the Immune System**",
"Header 2": "**Cell-Mediated Response to Tumors**",
"Header 3": "**Cancer Vaccines**",
"token_count": 738,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/biochem/Microbiology-LR.pdf"
} |
#### **[19.1 Hypersensitivities](#page-825-0)**
- An **allergy** is an adaptive immune response, sometimes life-threatening, to an **allergen**.
- **Type I hypersensitivity** requires sensitization of mast cells with IgE, involving an initial IgE antibody response and IgE attachment to mast cells. On second exposure ... | {
"Header 1": "**Diseases of the Immune System**",
"Header 2": "**Cell-Mediated Response to Tumors**",
"Header 3": "**Summary**",
"token_count": 938,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/biochem/Microbiology-LR.pdf"
} |
#### **Multiple Choice**
- **1.** Which of the following is the type of cell largely responsible for type I hypersensitivity responses?
- a. erythrocyte
- b. mast cell
- c. T lymphocyte
- d. antibody
- **2.** Type I hypersensitivities require which of the following initial priming events to occur?
- a. sensitization
... | {
"Header 1": "**Diseases of the Immune System**",
"Header 2": "**Cell-Mediated Response to Tumors**",
"Header 3": "**Review Questions**",
"token_count": 1615,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/biochem/Microbiology-LR.pdf"
} |
**Figure 20.1** Lab-on-a-chip technology allows immunological assays to be miniaturized so tests can be done rapidly with minimum quantities of expensive reagents. The chips contain tiny flow tubes to allow movement of fluids by capillary action, reactions sites with embedded reagents, a... | {
"Header 1": "**Laboratory Analysis of the Immune Response**",
"token_count": 223,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/biochem/Microbiology-LR.pdf"
} |
Many laboratory tests are designed to confirm a presumptive diagnosis by detecting antibodies specific to a suspected pathogen. Unfortunately, many such tests are time-consuming and expensive. That is now changing, however, with the development of new, miniaturized technologies that are fast and inexpensive. For exampl... | {
"Header 1": "**Laboratory Analysis of the Immune Response**",
"Header 2": "**Introduction**",
"token_count": 245,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/biochem/Microbiology-LR.pdf"
} |
#### **Learning Objectives**
- Compare the method of development, use, and characteristics of monoclonal and polyclonal antibodies
- Explain the nature of antibody cross-reactivity and why this is less of a problem with monoclonal antibodies
In addition to being crucial for our normal immune response, antibodies pr... | {
"Header 1": "**Laboratory Analysis of the Immune Response**",
"Header 2": "**20.1 Polyclonal and Monoclonal Antibody Production**",
"token_count": 833,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/biochem/Microbiology-LR.pdf"
} |
Antibodies used for research and diagnostic purposes are often obtained by injecting a lab animal such as a rabbit or a goat with a specific antigen. Within a few weeks, the animal's immune system will produce high levels of antibodies specific for the antigen. These antibodies can be harvested in an **antiserum**, whi... | {
"Header 1": "**Laboratory Analysis of the Immune Response**",
"Header 2": "**20.1 Polyclonal and Monoclonal Antibody Production**",
"Header 3": "**Producing Polyclonal Antibodies**",
"token_count": 457,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/biochem/Microbiology-LR.pdf"
} |
Polyclonal antisera are used in many clinical tests that are designed to determine whether a patient is producing antibodies in response to a particular pathogen. While these tests are certainly powerful diagnostic tools, they have their limitations, because they are an indirect means of determining whether a particula... | {
"Header 1": "**Laboratory Analysis of the Immune Response**",
"Header 2": "**20.1 Polyclonal and Monoclonal Antibody Production**",
"Header 3": "**Clinical Uses of Polyclonal Antisera**",
"token_count": 890,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/biochem/Microbiology-LR.pdf"
} |
Some types of assays require better antibody specificity and affinity than can be obtained using a polyclonal antiserum. To attain this high specificity, all of the antibodies must bind with high affinity to a single epitope. This high specificity can be provided by **monoclonal antibodies (mAbs)**. **[Table 20.1](#pag... | {
"Header 1": "**Laboratory Analysis of the Immune Response**",
"Header 2": "**20.1 Polyclonal and Monoclonal Antibody Production**",
"Header 3": "**Producing Monoclonal Antibodies**",
"token_count": 584,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/biochem/Microbiology-LR.pdf"
} |
Since the most common methods for producing monoclonal antibodies use mouse cells, it is necessary to create **humanized monoclonal antibodies** for human clinical use. Mouse antibodies cannot be injected repeatedly into humans, because the immune system will recognize them as being foreign and will respond to them wit... | {
"Header 1": "**Laboratory Analysis of the Immune Response**",
"Header 2": "**20.1 Polyclonal and Monoclonal Antibody Production**",
"Header 3": "**Clinical Uses of Monoclonal Antibodies**",
"token_count": 852,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/biochem/Microbiology-LR.pdf"
} |
A visible antigen-antibody complex is called a **precipitin**, and *in vitro* assays that produce a precipitin are called precipitin reactions. A precipitin reaction typically involves adding soluble antigens to a test tube containing a solution of antibodies. Each antibody has two arms, each of which can bind to an ep... | {
"Header 1": "**Laboratory Analysis of the Immune Response**",
"Header 2": "**20.2 Detecting Antigen-Antibody Complexes**",
"Header 3": "**Precipitin Reactions**",
"token_count": 2037,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/biochem/Microbiology-LR.pdf"
} |
The RID assay is a also useful test for determining the concentration of many serum proteins such as the C3 and C4 complement proteins, among others.
