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1990, 2005, and 2010. Estimates are provided for 187 countries and 21 world regions.
Figures 7.4a, 7.4b, and 7.4c show the global burden of disease in 1990 and 2010 as measured by DALY losses for the world as a whole, and then for the developing and the developed worlds. With some exceptions (for example the
![](_p... | {
"Header 1": "**The Modern Rise in World Population from 1750**",
"Header 3": "**Box 7.3** (*Continued*)",
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Medical historian Thomas McKeown (1976) set himself the task of explaining improvements in life expectancy in England and Wales in the period from 1750, the date at which he argues health began to improve.
According to McKeown, England and Wales were two of the first countries to experience improvements in health, fa... | {
"Header 1": "**The Modern Rise in World Population from 1750**",
"Header 3": "**Zoom-in Box 7.4:** Thomas McKeown (1976) on the Causes of Mortality Decline in England and Wales from 1750",
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As countries continue to move through epidemiological transition it would appear that two core challenges remain:
*Creating an age of delayed degenerative disease*: The world will continue to pass through epidemiological transition and the global burden of disease will increasingly center on degenerative disease and ... | {
"Header 1": "**The Modern Rise in World Population from 1750**",
"Header 3": "*Policies for improved global health*",
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How industrialization and/or development and/or modernization and/or urbanization work to temper fertility is not self-evident; the mechanisms involved are far from obvious and vary from one country to another.
Welsh population geographer Huw Jones offers a useful framework through which to think about the factors th... | {
"Header 1": "**The Modern Rise in World Population from 1750**",
"Header 3": "*Explaining fertility decline*",
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Australian demographer John C Caldwell's (1982) book *Theory of Fertility Decline* remains one of the most important attempts to explain why fertility levels fall as countries pass through demographic transition.
Summing a lifetime of research conducted on fertility in Africa and Asia, Caldwell argues that households... | {
"Header 1": "**The Modern Rise in World Population from 1750**",
"Header 3": "**Zoom-in Box 7.5:** John C Caldwell's (1982) *Theory of Fertility Decline*",
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The Communist Party came to power in China in 1949 and has ruled ever since. In 1949, it was possible to locate China in the second stage of demographic transition (see Figure 7.7). Crude death rates in 1949 were 18 per 1,000; by 1963 this figure had fallen to 10 per 1,000 and by 1970 it had fallen again, to 7.6 per 1,... | {
"Header 1": "**The Modern Rise in World Population from 1750**",
"Header 3": "Demographic Transition: The Case of China from 1949",
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Mao Tse Tung officially declared his Cultural Revolution ended in 1969 but the damage had been done; China was in chaos. Steadily, throughout the 1970s, the moderates sought to regain control of the country. With the death of Mao Tse Tung in 1976 the period of radical control over the Chinese Communist Party was effect... | {
"Header 1": "**The Modern Rise in World Population from 1750**",
"Header 3": "Demographic Transition: The Case of China from 1949",
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The rise of Western civilization began a process of world population growth without parallel in human history. From its epicenter in Europe, this process has steadily fanned out across the globe and there exists no region untouched by it. In 1750, the global population stood at 741 million, today it exceeds 7.2 billion... | {
"Header 1": "**The Modern Rise in World Population from 1750**",
"Header 3": "Conclusion",
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Key ideas to take from this chapter include the following:
- 1) The Demographic Transition Model has its origins in the work of US demographer Frank W Notestein. Notestein developed the model to help inform those who feared the impact of global population growth, not least its ramifications for the United States.
- 2... | {
"Header 1": "**The Modern Rise in World Population from 1750**",
"Header 3": "Checklist of Key Ideas",
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Given that the modern rise in world population first began in England and Wales in 1750, it is perhaps not altogether surprising that concerns over the sustainability of population growth first arose there too. In 1798, the English Anglican curate, demographer, and economist Thomas R Malthus published a book titled *An... | {
"Header 1": "**A Planet in Distress? Humanity's War on the Earth**",
"Header 3": "Introduction",
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From the 1950s onward there have emerged a number of population pessimists – or **neo-Malthusians** – who believe that it is indeed time to retrieve Malthus from the dustbin of history and consider his warnings anew. Neo-Malthusians believe that people consume more resources than they produce and therefore that, if lef... | {
"Header 1": "**A Planet in Distress? Humanity's War on the Earth**",
"Header 3": "Population Pessimists: The Earth's Carrying Capacity, Overshoot, and Collapse",
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A natural resource can be defined as a substance occurring in nature that a population perceives to be necessary and useful to its maintenance and wellbeing at any point in time. Resources can be divided into one of two types. **Renewable resources** are natural resources that can be reproduced faster than society expl... | {
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"Header 3": "**Zoom-in Box 8.1:** Energy Resources: Hooked on Fossil Fuels?",
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Is it possible to reach scientific consensus on the maximum number of people the earth can sustain?
