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Lying in the warm, shallow waters about tropical islands and continental landmasses are coral reefs—colorful, rich oases within the nutrient-poor seas (Figure 24.23). They are a unique
Figure 24.22 Pictured is a colony of giant tubeworms with vent fish and crabs, all highly specialized for and found only in the extre... | {
"Header 1": "24.12 Coral Reefs Are Complex Ecosystems Built by Colonies of Coral Animals",
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"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/biochem/Smith_Smith_2015.pdf"
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Primary productivity in marine environments is limited to regions where the availability of light and nutrients can support photosynthesis (see Chapters 20 and 21). The vertical attenuation of light in water limits productivity to the shallower waters of the photic zone. The presence of a thermocline, however, limits t... | {
"Header 1": "24.13 Productivity of the Oceans Is Governed by Light and Nutrients",
"token_count": 542,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/biochem/Smith_Smith_2015.pdf"
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Human inputs of pollutants from urban, agricultural, and industrial activities have negative impacts on water quality in both freshwater and marine ecosystems (see Chapter 22), and although it may at first seem counterintuitive, one of the major classes of pollutants are the essential mineral nutrients that support pla... | {
"Header 1": "Inputs of Nutrients to Coastal Waters Result in the Development of \"Dead Zones\"",
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#### Estuaries 24.8
Rivers eventually reach the sea. The place where the one-way flow of freshwater meets the incoming and outgoing tidal water is an estuary. The intermingling of freshwater and tides creates a nutrient trap exploited by estuarine life. Salinity determines the nature and distribution of estuarine l... | {
"Header 1": "Inputs of Nutrients to Coastal Waters Result in the Development of \"Dead Zones\"",
"token_count": 1891,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/biochem/Smith_Smith_2015.pdf"
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- 25.1 The Intertidal Zone Is the Transition between Terrestrial and Marine Environments
- 25.2 Rocky Shorelines Have a Distinct Pattern of Zonation
- 25.3 Sandy and Muddy Shores Are Harsh Environments
- 25.4 Tides and Salinity Dictate the Structure of Salt Marshes
- 25.5 Mangroves Replace Salt Marshes in Tropical Regi... | {
"Header 1": "Inputs of Nutrients to Coastal Waters Result in the Development of \"Dead Zones\"",
"Header 3": "Chapter Guide",
"token_count": 392,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/biochem/Smith_Smith_2015.pdf"
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Rocky, sandy, muddy, and either protected from or pounded by incoming swells, all intertidal shores have one feature in common: they are alternately exposed and submerged by the tides. Roughly, the region of the seashore is bounded on one side by the height of extreme high tide and on the other by the height of extreme... | {
"Header 1": "25.1 The Intertidal Zone Is the Transition between Terrestrial and Marine Environments",
"token_count": 248,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/biochem/Smith_Smith_2015.pdf"
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All rocky shores have three basic zones (Figure 25.1), and each is characterized by dominant organisms (Figure 25.2). The approach to a rocky shore from the landward side is marked by a gradual transition from lichens and land plants to marine life dependent at least partly on the tidal waters. Moving from the terrestr... | {
"Header 1": "25.2 Rocky Shorelines Have a Distinct Pattern of Zonation",
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"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/biochem/Smith_Smith_2015.pdf"
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Sandy and muddy shores often appear devoid of marine life at low tide in sharp contrast to the life-filled rocky shore (Figure 25.4), but sand and black mud are not as barren as they seem. Beneath them life lurks, waiting for the next high tide.
