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The life of cell consists of stages that make up the cell cycle. After a cell is born, it passes through an interphase before it is ready to replicate itself and produce daughter cells. This interphase includes two gap phases (G1 and G2), as well as an S phase, during which its DNA is replicated in preparation for cell... | {
"Header 1": "**3.6 | Cellular Differentiation**",
"Header 2": "**CHAPTER REVIEW**",
"Header 3": "**[3.5 Cell Growth and Division](#page-119-0)**",
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After studying this chapter, you will be able to:
- Identify the main tissue types and discuss their roles in the human body
- Identify the four types of tissue membranes and the characteristics of each that make them functional
- Explain the functions of various epithelial tissues and how their forms enable their fu... | {
"Header 1": "**Chapter Objectives**",
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By the end of this section, you will be able to:
- Identify the four main tissue types
- Discuss the functions of each tissue type
- Relate the structure of each tissue type to their function
- Discuss the embryonic origin of tissue
- Identify the three major germ layers
- Identify the main types of tissue membranes ... | {
"Header 1": "**4.1 | Types of Tissues**",
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"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/Med_v1/med_textbook/AnatomyAndPhysiology-LR.pdf"
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**Epithelial tissue**, also referred to as epithelium, refers to the sheets of cells that cover exterior surfaces of the body, lines internal cavities and passageways, and forms certain glands. **Connective tissue**, as its name implies, binds the cells and organs of the body together and functions in the protection, s... | {
"Header 1": "**4.1 | Types of Tissues**",
"Header 3": "**The Four Types of Tissues**",
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The **epithelial membrane** is composed of epithelium attached to a layer of connective tissue, for example, your skin. The **mucous membrane** is also a composite of connective and epithelial tissues. Sometimes called mucosae, these epithelial membranes line the body cavities and hollow passageways that open to the ex... | {
"Header 1": "**4.1 | Types of Tissues**",
"Header 3": "**Epithelial Membranes**",
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By the end of this section, you will be able to:
- Explain the structure and function of epithelial tissue
- Distinguish between tight junctions, anchoring junctions, and gap junctions
- Distinguish between simple epithelia and stratified epithelia, as well as between squamous, cuboidal, and columnar epithelia
- Desc... | {
"Header 1": "**4.2 | Epithelial Tissue**",
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Epithelial cells are typically characterized by the polarized distribution of organelles and membrane-bound proteins between their basal and apical surfaces. Particular structures found in some epithelial cells are an adaptation to specific functions. Certain organelles are segregated to the basal sides, whereas other ... | {
"Header 1": "**4.2 | Epithelial Tissue**",
"Header 3": "**The Epithelial Cell**",
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Cells of epithelia are closely connected and are not separated by intracellular material. Three basic types of connections allow varying degrees of interaction between the cells: tight junctions, anchoring junctions, and gap junctions (**[Figure 4.5](#page-145-0)**).
**Figure 4.5 Types ... | {
"Header 1": "**4.2 | Epithelial Tissue**",
"Header 3": "**Cell to Cell Junctions**",
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Epithelial tissues are classified according to the shape of the cells and number of the cell layers formed (**[Figure 4.6](#page-146-0)**). Cell shapes can be squamous (flattened and thin), cuboidal (boxy, as wide as it is tall), or columnar (rectangular, taller than it is wide). Similarly, the number of cell layers in... | {
"Header 1": "**4.2 | Epithelial Tissue**",
"Header 3": "**Classification of Epithelial Tissues**",
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The shape of the cells in the single cell layer of simple epithelium reflects the functioning of those cells. The cells in **simple squamous epithelium** have the appearance of thin scales. Squamous cell nuclei tend to be flat, horizontal, and elliptical, mirroring the form of the cell. The **endothelium** is the epith... | {
"Header 1": "**4.2 | Epithelial Tissue**",
"Header 3": "**Simple Epithelium**",
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A stratified epithelium consists of several stacked layers of cells. This epithelium protects against physical and chemical wear and tear. The stratified epithelium is named by the shape of the most apical layer of cells, closest to the free space. **Stratified squamous epithelium** is the most common type of stratifie... | {
"Header 1": "**4.2 | Epithelial Tissue**",
"Header 3": "**Stratified Epithelium**",
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Exocrine glands are classified as either unicellular or multicellular. The unicellular glands are scattered single cells, such as goblet cells, found in the mucous membranes of the small and large intestine.