In his 1995 book *How Many People Can the Earth Support?* US population biologist Joel E Cohen collected and analyzed over 65 estimates of the earth's carrying capacity which have been advanced since Dutchman Antoni va... | {
"Header 1": "**A Planet in Distress? Humanity's War on the Earth**",
"Header 3": "**Zoom-in Box 8.2:** In Search of the Earth's Carrying Capacity: The Thoughts of US Population Biologist Joel E Cohen",
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Believing that the impact of the human species on the planetary system has reached a tipping point, in the 1980s, Dutch Nobel prize-winning atmospheric chemist Paul Crutzen decreed that we now live in a new geological time period, the Anthropocene (Crutzen, 2002). The Anthropocene is the age of man [sic]. According to ... | {
"Header 1": "**A Planet in Distress? Humanity's War on the Earth**",
"Header 3": "**Zoom-in Box 8.3:** The Anthropocene and the Sixth Mass Extinction?",
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**Cornucopians**, or population optimists, have taken issue with the claim that humanity is approaching the limits of the earth's carrying capacity and is about to overshoot and collapse. Cornucopians believe that human beings produce more than they consume. To the extent that population growth increases global consump... | {
"Header 1": "**A Planet in Distress? Humanity's War on the Earth**",
"Header 3": "Population Optimists: Population, the Ultimate Resource",
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Population neutralists believe that population growth is in and of itself neither inherently good nor bad. Relationships between people and the natural environments they occupy are mediated not simply by population pressures but also by social, economic, technological, political, and cultural institutions. Recently, th... | {
"Header 1": "**A Planet in Distress? Humanity's War on the Earth**",
"Header 3": "Population Neutralists: Political Ecology, Society, and Nature",
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Already over 1 billion people currently do not have access to clean drinking water, more than 2 billion people do not have access to adequate sanitation, and as many as 5 million people die every year from preventable, waterborne infectious disease. In addition, tensions over the equitable sharing of water resources ar... | {
"Header 1": "**A Planet in Distress? Humanity's War on the Earth**",
"Header 3": "**Zoom-in Box 8.4:** Gleick and Palaniappan (2010) on \"Peak Water\" and Global Inequalities in Access to Freshwater",
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What to do with the garbage that society creates has become a key environmental concern in Indian cities today; the capital Delhi is no exception. The relationship that exists between Delhi's class and caste structure and its waste problem provide insights into the complex ways in which social structures interface with... | {
"Header 1": "**A Planet in Distress? Humanity's War on the Earth**",
"Header 3": "**Zoom-in Box 8.5:** Capitalism, Class, and Pollution: The Case of the Garbage Crisis in Delhi",
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In the twenty-first century, it is likely that most debate on humanity's war on planet earth will focus upon climate change and, more specifically, global warming. Whilst temperature at the surface of the earth has fluctuated throughout history in response to natural cycles and processes, there has emerged a concern th... | {
"Header 1": "**A Planet in Distress? Humanity's War on the Earth**",
"Header 3": "Climate Change: The Battleground for the Twenty-First Century?",
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But Lomborg argues that environmentalists and the media have over-sensationalized the threats posed by climate change and that reducing carbon emissions will harm the world's poor more than it helps them. Lomborg calls for more attention to be given to adaptation (allowing climate change to happen but dealing with its ... | {
"Header 1": "**A Planet in Distress? Humanity's War on the Earth**",
"Header 3": "Climate Change: The Battleground for the Twenty-First Century?",
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Across the past 60 years, population pessimists have argued that humanity is depleting non-renewable resources to the point of extinction and is polluting and poisoning the earth's ecosystems. Overshoot and collapse at some point in the twenty-first century is inevitable. Whilst it is true that pressures on the earth's... | {
"Header 1": "**A Planet in Distress? Humanity's War on the Earth**",
"Header 3": "Conclusion",
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Key ideas to take from this chapter include the following:
- 1) Across the past 60 years neo-Malthusian population pessimists have repeatedly warned that population growth and economic development have reached such a level that the earth's carrying capacity has now been passed and that overshoot and collapse will bri... | {
"Header 1": "**A Planet in Distress? Humanity's War on the Earth**",
"Header 3": "Checklist of Key Ideas",
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Whilst cities have featured in many prior civilizations it has only been with the ascendance of Western society, and in particular with the rise of the capitalist economic system, that the city has become home for the majority of humankind. **Urbanization**, the movement of people from the countryside to the city, bega... | {
"Header 1": "**Homo Urbanus: Urbanization and Urban Form from 1800**",
"Header 3": "Introduction",
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The urbanization of the face of the earth stands as one of the most significant human geographical transformations of the past 200 years. But why has this shift occurred only at this specific moment in human history? How might one account for this historically unprecedented **transition** to urban living? In their effo... | {
"Header 1": "**Homo Urbanus: Urbanization and Urban Form from 1800**",
"Header 3": "Capitalism and the Urbanization of the Surface of the Earth",
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This rise of homo urbanus began in earnest in Europe around 1800 and spread first only to countries formed through European emigration. Swiss-based Belgian economic historian Paul Bairoch and US political scientist Gary Goertz provide an authoritative overview of historical trends in urbanization in these pioneering co... | {
"Header 1": "**Homo Urbanus: Urbanization and Urban Form from 1800**",
"Header 3": "*This rise of homo urbanus in Europe from 1800*",
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Was it an accident that as Europe transitioned from a feudal and agricultural to a capitalist and industrial society it was first to bear witness to the rise of the modern city? In fact it was only because capitalism was introduced into the countryside first that large-scale urbanization became possible later. Capitali... | {
"Header 1": "**Homo Urbanus: Urbanization and Urban Form from 1800**",
"Header 3": "*Capitalism and the emergence of the industrial city*",
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Perhaps the most famous attempt to describe and explain the spatial organization of the nineteenth- and early twentieth-century city was that provided by the Chicago School of Urban Sociology, which emerged in the early 1920s and continued through to the 1960s. Within this school, Robert E Park, Ernest Burgess, and Rod... | {
"Header 1": "**Homo Urbanus: Urbanization and Urban Form from 1800**",
"Header 3": "*Modeling the form of the industrial city*",
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The city of Glasgow in Scotland provides an excellent example of the relationship between the rise of capitalism, the industrial revolution, urbanization, and the emergence of the industrial city.