The sandy shore is a product of the harsh and relentless weathering of r... | {
"Header 1": "25.3 Sandy and Muddy Shores Are Harsh Environments",
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"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/biochem/Smith_Smith_2015.pdf"
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**Salt** or **tidal marshes** occur in temperate latitudes where coastlines are protected from the action of waves within estuaries, deltas, and by barrier islands and dunes (Figure 25.5). The structure of a salt marsh is dictated by tides and salinity, which create a complex of distinctive and clearly demarked plant c... | {
"Header 1": "25.4 Tides and Salinity Dictate the Structure of Salt Marshes",
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"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/biochem/Smith_Smith_2015.pdf"
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Replacing salt marshes on tidal flats in tropical regions are **mangrove forests** or **mangals** (Figure 25.9), which cover 60 to 75 percent of the coastline of the tropical regions. Mangrove
Figure 25.8 A salt pan or pool in the high marsh. Figure 25.9 Mangroves replace tidal marshe... | {
"Header 1": "25.5 Mangroves Replace Salt Marshes in Tropical Regions",
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The transitional zones between freshwater and land are characterized by terrestrial wetlands. These unique environments form ecotones between terrestrial and adjacent aquatic ecosystems, sharing characteristics of both. Wetlands cover 6 percent of Earth's surface. They are found in every climatic zone but are local in ... | {
"Header 1": "**25.6** Freshwater Wetlands Are a Diverse Group of Ecosystems",
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"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/biochem/Smith_Smith_2015.pdf"
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Wetland structure is influenced by the phenomenon that creates it: its hydrology. Hydrology has two components. One involves the physical aspects of water and its movement: precipitation,
Figure 25.18 A raised bog (a) develops when an accumulation of pe... | {
"Header 1": "25.7 Hydrology Defines the Structure of Freshwater Wetlands",
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"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/biochem/Smith_Smith_2015.pdf"
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Biologically, freshwater wetlands are among the richest and most interesting ecosystems. They support a diverse community of benthic, limnetic, and littoral invertebrates, especially crustaceans and insects. These invertebrates, along with small fishes, provide a food base for waterfowl, herons, gulls, and other birds,... | {
"Header 1": "25.8 Freshwater Wetlands Support a Rich Diversity of Life",
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"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/biochem/Smith_Smith_2015.pdf"
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For centuries, we have looked at wetlands as forbidding, mysterious places: sources of pestilence, home to dangerous and pestiferous insects, and the abode of slimy, sinister creatures that rise out of swamp waters. They have been looked upon as places that should be drained for more productive uses by human standards:... | {
"Header 1": "Ecologic al Issues & Applications",
"Header 3": "Wetland Ecosystems Continue to Decline as a Result of Land Use",
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"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/biochem/Smith_Smith_2015.pdf"
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The black zone marks the supralittoral fringe, the upper part of which is flooded only once every two weeks by spring tides. Submerged daily by the tides is the littoral zone, characterized by barnacles, periwinkles, mussels, and fucoid seaweeds. Uncovered only at spring tides is the infralittoral, which is dominated b... | {
"Header 1": "Ecologic al Issues & Applications",
"Header 3": "Wetland Ecosystems Continue to Decline as a Result of Land Use",
"token_count": 1095,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/biochem/Smith_Smith_2015.pdf"
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- Bertness, M. D. 1999. *The ecology of Atlantic shorelines.* Sunderland, MA: Sinauer Associates. A well-written and illustrated introduction to coastal ecology.
- Lugo, A. E. 1990. *The forested wetlands.* Amsterdam: Elsevier. Excellent overview and discussion of the structure and function of these freshwater wetland ... | {
"Header 1": "Ecologic al Issues & Applications",
"Header 3": "Further Readings",
"token_count": 712,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/biochem/Smith_Smith_2015.pdf"
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- 26.1 Earth's Biological Diversity Has Changed through Geologic Time
- 26.2 Past Extinctions Have Been Clustered in Time
- 26.3 Regional and Global Patterns of Species Diversity Vary Geographically
- 26.4 Various Hypotheses Have Been Proposed to Explain Latitudinal Gradients of Diversity
- 26.5 Species Richness Is Rel... | {
"Header 1": "Ecologic al Issues & Applications",
"Header 3": "Chapter Guide",
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"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/biochem/Smith_Smith_2015.pdf"
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In Chapter 18, we examined the temporal dynamics of species diversity on a successional timescale (year to centuries). In those examples, temporal changes in the local patterns of diversity reflect changes in the local distribution and abundance of species in response to changes in environmental conditions through time... | {
"Header 1": "26.1 Earth's Biological Diversity Has Changed through Geologic Time",
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"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/biochem/Smith_Smith_2015.pdf"