The multicellular exocrine glands known as serous glands develop from simple epithelium to form a secretory su... | {
"Header 1": "**4.2 | Epithelial Tissue**",
"Header 3": "**Glandular Structure**",
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Exocrine glands can be classified by their mode of secretion and the nature of the substances released, as well as by the structure of the glands and shape of ducts (**[Figure 4.10](#page-152-0)**). **Merocrine secretion** is the most common type of exocrine secretion. The secretions are enclosed in vesicles that move ... | {
"Header 1": "**4.2 | Epithelial Tissue**",
"Header 3": "**Methods and Types of Secretion**",
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By the end of this section, you will be able to:
- Identify and distinguish between the types of connective tissue: proper, supportive, and fluid
- Explain the functions of connective tissues
As may be obvious from its name, one of the major functions of connective tissue is to connect tissues and organs. Unlike ep... | {
"Header 1": "**4.3 | Connective Tissue Supports and Protects**",
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The three broad categories of connective tissue are classified according to the characteristics of their ground substance and the types of fibers found within the matrix (**[Table 4.1](#page-154-0)**). **Connective tissue proper** includes **loose connective tissue** and **dense connective tissue**. Both tissues have a... | {
"Header 1": "**4.3 | Connective Tissue Supports and Protects**",
"Header 3": "**Classification of Connective Tissues**",
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Fibroblasts are present in all connective tissue proper (**[Figure 4.12](#page-154-1)**). Fibrocytes, adipocytes, and mesenchymal cells are fixed cells, which means they remain within the connective tissue. Other cells move in and out of the connective tissue in response to chemical signals. Macrophages, mast cells, ly... | {
"Header 1": "**4.3 | Connective Tissue Supports and Protects**",
"Header 3": "**Connective Tissue Proper**",
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The most abundant cell in connective tissue proper is the **fibroblast**. Polysaccharides and proteins secreted by fibroblasts combine with extra-cellular fluids to produce a viscous ground substance that, with embedded fibrous proteins, forms the extra-cellular matrix. As you might expect, a **fibrocyte**, a less acti... | {
"Header 1": "**4.3 | Connective Tissue Supports and Protects**",
"Header 3": "**Cell Types**",
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Three main types of fibers are secreted by fibroblasts: collagen fibers, elastic fibers, and reticular fibers. **Collagen fiber** is made from fibrous protein subunits linked together to form a long and straight fiber. Collagen fibers, while flexible, have great tensile strength, resist stretching, and give ligaments a... | {
"Header 1": "**4.3 | Connective Tissue Supports and Protects**",
"Header 3": "**Connective Tissue Fibers and Ground Substance**",
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Loose connective tissue is found between many organs where it acts both to absorb shock and bind tissues together. It allows water, salts, and various nutrients to diffuse through to adjacent or imbedded cells and tissues.
**Adipose tissue** consists mostly of fat storage cells, with little extracellular matrix (**[F... | {
"Header 1": "**4.3 | Connective Tissue Supports and Protects**",
"Header 3": "**Loose Connective Tissue**",
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Dense connective tissue contains more collagen fibers than does loose connective tissue. As a consequence, it displays greater resistance to stretching. There are two major categories of dense connective tissue: regular and irregular. Dense regular connective tissue fibers are parallel to each other, enhancing tensile ... | {
"Header 1": "**4.3 | Connective Tissue Supports and Protects**",
"Header 3": "**Dense Connective Tissue**",
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Your opponent stands ready as you prepare to hit the serve, but you are confident that you will smash the ball past your opponent. As you toss the ball high in the air, a burning pain shoots across your wrist and you drop the tennis racket. That dull ache in the wrist that you ignored through the summer is now an unbea... | {
"Header 1": "**4.3 | Connective Tissue Supports and Protects**",
"Header 3": "**Connective Tissue: Tendinitis**",
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The distinctive appearance of cartilage is due to polysaccharides called chondroitin sulfates, which bind with ground substance proteins to form proteoglycans. Embedded within the cartilage matrix are **chondrocytes**, or cartilage cells, and the space they occupy are called **lacunae** (singular = lacuna). A layer of ... | {
"Header 1": "**4.3 | Connective Tissue Supports and Protects**",
"Header 3": "**Cartilage**",
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Bone is the hardest connective tissue. It provides protection to internal organs and supports the body. Bone's rigid extracellular matrix contains mostly collagen fibers embedded in a mineralized ground substance containing hydroxyapatite, a form of calcium phosphate. Both components of the matrix, organic and inorgani... | {
"Header 1": "**4.3 | Connective Tissue Supports and Protects**",
"Header 3": "**Bone**",
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Blood and lymph are fluid connective tissues. Cells circulate in a liquid extracellular matrix. The formed elements circulating in blood are all derived from hematopoietic stem cells located in bone marrow (**[Figure 4.17](#page-160-0)**). Erythrocytes, red blood cells, transport oxygen and some carbon dioxide. Leukocy... | {
"Header 1": "**4.3 | Connective Tissue Supports and Protects**",
"Header 3": "**Fluid Connective Tissue**",
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By the end of this section, you will be able to:
- Identify the three types of muscle tissue
- Compare and contrast the functions of each muscle tissue type
- Explain how muscle tissue can enable motion
Muscle tissue is characterized by properties that allow movement. Muscle cells are excitable; they respond to a s... | {
"Header 1": "**4.4 | Muscle Tissue and Motion**",
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**Skeletal muscle** is attached to bones and its contraction makes possible locomotion, facial expressions, posture, and other voluntary movements of the body. Forty percent of your body mass is made up of skeletal muscle. Skeletal muscles generate heat as a byproduct of their contraction and thus participate in therma... | {
"Header 1": "**4.4 | Muscle Tissue and Motion**",
"Header 3": "**Table 4.2**",
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By the end of this section, you will be able to:
- Identify the classes of cells that make up nervous tissue
- Discuss how nervous tissue mediates perception and response
Nervous tissue is characterized as being excitable and capable of sending and receiving electrochemical signals that provide the body with inform... | {
"Header 1": "**4.5 | Nervous Tissue Mediates Perception and Response**",
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**Inflammation** is the standard, initial response of the body to injury. Whether biological, chemical, physical, or radiation burns, all injuries lead to the same sequence of physiological events. Inflammation limits the extent of injury, partially or fully eliminates the cause of injury, and initiates repair and rege... | {
"Header 1": "**4.6 | Tissue Injury and Aging**",
"Header 3": "**Tissue Injury and Repair**",
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According to poet Ralph Waldo Emerson, "The surest poison is time." In fact, biology confirms that many functions of the body decline with age. All the cells, tissues, and organs are affected by senescence, with noticeable variability between individuals owing to different genetic makeup and lifestyles. The outward sig... | {
"Header 1": "**4.6 | Tissue Injury and Aging**",
"Header 3": "**Tissue and Aging**",
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Cancer is a generic term for many diseases in which cells escape regulatory signals. Uncontrolled growth, invasion into adjacent tissues, and colonization of other organs, if not treated early enough, are its hallmarks. Health suffers when tumors "rob" blood supply from the "normal" organs.