**Figure 20.9** In this radial immunodiffusion (RID) assay, an antiserum is mixed with the agar before it is cooled, and solutions contai... | {
"Header 1": "**Laboratory Analysis of the Immune Response**",
"Header 2": "**20.2 Detecting Antigen-Antibody Complexes**",
"Header 3": "**Precipitin Reactions**",
"token_count": 800,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/biochem/Microbiology-LR.pdf"
} |
To cause infection, viruses must bind to receptors on host cells. Antiviral antibodies can neutralize viral infections by coating the virions, blocking the binding (**[Figure 18.7](#page-789-0)**). This activity neutralizes virions and can result in the formation of large antibody-virus complexes (which are readily rem... | {
"Header 1": "**Laboratory Analysis of the Immune Response**",
"Header 2": "**20.2 Detecting Antigen-Antibody Complexes**",
"Header 3": "**Neutralization Assay**",
"token_count": 663,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/biochem/Microbiology-LR.pdf"
} |
When a patient has elevated protein levels in the blood or is losing protein in the urine, a clinician will often order a polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis (PAGE) assay (see **[Visualizing and Characterizing DNA, RNA, and](#page-528-0) [Protein](#page-528-0)**). This assay compares the relative abundance of the variou... | {
"Header 1": "**Laboratory Analysis of the Immune Response**",
"Header 2": "**Immunoelectrophoresis**",
"token_count": 513,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/biochem/Microbiology-LR.pdf"
} |
#### **Protein Electrophoresis and the Characterization of Immunoglobulin Structure**
The advent of electrophoresis ultimately led to researching and understanding the structure of antibodies. When Swedish biochemist Arne Tiselius (1902–1971) published the first protein electrophoresis results in 1937,[7] he could id... | {
"Header 1": "**Laboratory Analysis of the Immune Response**",
"Header 2": "**Immunoelectrophoresis**",
"Header 3": "**Micro Connections**",
"token_count": 639,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/biochem/Microbiology-LR.pdf"
} |
After performing protein gel electrophoresis, specific proteins can be identified in the gel using antibodies. This technique is known as the **western blot**. Following separation of proteins by PAGE, the protein antigens in the gel are transferred to and immobilized on a nitrocellulose membrane. This membrane can the... | {
"Header 1": "**Laboratory Analysis of the Immune Response**",
"Header 2": "**Immunoelectrophoresis**",
"Header 3": "**Immunoblot Assay: The Western Blot**",
"token_count": 1556,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/biochem/Microbiology-LR.pdf"
} |
#### **Learning Objectives**
- Compare direct and indirect agglutination
- Identify various uses of hemagglutination in the diagnosis of disease
- Explain how blood types are determined
- Explain the steps used to cross-match blood to be used in a transfusion
In addition to causing precipitation of soluble molecule... | {
"Header 1": "**Laboratory Analysis of the Immune Response**",
"Header 2": "**20.3 Agglutination Assays**",
"token_count": 312,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/biochem/Microbiology-LR.pdf"
} |
The use of agglutination tests to identify streptococcal bacteria was developed in the 1920s by Rebecca Lancefield working with her colleagues A.R. Dochez and Oswald Avery.[9] She used antibodies to identify M protein, a virulence factor on streptococci that is necessary for the bacteria's ability to cause strep throat... | {
"Header 1": "**Laboratory Analysis of the Immune Response**",
"Header 2": "**Agglutination of Bacteria and Viruses**",
"token_count": 2025,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/biochem/Microbiology-LR.pdf"
} |
For example, influenza viruses have two different types of viral spikes called neuraminidase (N) and hemagglutinin (H), the latter named for its ability to agglutinate red blood cells (see **[Viruses](#page-251-0)**). Thus, we can use red blood cells to detect the presence of influenza virus by **direct hemagglutinatio... | {