In 1717, Glasgow was a small village with a population of circa 15,000 perched on the River Clyde in West Central Scotlan... | {
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"Header 3": "**Zoom-in Box 9.1:** Capitalism, the Industrial Revolution, and Urbanization: The Case of Glasgow, Scotland",
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Consider the spatial structure of the city you currently reside in. How accurately do you think Burgess's concentric zones model represents land-use patterns in your city? It is clear that across the twentieth century a number of urban processes have conspired to rearrange cities to the extent that the concentric zones... | {
"Header 1": "**Homo Urbanus: Urbanization and Urban Form from 1800**",
"Header 3": "**Zoom-in Box 9.2:** Urban Land-Use Patterns: The Case of Newcastle, England",
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lifestyle factors and lower property prices, such "**counter-urbanization**" is also being lubricated by higher rates of multi-car households, growing work-at-home opportunities, and improved transportation options. This flight to the countryside brings both advantages (helps sustain local shops and employment) and dis... | {
"Header 1": "**Homo Urbanus: Urbanization and Urban Form from 1800**",
"Header 3": "**Box 9.2** (*Continued*)",
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US urban scholar Neil Brenner and Swiss urban geographer Christian Schmid offer a particularly insightful account of the meaning and implications of trends in world urbanization today. Brenner and Schmid argue that the ongoing development of capitalism in the West and the diffusion of capitalism, industrialization, and... | {
"Header 1": "**Homo Urbanus: Urbanization and Urban Form from 1800**",
"Header 3": "Toward a New Era of Planetary Urbanization",
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In its *2011 Revision* of its biannual *World Urbanization Prospects* the Population Division of the Department of Economic and Social Affairs at the United Nations charts world urbanization from 1950 to the present and offers estimates and projections of likely trends in world urbanization to 2050 (United Nations Popu... | {
"Header 1": "**Homo Urbanus: Urbanization and Urban Form from 1800**",
"Header 3": "*Urbanization trends 1950–2050*",
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In the 1980s and 1990s there emerged a Los Angeles School of Urban Geography which sought to track emerging trends and to map and account for the layout of the cities of today. Just as the Chicago School of Urban Sociology had used Chicago as its laboratory in the 1920s, 1930s, and 1940s, the Los Angeles School of Urba... | {
"Header 1": "**Homo Urbanus: Urbanization and Urban Form from 1800**",
"Header 3": "*Los Angeles: our postmetropolis future?*",
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| Year | Rank<br>order | Urban<br>agglomeration | Population<br>(millions) | Year | Rank<br>order | Urban<br>agglomeration | Population<br>(millions) |
|------|---------------|-----------------------------------|--------------------------|------|---------------|------------------------|--------------------... | {
"Header 1": "**Homo Urbanus: Urbanization and Urban Form from 1800**",
"Header 3": "*Los Angeles: our postmetropolis future?*",
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In 1961, French-born and US-resident geographer Jean Gottmann published *Megalopolis: The Urbanized Northeastern Seaboard of the United States*. In this book Gottmann argued that cities were now expanding in some regions to the extent that they were coagulating into a single overall agglomeration and becoming physicall... | {
"Header 1": "**Homo Urbanus: Urbanization and Urban Form from 1800**",
"Header 3": "*Megalopolis: the rise of urban galaxies?*",
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Many of the cities that exist in the Global South have their origins in the European colonial period and continue to bear traces of imperious European quarters and neighborhoods, majestic public spaces, and formal planning and beautification. For the most part rapid urbanization in Latin America, Asia, and Africa, howe... | {
"Header 1": "**Homo Urbanus: Urbanization and Urban Form from 1800**",
"Header 3": "*Planet of slums: megacities in the Global South*",
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Undoubtedly, the rise of the capitalist economic system has been the single most important progenitor of the urbanization of the surface of the earth from 1800. But capitalism is not the only economic and political system that is driving urbanization today. How, for instance, can one make sense of China's encounter wit... | {
"Header 1": "**Homo Urbanus: Urbanization and Urban Form from 1800**",
"Header 3": "The Chinese Experience of Urbanization",
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It is especially important to be careful when considering data on Chinese urbanization. Through time, the proportion of the Chinese population officially designated as "urban" has grown, and certainly migration and, to a lesser extent, natural increase (more births than deaths) have driven this expansion. But increases... | {
"Header 1": "**Homo Urbanus: Urbanization and Urban Form from 1800**",
"Header 3": "**Zoom-in Box 9.3:** China's Encounter with Urbanization",
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This chapter has recounted the story of the globalization of urbanization, beginning with its birth in Europe and initial expansion to countries formed through European emigration (principally the United States, Australia, Canada, and New Zealand), and incorporating its diffusion to Latin America, Asia, and Africa. It ... | {
"Header 1": "**Homo Urbanus: Urbanization and Urban Form from 1800**",
"Header 3": "Conclusion",
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Key ideas to take from this chapter include the following:
- 1) Human geographers have come to understand that the fortunes of urban agglomerations are inextricably embroiled, entangled, and intertwined with wider economic and political processes, specifically rooted in the capitalist economic system.
- 2) Whilst cit... | {
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"Header 3": "Checklist of Key Ideas",
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Good general introductions to Urban Geography can be found in:
Gandy M (ed.) (2011) *Urban Constellations – An Overview of Contemporary Urban Discourse* (Jovis Verlag, Berlin).
Hall T and Barret H (2011) *Urban Geography* (4th edition) (Routledge, New York).
Knox P L and McCarthy L (2011) *Urbanisation: An Introd... | {
"Header 1": "**Homo Urbanus: Urbanization and Urban Form from 1800**",
"Header 3": "Guidance for Further Reading",
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One of the chief legacies of the uneven world that the rise, reign, and faltering of the West has bequeathed has been a global migration system structured around flows of people within and between the Global South and the Global North.