A mutation is defined as a... | {
"Header 1": "**4.6 | Tissue Injury and Aging**",
"Header 3": "**Tissues and Cancer**",
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**adipocytes** lipid storage cells
**adipose tissue** specialized areolar tissue rich in stored fat
**anchoring junction** mechanically attaches adjacent cells to each other or to the basement membrane
**apical** that part of a cell or tissue which, in general, faces an open space
- **apocrine secretion** relea... | {
"Header 1": "**4.6 | Tissue Injury and Aging**",
"Header 3": "**KEY TERMS**",
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**neuroglia** supportive neural cells
**neuron** excitable neural cell that transfer nerve impulses
- **oligodendrocyte** neuroglial cell that produces myelin in the brain
- **parenchyma** functional cells of a gland or organ, in contrast with the supportive or connective tissue of a gland or organ
- **primary un... | {
"Header 1": "**4.6 | Tissue Injury and Aging**",
"Header 3": "**KEY TERMS**",
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The human body contains more than 200 types of cells that can all be classified into four types of tissues: epithelial, connective, muscle, and nervous. Epithelial tissues act as coverings controlling the movement of materials across the surface. Connective tissue integrates the various parts of the body and provides s... | {
"Header 1": "**4.6 | Tissue Injury and Aging**",
"Header 3": "**[4.1 Types of Tis](#page-138-1)[sues](#page-139-0)**",
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In epithelial tissue, cells are closely packed with little or no extracellular matrix except for the basal lamina that separates the epithelium from underlying tissue. The main functions of epithelia are protection from the environment, coverage, secretion and excretion, absorption, and filtration. Cells are bound toge... | {
"Header 1": "**4.6 | Tissue Injury and Aging**",
"Header 3": "**[4.2 Epithelial Tissue](#page-143-0)**",
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Connective tissue is a heterogeneous tissue with many cell shapes and tissue architecture. Structurally, all connective tissues contain cells that are embedded in an extracellular matrix stabilized by proteins. The chemical nature and physical layout of the extracellular matrix and proteins vary enormously among tissue... | {
"Header 1": "**4.6 | Tissue Injury and Aging**",
"Header 3": "**[4.3 Connective Tissue Supports and Protects](#page-153-0)**",
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**32.** Identify the four types of tissue in the body, and describe the major functions of each tissue.
**33.** The zygote is described as totipotent because it ultimately gives rise to all the cells in your body including the highly specialized cells of your nervous system. Describe this transition, discussing the s... | {
"Header 1": "**4.6 | Tissue Injury and Aging**",
"Header 2": "**CRITICAL THINKING QUESTIONS**",
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After studying the chapter, you will be able to:
- Describe the integumentary system and the role it plays in homeostasis
- Describe the layers of the skin and the functions of each layer
- Describe the accessory structures of the skin and the functions of each
- Describe the changes that occur in the integumentary s... | {
"Header 1": "**Chapter Objectives**",
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By the end of this section, you will be able to:
- Identify the components of the integumentary system
- Describe the layers of the skin and the functions of each layer
- Identify and describe the hypodermis and deep fascia
- Describe the role of keratinocytes and their life cycle
- Describe the role of melanocytes i... | {
"Header 1": "**5.1 | Layers of the Skin**",
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The **epidermis** is composed of keratinized, stratified squamous epithelium. It is made of four or five layers of epithelial cells, depending on its location in the body. It does not have any blood vessels within it (i.e., it is avascular). Skin that has four layers of cells is referred to as "thin skin." From deep to... | {
"Header 1": "**5.1 | Layers of the Skin**",
"Header 3": "**The Epidermis**",
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The **stratum basale** (also called the stratum germinativum) is the deepest epidermal layer and attaches the epidermis to the basal lamina, below which lie the layers of the dermis. The cells in the stratum basale bond to the dermis via intertwining collagen fibers, referred to as the basement membrane. A finger-like ... | {
"Header 1": "**5.1 | Layers of the Skin**",
"Header 3": "**Stratum Basale**",
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As the name suggests, the **stratum spinosum** is spiny in appearance due to the protruding cell processes that join the cells via a structure called a **desmosome**. The desmosomes interlock with each other and strengthen the bond between the cells. It is interesting to note that the "spiny" nature of this layer is an... | {
"Header 1": "**5.1 | Layers of the Skin**",
"Header 3": "**Stratum Spinosum**",
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The **stratum corneum** is the most superficial layer of the epidermis and is the layer exposed to the outside environment (see **[Figure 5.5](#page-182-0)**). The increased keratinization (also called cornification) of the cells in this layer gives it its name. There are usually 15 to 30 layers of cells in the stratum... | {
"Header 1": "**5.1 | Layers of the Skin**",
"Header 3": "**Stratum Corneum**",
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The **dermis** might be considered the "core" of the integumentary system (derma- = "skin"), as distinct from the epidermis (epi- = "upon" or "over") and hypodermis (hypo- = "below"). It contains blood and lymph vessels, nerves, and other structures, such as hair follicles and sweat glands. The dermis is made of two la... | {
"Header 1": "**5.1 | Layers of the Skin**",
"Header 3": "**Dermis**",
