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The anterior skull consists of the facial bones and provides the bony support for the eyes and structures of the face. This view of the skull is dominated by the openings of the orbits and the nasal cavity. Also seen are the upper and lower jaws, with their respective teeth (**[Figure 7.4](#page-250-0)**).
The **orbi... | {
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A view of the lateral skull is dominated by the large, rounded brain case above and the upper and lower jaws with their teeth below (**[Figure 7.5](#page-251-0)**). Separating these areas is the bridge of bone called the zygomatic arch. The **zygomatic arch** is the bony arch on the side of skull that spans from the ar... | {
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"Header 3": "**Lateral View of Skull**",
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The brain case contains and protects the brain. The interior space that is almost completely occupied by the brain is called the **cranial cavity**. This cavity is bounded superiorly by the rounded top of the skull, which is called the **calvaria** (skullcap), and the lateral and posterior sides of the skull. The bones... | {
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The **temporal bone** forms the lower lateral side of the skull (see **[Figure 7.5](#page-251-0)**). Common wisdom has it that the temporal bone (temporal = "time") is so named because this area of the head (the temple) is where hair typically first turns gray, indicating the passage of time.
The temporal bone is sub... | {
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The **occipital bone** is the single bone that forms the posterior skull and posterior base of the cranial cavity (**[Figure 7.9](#page-255-0)**; see also **[Figure 7.8](#page-254-0)**). On its outside surface, at the posterior midline, is a small protrusion called the **external occipital protuberance**, which serves ... | {
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"Header 3": "**Occipital Bone**",
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The **sphenoid bone** is a single, complex bone of the central skull (**[Figure 7.10](#page-256-0)**). It serves as a "keystone" bone, because it joins with almost every other bone of the skull. The sphenoid forms much of the base of the central skull (see **[Figure](#page-254-0) [7.8](#page-254-0)**) and also extends ... | {
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The **ethmoid bone** is a single, midline bone that forms the roof and lateral walls of the upper nasal cavity, the upper portion of the nasal septum, and contributes to the medial wall of the orbit (**[Figure 7.11](#page-257-0)** and **[Figure 7.12](#page-257-1)**). On the interior of the skull, the ethmoid also forms... | {
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"Header 3": "**Ethmoid Bone**",
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A **suture** is an immobile joint between adjacent bones of the skull. The narrow gap between the bones is filled with dense, fibrous connective tissue that unites the bones. The long sutures located between the bones of the brain case are not straight, but instead follow irregular, tightly twisting paths. These twisti... | {
"Header 1": "**7.2 | The Skull**",
"Header 3": "**Sutures of the Skull**",
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Head and traumatic brain injuries are major causes of immediate death and disability, with bleeding and infections as possible additional complications. According to the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (2010), approximately 30 percent of all injury-related deaths in the United States are caused by head injur... | {
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The **maxillary bone**, often referred to simply as the maxilla (plural = maxillae), is one of a pair that together form the upper jaw, much of the hard palate, the medial floor of the orbit, and the lateral base of the nose (see **[Figure 7.4](#page-250-0)**). The curved, inferior margin of the maxillary bone that for... | {
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"Header 3": "**Maxillary Bone**",
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During embryonic development, the right and left maxilla bones come together at the midline to form the upper jaw. At the same time, the muscle and skin overlying these bones join together to form the upper lip. Inside the mouth, the palatine processes of the maxilla bones, along with the horizontal plates of the right... | {
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"Header 2": "**Skeletal System**",
"Header 3": "**Cleft Lip and Cleft Palate**",
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Each **lacrimal bone** is a small, rectangular bone that forms the anterior, medial wall of the orbit (see **[Figure 7.4](#page-250-0)** and **[Figure](#page-251-0) [7.5](#page-251-0)**). The anterior portion of the lacrimal bone forms a shallow depression called the **lacrimal fossa**, and extending inferiorly from th... | {
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"Header 3": "**Lacrimal Bone**",
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The **mandible** forms the lower jaw and is the only moveable bone of the skull. At the time of birth, the mandible consists of paired right and left bones, but these fuse together during the first year to form the single U-shaped mandible of the adult skull. Each side of the mandible consists of a horizontal body and ... | {
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The orbit is the bony socket that houses the eyeball and contains the muscles that move the eyeball or open the upper eyelid. Each orbit is cone-shaped, with a narrow posterior region that widens toward the large anterior opening. To help protect the eye, the bony margins of the anterior opening are thickened and somew... | {
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"Header 3": "**The Orbit**",
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The **nasal septum** consists of both bone and cartilage components (**[Figure 7.17](#page-263-0)**; see also **[Figure 7.11](#page-257-0)**). The upper portion of the septum is formed by the perpendicular plate of the ethmoid bone. The lower and posterior parts of the septum are formed by the triangular-shaped vomer b... | {