Migration is a term that denotes the movement of people from one location to anoth... | {
"Header 1": "**Global Migration: Moving, Settling, Staying Connected**",
"Header 3": "Introduction",
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The trade in African slaves formed part of the so-called Atlantic trading system that connected Europe, Africa, and Asia for over 400 years between the fourteenth and nineteenth centuries. Initially, slaves were captured in coastal regions that European traders knew well, but through time these traders penetrated all t... | {
"Header 1": "**Global Migration: Moving, Settling, Staying Connected**",
"Header 3": "**Zoom-in Box 10.1:** The Atlantic Slave Trade",
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their descendants. In the United States, such discrimination led to the civil rights movement, which, throughout the 1950s and 1960s, agitated for equality of opportunity for all irrespective of race, color, or creed. Against this backdrop, the election of Barack Obama as the United States' first Black president serves... | {
"Header 1": "**Global Migration: Moving, Settling, Staying Connected**",
"Header 3": "**Box 10.1** (*Continued*)",
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Whilst omnipresent in human history, the scale of migration has steadily grown over time and perhaps today we live in the most migratory of all times. According to the United Nations Population Division, in 2013, 232 million people, or 3.2% of the world's population, were international migrants, up from 175 million in ... | {
"Header 1": "**Global Migration: Moving, Settling, Staying Connected**",
"Header 3": "International Migration Today",
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Migration that begins in the Global South and ends in the Global South can be driven by labor-market opportunities. Migrants from ultra-poor countries often move to countries which whilst still poor are nevertheless comparatively more prosperous. These migrants often work for low wages and are vulnerable to exploitatio... | {
"Header 1": "**Global Migration: Moving, Settling, Staying Connected**",
"Header 3": "*Global South to Global South*",
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Migration from the Global South to the Global North is often driven by migrants' desire to access better employment opportunities and vastly improved standards of living. Many countries in the Global North welcome talented and skilled workers from the Global South. Indeed, some actively procure skilled workers with par... | {
"Header 1": "**Global Migration: Moving, Settling, Staying Connected**",
"Header 3": "*Global South to Global North*",
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A product of the fallout of the wider Arab Spring, since March 2011 there has emerged a civil war in Syria. This war has been waged by opponents of sitting President Bashar al-Assad, and his Ba'ath government. Whilst rebels have gained control of parts of the country (with the help of, among others, the United States),... | {
"Header 1": "**Global Migration: Moving, Settling, Staying Connected**",
"Header 3": "**Zoom-in Box 10.2:** The Syrian Civil War and the Plight of Displaced Syrians",
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Migration between countries located in the Global North is driven largely by labor-market opportunities. Whilst many migrants seek out work and somewhere to live independently others use recruitment companies to search for employment opportunities and to lubricate their relocation. Frequently, skilled migrants are chan... | {
"Header 1": "**Global Migration: Moving, Settling, Staying Connected**",
"Header 3": "*Global North to Global North*",
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Migration from the Global North to the Global South incorporates the movement of people working for charitable, religious, and aid organizations. But it, too, is powered by the global expansion of TNCs. Historically, these TNCs have been concentrated in the primary and extractive industries (oil and gas companies and a... | {
"Header 1": "**Global Migration: Moving, Settling, Staying Connected**",
"Header 3": "*Global North to Global South*",
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Some migrant communities, at least for a period, are less interested in settling into the new host society and, if anything, display a heightened patriotism toward their former homelands. As noted when speaking of the great population movements that have occurred in the past and the large-scale population displacements... | {
"Header 1": "**Global Migration: Moving, Settling, Staying Connected**",
"Header 3": "Assimilating and Integrating into Host Societies",
"token_count": 429,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/Geography_v1/Geography/human-geography_-a-concise-introduction-pdfdrive-.pdf"
} |
Whilst emigration from Armenia has been a constant feature of its history, the main waves of large-scale, systematic emigration occurred in the periods 1894–1896, 1915–1922, and 1988 to the present. The first two waves were triggered by conflict with the Ottoman Empire (Turkey) and were fueled by claims of genocide and... | {
"Header 1": "**Global Migration: Moving, Settling, Staying Connected**",
"Header 3": "**Zoom-in Box 10.3:** Armenia: A Classic Diaspora?",
"token_count": 1298,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/Geography_v1/Geography/human-geography_-a-concise-introduction-pdfdrive-.pdf"
} |
Canada has a long history of immigration. Record numbers of immigrants settled in the country in the early 1900s. By 1931, 22% of Canadians (2.3 million) were foreign born, deriving principally from Europe and in particular from the United Kingdom. Because immigration levels declined during the 1930s Great Depression a... | {
"Header 1": "**Global Migration: Moving, Settling, Staying Connected**",
"Header 3": "**Zoom-in Box 10.4:** Canada: A Multicultural Dream?",
"token_count": 1407,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/Geography_v1/Geography/human-geography_-a-concise-introduction-pdfdrive-.pdf"
} |
The term "Overseas Chinese" is used by Chinese scholars and politicians to refer to all peoples with Chinese ethnicity living overseas, including firstgeneration Chinese nationals living overseas and second-, third-, and latergeneration descendants who continue to identify themselves as Chinese. Today, an estimated 50 ... | {
"Header 1": "**Global Migration: Moving, Settling, Staying Connected**",
"Header 3": "**Zoom-in Box 10.5:** Chinatowns: Beachheads Lubricating Migrant Assimilation or Buffers Slowing Down Integration?",
"token_count": 986,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/Geography_v1/Geography/human-geography_-a-concise-in... |
route illegal migrants via Chinatowns and exploit such migrants by forcing them to work for low wages or to serve as prostitutes to pay off their debt.