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The hypodermis is home to most of the fat that concerns people when they are trying to keep their weight under control. Adipose tissue present in the hypodermis consists of fat-storing cells called adipocytes. This stored fat can serve as an energy reserve, insulate the body to prevent heat loss, and act as a cushion t... | {
"Header 1": "**5.1 | Layers of the Skin**",
"Header 3": "**Lipid Storage**",
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The color of skin is influenced by a number of pigments, including melanin, carotene, and hemoglobin. Recall that melanin is produced by cells called melanocytes, which are found scattered throughout the stratum basale of the epidermis. The melanin is transferred into the keratinocytes via a cellular vesicle called a *... | {
"Header 1": "**5.1 | Layers of the Skin**",
"Header 3": "**Pigmentation**",
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The first thing a clinician sees is the skin, and so the examination of the skin should be part of any thorough physical examination. Most skin disorders are relatively benign, but a few, including melanomas, can be fatal if untreated. A couple of the more noticeable disorders, albinism and vitiligo, affect the appeara... | {
"Header 1": "**5.1 | Layers of the Skin**",
"Header 3": "**Integumentary System**",
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**Hair** is a keratinous filament growing out of the epidermis. It is primarily made of dead, keratinized cells. Strands of hair originate in an epidermal penetration of the dermis called the **hair follicle**. The **hair shaft** is the part of the hair not anchored to the follicle, and much of this is exposed at the s... | {
"Header 1": "**5.2 | Accessory Structures of the Skin**",
"Header 3": "**Hair**",
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Hair grows and is eventually shed and replaced by new hair. This occurs in three phases. The first is the **anagen** phase, during which cells divide rapidly at the root of the hair, pushing the hair shaft up and out. The length of this phase is measured in years, typically from 2 to 7 years. The **catagen** phase last... | {
"Header 1": "**5.2 | Accessory Structures of the Skin**",
"Header 3": "**Hair Growth**",
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The nail bed is a specialized structure of the epidermis that is found at the tips of our fingers and toes. The **nail body** is formed on the **nail bed**, and protects the tips of our fingers and toes as they are the farthest extremities and the parts of the body that experience the maximum mechanical stress (**[Figu... | {
"Header 1": "**5.2 | Accessory Structures of the Skin**",
"Header 3": "**Nails**",
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When the body becomes warm, **sudoriferous glands** produce sweat to cool the body. Sweat glands develop from epidermal projections into the dermis and are classified as merocrine glands; that is, the secretions are excreted by exocytosis through a duct without affecting the cells of the gland. There are two types of s... | {
"Header 1": "**5.2 | Accessory Structures of the Skin**",
"Header 3": "**Sweat Glands**",
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The word "armor" evokes several images. You might think of a Roman centurion or a medieval knight in a suit of armor. The skin, in its own way, functions as a form of armor—body armor. It provides a barrier between your vital, life-sustaining organs and the influence of outside elements that could potentially damage th... | {
"Header 1": "**5.3 | Functions of the Integumentary System**",
"Header 3": "**Tattoos and Piercings**",
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The fact that you can feel an ant crawling on your skin, allowing you to flick it off before it bites, is because the skin, and especially the hairs projecting from hair follicles in the skin, can sense changes in the environment. The hair root plexus surrounding the base of the hair follicle senses a disturbance, and ... | {
"Header 1": "**5.3 | Functions of the Integumentary System**",
"Header 3": "**Sensory Function**",
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The integumentary system helps regulate body temperature through its tight association with the sympathetic nervous system, the division of the nervous system involved in our fight-or-flight responses. The sympathetic nervous system is continuously monitoring body temperature and initiating appropriate motor responses.... | {
"Header 1": "**5.3 | Functions of the Integumentary System**",
"Header 3": "**Thermoregulation**",
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All systems in the body accumulate subtle and some not-so-subtle changes as a person ages. Among these changes are reductions in cell division, metabolic activity, blood circulation, hormonal levels, and muscle strength (**[Figure](#page-197-0) [5.17](#page-197-0)**). In the skin, these changes are reflected in decreas... | {
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The epidermal layer of human skin synthesizes **vitamin D** when exposed to UV radiation. In the presence of sunlight, a form of vitamin D3 called cholecalciferol is synthesized from a derivative of the steroid cholesterol in the skin. The liver converts cholecalciferol to calcidiol, which is then converted to calcitri... | {
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"Header 3": "**Vitamin D Synthesis**",
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One of the most talked about diseases is skin cancer. Cancer is a broad term that describes diseases caused by abnormal cells in the body dividing uncontrollably. Most cancers are identified by the organ or tissue in which the cancer originates. One common form of cancer is skin cancer. The Skin Cancer Foundation repor... | {
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"Header 3": "**Diseases**",
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**Basal cell carcinoma** is a form of cancer that affects the mitotically active stem cells in the stratum basale of the epidermis. It is the most common of all cancers that occur in the United States and is frequently found on the head, neck, arms, and back, which are areas that are most susceptible to long-term sun e... | {