"Header 1": "**Laboratory Analysis of the Immune Response**",
"Header 2": "**Agglutination of Bacteria and Viruses**",
"token_count": 1627,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/biochem/Microbiology-LR.pdf"
} |
In addition to antibodies against bacteria and viruses to which they have previously been exposed, most individuals also carry antibodies against blood types other than their own. There are presently 33 immunologically important blood-type systems, many of which are restricted within various ethnic groups or rarely res... | {
"Header 1": "**Laboratory Analysis of the Immune Response**",
"Header 2": "**Blood Typing and Cross-Matching**",
"token_count": 1226,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/biochem/Microbiology-LR.pdf"
} |
#### **Learning Objectives**
- Explain the differences and similarities between EIA, FEIA, and ELISA
- Describe the difference and similarities between immunohistochemistry and immunocytochemistry
- Describe the different purposes of direct and indirect ELISA
Similar to the western blot, **enzyme immunoassays (EIAs... | {
"Header 1": "**Laboratory Analysis of the Immune Response**",
"Header 2": "**20.4 EIAs and ELISAs**",
"token_count": 421,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/biochem/Microbiology-LR.pdf"
} |
#### **The MMR Titer**
The MMR vaccine is a combination vaccine that provides protection against measles, mumps, and rubella (German measles). Most people receive the MMR vaccine as children and thus have antibodies against these diseases. However, for various reasons, even vaccinated individuals may become susceptib... | {
"Header 1": "**Laboratory Analysis of the Immune Response**",
"Header 2": "**20.4 EIAs and ELISAs**",
"Header 3": "**Micro Connections**",
"token_count": 288,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/biochem/Microbiology-LR.pdf"
} |
One powerful use of EIA is **immunostaining**, in which antibody-enzyme conjugates enhance microscopy. **Immunohistochemistry (IHC)** is used for examining whole tissues. As seen in **[Figure 20.23](#page-895-0)**, a section of tissue can be stained to visualize the various cell types. In this example, a mAb against CD... | {
"Header 1": "**Laboratory Analysis of the Immune Response**",
"Header 2": "**20.4 EIAs and ELISAs**",
"Header 3": "**Immunostaining**",
"token_count": 437,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/biochem/Microbiology-LR.pdf"
} |
The **enzyme-linked immunosorbent assays (ELISAs)** are widely used EIAs. In the **direct ELISA**, antigens are immobilized in the well of a microtiter plate. An antibody that is specific for a particular antigen and is conjugated to an enzyme is added to each well. If the antigen is present, then the antibody will bin... | {
"Header 1": "**Laboratory Analysis of the Immune Response**",
"Header 2": "**Enzyme-linked Immunosorbent Assays (ELISAs)**",
"token_count": 1405,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/biochem/Microbiology-LR.pdf"
} |
For some situations, it may be necessary to detect or quantify antigens or antibodies that are present at very low concentration in solution. Immunofiltration techniques have been developed to make this possible. In **immunofiltration**, a large volume of fluid is passed through a porous membrane into an absorbent pad.... | {
"Header 1": "**Laboratory Analysis of the Immune Response**",
"Header 2": "**Enzyme-linked Immunosorbent Assays (ELISAs)**",
"Header 3": "**Immunofiltration and Immunochromatographic Assays**",
"token_count": 1893,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/biochem/Microbiology-LR.pdf"
} |
#### **Learning Objectives**
- Describe the benefits of immunofluorescent antibody assays in comparison to nonfluorescent assays
- Compare direct and indirect fluorescent antibody assays
- Explain how a flow cytometer can be used to quantify specific subsets of cells present in a complex mixture of cell types
- Expla... | {
"Header 1": "**Laboratory Analysis of the Immune Response**",
"Header 2": "**20.5 Fluorescent Antibody Techniques**",