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The middle cranial fossa is deeper and situated posterior to the anterior fossa. It extends from the lesser wings of the sphenoid bone anteriorly, to the petrous ridges (petrous portion of the temporal bones) posteriorly. The large, diagonally positioned petrous ridges give the middle cranial fossa a butterfly shape, m... | {
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"Header 3": "**Middle Cranial Fossa**",
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The posterior cranial fossa is the most posterior and deepest portion of the cranial cavity. It contains the cerebellum of the brain. The posterior fossa is bounded anteriorly by the petrous ridges, while the occipital bone forms the floor and posterior wall. It is divided at the midline by the large foramen magnum ("g... | {
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"Header 3": "**Posterior Cranial Fossa**",
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The **paranasal sinuses** are hollow, air-filled spaces located within certain bones of the skull (**[Figure 7.18](#page-265-0)**). All of the sinuses communicate with the nasal cavity (paranasal = "next to nasal cavity") and are lined with nasal mucosa. They serve to reduce bone mass and thus lighten the skull, and th... | {
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The hyoid bone is an independent bone that does not contact any other bone and thus is not part of the skull (**[Figure 7.19](#page-266-1)**). It is a small U-shaped bone located in the upper neck near the level of the inferior mandible, with the tips of the "U" pointing posteriorly. The hyoid serves as the base for th... | {
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By the end of this section, you will be able to:
- Describe each region of the vertebral column and the number of bones in each region
- Discuss the curves of the vertebral column and how these change after birth
- Describe a typical vertebra and determine the distinguishing characteristics for vertebrae in each vert... | {
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The vertebral column originally develops as a series of 33 vertebrae, but this number is eventually reduced to 24 vertebrae, plus the sacrum and coccyx. The vertebral column is subdivided into five regions, with the vertebrae in each area named for that region and numbered in descending order. In the neck, there are se... | {
"Header 1": "**7.3 | The Vertebral Column**",
"Header 3": "**Regions of the Vertebral Column**",
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The adult vertebral column does not form a straight line, but instead has four curvatures along its length (see **[Figure](#page-267-0) [7.20](#page-267-0)**). These curves increase the vertebral column's strength, flexibility, and ability to absorb shock. When the load on the spine is increased, by carrying a heavy ba... | {
"Header 1": "**7.3 | The Vertebral Column**",
"Header 3": "**Curvatures of the Vertebral Column**",
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Developmental anomalies, pathological changes, or obesity can enhance the normal vertebral column curves, resulting in the development of abnormal or excessive curvatures (**[Figure 7.21](#page-269-0)**). Kyphosis, also referred to as humpback or hunchback, is an excessive posterior curvature of the thoracic region. Th... | {
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"Header 2": "**Vertebral Column**",
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Within the different regions of the vertebral column, vertebrae vary in size and shape, but they all follow a similar structural pattern. A typical vertebra will consist of a body, a vertebral arch, and seven processes (**[Figure 7.23](#page-271-0)**).
The body is the anterior portion of each vertebra and is the part... | {
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Typical **cervical vertebrae**, such as C4 or C5, have several characteristic features that differentiate them from thoracic or lumbar vertebrae (**[Figure 7.25](#page-273-0)**). Cervical vertebrae have a small body, reflecting the fact that they carry the least amount of body weight. Cervical vertebrae usually have a ... | {
"Header 1": "**7.3 | The Vertebral Column**",
"Header 2": "**Vertebral Column**",
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The bodies of the **thoracic vertebrae** are larger than those of cervical vertebrae (**[Figure 7.26](#page-274-0)**). The characteristic feature for a typical midthoracic vertebra is the spinous process, which is long and has a pronounced downward angle that causes it to overlap the next inferior vertebra. The superio... | {
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The sacrum is a triangular-shaped bone that is thick and wide across its superior base where it is weight bearing and then tapers down to an inferior, non-weight bearing apex (**[Figure 7.29](#page-276-0)**). It is formed by the fusion of five sacral vertebrae, a process that does not begin until after the age of 20. O... | {
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"Header 2": "**Vertebral Column**",
"Header 3": "**Sacrum and Coccyx**",
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An **intervertebral disc** is a fibrocartilaginous pad that fills the gap between adjacent vertebral bodies (see **[Figure 7.24](#page-271-1)**). Each disc is anchored to the bodies of its adjacent vertebrae, thus strongly uniting these. The discs also provide padding between vertebrae during weight bearing. Because of... | {
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"Header 2": "**Vertebral Column**",
"Header 3": "**Intervertebral Disc**",
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Adjacent vertebrae are united by ligaments that run the length of the vertebral column along both its posterior and anterior aspects (**[Figure 7.31](#page-278-0)**). These serve to resist excess forward or backward bending movements of the vertebral column, respectively.