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"Header 3": "**Basal Cell Carcinoma**",
"token_count": 303,
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A **melanoma** is a cancer characterized by the uncontrolled growth of melanocytes, the pigment-producing cells in the epidermis. Typically, a melanoma develops from a mole. It is the most fatal of all skin cancers, as it is highly metastatic and can be difficult to detect before it has spread to other organs. Melanoma... | {
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"Header 3": "**Melanoma**",
"token_count": 335,
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**Acne** is a skin disturbance that typically occurs on areas of the skin that are rich in sebaceous glands (face and back). It is most common along with the onset of puberty due to associated hormonal changes, but can also occur in infants and continue into adulthood. Hormones, such as androgens, stimulate the release... | {
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"Header 3": "**Acne**",
"token_count": 226,
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Have you ever had a skin rash that did not respond to over-the-counter creams, or a mole that you were concerned about? Dermatologists help patients with these types of problems and more, on a daily basis. Dermatologists are medical doctors who specialize in diagnosing and treating skin disorders. Like all medical doct... | {
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"Header 3": "**Dermatologist**",
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Because the skin is the part of our bodies that meets the world most directly, it is especially vulnerable to injury. Injuries include burns and wounds, as well as scars and calluses. They can be caused by sharp objects, heat, or excessive pressure or friction to the skin.
Skin injuries set off a healing process that... | {
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"Header 3": "**Injuries**",
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A burn results when the skin is damaged by intense heat, radiation, electricity, or chemicals. The damage results in the death of skin cells, which can lead to a massive loss of fluid. Dehydration, electrolyte imbalance, and renal and circulatory failure follow, which can be fatal. Burn patients are treated with intrav... | {
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"Header 3": "**Burns**",
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Most cuts or wounds, with the exception of ones that only scratch the surface (the epidermis), lead to scar formation. A **scar** is collagen-rich skin formed after the process of wound healing that differs from normal skin. Scarring occurs in cases in which there is repair of skin damage, but the skin fails to regener... | {
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"Header 3": "**Scars and Keloids**",
"token_count": 313,
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Skin and its underlying tissue can be affected by excessive pressure. One example of this is called a **bedsore**. Bedsores, also called decubitis ulcers, are caused by constant, long-term, unrelieved pressure on certain body parts that are bony, reducing blood flow to the area and leading to necrosis (tissue death). B... | {
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"Header 3": "**Bedsores and Stretch Marks**",
"token_count": 234,
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**acne** skin condition due to infected sebaceous glands
- **albinism** genetic disorder that affects the skin, in which there is no melanin production
- **anagen** active phase of the hair growth cycle
- **apocrine sweat gland** type of sweat gland that is associated with hair follicles in the armpits and genital re... | {
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"Header 3": "**KEY TERMS**",
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The skin is composed of two major layers: a superficial epidermis and a deeper dermis. The epidermis consists of several layers beginning with the innermost (deepest) stratum basale (germinatum), followed by the stratum spinosum, stratum granulosum, stratum lucidum (when present), and ending with the outermost layer, t... | {
"Header 1": "**5.4 | Diseases, Disorders, and Injuries of the Integumentary System**",
"Header 3": "**[5.1 Layers of th](#page-178-1)[e Skin](#page-179-0)**",
"token_count": 273,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/Med_v1/med_textbook/AnatomyAndPhysiology-LR.pdf"
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Skin cancer is a result of damage to the DNA of skin cells, often due to excessive exposure to UV radiation. Basal cell carcinoma and squamous cell carcinoma are highly curable, and arise from cells in the stratum basale and stratum spinosum, respectively. Melanoma is the most dangerous form of skin cancer, affecting m... | {
"Header 1": "**5.4 | Diseases, Disorders, and Injuries of the Integumentary System**",
"Header 3": "**[5.4 Diseases, Disorders, and Injuries of the Integumentary System](#page-198-0)**",
"token_count": 274,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/Med_v1/med_textbook/AnatomyAndPhysiology-LR.pdf"
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After studying this chapter, you will be able to:
- List and describe the functions of bones
- Describe the classes of bones
- Discuss the process of bone formation and development
- Explain how bone repairs itself after a fracture
- Discuss the effect of exercise, nutrition, and hormones on bone tissue
- Describe ho... | {
"Header 1": "**Chapter Objectives**",
"token_count": 205,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/Med_v1/med_textbook/AnatomyAndPhysiology-LR.pdf"
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The most apparent functions of the skeletal system are the gross functions—those visible by observation. Simply by looking at a person, you can see how the bones support, facilitate movement, and protect the human body.