"token_count": 281,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/biochem/Microbiology-LR.pdf"
} |
**Direct fluorescent antibody (DFA) tests** use a fluorescently labeled mAb to bind and illuminate a target antigen. DFA tests are particularly useful for the rapid diagnosis of bacterial diseases. For example, fluorescence-labeled antibodies against *Streptococcus pyogenes* (group A strep) can be used to obtain a diag... | {
"Header 1": "**Laboratory Analysis of the Immune Response**",
"Header 2": "**Direct Fluorescent Antibody Techniques**",
"token_count": 426,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/biochem/Microbiology-LR.pdf"
} |
**Indirect Fluorescent Antibody Techniques**
**Indirect fluorescent antibody (IFA) tests** (**[Figure 20.29](#page-906-0)**) are used to look for antibodies in patient serum. For example, an IFA test for the diagnosis of syphilis uses *T. pallidum* cells isolated from a lab animal (the bacteria cannot be grown on lab... | {
"Header 1": "**Laboratory Analysis of the Immune Response**",
"Header 2": "• In a direct fluorescent antibody test, what does the fluorescent antibody bind to?",
"token_count": 1000,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/biochem/Microbiology-LR.pdf"
} |
Fluorescently labeled antibodies can be used to quantify cells of a specific type in a complex mixture using **flow cytometry** (**[Figure 20.31](#page-908-0)**), an automated, cell-counting system that detects fluorescing cells as they pass through a narrow tube one cell at a time. For example, in HIV infections, it i... | {
"Header 1": "**Laboratory Analysis of the Immune Response**",
"Header 2": "• In a direct fluorescent antibody test, what does the fluorescent antibody bind to?",
"Header 3": "**Flow Cytometry**",
"token_count": 1253,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/biochem/Microbiology-LR.pdf"
} |
The flow cytometer and immunofluorescence can also be modified to sort cells from a single sample into purified subpopulations of cells for research purposes. This modification of the flow cytometer is called a **fluorescenceactivated cell sorter (FACS)**. In a FACS, fluorescence by a cell induces the device to put a c... | {
"Header 1": "**Laboratory Analysis of the Immune Response**",
"Header 2": "• In a direct fluorescent antibody test, what does the fluorescent antibody bind to?",
"Header 3": "**Cell Sorting Using Immunofluorescence**",
"token_count": 1847,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/biochem/Microbiology-LR.pdf"
} |
Production of end product from the chromogenic substrate is directly proportional to the amount of captured antigen.
- **Indirect ELISA** is used to detect antibodies in patient serum by attaching antigen to the well of a microtiter plate, allowing the patient (primary) antibody to bind the antigen and an enzyme-conjug... | {
"Header 1": "**Laboratory Analysis of the Immune Response**",
"Header 2": "• In a direct fluorescent antibody test, what does the fluorescent antibody bind to?",
"Header 3": "**Cell Sorting Using Immunofluorescence**",
"token_count": 332,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/biochem/Microbiology-LR.pdf"
} |
#### **Multiple Choice**
- **1.** For many uses in the laboratory, polyclonal antibodies work well, but for some types of assays, they lack sufficient \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_ because they cross-react with inappropriate antigens.
- a. specificity
- b. sensitivity
- c. accuracy
- d. reactivity
- **2.** How are monoclonal anti... | {
"Header 1": "**Laboratory Analysis of the Immune Response**",
"Header 2": "• In a direct fluorescent antibody test, what does the fluorescent antibody bind to?",
"Header 3": "**Review Questions**",
"token_count": 1872,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/biochem/Microbiology-LR.pdf"
} |
There is also an<br>in-line detector that can detect cell clumps or |
#### **Short Answer**
- **29.** Describe two reasons why polyclonal antibodies are more likely to exhibit cross-reactivity than monoclonal antibodies.