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Although the history of Earth's biological diversity is generally a story of increasing species richness, it has experienced periods of decline. The general pattern of increasing diversity through geologic time has also been accompanied by extinctions, which were not timed evenly through Earth's history (Figure 26.5). ... | {
"Header 1": "26.2 Past Extinctions Have Been Clustered in Time",
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"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/biochem/Smith_Smith_2015.pdf"
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The 1.7 million species that have been identified are not distributed equally across Earth's surface. There are distinct geographic patterns of species richness (number of species [*S*]). In general, the number of terrestrial species decreases as one moves away from the equator toward the poles. The three maps in Figur... | {
"Header 1": "26.3 Regional and Global Patterns of Species Diversity Vary Geographically",
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"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/biochem/Smith_Smith_2015.pdf"
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What factors could possibly be responsible for the observed latitudinal gradient of species richness? Although scientists do not know the exact mechanisms underlying the geographic pattern of species diversity, more than 25 different mechanisms have been proposed, including the age of the community, stability of the cl... | {
"Header 1": "26.4 Various Hypotheses Have Been Proposed to Explain Latitudinal Gradients of Diversity",
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"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/biochem/Smith_Smith_2015.pdf"
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Of the various hypotheses proposed to account for global patterns of species diversity, the most easily interpreted are those explicitly relating to the availability of environmental energy (thermal energy) that are associated with environmental features such as climate and availability of essential resources, which ar... | {
"Header 1": "26.5 Species Richness Is Related to Available Environmental Energy",
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"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/biochem/Smith_Smith_2015.pdf"
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The pattern of increasing tree species richness with increasing AET presented in Figure 26.18 parallels the positive correlation between AET and net primary productivity (NPP) presented in Chapter 20 (see Figure 20.4), suggesting a relationship between plant diversity and primary productivity. In fact, a number of rese... | {
"Header 1": "26.6 Large-scale Patterns of Species Richness Are Related to Ecosystem Productivity",
"token_count": 2046,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/biochem/Smith_Smith_2015.pdf"
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The discussion of species diversity, even at the broad geographic scale that has been the focus of this chapter, is complicated by factors that relate directly to topics presented previously. For example, we discussed species diversity of individual communities in Chapter 17. Ecologists define species diversity at the ... | {
"Header 1": "26.7 Regional Patterns of Species Diversity Are a Function of Processes Operating at Many Scales",
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"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/biochem/Smith_Smith_2015.pdf"
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Complicating the interpretation of broad-scale patterns of diversity is the fact that most of Earth's species are endemic they have small, restricted geographic ranges (see Section 8.2). For example, of the world's approximately 10,000 bird species, more than 2500 are endemic, being restricted to a range smaller than 5... | {
"Header 1": "Ecologic al Issues & Applications",
"Header 3": "Regions of High Species Diversity Are Crucial to Conservation Efforts",
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1600).
- **3.** How does species richness vary with latitude?
- **4.** Apart from latitudinal gradients, what variables influence global variation in species richness?
- **5.** Why might the index of actual evapotranspiration be a better predictor of terrestrial plant species richness than PET?
- **6.** What does the r... | {
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"Header 3": "Regions of High Species Diversity Are Crucial to Conservation Efforts",
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#### Classic Studies
Wilson, E. O. 1992. *The diversity of life.* Cambridge, MA: The Belknap Press of Harvard University Press. A modern-day classic providing an overview of biodiversity over geological and evolutionary time—and human impacts on biodiversity.
#### Recent Research
Brown, J. H. 1995. *Macroecology.... | {
"Header 1": "Ecologic al Issues & Applications",
"Header 3": "Further Readings",
"token_count": 1431,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/biochem/Smith_Smith_2015.pdf"
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As we first discussed in Chapter 2 (*Ecological Issues & Applications*), over the past century Earth's climate has warmed by an estimated 0.74°C (±0.2°C). The rate of warming during the latter period of the century has been approximately double that of the first (**Figure 27.1**), and it is believed to be greater than ... | {
"Header 1": "27.1 Earth's Climate Has Warmed over the Past Century",
"token_count": 976,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/biochem/Smith_Smith_2015.pdf"
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As we have discussed in Chapters 6 and 7, temperature has a direct effect on the basic metabolic and developmental processes of both plants and animals. How global patterns of warming over the past century have impacted organisms has been the intense focus of research.