Just as the steel beams of a building provide a scaffold to support its weight, the bones and cart... | {
"Header 1": "**6.1 | The Functions of the Skeletal System**",
"Header 3": "**Support, Movement, and Protection**",
"token_count": 394,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/Med_v1/med_textbook/AnatomyAndPhysiology-LR.pdf"
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An **orthopedist** is a doctor who specializes in diagnosing and treating disorders and injuries related to the musculoskeletal system. Some orthopedic problems can be treated with medications, exercises, braces, and other devices, but others may be best treated with surgery (**[Figure 6.4](#page-213-0)**).
![](_page... | {
"Header 1": "**6.1 | The Functions of the Skeletal System**",
"Header 3": "**Orthopedist**",
"token_count": 426,
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On a metabolic level, bone tissue performs several critical functions. For one, the bone matrix acts as a reservoir for a number of minerals important to the functioning of the body, especially calcium, and potassium. These minerals, incorporated into bone tissue, can be released back into the bloodstream to maintain l... | {
"Header 1": "**6.1 | The Functions of the Skeletal System**",
"Header 3": "**Mineral Storage, Energy Storage, and Hematopoiesis**",
"token_count": 308,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/Med_v1/med_textbook/AnatomyAndPhysiology-LR.pdf"
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A **sesamoid bone** is a small, round bone that, as the name suggests, is shaped like a sesame seed. These bones form in tendons (the sheaths of tissue that connect bones to muscles) where a great deal of pressure is generated in a joint. The sesamoid bones protect tendons by helping them overcome compressive forces. S... | {
"Header 1": "**6.2 | Bone Classification**",
"Header 3": "**Sesamoid Bones**",
"token_count": 388,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/Med_v1/med_textbook/AnatomyAndPhysiology-LR.pdf"
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The structure of a long bone allows for the best visualization of all of the parts of a bone (**[Figure 6.7](#page-217-0)**). A long bone has two parts: the **diaphysis** and the **epiphysis**. The diaphysis is the tubular shaft that runs between the proximal and distal ends of the bone. The hollow region in the diaphy... | {
"Header 1": "**6.3 | Bone Structure**",
"Header 3": "**Gross Anatomy of Bone**",
"token_count": 695,
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The surface features of bones vary considerably, depending on the function and location in the body. **[Table 6.2](#page-218-2)** describes the bone markings, which are illustrated in (**[Figure 6.10](#page-220-0)**). There are three general classes of bone markings: (1) articulations, (2) projections, and (3) holes. A... | {
"Header 1": "**6.3 | Bone Structure**",
"Header 3": "**Bone Markings**",
"token_count": 764,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/Med_v1/med_textbook/AnatomyAndPhysiology-LR.pdf"
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Bone contains a relatively small number of cells entrenched in a matrix of collagen fibers that provide a surface for inorganic salt crystals to adhere. These salt crystals form when calcium phosphate and calcium carbonate combine to create hydroxyapatite, which incorporates other inorganic salts like magnesium hydroxi... | {
"Header 1": "**6.3 | Bone Structure**",
"Header 3": "**Bone Cells and Tissue**",
"token_count": 854,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/Med_v1/med_textbook/AnatomyAndPhysiology-LR.pdf"
} |
Compact bone is the denser, stronger of the two types of bone tissue (**[Figure 6.12](#page-222-0)**). It can be found under the periosteum and in the diaphyses of long bones, where it provides support and protection.
**Figure 6.12 Diagram of Compact Bone** (a) This cross-sectional view... | {
"Header 1": "**6.3 | Bone Structure**",
"Header 3": "**Compact Bone**",
"token_count": 348,
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Like compact bone, **spongy bone**, also known as cancellous bone, contains osteocytes housed in lacunae, but they are not arranged in concentric circles. Instead, the lacunae and osteocytes are found in a lattice-like network of matrix spikes called **trabeculae** (singular = trabecula) (**[Figure 6.13](#page-223-0)**... | {
"Header 1": "**6.3 | Bone Structure**",
"Header 3": "**Spongy (Cancellous) Bone**",
"token_count": 250,
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Paget's disease usually occurs in adults over age 40. It is a disorder of the bone remodeling process that begins with overactive osteoclasts. This means more bone is resorbed than is laid down. The osteoblasts try to compensate but the new bone they lay down is weak and brittle and therefore prone to fracture.
While... | {
"Header 1": "**6.3 | Bone Structure**",
"Header 3": "**Skeletal System: Paget's Disease**",
"token_count": 491,
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The spongy bone and medullary cavity receive nourishment from arteries that pass through the compact bone. The arteries enter through the **nutrient foramen** (plural = foramina), small openings in the diaphysis (**[Figure 6.15](#page-225-0)**). The osteocytes in spongy bone are nourished by blood vessels of the perios... | {
"Header 1": "**6.3 | Bone Structure**",
"Header 3": "**Blood and Nerve Supply**",
"token_count": 256,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/Med_v1/med_textbook/AnatomyAndPhysiology-LR.pdf"
} |
Bone is a replacement tissue; that is, it uses a model tissue on which to lay down its mineral matrix. For skeletal development, the most common template is cartilage. During fetal development, a framework is laid down that determines where bones will form. This framework is a flexible, semi-solid matrix produced by ch... | {
"Header 1": "**6.4 | Bone Formation and Development**",
"Header 3": "**Cartilage Templates**",
"token_count": 226,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/Med_v1/med_textbook/AnatomyAndPhysiology-LR.pdf"
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During **intramembranous ossification**, compact and spongy bone develops directly from sheets of mesenchymal (undifferentiated) connective tissue. The flat bones of the face, most of the cranial bones, and the clavicles (collarbones) are formed via intramembranous ossification.