- **30.** Explain why hemolysis in the complement ... | {
"Header 1": "**Laboratory Analysis of the Immune Response**",
"Header 2": "• In a direct fluorescent antibody test, what does the fluorescent antibody bind to?",
"Header 3": "**Review Questions**",
"token_count": 658,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/biochem/Microbiology-LR.pdf"
} |
**Figure 21.1** The skin is an important barrier to pathogens, but it can also develop infections. These raised lesions (left) are typical of folliculitis, a condition that results from the inflammation of hair follicles. Acne lesions (right) also result from inflammation of hair follicl... | {
"Header 1": "**Skin and Eye Infections**",
"token_count": 249,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/biochem/Microbiology-LR.pdf"
} |
The human body is covered in skin, and like most coverings, skin is designed to protect what is underneath. One of its primary purposes is to prevent microbes in the surrounding environment from invading underlying tissues and organs. But in spite of its role as a protective covering, skin is not itself immune from inf... | {
"Header 1": "**Skin and Eye Infections**",
"Header 2": "**Introduction**",
"token_count": 252,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/biochem/Microbiology-LR.pdf"
} |
#### **Learning Objectives**
- Describe the major anatomical features of the skin and eyes
- Compare and contrast the microbiomes of various body sites, such as the hands, back, feet, and eyes
- Explain how microorganisms overcome defenses of skin and eyes in order to cause infection
- Describe general signs and symp... | {
"Header 1": "**Skin and Eye Infections**",
"Header 2": "**Eyes**",
"token_count": 963,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/biochem/Microbiology-LR.pdf"
} |
The skin is home to a wide variety of normal microbiota, consisting of commensal organisms that derive nutrition from skin cells and secretions such as sweat and sebum. The normal microbiota of skin tends to inhibit transientmicrobe colonization by producing antimicrobial substances and outcompeting other microbes that... | {
"Header 1": "**Skin and Eye Infections**",
"Header 2": "**Eyes**",
"Header 3": "**Normal Microbiota of the Skin**",
"token_count": 1746,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/biochem/Microbiology-LR.pdf"
} |
Although the eye and skin have distinct anatomy, they are both in direct contact with the external environment. An important component of the eye is the nasolacrimal drainage system, which serves as a conduit for the fluid of the eye, called tears. Tears flow from the external eye to the nasal cavity by the lacrimal ap... | {
"Header 1": "**Skin and Eye Infections**",
"Header 2": "**Anatomy and Microbiota of the Eye**",
"token_count": 796,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/biochem/Microbiology-LR.pdf"
} |
The conjunctiva is a frequent site of infection of the eye; like other mucous membranes, it is also a common portal of entry for pathogens. Inflammation of the conjunctiva is called **conjunctivitis**, although it is commonly known as pinkeye because of the pink appearance in the eye. Infections of deeper structures, b... | {
"Header 1": "**Skin and Eye Infections**",
"Header 2": "**Anatomy and Microbiota of the Eye**",
"Header 3": "**Infections of the Eye**",
"token_count": 1037,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/biochem/Microbiology-LR.pdf"
} |
*Staphylococcus* species are commonly found on the skin, with *S. epidermidis* and *S. hominis* being prevalent in the normal microbiota. *S. aureus* is also commonly found in the nasal passages and on healthy skin, but pathogenic strains are often the cause of a broad range of infections of the skin and other body sys... | {
"Header 1": "**Skin and Eye Infections**",
"Header 2": "**21.2 Bacterial Infections of the Skin and Eyes**",
"Header 3": "**Staphylococcal Infections of the Skin**",
"token_count": 2024,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/biochem/Microbiology-LR.pdf"
} |
They may sometimes need to be drained (at which time the pathogens can be cultured) and treated with antibiotics.
When multiple boils develop into a deeper lesion, it is called a carbuncle (**[Figure 21.10](#page-929-0)**). Because carbuncles are deeper, they are more commonly associated with systemic symptoms and a ... | {
"Header 1": "**Skin and Eye Infections**",
"Header 2": "**21.2 Bacterial Infections of the Skin and Eyes**",
"Header 3": "**Staphylococcal Infections of the Skin**",
"token_count": 2024,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/biochem/Microbiology-LR.pdf"
} |
Many immunological tests, including agglutination reactions and ELISAs, can be used to detect streptococci. Penicillin is commonly prescribed for treatment of cellulitis and erysipelas because resistance is not widespread in streptococci at this time. In most patients, erythema nodosum is self-limiting and is not treat... | {
"Header 1": "**Skin and Eye Infections**",
"Header 2": "**21.2 Bacterial Infections of the Skin and Eyes**",
"Header 3": "**Staphylococcal Infections of the Skin**",
"token_count": 2019,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/biochem/Microbiology-LR.pdf"
} |
• Name at least two types of skin infections commonly caused by *Pseudomonas* spp.