Endothermic animals maintain body temperatures a... | {
"Header 1": "27.2 Climate Change Has a Direct Influence on the Physiology and Development of Organisms",
"token_count": 2014,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/biochem/Smith_Smith_2015.pdf"
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The observed decreases in
(c)
**Ontario**
Figure 27.6 (a) Locations of the 76 forest plots in the western United States and southwestern British Columbia. Red and blue symbols indicate, respectively, plots with increasing or decreasing mortality rates.... | {
"Header 1": "27.2 Climate Change Has a Direct Influence on the Physiology and Development of Organisms",
"token_count": 789,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/biochem/Smith_Smith_2015.pdf"
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**Phenology**, the timing of seasonal activities of plants and animals, is one of the most widely studied phenomena on which researchers have been able to track changes in the ecology of species in response to recent climate change. Many processes and activities such as migratory behavior, the termination of dormancy, ... | {
"Header 1": "27.3 Recent Climate Warming Has Altered the Phenology of Plant and Animal Species",
"token_count": 1235,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/biochem/Smith_Smith_2015.pdf"
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As we discussed in Chapter 8, climate has a direct influence on species' distributions, often because of species-specific physiological tolerances to temperature (see Chapters 6 and 7 for examples). In many cases, the northern (or upper elevation) boundary of a species' geographic distribution reflects constraints impo... | {
"Header 1": "27.4 Changes in Climate Have Shifted the Geographic Distribution of Species",
"token_count": 1925,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/biochem/Smith_Smith_2015.pdf"
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Recent climate change is apparently influencing interactions among species within existing ecological communities through its differential effects on the component species. Often the nature of species interactions are altered as a result of the species exhibiting different phonological responses to changes in key clima... | {
"Header 1": "**27.5** Recent Climate Change Has Altered Species Interactions",
"token_count": 2046,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/biochem/Smith_Smith_2015.pdf"
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Recent changes in global climate have resulted in shifts in the geographic ranges of species and changes in the nature of species interactions that, in turn, have led to shifts in the species composition and diversity of both terrestrial and marine communities.
Richard Brusca of the University of Arizona and colleagu... | {
"Header 1": "27.6 Community Structure and Regional Patterns of Diversity Have Responded to Recent Climate Change",
"token_count": 1871,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/biochem/Smith_Smith_2015.pdf"
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Climate has a direct influence on the key ecosystem processes of net primary productivity (NPP; see Chapter 20) and decomposition (see Chapter 21), therefore controlling the rates at which nutrients cycle through the ecosystem.
As with field-based observations of the response of individual plant species to climate ch... | {
"Header 1": "27.7 Climate Change Has Impacted Ecosystem Processes",
"token_count": 938,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/biochem/Smith_Smith_2015.pdf"
} |
As human activities continue to increase the atmospheric concentration of carbon dioxide, how will rising concentrations of greenhouse gases influence the future global climate?
Figure 27.23 (a) Global map of changes (gC/m2/yr) in satellite-based estimates of net primary productivity (N... | {
"Header 1": "27.8 Continued Increase in Atmospheric Concentrations of Greenhouse Gases Is Predicted to Cause Future Climate Change",
"token_count": 771,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/biochem/Smith_Smith_2015.pdf"
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Predicting the response of ecological systems to future climate change is an area of growing research; however, predictions must be viewed in light of two major sources of uncertainty. First, there is the uncertainty resulting from the limitations
Figure 27.24 Mean changes in (a) surfac... | {
"Header 1": "27.9 A Variety of Approaches Are Being Used to Predict the Response of Ecological Systems to Future Climate Change",
"token_count": 2045,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/biochem/Smith_Smith_2015.pdf"
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Values are percent difference between controls and elevated levels for each treatment, based on values of mean species richness for each treatment. Treatments: C, CO<sub>2</sub>; T, warming; P, precipitation; N, nitrogen; TC, warming and CO<sub>2</sub>; TCP, warming, CO<sub>2</sub> and precipitation; TCN, warming, CO<s... | {
"Header 1": "27.9 A Variety of Approaches Are Being Used to Predict the Response of Ecological Systems to Future Climate Change",
"token_count": 2040,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/biochem/Smith_Smith_2015.pdf"
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Their analyses show that climate change could have large impacts on suitable habitat for tree species in the eastern United States (Figure 27.28).
By combining the individual species into groups according to the United States Department of Agriculture Forest Service's classification of forest types, the researchers w... | {
"Header 1": "27.9 A Variety of Approaches Are Being Used to Predict the Response of Ecological Systems to Future Climate Change",
"token_count": 704,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/biochem/Smith_Smith_2015.pdf"
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Increasing atmospheric concentrations of carbon dioxide and other greenhouse gases, and the potential changes in global climate patterns that may result, present a new class of ecological problems. To understand the effect of rising carbon dioxide emissions from fossil fuel burning and land clearing (see Chapter 2, *Ec... | {
"Header 1": "27.10 Predicting Future Climate Change Requires an Understanding of the Interactions between the Biosphere and the Other Components of Earth's System",
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In contrast, the decade between 2000 and 2009 saw a reduction in the global net primary productivity, largely as a result of drying in the Southern Hemisphere.