But perhaps the work done by Chinatowns is today changing (Wong and Chee-Bing, 2013). In the United States, Western Europe, and Australia, Chinese migrants (especiall... | {
"Header 1": "**Global Migration: Moving, Settling, Staying Connected**",
"Header 3": "**Box 10.5** (*Continued*)",
"token_count": 329,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/Geography_v1/Geography/human-geography_-a-concise-introduction-pdfdrive-.pdf"
} |
There exists a long tradition of scholarship on the effects of emigration on the development of migrant sending states. Whilst existing literature has failed to generate a consensus, until recently the weight of opinion would appear to hold that emigration retards the development of sending states. Insofar as emigratio... | {
"Header 1": "**Global Migration: Moving, Settling, Staying Connected**",
"Header 3": "The Impacts of Migration on Sending States and Host Countries",
"token_count": 1202,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/Geography_v1/Geography/human-geography_-a-concise-introduction-pdfdrive-.pdf"
} |
In 1995, the Philippine government enacted the Migrant Workers and Overseas Filipinos Act. This Act presented itself as a progressive intervention designed to better prepare and equip would-be emigrants and to support Overseas Filipino Workers (OFW) whilst in diaspora. Recognizing the limited opportunities that exist i... | {
"Header 1": "**Global Migration: Moving, Settling, Staying Connected**",
"Header 3": "**Zoom-in Box 10.6:** Philippines' diaspora strategy: The pros and cons of the Migrant Workers and Overseas Filipinos Act (1995)",
"token_count": 1254,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/Geography_v1/Geography/human-geograph... |
Mass migrations and the formation of great diasporas which have fanned out across the world have been a feature of human history. Migrants have moved for a variety of reasons, sometimes out of choice, on other occasions out of necessity. In future, an ever-growing number of people are going to live in a country other t... | {
"Header 1": "**Global Migration: Moving, Settling, Staying Connected**",
"Header 3": "Conclusion",
"token_count": 271,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/Geography_v1/Geography/human-geography_-a-concise-introduction-pdfdrive-.pdf"
} |
Key ideas to take from this chapter include the following:
- 1) Robin Cohen's typology of diasporas provides a useful framework through which to classify the mass migrations that have occurred in human history.
- 2) Today just over 232 million, or 3% of the world's population, live as migrants. The vast majority of t... | {
"Header 1": "**Global Migration: Moving, Settling, Staying Connected**",
"Header 3": "Checklist of Key Ideas",
"token_count": 265,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/Geography_v1/Geography/human-geography_-a-concise-introduction-pdfdrive-.pdf"
} |
Whilst population growth and economic development have brought human beings into a new relationship with the natural environment, nature's extremes continue to leave their mark on societies. **Natural hazards** such as earthquakes, tsunamis, hurricanes, floods, droughts, mudslides, wildfires, and tornadoes continue to ... | {
"Header 1": "**At Risk: Society and Natural Hazards**",
"Header 3": "Introduction",
"token_count": 457,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/Geography_v1/Geography/human-geography_-a-concise-introduction-pdfdrive-.pdf"
} |
Earlier than most, US geographer Gilbert White came to the realization that natural hazards and extreme weather events ought to be of interest to human geographers and not just physical geographers. White's thinking on hazards was rooted in and informed by the risks posed by flooding and his passionate advocacy of the ... | {
"Header 1": "**At Risk: Society and Natural Hazards**",
"Header 3": "Gilbert White: Pioneering Human Geographical Interest in Natural Hazards",
"token_count": 626,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/Geography_v1/Geography/human-geography_-a-concise-introduction-pdfdrive-.pdf"
} |
Gilbert White's final book (co-authored with US environmental geographer James Westcoat) provides a summation of his views on the management of floodplains. Good governance, it was argued, requires actions in seven particular areas:
- Mapping incidences of flooding in history and estimating the frequency of different... | {
"Header 1": "**At Risk: Society and Natural Hazards**",
"Header 3": "**Zoom-in Box 11.1:** Westcoat and White (2003) *Water for Life: Water Management and Environmental Policy*",
"token_count": 690,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/Geography_v1/Geography/human-geography_-a-concise-introduction-pdfdrive-.pdf... |
A common misconception about natural disasters is that populations most at risk are simply those unlucky enough to have been born in parts of the world where nature's extremes are most manifest; danger is simply a function of the uneven distribution of the magnitude and frequency of hazards across the face of the earth... | {
"Header 1": "**At Risk: Society and Natural Hazards**",
"Header 3": "There is Nothing Natural about Natural Disasters: Risk=Exposure×Vulnerability (R=E×V)",
"token_count": 1987,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/Geography_v1/Geography/human-geography_-a-concise-introduction-pdfdrive-.pdf"
} |
The United Nations University (UNU) in Bonn, Germany provides a useful framework through which the social production of vulnerability might be better understood (UNU, 2012). The UNU begins with the formula R=E×V, but then breaks down vulnerability into three component parts: degree of susceptibility to hazards (likelih... | {
"Header 1": "**At Risk: Society and Natural Hazards**",
"Header 3": "Mapping the World at Risk",
"token_count": 1002,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/Geography_v1/Geography/human-geography_-a-concise-introduction-pdfdrive-.pdf"
} |
In the *World Risk Report 2012*, UNU (2012) used the four risk factors of exposure, susceptibility, coping, and adaptation to create a World Risk Index.