#### **Acne**
One of the most ubiquitous skin conditions is **acne**. Acne afflicts nearly 80% of teenagers and young adults, but it can be found in individuals of all ages. Higher incidence among ad... | {
"Header 1": "**Skin and Eye Infections**",
"Header 2": "**21.2 Bacterial Infections of the Skin and Eyes**",
"Header 3": "**Staphylococcal Infections of the Skin**",
"token_count": 2019,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/biochem/Microbiology-LR.pdf"
} |
However, unlike most routine vaccines, the current anthrax vaccine is unique in both its formulation and the protocols dictating who receives it.[13] The vaccine is administered through five intramuscular injections over a period of 18 months, followed by annual boosters. The US Food and Drug Administration (FDA) has o... | {
"Header 1": "**Skin and Eye Infections**",
"Header 2": "**21.2 Bacterial Infections of the Skin and Eyes**",
"Header 3": "**Staphylococcal Infections of the Skin**",
"token_count": 2027,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/biochem/Microbiology-LR.pdf"
} |
Gonococcal ophthalmia neonatorum is caused by *Neisseria gonorrhoeae*, the bacterium that causes the STD gonorrhea (**[Figure 21.22](#page-940-1)**). Inclusion (chlamydial) conjunctivitis is caused by *Chlamydia trachomatis*, the anaerobic, obligate, intracellular parasite that causes the STD chlamydia.
To prevent go... | {
"Header 1": "**Skin and Eye Infections**",
"Header 2": "**21.2 Bacterial Infections of the Skin and Eyes**",
"Header 3": "**Staphylococcal Infections of the Skin**",
"token_count": 395,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/biochem/Microbiology-LR.pdf"
} |
**Trachoma**, or granular conjunctivitis, is a common cause of preventable blindness that is rare in the United States but widespread in developing countries, especially in Africa and Asia. The condition is caused by the same species that causes neonatal inclusion conjunctivitis in infants, *Chlamydia trachomatis*. *C.... | {
"Header 1": "**Skin and Eye Infections**",
"Header 2": "**21.2 Bacterial Infections of the Skin and Eyes**",
"Header 3": "**Trachoma**",
"token_count": 741,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/biochem/Microbiology-LR.pdf"
} |
When treating bacterial infections of the skin and eyes, it is important to consider that few such infections can be attributed to a single pathogen. While biofilms may develop in other parts of the body, they are especially relevant to skin infections (such as those caused by *S. aureus* or *P. aeruginosa*) because of... | {
"Header 1": "**Skin and Eye Infections**",
"Header 2": "**Biofilms and Infections of the Skin and Eyes**",
"token_count": 960,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/biochem/Microbiology-LR.pdf"
} |
#### **Learning Objectives**
- Identify the most common viruses associated with infections of the skin and eyes
- Compare the major characteristics of specific viral diseases affecting the skin and eyes
Until recently, it was thought that the normal microbiota of the body consisted primarily of bacteria and some fu... | {
"Header 1": "**Skin and Eye Infections**",
"Header 2": "**21.3 Viral Infections of the Skin and Eyes**",
"token_count": 228,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/biochem/Microbiology-LR.pdf"
} |
**Papillomas** (warts) are the expression of common skin infections by human papillomavirus (HPV) and are transmitted by direct contact. There are many types of HPV, and they lead to a variety of different presentations, such as common warts, plantar warts, flat warts, and filiform warts. HPV can also cause sexually-tr... | {
"Header 1": "**Skin and Eye Infections**",
"Header 2": "**21.3 Viral Infections of the Skin and Eyes**",
"Header 3": "**Papillomas**",
"token_count": 431,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/biochem/Microbiology-LR.pdf"
} |
Another common skin virus is herpes simplex virus (HSV). HSV has historically been divided into two types, HSV-1 and HSV-2. HSV-1 is typically transmitted by direct oral contact between individuals, and is usually associated with **oral herpes**. HSV-2 is usually transmitted sexually and is typically associated with ge... | {
"Header 1": "**Skin and Eye Infections**",
"Header 2": "**21.3 Viral Infections of the Skin and Eyes**",
"Header 3": "**Oral Herpes**",
"token_count": 1408,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/biochem/Microbiology-LR.pdf"
} |
Like bacterial conjunctivitis viral infections of the eye can cause inflammation of the conjunctiva and discharge from the eye. However, **viral conjunctivitis** tends to produce a discharge that is more watery than the thick discharge associated with bacterial conjunctivitis. The infection is contagious and can easily... | {