#### Future Climate Change 27.8
Atmospheric scientists have developed complex computer models of Earth's climate system—called general circulation models (G... | {
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"token_count": 2034,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/biochem/Smith_Smith_2015.pdf"
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*History of American ecology.* New York: Arno Press. Golley, F. B. 1993. *A history of the ecosystem concept in ecology: More than the sum of its parts.* New Haven, CT: Yale University Press.
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"Header 1": "27.10 Predicting Future Climate Change Requires an Understanding of the Interactions between the Biosphere and the Other Components of Earth's System",
"token_count": 2081,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/biochem/Smith_Smith_2015.pdf"
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*Plant speciation.* New York: Columbia University Press. ————. 1985. *The evolutionary process: A critical review of evolutionary theory.* New York: Columbia University Press.
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"Header 1": "27.10 Predicting Future Climate Change Requires an Understanding of the Interactions between the Biosphere and the Other Components of Earth's System",
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"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/biochem/Smith_Smith_2015.pdf"
} |
*Physiological plant ecology.* 3rd ed. New York: Springer-Verlag.
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"Header 1": "27.10 Predicting Future Climate Change Requires an Understanding of the Interactions between the Biosphere and the Other Components of Earth's System",
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"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/biochem/Smith_Smith_2015.pdf"
} |
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"Header 1": "27.10 Predicting Future Climate Change Requires an Understanding of the Interactions between the Biosphere and the Other Components of Earth's System",
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"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/biochem/Smith_Smith_2015.pdf"
} |
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"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/biochem/Smith_Smith_2015.pdf"
} |
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"Header 1": "27.10 Predicting Future Climate Change Requires an Understanding of the Interactions between the Biosphere and the Other Components of Earth's System",
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} |
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"Header 1": "27.10 Predicting Future Climate Change Requires an Understanding of the Interactions between the Biosphere and the Other Components of Earth's System",
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"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/biochem/Smith_Smith_2015.pdf"
} |
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} |
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} |
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"Header 1": "27.10 Predicting Future Climate Change Requires an Understanding of the Interactions between the Biosphere and the Other Components of Earth's System",
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} |
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"Header 1": "27.10 Predicting Future Climate Change Requires an Understanding of the Interactions between the Biosphere and the Other Components of Earth's System",
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"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/biochem/Smith_Smith_2015.pdf"
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"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/biochem/Smith_Smith_2015.pdf"
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#### Chapter 18 Community Dynamics
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"Header 1": "27.10 Predicting Future Climate Change Requires an Understanding of the Interactions between the Biosphere and the Other Components of Earth's System",
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"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/biochem/Smith_Smith_2015.pdf"
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- Rosenberg, D. K., B. R. Noon, and E. C. Meslow. 19... | {
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Evaluation of MODIS LAI, fAPAR and the relation between fAPAR and NDVI in a semiarid environment using in situ measurements. *Remote Sensing of Environment* 91: 490–507.
- Gates, D. M. 1985. *Energy and ecology.* Sunderland, MA: Sinauer Associates. Goetz, S. J. and S. D. Prince (1996). Remote sensing of net primary pro... | {
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*BioScience* 28:646–650.
- Ewel, J., C. Berish, B. Brown, N. Price, and J. Raich. 1981. Slash and burn impacts on a Costa Rican wet forest site. *Ecology* 62:816–829.
- Fenchel, T. 1988. Marine plankton food chains. *Annual Review of Ecology and Systematics* 19:19–38.
- Fenchel, T., and T. H. Blackburn. 1979. *Bacteria... | {
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*American Scientist* 78:310–326.
- Schlesinger, W. H. 1997. *Biogeochemistry: An analysis of global change.* 2nd ed. London: Academic Press.
- Schulze, E. D., O. L. Lange, and O. Oren. 1989. *Forest decline and air pollution: A study of spruce* (Picea abies) *on acid soils.* New York: Springer-Verlag.
- Smith, W. H. 19... | {
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Mott (eds.). 1985. *Ecology and management of the world*'*s ecosystems.* Canberra: Australian Academy of Science.
#### Grasslands
- Breymeyer, A., and G. Van Dyne (eds.). 1980. *Grasslands, systems analysis and man.* Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
- Callenback, E. 1996. *Bring back the buffalo: A sustainabl... | {
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*Canadian Journal of Fisheries and Aquatic Science* 37:130–137.
- Wiley, M. 1976. *Estuarine processes.* New York: Academic Press.