Indicators were chosen for each risk factor:
- *Exposure*: Measure of the proportion of the population exposed to earthquakes, cyclones, floods, droughts, and sea-... | {
"Header 1": "**At Risk: Society and Natural Hazards**",
"Header 3": "**Zoom-in Box 11.2:** The United Nations University World Risk Index",
"token_count": 393,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/Geography_v1/Geography/human-geography_-a-concise-introduction-pdfdrive-.pdf"
} |
**Map 11.1a** Mapping the world at risk: exposure. Source: United Nations University, 2012.
(b) Vulnerability – Vulnerability of a society to a hazard event/capacity to cope with an event
**Map 11.1b** Mapping the world at risk: vulnerability. Source: United Nations University, 2012. ... | {
"Header 1": "**At Risk: Society and Natural Hazards**",
"Header 3": "(a) Exposure – Exposure of the population to natural hazard events",
"token_count": 210,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/Geography_v1/Geography/human-geography_-a-concise-introduction-pdfdrive-.pdf"
} |
The Caribbean island of Haiti is located at the boundary between the North American Plate and the Caribbean Plate and as such is exposed to earthquakes. On January 12, 2010, at the Enriquillo–Plaintain Garden fault zone (EPGFZ) an earthquake of magnitude 7 on the Richter Scale occurred, with an epicenter 25km southwest... | {
"Header 1": "**At Risk: Society and Natural Hazards**",
"Header 3": "The Haiti Earthquake, 2010",
"token_count": 261,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/Geography_v1/Geography/human-geography_-a-concise-introduction-pdfdrive-.pdf"
} |
**Plate 11.1** Aftermath of the Haiti earthquake 2010. Source: © Ron Haviv/VII/Corbis.
of 10 million, with 940,000 in the capital city). Others dispute this claim and suggest that between 46,000 and 85,000 perished. Approximately 250,000 homes had collapsed or were severely damaged, resulting in 1.5 million people be... | {
"Header 1": "**At Risk: Society and Natural Hazards**",
"Header 3": "**Box 11.3** (*Continued*)",
"token_count": 563,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/Geography_v1/Geography/human-geography_-a-concise-introduction-pdfdrive-.pdf"
} |
Japan is located west of the boundary between the Eurasian and Pacific Plates. On March 11, 2011, an earthquake registering 9 on the Richter Scale occurred, with an epicenter 72 km east of the Japanese coastal region of Tōhoku and 130 km northeast of the city of Sendai, and at a relatively shallow depth (32 km beneath ... | {
"Header 1": "**At Risk: Society and Natural Hazards**",
"Header 3": "The Tōhoku Earthquake and Tsunami in Japan, 2011",
"token_count": 1269,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/Geography_v1/Geography/human-geography_-a-concise-introduction-pdfdrive-.pdf"
} |
Responsibility for promoting and coordinating international efforts to minimize the risk that natural hazards become natural disasters falls on the shoulders of the United Nations. Since its inception in 1945, the United Nations has adopted at least four different approaches to disaster risk reduction:
*Phase 1 (1946... | {
"Header 1": "**At Risk: Society and Natural Hazards**",
"Header 3": "*The Hyogo Framework for Action (HFA) 2005–2015*",
"token_count": 649,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/Geography_v1/Geography/human-geography_-a-concise-introduction-pdfdrive-.pdf"
} |
Whilst it might be possible to reduce the magnitude and frequency of natural hazard events (for example, through geophysical intervention and engineering and minimizing the contribution of human-induced climate change to extreme weather events), it is likely that future disaster management strategies will focus princip... | {
"Header 1": "**At Risk: Society and Natural Hazards**",
"Header 3": "**Zoom-in Box 11.4:** The Hyogo Framework for Action (HFA) 2005–2015",
"token_count": 591,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/Geography_v1/Geography/human-geography_-a-concise-introduction-pdfdrive-.pdf"
} |
Peru is a country especially exposed to a range of hazards, including earthquakes, avalanches, floods, mudslides, and El Niño/La Niña. Perhaps earthquakes present the greatest threat to Peru. Peru is located close to the Peru–Chile Trench, where the Nazca Plate subducts under the South American Plate, creating a fault ... | {
"Header 1": "**At Risk: Society and Natural Hazards**",
"Header 3": "**Zoom-in Box 11.5:** Disaster Management in Peru: The Work of the Sistema Nacional de Defensa Civil (SINADECI)",
"token_count": 241,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/Geography_v1/Geography/human-geography_-a-concise-introduction-pdfdrive-... |
were presumed killed by an associated avalanche, which occurred in Mount Huascarán. Over 140,000 people were injured and over 500,000 people were left homeless.
Given the degree to which it is exposed to natural hazards, it is unsurprising that Peru has built up expertise in disaster planning. Such is coordinated by ... | {
"Header 1": "**At Risk: Society and Natural Hazards**",
"Header 3": "**Box 11.5** (*Continued*)",
"token_count": 1587,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/Geography_v1/Geography/human-geography_-a-concise-introduction-pdfdrive-.pdf"
} |
This chapter has shown that, at least according to human geographers, there is nothing particularly natural about natural hazards. Although global variations in the risk posed by a natural hazards is in part a product of geological, meteorological, and hydrological mechanisms, it is also a function of the ways in which... | {
"Header 1": "**At Risk: Society and Natural Hazards**",
"Header 3": "Conclusion",
"token_count": 237,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/Geography_v1/Geography/human-geography_-a-concise-introduction-pdfdrive-.pdf"
} |
Key ideas to take from this chapter include the following:
- 1) US geographer Gilbert White believed that natural hazards only become natural disasters when societies expose people to unnecessary risks. White's public advocacy of the need for comprehensive floodplain management in the United States and elsewhere prov... | {
"Header 1": "**At Risk: Society and Natural Hazards**",
"Header 3": "Checklist of Key Ideas",
"token_count": 445,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/Geography_v1/Geography/human-geography_-a-concise-introduction-pdfdrive-.pdf"
} |
Human Geography is a discipline that seeks to describe and explain the differentiation of human activity across the face of the earth. Its five central concerns are: the location of human beings and their activities (the distribution of people and their activities over the earth's surface and how this distribution chan... | {
"Header 1": "**Toward a Postcolonial Human Geography**",
"Header 3": "Introduction",
"token_count": 877,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/Geography_v1/Geography/human-geography_-a-concise-introduction-pdfdrive-.pdf"
} |
At the center of this book is the claim that the ascent and dominance of the West from the fifteenth century has left in its wake a deeply unequal and socially differentiated world, comprising core, semi-peripheral, and peripheral regions. For nearly five centuries countries in the Global North have grown affluent and ... | {
"Header 1": "**Toward a Postcolonial Human Geography**",
"Header 3": "Explanation in Human Geography: Four Stories of the West and the World",
"token_count": 2046,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/Geography_v1/Geography/human-geography_-a-concise-introduction-pdfdrive-.pdf"
} |
Quite what will emerge remains up for grabs. For this reason, it is only possible to say that the post-Western world into which we are heading will, for a while at least, be an unstable, unpredictable, and potentially violent world.