"Header 1": "**Skin and Eye Infections**",
"Header 2": "**21.3 Viral Infections of the Skin and Eyes**",
"Header 3": "**Viral Conjunctivitis**",
"token_count": 1068,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/biochem/Microbiology-LR.pdf"
} |
#### **Learning Objectives**
- Identify the most common fungal pathogens associated with cutaneous and subcutaneous mycoses
- Compare the major characteristics of specific fungal diseases affecting the skin
Many fungal infections of the skin involve fungi that are found in the normal skin microbiota. Some of these ... | {
"Header 1": "**Skin and Eye Infections**",
"Header 2": "**21.4 Mycoses of the Skin**",
"token_count": 223,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/biochem/Microbiology-LR.pdf"
} |
A group of cutaneous mycoses called **tineas** are caused by **dermatophytes**, fungal molds that require keratin, a protein found in skin, hair, and nails, for growth. There are three genera of dermatophytes, all of which can cause cutaneous mycoses: *Trichophyton*, *Epidermophyton*, and *Microsporum*. Tineas on most ... | {
"Header 1": "**Skin and Eye Infections**",
"Header 2": "**21.4 Mycoses of the Skin**",
"Header 3": "**Tineas**",
"token_count": 1201,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/biochem/Microbiology-LR.pdf"
} |
Another cause of cutaneous mycoses is *Aspergillus*, a genus consisting of molds of many different species, some of which cause a condition called aspergillosis. Primary cutaneous aspergillosis, in which the infection begins in the skin, is rare but does occur. More common is secondary cutaneous aspergillosis, in which... | {
"Header 1": "**Skin and Eye Infections**",
"Header 2": "**Cutaneous Aspergillosis**",
"token_count": 1223,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/biochem/Microbiology-LR.pdf"
} |
Whereas cutaneous mycoses are superficial, subcutaneous mycoses can spread from the skin to deeper tissues. In temperate regions, the most common subcutaneous mycosis is a condition called **sporotrichosis**, caused by the fungus *Sporothrix schenkii* and commonly known as rose gardener's disease or rose thorn disease ... | {
"Header 1": "**Skin and Eye Infections**",
"Header 2": "**Cutaneous Aspergillosis**",
"Header 3": "**Sporotrichosis**",
"token_count": 944,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/biochem/Microbiology-LR.pdf"
} |
#### **Learning Objectives**
- Identify two parasites that commonly cause infections of the skin and eyes
- Identify the major characteristics of specific parasitic diseases affecting the skin and eyes
Many parasitic protozoans and helminths use the skin or eyes as a portal of entry. Some may physically burrow into... | {
"Header 1": "**Skin and Eye Infections**",
"Header 2": "**Eyes**",
"token_count": 208,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/biochem/Microbiology-LR.pdf"
} |
*Acanthamoeba* is a genus of free-living protozoan amoebae that are common in soils and unchlorinated bodies of fresh water. (This is one reason why some swimming pools are treated with chlorine.) The genus contains a few parasitic species, some of which can cause infections of the eyes, skin, and nervous system. Such ... | {
"Header 1": "**Skin and Eye Infections**",
"Header 2": "**Eyes**",
"Header 3": "*Acanthamoeba* **Infections**",
"token_count": 833,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/biochem/Microbiology-LR.pdf"
} |
The helminth *Loa loa*, also known as the African eye worm, is a nematode that can cause **loiasis**, a disease endemic to West and Central Africa (**[Figure 21.36](#page-957-0)**). The disease does not occur outside that region except when carried by travelers. There is evidence that individual genetic differences aff... | {
"Header 1": "**Skin and Eye Infections**",
"Header 2": "**Eyes**",
"Header 3": "**Loiasis**",
"token_count": 1365,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/biochem/Microbiology-LR.pdf"
} |
#### **[21.1 Anatomy and Normal Microbiota of the Skin and Eyes](#page-918-1)**
- Human skin consists of two main layers, the **epidermis** and **dermis**, which are situated on top of the **hypodermis**, a layer of connective tissue.
- The skin is an effective physical barrier against microbial invasion.
- The skin'... | {
"Header 1": "**Skin and Eye Infections**",
"Header 2": "**Eyes**",
"Header 3": "**Summary**",
"token_count": 1322,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/biochem/Microbiology-LR.pdf"
} |
#### **Multiple Choice**
- **1.** \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_ glands produce a lipid-rich substance that contains proteins and minerals and protects the skin.