#### Oceans
- Grassle, J. F. 1985. Hydrothermal vent animals: Distribution and biology. *Science* 229:713–717.
- ————. 1989. Species diversity in deep-sea communities. *Trends in Ecolog... | {
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Mooney, eds., *Physiological ecology of North American plant communities.* New York: Chapman and Hall.
- Hopkinson, C. S., and J. P. Schubauer. 1984. Static and dynamic aspects of nitrogen cycling in the salt marsh graminoid *Spartina alterniflora. Ecology* 65:961–969.
- Howarth, R. W., and J. Teal. 1979. Sulfate reduc... | {
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*Petermann*'*s Mittelungen* 64:193–203, 243–248.
- Macpherson, E. and Duarte, M. C. 1994. Patterns in species richness, size, and latitudinal range of East Atlantic flshes. *Ecography* 17: 242–248.
- Macpherson, E. 2002. Large-Scale Species-Richness Gradients in the Atlantic Ocean. *Proceedings of the Royal Society of ... | {
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Poleward shifts in geographical ranges of butterfiy species associated with regional warming. *Nature* 399: 579–583.
- Peng, C. et al. 2011. A drought-induced pervasive increase in tree mortality across Canada's boreal forests. *Nature Climate Change* 1: 467–471.
- Post, E. and M.C. Forchhammer. 2008. Climate change re... | {
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The power of a fluid to exert an upward force on a body placed in it.
- Bundle sheath cells. Cells surrounding small vascular bundles in the leaves of vascular plants.
- C horizon. Soil stratum beneath the solum (A and B horizons), little affected by biological activity or soil-forming processes.
- C3 plant. Any plant ... | {
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Fresh to partly decomposed plant and animal matter.
- Developmental plasticity. Differences in phenotypic traits for a given genotype under different environmental conditions that reflect differences in the allocation of biomass to different tissues (leaves, stem, and roots) during the growth and development of the ind... | {
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Differences among similar habitats in widely separated regions.
- Gap. Opening made in a forest canopy by some small disturbance such as windfall; death of an individual tree or group of trees that influences the development of vegetation beneath.
- Gathering collectors. Stream insect larvae that pick up and feed on pa... | {
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Organisms that require large areas of habitat, even though their home ranges may be small.
- Intermediate disturbance hypothesis. The concept that species diversity is greatest in those habitats experiencing a moderate amount of disturbance, allowing the coexistence of early and late successional species.
- Intermedi... | {
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Minimum viable population (MVP). Size of a population that, with a given probability, will ensure the population's existence for a stated period of time.
Mire. Wetland characterized by an accumulation of peat.
Mixed-grass prairie. Grassland in mid North America, characterized by great variation in precipitation a... | {
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The number of individuals in a population per unit area.
- Population ecology. Study of how populations grow, fluctuate, spread, and interact intraspecifically and interspecifically.
- Population genetics. The study of changes in gene frequency and genotypes in populations.
- Population projection table. Chart of growt... | {
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Method of forest harvesting in which only selected individual trees of high commercial value are removed from the forest stand.
- Selective agent. The environmental cause of fitness differences among organisms within a population with difference phenotypes.
- Selective breeding. Selecting individuals that exhibit a des... | {
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Related to feeding.
- Trophic cascade. Occurs when a predator in a food web suppresses the abundance of their prey (intermediate species) such that it increases the abundance of the next lower trophic level (basal species) on which the intermediate species feeds.