All four explanations have been mobilized in many guises throughout this book. Based ... | {
"Header 1": "**Toward a Postcolonial Human Geography**",
"Header 3": "Explanation in Human Geography: Four Stories of the West and the World",
"token_count": 315,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/Geography_v1/Geography/human-geography_-a-concise-introduction-pdfdrive-.pdf"
} |
As discussed in Chapter 2, Human Geography today is living through a postmodern era in which suspicion is being cast on the capacity of grand narratives or overarching schema or theoretical frameworks to render the world intelligible. The postmodern challenge necessitates that we take seriously the idea that Human Geog... | {
"Header 1": "**Toward a Postcolonial Human Geography**",
"Header 3": "Toward a Postcolonial Human Geography",
"token_count": 1195,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/Geography_v1/Geography/human-geography_-a-concise-introduction-pdfdrive-.pdf"
} |
Key ideas to take from this chapter include the following:
- 1) There are many ways to tell the story of the West and the world. Some accounts foreground the idea Only in the West because of favorable environmental endowments; others explore ideas such as First in the West, then elsewhere*;* Because in the West not e... | {
"Header 1": "**Toward a Postcolonial Human Geography**",
"Header 3": "Checklist of Key Ideas",
"token_count": 200,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/Geography_v1/Geography/human-geography_-a-concise-introduction-pdfdrive-.pdf"
} |
A range of links to useful websites are available from the Wiley website: [www.wiley.com/go/](http://www.wiley.com/go/boyle) [boyle.](http://www.wiley.com/go/boyle) Students are strongly encouraged to visit the Wiley website and to follow up on these links if they wish to explore the themes discussed in this chapter in... | {
"Header 1": "**Toward a Postcolonial Human Geography**",
"Header 3": "Website Support Material",
"token_count": 2011,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/Geography_v1/Geography/human-geography_-a-concise-introduction-pdfdrive-.pdf"
} |
**Greco-Roman world** Those regions of the world that formed part of first the Greek Empire, and then later the Roman Empire, and whose history has been fundamentally shaped by each.
**Gross Domestic Product (GDP)** The total domestic output claimed by residents of a country, excluding incomes earned by nationals l... | {
"Header 1": "**Toward a Postcolonial Human Geography**",
"Header 3": "Website Support Material",
"token_count": 2015,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/Geography_v1/Geography/human-geography_-a-concise-introduction-pdfdrive-.pdf"
} |
**Postcolonial Human Geography** A body of scholarship that recognizes that Human Geography has emerged as a quintessential Western academic subject; seeks to reveal how provincial and parochial some Human Geography theories, concepts, and ideas are; and supports the flourishing of alternative non-Western human geogr... | {
"Header 1": "**Toward a Postcolonial Human Geography**",
"Header 3": "Website Support Material",
"token_count": 1611,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/Geography_v1/Geography/human-geography_-a-concise-introduction-pdfdrive-.pdf"
} |
After studying this chapter, you will be able to:
- Distinguish between anatomy and physiology, and identify several branches of each
- Describe the structure of the body, from simplest to most complex, in terms of the six levels of organization
- Identify the functional characteristics of human life
- Identify the f... | {
"Header 1": "**Chapter Objectives**",
"token_count": 371,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/Med_v1/med_textbook/AnatomyAndPhysiology-LR.pdf"
} |
By the end of this section, you will be able to:
- Compare and contrast anatomy and physiology, including their specializations and methods of study
- Discuss the fundamental relationship between anatomy and physiology
Human **anatomy** is the scientific study of the body's structures. Some of these structures are ... | {
"Header 1": "**1.1 | Overview of Anatomy and Physiology**",
"token_count": 1164,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/Med_v1/med_textbook/AnatomyAndPhysiology-LR.pdf"
} |
By the end of this section, you will be able to:
- Describe the structure of the human body in terms of six levels of organization
- List the eleven organ systems of the human body and identify at least one organ and one major function of each
Before you begin to study the different structures and functions of the ... | {
"Header 1": "**1.2 | Structural Organization of the Human Body**",
"token_count": 214,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/Med_v1/med_textbook/AnatomyAndPhysiology-LR.pdf"
} |
To study the chemical level of organization, scientists consider the simplest building blocks of matter: subatomic particles, atoms and molecules. All matter in the universe is composed of one or more unique pure substances called elements, familiar examples of which are hydrogen, oxygen, carbon, nitrogen, calcium, and... | {
"Header 1": "**1.2 | Structural Organization of the Human Body**",
"Header 3": "**The Levels of Organization**",
"token_count": 577,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/Med_v1/med_textbook/AnatomyAndPhysiology-LR.pdf"
} |
A human body consists of trillions of cells organized in a way that maintains distinct internal compartments. These compartments keep body cells separated from external environmental threats and keep the cells moist and nourished. They also separate internal body fluids from the countless microorganisms that grow on bo... | {
"Header 1": "**1.3 | Functions of Human Life**",
"Header 3": "**Organization**",
"token_count": 261,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/Med_v1/med_textbook/AnatomyAndPhysiology-LR.pdf"
} |
The first law of thermodynamics holds that energy can neither be created nor destroyed—it can only change form. Your basic function as an organism is to consume (ingest) energy and molecules in the foods you eat, convert some of it into fuel for movement, sustain your body functions, and build and maintain your body st... | {
"Header 1": "**1.3 | Functions of Human Life**",
"Header 3": "**Metabolism**",
"token_count": 436,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/Med_v1/med_textbook/AnatomyAndPhysiology-LR.pdf"
} |
Human movement includes not only actions at the joints of the body, but also the motion of individual organs and even individual cells. As you read these words, red and white blood cells are moving throughout your body, muscle cells are contracting and relaxing to maintain your posture and to focus your vision, and gla... | {
"Header 1": "**1.3 | Functions of Human Life**",
"Header 3": "**Movement**",
"token_count": 247,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/Med_v1/med_textbook/AnatomyAndPhysiology-LR.pdf"
} |
A **nutrient** is a substance in foods and beverages that is essential to human survival. The three basic classes of nutrients are water, the energy-yielding and body-building nutrients, and the micronutrients (vitamins and minerals).