The **anterior longitudinal ligament** runs d... | {
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Chiropractors are health professionals who use nonsurgical techniques to help patients with musculoskeletal system problems that involve the bones, muscles, ligaments, tendons, or nervous system. They treat problems such as neck pain, back pain, joint pain, or headaches. Chiropractors focus on the patient's overall hea... | {
"Header 1": "**7.3 | The Vertebral Column**",
"Header 2": "**Vertebral Column**",
"Header 3": "**Chiropractor**",
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By the end of this section, you will be able to:
- Discuss the components that make up the thoracic cage
- Identify the parts of the sternum and define the sternal angle
- Discuss the parts of a rib and rib classifications
The thoracic cage (rib cage) forms the thorax (chest) portion of the body. It consists of the... | {
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The sternum is the elongated bony structure that anchors the anterior thoracic cage. It consists of three parts: the manubrium, body, and xiphoid process. The **manubrium** is the wider, superior portion of the sternum. The top of the manubrium has a shallow, U-shaped border called the **jugular (suprasternal) notch**.... | {
"Header 1": "**7.4 | The Thoracic Cage**",
"Header 3": "**Sternum**",
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The posterior end of a typical rib is called the **head of the rib** (see **[Figure 7.27](#page-274-1)**). This region articulates primarily with the costal facet located on the body of the same numbered thoracic vertebra and to a lesser degree, with the costal facet located on the body of the next higher vertebra. Lat... | {
"Header 1": "**7.4 | The Thoracic Cage**",
"Header 3": "**Parts of a Typical Rib**",
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The bony ribs do not extend anteriorly completely around to the sternum. Instead, each rib ends in a **costal cartilage**. These cartilages are made of hyaline cartilage and can extend for several inches. Most ribs are then attached, either directly or indirectly, to the sternum via their costal cartilage (see **[Figur... | {
"Header 1": "**7.4 | The Thoracic Cage**",
"Header 3": "**Rib Classifications**",
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During the third week of embryonic development, a rod-like structure called the **notochord** develops dorsally along the length of the embryo. The tissue overlying the notochord enlarges and forms the neural tube, which will give rise to the brain and spinal cord. By the fourth week, mesoderm tissue located on either ... | {
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"Header 3": "**Development of the Skull**",
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Development of the vertebrae begins with the accumulation of mesenchyme cells from each sclerotome around the notochord. These cells differentiate into a hyaline cartilage model for each vertebra, which then grow and eventually ossify into bone through the process of endochondral ossification. As the developing vertebr... | {
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"Header 3": "**Development of the Vertebral Column and Thoracic cage**",
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The premature closure (fusion) of a suture line is a condition called craniosynostosis. This error in the normal developmental process results in abnormal growth of the skull and deformity of the head. It is produced either by defects in the ossification process of the skull bones or failure of the brain to properly en... | {
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"Header 2": "**Craniosynostosis**",
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**alveolar process of the mandible** upper border of mandibular body that contains the lower teeth
**alveolar process of the maxilla** curved, inferior margin of the maxilla that supports and anchors the upper teeth
- **angle of the mandible** rounded corner located at outside margin of the body and ramus junction
... | {
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"Header 2": "**Craniosynostosis**",
"Header 3": "**KEY TERMS**",
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repeating blocks of tissue located on either side of the notochord in the early embryo
**sphenoid bone** unpaired bone that forms the central base of skull
**sphenoid sinus** air-filled space located within the sphenoid bone; most posterior of the paranasal sinuses
**spinous process** unpaired bony process that e... | {
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"Header 2": "**Craniosynostosis**",
"Header 3": "**KEY TERMS**",
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The skull consists of the brain case and the facial bones. The brain case surrounds and protects the brain, which occupies the cranial cavity inside the skull. It consists of the rounded calvaria and a complex base. The brain case is formed by eight bones, the paired parietal and temporal bones plus the unpaired fronta... | {
"Header 1": "**7.5 | Embryonic Development of the Axial Skeleton**",