The process begins when mesenchymal ce... | {
"Header 1": "**6.4 | Bone Formation and Development**",
"Header 3": "**Intramembranous Ossification**",
"token_count": 624,
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In **endochondral ossification**, bone develops by *replacing* hyaline cartilage. Cartilage does not become bone. Instead, cartilage serves as a template to be completely replaced by new bone. Endochondral ossification takes much longer than intramembranous ossification. Bones at the base of the skull and long bones fo... | {
"Header 1": "**6.4 | Bone Formation and Development**",
"Header 3": "**Endochondral Ossification**",
"token_count": 777,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/Med_v1/med_textbook/AnatomyAndPhysiology-LR.pdf"
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The epiphyseal plate is the area of growth in a long bone. It is a layer of hyaline cartilage where ossification occurs in immature bones. On the epiphyseal side of the epiphyseal plate, cartilage is formed. On the diaphyseal side, cartilage is ossified, and the diaphysis grows in length. The epiphyseal plate is compos... | {
"Header 1": "**6.4 | Bone Formation and Development**",
"Header 3": "**How Bones Grow in Length**",
"token_count": 671,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/Med_v1/med_textbook/AnatomyAndPhysiology-LR.pdf"
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Osteogenesis imperfecta (OI) is a genetic disease in which bones do not form properly and therefore are fragile and break easily. It is also called brittle bone disease. The disease is present from birth and affects a person throughout life.
The genetic mutation that causes OI affects the body's production of collage... | {
"Header 1": "**6.4 | Bone Formation and Development**",
"Header 2": "**Skeletal System**",
"token_count": 455,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/Med_v1/med_textbook/AnatomyAndPhysiology-LR.pdf"
} |
Fractures are classified by their complexity, location, and other features (**[Figure 6.20](#page-232-0)**). **[Table 6.4](#page-233-0)** outlines common types of fractures. Some fractures may be described using more than one term because it may have the features of more than one type (e.g., an open transverse fracture... | {
"Header 1": "**6.5 | Fractures: Bone Repair**",
"Header 3": "**Types of Fractures**",
"token_count": 416,
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When a bone breaks, blood flows from any vessel torn by the fracture. These vessels could be in the periosteum, osteons, and/or medullary cavity. The blood begins to clot, and about six to eight hours after the fracture, the clotting blood has formed a **fracture hematoma** (**[Figure 6.21](#page-233-1)a**). The disrup... | {
"Header 1": "**6.5 | Fractures: Bone Repair**",
"Header 3": "**Bone Repair**",
"token_count": 558,
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During long space missions, astronauts can lose approximately 1 to 2 percent of their bone mass per month. This loss of bone mass is thought to be caused by the lack of mechanical stress on astronauts' bones due to the low gravitational forces in space. Lack of mechanical stress causes bones to lose mineral salts and c... | {
"Header 1": "**6.6 | Exercise, Nutrition, Hormones, and Bone Tissue**",
"Header 3": "**Exercise and Bone Tissue**",
"token_count": 256,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/Med_v1/med_textbook/AnatomyAndPhysiology-LR.pdf"
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You already know that calcium is a critical component of bone, especially in the form of calcium phosphate and calcium carbonate. Since the body cannot make calcium, it must be obtained from the diet. However, calcium cannot be absorbed from the small intestine without vitamin D. Therefore, intake of vitamin D is also ... | {
"Header 1": "**6.6 | Exercise, Nutrition, Hormones, and Bone Tissue**",
"Header 3": "**Calcium and Vitamin D**",
"token_count": 295,
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Vitamin K also supports bone mineralization and may have a synergistic role with vitamin D in the regulation of bone growth. Green leafy vegetables are a good source of vitamin K.
The minerals magnesium and fluoride may also play a role in supporting bone health. While magnesium is only found in trace amounts in the ... | {
"Header 1": "**6.6 | Exercise, Nutrition, Hormones, and Bone Tissue**",
"Header 3": "**Other Nutrients**",
"token_count": 314,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/Med_v1/med_textbook/AnatomyAndPhysiology-LR.pdf"
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Several hormones are necessary for controlling bone growth and maintaining the bone matrix. The pituitary gland secretes growth hormone (GH), which, as its name implies, controls bone growth in several ways. It triggers chondrocyte proliferation in epiphyseal plates, resulting in the increasing length of long bones. GH... | {
"Header 1": "**6.6 | Exercise, Nutrition, Hormones, and Bone Tissue**",
"Header 3": "**Hormones That Influence Osteoblasts and/or Maintain the Matrix**",
"token_count": 268,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/Med_v1/med_textbook/AnatomyAndPhysiology-LR.pdf"
} |
**Osteoporosis** is a disease characterized by a decrease in bone mass that occurs when the rate of bone resorption exceeds the rate of bone formation, a common occurrence as the body ages. Notice how this is different from Paget's disease. In Paget's disease, new bone is formed in an attempt to keep up with the resorp... | {
"Header 1": "**6.6 | Exercise, Nutrition, Hormones, and Bone Tissue**",
"Header 3": "**Skeletal System**",
"token_count": 724,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/Med_v1/med_textbook/AnatomyAndPhysiology-LR.pdf"
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Bone modeling and remodeling require osteoclasts to resorb unneeded, damaged, or old bone, and osteoblasts to lay down new bone. Two hormones that affect the osteoclasts are parathyroid hormone (PTH) and calcitonin.