The most critical nutrient is water. Depending on the environmental temperature and... | {
"Header 1": "**1.4 | Requirements for Human Life**",
"Header 3": "**Nutrients**",
"token_count": 411,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/Med_v1/med_textbook/AnatomyAndPhysiology-LR.pdf"
} |
You have probably seen news stories about athletes who died of heat stroke, or hikers who died of exposure to cold. Such deaths occur because the chemical reactions upon which the body depends can only take place within a narrow range of body temperature, from just below to just above 37°C (98.6°F). When body temperatu... | {
"Header 1": "**1.4 | Requirements for Human Life**",
"Header 3": "**Narrow Range of Temperature**",
"token_count": 502,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/Med_v1/med_textbook/AnatomyAndPhysiology-LR.pdf"
} |
As you have learned, the body continuously engages in coordinated physiological processes to maintain a stable temperature. In some cases, however, overriding this system can be useful, or even life-saving. Hypothermia is the clinical term for an abnormally low body temperature (hypo- = "below" or "under"). Controlled ... | {
"Header 1": "**1.4 | Requirements for Human Life**",
"Header 3": "**Controlled Hypothermia**",
"token_count": 324,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/Med_v1/med_textbook/AnatomyAndPhysiology-LR.pdf"
} |
**Pressure** is a force exerted by a substance that is in contact with another substance. Atmospheric pressure is pressure exerted by the mixture of gases (primarily nitrogen and oxygen) in the Earth's atmosphere. Although you may not perceive it, atmospheric pressure is constantly pressing down on your body. This pres... | {
"Header 1": "**1.4 | Requirements for Human Life**",
"Header 3": "**Narrow Range of Atmospheric Pressure**",
"token_count": 344,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/Med_v1/med_textbook/AnatomyAndPhysiology-LR.pdf"
} |
Decompression sickness (DCS) is a condition in which gases dissolved in the blood or in other body tissues are no longer dissolved following a reduction in pressure on the body. This condition affects underwater divers who surface from a deep dive too quickly, and it can affect pilots flying at high altitudes in planes... | {
"Header 1": "**1.4 | Requirements for Human Life**",
"Header 2": "**Decompression Sickness**",
"token_count": 641,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/Med_v1/med_textbook/AnatomyAndPhysiology-LR.pdf"
} |
By the end of this section, you will be able to:
- Discuss the role of homeostasis in healthy functioning
- Contrast negative and positive feedback, giving one physiologic example of each mechanism
Maintaining homeostasis requires that the body continuously monitor its internal conditions. From body temperature to ... | {
"Header 1": "**1.5 | Homeostasis**",
"token_count": 256,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/Med_v1/med_textbook/AnatomyAndPhysiology-LR.pdf"
} |
A negative feedback system has three basic components (**[Figure 1.10a](#page-29-1)**). A **sensor**, also referred to a receptor, is a component of a feedback system that monitors a physiological value. This value is reported to the control center. The **control center** is the component in a feedback system that comp... | {
"Header 1": "**1.5 | Homeostasis**",
"Header 3": "**Negative Feedback**",
"token_count": 859,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/Med_v1/med_textbook/AnatomyAndPhysiology-LR.pdf"
} |
**Positive feedback** intensifies a change in the body's physiological condition rather than reversing it. A deviation from the normal range results in more change, and the system moves farther away from the normal range. Positive feedback in the body is normal only when there is a definite end point. Childbirth and th... | {
"Header 1": "**1.5 | Homeostasis**",
"Header 3": "**Positive Feedback**",
"token_count": 579,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/Med_v1/med_textbook/AnatomyAndPhysiology-LR.pdf"
} |
By the end of this section, you will be able to:
- Demonstrate the anatomical position
- Describe the human body using directional and regional terms
- Identify three planes most commonly used in the study of anatomy
- Distinguish between the posterior (dorsal) and the anterior (ventral) body cavities, identifying th... | {
"Header 1": "**1.6 | Anatomical Terminology**",
"token_count": 310,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/Med_v1/med_textbook/AnatomyAndPhysiology-LR.pdf"
} |
To further increase precision, anatomists standardize the way in which they view the body. Just as maps are normally oriented with north at the top, the standard body "map," or **anatomical position**, is that of the body standing upright, with the feet at shoulder width and parallel, toes forward. The upper limbs are ... | {
"Header 1": "**1.6 | Anatomical Terminology**",
"Header 3": "**Anatomical Position**",
"token_count": 306,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/Med_v1/med_textbook/AnatomyAndPhysiology-LR.pdf"
} |
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