- a. Sweat
- b. Mammary
- c. Sebaceous
- d. Endocrine
- **2.** Which layer of skin contains living cells, is vascularized, and lies directly above the hypodermi... | {
"Header 1": "**Skin and Eye Infections**",
"Header 2": "**Eyes**",
"Header 3": "**Review Questions**",
"token_count": 1670,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/biochem/Microbiology-LR.pdf"
} |
The respiratory tract is one of the main portals of entry into the human body for microbial pathogens. On average, a human takes about 20,000 breaths each day. This roughly corresponds to 10,000 liters, or 10 cubic meters, of air. Suspended within this volume of air are millions of microbes of terrestrial, animal, and ... | {
"Header 1": "**Respiratory System Infections**",
"Header 2": "**Introduction**",
"token_count": 261,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/biochem/Microbiology-LR.pdf"
} |
#### **Learning Objectives**
- Describe the major anatomical features of the upper and lower respiratory tract
- Describe the normal microbiota of the upper and lower respiratory tracts
- Explain how microorganisms overcome defenses of upper and lower respiratory-tract membranes to cause infection
- Explain how micro... | {
"Header 1": "**Respiratory System Infections**",
"Header 2": "**Tract**",
"token_count": 1022,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/biochem/Microbiology-LR.pdf"
} |
The lower respiratory system begins below the epiglottis in the larynx or voice box (**[Figure 22.3](#page-967-0)**). The **trachea**, or windpipe, is a cartilaginous tube extending from the larynx that provides an unobstructed path for air to reach the lungs. The trachea bifurcates into the left and right **bronchi** ... | {
"Header 1": "**Respiratory System Infections**",
"Header 2": "**Anatomy of the Lower Respiratory System**",
"token_count": 276,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/biochem/Microbiology-LR.pdf"
} |
The inner lining of the respiratory system consists of mucous membranes (**[Figure 22.4](#page-968-0)**) and is protected by multiple immune defenses. The goblet cells within the respiratory epithelium secrete a layer of sticky mucus. The viscosity and acidity of this secretion inhibits microbial attachment to the unde... | {
"Header 1": "**Respiratory System Infections**",
"Header 2": "**Anatomy of the Lower Respiratory System**",
"Header 3": "**Defenses of the Respiratory System**",
"token_count": 388,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/biochem/Microbiology-LR.pdf"
} |
The upper respiratory tract contains an abundant and diverse microbiota. The nasal passages and sinuses are primarily colonized by members of the Firmicutes, Actinobacteria, and Proteobacteria. The most common bacteria identified include *Staphylococcus epidermidis*, viridans group streptococci (VGS), *Corynebacterium*... | {
"Header 1": "**Respiratory System Infections**",
"Header 2": "**Normal Microbiota of the Respiratory System**",
"token_count": 1170,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/biochem/Microbiology-LR.pdf"
} |
Microbial diseases of the respiratory system typically result in an acute inflammatory response. These infections can be grouped by the location affected and have names ending in "itis", which literally means *inflammation of*. For instance, **rhinitis** is an inflammation of the nasal cavities, often characteristic of... | {
"Header 1": "**Respiratory System Infections**",
"Header 2": "**Normal Microbiota of the Respiratory System**",
"Header 3": "**Signs and Symptoms of Respiratory Infection**",
"token_count": 586,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/biochem/Microbiology-LR.pdf"
} |
A common upper respiratory infection, **streptococcal pharyngitis** (**strep throat**) is caused by *Streptococcus pyogenes*. This gram-positive bacterium appears as chains of cocci, as seen in **[Figure 22.5](#page-971-1)**. Rebecca Lancefield serologically classified streptococci in the 1930s using carbohydrate antig... | {
"Header 1": "**Respiratory System Infections**",
"Header 2": "**22.2 Bacterial Infections of the Respiratory Tract**",
"Header 3": "**Streptococcal Infections**",
"token_count": 2031,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/biochem/Microbiology-LR.pdf"
} |
Young children also tend to spend more time lying down than adults, which facilitates drainage from the nasopharynx through the eustachian tube and into the middle ear. Bottle feeding while lying down enhances this risk because the sucking action on the bottle causes negative pressure to build up within the eustachian ... | {
"Header 1": "**Respiratory System Infections**",
"Header 2": "**22.2 Bacterial Infections of the Respiratory Tract**",
"Header 3": "**Streptococcal Infections**",
"token_count": 621,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/biochem/Microbiology-LR.pdf"
} |
Subsets and Splits
No community queries yet
The top public SQL queries from the community will appear here once available.