- Trophic efficiency. Ratio of productivity in a given t... | {
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Reprinted by permission of the author.; 5.12 Grant, Peter R.; Ecology and Evaluation of Darwin's Finches. © 1986 Princeton University Press. Reprinted by permission of Princeton University Press.; 5.13 Grant, Peter R.; Ecology and Evaluation of Darwin's Finches. © 1986 Princeton University Press. Reprinted by permissio... | {
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Fukasawa, Y. Nose, and Y.Kakubari.2004. Stomatal closure induced by high vapor pressure deficit limited midday photosynthesis at the canopy top of Fagus crenata Blume on Naeba mountain in Japan. Trees 18:510–517. Figure 1, pg. 512; p. 110 John Updike, Couples, copyright © 1968 and renewed 1996 by John Updike (Alfred A.... | {
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Within-population spatial genetic structure, neighbourhood size and clonal subrange in the seagrass Cymodocea nodosa.Molecular Ecology14: 2669–2681.Fig. 2, pg. 2674; 1 Figure 1 - Sampling grid of Cymodocea nodosa in Cadiz Bay., Source: Alberto F., L. Gouveia, S. Arnaud-Haond, J.L. Pérez-Lloréns, C.M. Duarte CM, and E.A... | {
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Reprinted by permission of the University of Chicago Press.; 10.24a Republished with permission of The Royal Society, from Temeles, E.J. and W. J. Kress. 2010. Mate choice and mate competition by a tropical hummingbird at a floral resource. Proceedings of the Royal Society B 277:160–1613. Fig.1 and Fig. 3, pg. 1610; pe... | {
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2000). © 2000 Nordic Society Oikos.; 11.20 © Pearson Education Inc.; 11.21 © Pearson Education; 11.22 Republished with permission of John Wiley and Sons Inc., from, E.E. Hackney and J.B. McGraw, "Experimental Demonstration of an Allee Effect in American Ginseng," Conservation Biology 15 (1): 129–136, (Feb. 2001). Permi... | {
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P. Austin et al., "Relative Growth of Six Thistle Species Along a Nutrient Gradient with Multispecies Competition," Journal of Ecology 73(2): 667–684, (July 1985). Copyright © 1985 British Ecological Society.; 13.9 From M. P. Austin et al., "Relative Growth of Six Thistle Species Along a Nutrient Gradient with Multispe... | {
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1198, permission conveyed through Copyright Clearance Center, Inc.; 14.13b O'Donoghue, M., S. Boutin, C. J. Krebs and E. J. Hofer. 1997. Numerical responses of coyotes and lynx to the snowshoe hare cycle. Oikos 80:150–162. Fig. 6a, pg. 155.; 14.14 a, b From N. B. Davies, "Prey Selection and Social Behaviour in Wagtails... | {
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Ecology Letters 12:779–788. Figure 1, pg. 783.; 16.12 a, b © Pearson Education, Inc.; 16.13 Adapted from Anderson and Shugart 1974; 16.14 a, b Data from Schukat, A., M. Bode, H. Auel, R. Carballo, B. Martin, R. Koppelmann, and W. Hagen. 2013. Pelagic decapods in the northern Benguela upwelling system: Distribution, eco... | {
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449–469; permission conveyed through Copyright Clearance Center, Inc.; 18.09b © Pearson Education; 18.10 a, b Data from Grime 1979.; 18.11 a, b Adapted from Tilman 1988.; 18.12 © Pearson Education; 18.14 R. L. Crocker and J. Major, "Soil development in relation to vegetation and surface age at Glacier Bay, Alaska," Jou... | {
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Jones, "Partial recovery of a Skipper Butterfly (Hesperia comma) from Population Refuges: Lessons for Conservation in a Fragmented Landscape," Journal of Animal Ecology, 62 (3): 472–481, (July 1993). Copyright © 1993 British Ecological Society.; 19.30 © Pearson Education; 19.31 © Pearson Education; 19.32 © Pearson Educ... | {
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1994, West Virginia; Smith 2002, Virginia.; 21.11 Adapted from Whitkamp and Frank 1969, "Evolution of CO2 from litter, humus and subsoil of a pine stand," Pedobiologia.; 21.13 © Pearson Education; 21.14 a, b, c Based on Beare et al. 1992, "Microbial and Faunal Interactions and Effects on Litter Nitrogen and Decompositi... | {
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Payette, "The Subarctic Forest-Tundra: the structure of a biome in a changing climate," BioScience 51 (9): 709–718, (Sept. 2001). Copyright © 2001 American Institute of Biological Sciences.; 23.34 Based on S. Payette, "The Subarctic Forest-Tundra: the structure of a biome in a changing climate," BioScience 51 (9): 709–... | {
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1997. Linking a Global Terrestrial Biogeochemical Model with a 2-Dimensional Climate Model: Implications for Global Carbon Budget. Tellus, Vol. 49B, pp. 18-37. Fig. 4a, pg. 25; 26.22a Based on Kikkawa and Williams 1971.; 26.22b Based on Hunter and Yonzon 1992.; 26.22c Based on Whittaker 1977; 26.33a, b Hurlbert, A.H. a... | {