PTH stimulates osteoclast proliferation and activity. As a result, calcium is released from the bones ... | {
"Header 1": "**6.6 | Exercise, Nutrition, Hormones, and Bone Tissue**",
"Header 3": "**Hormones That Influence Osteoclasts**",
"token_count": 478,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/Med_v1/med_textbook/AnatomyAndPhysiology-LR.pdf"
} |
By the end of this section, you will be able to:
- Describe the effect of too much or too little calcium on the body
- Explain the process of calcium homeostasis
Calcium is not only the most abundant mineral in bone, it is also the most abundant mineral in the human body. Calcium ions are needed not only for bone m... | {
"Header 1": "**6.7 | Calcium Homeostasis: Interactions of the Skeletal System and Other Organ Systems**",
"token_count": 797,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/Med_v1/med_textbook/AnatomyAndPhysiology-LR.pdf"
} |
**articular cartilage** thin layer of cartilage covering an epiphysis; reduces friction and acts as a shock absorber
**articulation** where two bone surfaces meet
- **bone** hard, dense connective tissue that forms the structural elements of the skeleton
- **canaliculi** (singular = canaliculus) channels within the... | {
"Header 1": "**6.7 | Calcium Homeostasis: Interactions of the Skeletal System and Other Organ Systems**",
"Header 3": "**KEY TERMS**",
"token_count": 1479,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/Med_v1/med_textbook/AnatomyAndPhysiology-LR.pdf"
} |
A hollow medullary cavity filled with yellow marrow runs the length of the diaphysis of a long bone. The walls of the diaphysis are compact bone. The epiphyses, which are wider sections at each end of a long bone, are filled with spongy bone and red marrow. The epiphyseal plate, a layer of hyaline cartilage, is replace... | {
"Header 1": "**6.7 | Calcium Homeostasis: Interactions of the Skeletal System and Other Organ Systems**",
"Header 3": "**[6.3 Bone Structure](#page-216-0)**",
"token_count": 333,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/Med_v1/med_textbook/AnatomyAndPhysiology-LR.pdf"
} |
Mechanical stress stimulates the deposition of mineral salts and collagen fibers within bones. Calcium, the predominant mineral in bone, cannot be absorbed from the small intestine if vitamin D is lacking. Vitamin K supports bone mineralization and may have a synergistic role with vitamin D. Magnesium and fluoride, as ... | {
"Header 1": "**6.7 | Calcium Homeostasis: Interactions of the Skeletal System and Other Organ Systems**",
"Header 3": "**[6.6 Exercise, Nutrition, Hormones, and Bone Tissue](#page-234-0)**",
"token_count": 281,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/Med_v1/med_textbook/AnatomyAndPhysiology-LR.pdf"
} |
After studying this chapter, you will be able to:
- Describe the functions of the skeletal system and define its two major subdivisions
- Identify the bones and bony structures of the skull, the cranial suture lines, the cranial fossae, and the openings in the skull
- Discuss the vertebral column and regional variati... | {
"Header 1": "**Introduction**",
"Header 2": "**Chapter Objectives**",
"token_count": 601,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/Med_v1/med_textbook/AnatomyAndPhysiology-LR.pdf"
} |
By the end of this section, you will be able to:
- Discuss the functions of the skeletal system
- Distinguish between the axial skeleton and appendicular skeleton
- Define the axial skeleton and its components
- Define the appendicular skeleton and its components
The skeletal system includes all of the bones, carti... | {
"Header 1": "**7.1 | Divisions of the Skeletal System**",
"token_count": 322,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/Med_v1/med_textbook/AnatomyAndPhysiology-LR.pdf"
} |
The skeleton is subdivided into two major divisions—the axial and appendicular. The **axial skeleton** forms the vertical, central axis of the body and includes all bones of the head, neck, chest, and back (**[Figure 7.2](#page-248-1)**). It serves to protect the brain, spinal cord, heart, and lungs. It also serves as ... | {
"Header 1": "**7.1 | Divisions of the Skeletal System**",
"Header 3": "**The Axial Skeleton**",
"token_count": 357,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/Med_v1/med_textbook/AnatomyAndPhysiology-LR.pdf"
} |
By the end of this section, you will be able to:
- List and identify the bones of the brain case and face
- Locate the major suture lines of the skull and name the bones associated with each
- Locate and define the boundaries of the anterior, middle, and posterior cranial fossae, the temporal fossa, and infratemporal... | {
"Header 1": "**7.2 | The Skull**",
"token_count": 393,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/Med_v1/med_textbook/AnatomyAndPhysiology-LR.pdf"
} |
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