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Estimating potential habitat for 134 eastern US tree species under six climate scenarios. Forest Ecology and Management 254:390–406. Fig. 6, pg. 403.; 27.30a, b, c McKenney, D.W., et al. 2011. Revisiting projected shifts in the climate envelopes of North American trees using updated general circulation models. Global C... | {
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Chapter 10 Chapter Opener Tony Campbell/Shutterstock; 10.2 Premaphotos/ Nature Picture Library; 10.3 Georgie Holland/AGE Fotostock; 10.4 Jerry & Marcy Monkman/AGE Fotostock; 10.10 Juniors Bildarchiv/AGE Fotostock; 10.11 McPhoto/ Blickwinkel/AGE Fotostock; 10.12 Regis Cavignaux/Biosphoto/Photo Researchers, Inc.; 10.16... | {
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Chapter 19 Chapter Opener Aerial Archives/Alamy; 19.3a Micha Pawlitzki/Getty Images; 19.3b Jupiterimages/Getty Images; 19.1 Robert Leo Smith; 19.4a B.A.E. Inc./ Alamy; 19.4b The Post Crescent, Dan Powers/AP Images; 19.6b Clearviewstock/Fotolia; 19.5b John Stennes/KRT/Newscom; 19.5a David Hosking/Science Source; 19.6a... | {
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Carleton Ray/Science Source; 25.9 Mark Conlin/Alamy; 25.10 Mark Conlin/Alamy; 25.8 Robert Leo Smith; 25.11b Sergio Pitamitz/Robert Harding Picture Library Ltd/Alamy; 25.11a NASA; 25.14 Nancy Carter/North Wind Picture Archives/Alamy; 15.15b Michael P. Gadomski/Science Source; 15.15a USDA Forest Service Southern Region; ... | {
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(ragweed), 219 |
| | altitude, temperature and, 42–43, 43 | Ambush hunting, 318 |
| alteration to genetic variation within | density, 36 | Ambystoma maculatum (spotted ... | {
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darlingi, 349, 349 | Ascaris (roundworm), 332–333 | Baril, Lisa, 397 |
| Anoplophors galbripennis (Asian longhorned | Asclepias spp. (milkweed), 322, 431 | Barnacle |
| beetle), 183 ... | {
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(See Lake/pond ecosystems) | Atriplex (saltbush), 126 | Benthic form (BF), of threespine stickleback, |
| light and water depth, 55–56, 56 | Atriplex prostrat (orache), 240, 240–241 | 93–94 |
| oxygen diffusion, 58–60 | A... | {
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Lucy, 370 | Carbon dioxide (CO2) |
| 378, 378, 414 | Breeding birds, community structure, 378, 378 | allocation of, in photosynthesis, 115, 117, |
| environmental heterogeneity and diversity, ... | {
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regulation, animal response to environment, 144–145, **144–145** Commensalism, **260**, 260–261, 338 Common buckeye (*Junonia coenia*), **440–441** Common eider (*Somateria mollissima*), 211 Common lizard (*Lacerta vivipara*), 216 Common poorwill (*Phalaenoptilus nuttallii*), 158 Common vole (*Microtus arvalis*), 311, ... | {
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mifolia* (wide-leaved cattail), 270–271, **271**, 293 Cedar Creek Long Term Ecological Research (LTER) site, **23** Cellular respiration (aerobic respiration) organism size/shape and, 141–142 photosynthesis and, 111 Cellulose, 143, 322 Central American ant (*Pseudomyrmex* spp.), 343 *Centrocercus urophasianus* (sage gr... | {
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See |
| definition of, 239, 261 | Cottonwood (Populus angustifolia), 162, | also Ground finch (Geospiza spp.), |
| intraspecific population regulation | 404, 405 | Grants' natural selection study |
| affects on growth an... | {
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(water spider), 54 | community structure and, 377–379,<br>378–379 |
| salinization and, 80 | Domain of science, in scientific method, 21, 22 | species interactions, influence on, 270–271, |
| water balance for animals in, 1... | {
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(See Terrestrial environments) |
| of carbon dioxide, 112 | oberholseri), 285 | Ecotone, 432 |
| of oxygen, 59, 64 ... | {
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See Ground finch (Geospiza spp.),<br>natural selection study |
| Endangered Species Act (1973), 296, 297<br>Endemic, definition of, 172 | European elm bark beetles (Scolytus<br>multistriatus), 333 | Finite multiplication rate, in population<br>growth life tables, 198 |
| Endomycorrhizae, mutualism and, 342, 343 ... | {
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(mayfly), 55, 219 | Falco tinnunculus (European kestrel), | 386, 386–387 |
| Epifagus virginiana (beechdrops), 333 | 216–217, 216–217 ... | {
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