"Header 2": "**Craniosynostosis**",
"Header 3": "**[7.2 The Skull](#page-248-0)**",
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The vertebral column forms the neck and back. The vertebral column originally develops as 33 vertebrae, but is eventually reduced to 24 vertebrae, plus the sacrum and coccyx. The vertebrae are divided into the cervical region (C1–C7 vertebrae), the thoracic region (T1–T12 vertebrae), and the lumbar region (L1–L5 verteb... | {
"Header 1": "**7.5 | Embryonic Development of the Axial Skeleton**",
"Header 2": "**Craniosynostosis**",
"Header 3": "**[7.3 The Vertebral Column](#page-266-0)**",
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The thoracic cage protects the heart and lungs. It is composed of 12 pairs of ribs with their costal cartilages and the sternum. The ribs are anchored posteriorly to the 12 thoracic vertebrae. The sternum consists of the manubrium, body, and xiphoid process. The manubrium and body are joined at the sternal angle, which... | {
"Header 1": "**7.5 | Embryonic Development of the Axial Skeleton**",
"Header 2": "**Craniosynostosis**",
"Header 3": "**[7.4 The Thoracic Cage](#page-279-0)**",
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Formation of the axial skeleton begins during early embryonic development with the appearance of the rod-like notochord along the dorsal length of the early embryo. Repeating, paired blocks of tissue called somites then appear along either side of notochord. As the somites grow, they split into parts, one of which is c... | {
"Header 1": "**7.5 | Embryonic Development of the Axial Skeleton**",
"Header 2": "**Craniosynostosis**",
"Header 3": "**[7.5 Embryonic Development of the Axial Skeleton](#page-281-0)**",
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After studying this chapter, you will be able to:
- Discuss the bones of the pectoral and pelvic girdles, and describe how these unite the limbs with the axial skeleton
- Describe the bones of the upper limb, including the bones of the arm, forearm, wrist, and hand
- Identify the features of the pelvis and explain ho... | {
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By the end of this section, you will be able to:
- Describe the bones that form the pectoral girdle
- List the functions of the pectoral girdle
The appendicular skeleton includes all of the limb bones, plus the bones that unite each limb with the axial skeleton (**[Figure](#page-298-0) [8.2](#page-298-0)**). The bo... | {
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The clavicle is the only long bone that lies in a horizontal position in the body (see **[Figure 8.3](#page-299-0)**). The clavicle has several important functions. First, anchored by muscles from above, it serves as a strut that extends laterally to support the scapula. This in turn holds the shoulder joint superiorly... | {
"Header 1": "**8.1 | The Pectoral Girdle**",
"Header 3": "**Clavicle**",
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The scapula is also part of the pectoral girdle and thus plays an important role in anchoring the upper limb to the body. The scapula is located on the posterior side of the shoulder. It is surrounded by muscles on both its anterior (deep) and posterior (superficial) sides, and thus does not articulate with the ribs of... | {
"Header 1": "**8.1 | The Pectoral Girdle**",
"Header 3": "**Scapula**",
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By the end of this section, you will be able to:
- Identify the divisions of the upper limb and describe the bones in each region
- List the bones and bony landmarks that articulate at each joint of the upper limb
The upper limb is divided into three regions. These consist of the **arm**, located between the should... | {
"Header 1": "**8.2 | Bones of the Upper Limb**",
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The humerus is the single bone of the upper arm region (**[Figure 8.5](#page-302-0)**). At its proximal end is the **head of the humerus**. This is the large, round, smooth region that faces medially. The head articulates with the glenoid cavity of the scapula to form the glenohumeral (shoulder) joint. The margin of th... | {
"Header 1": "**8.2 | Bones of the Upper Limb**",
"Header 3": "**Humerus**",
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The ulna is the medial bone of the forearm. It runs parallel to the radius, which is the lateral bone of the forearm (**[Figure](#page-303-0) [8.6](#page-303-0)**). The proximal end of the ulna resembles a crescent wrench with its large, C-shaped **trochlear notch**. This region articulates with the trochlea of the hum... | {
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The radius runs parallel to the ulna, on the lateral (thumb) side of the forearm (see **[Figure 8.6](#page-303-0)**). The **head of the radius** is a disc-shaped structure that forms the proximal end. The small depression on the surface of the head articulates with the capitulum of the humerus as part of the elbow join... | {
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The wrist and base of the hand are formed by a series of eight small carpal bones (see **[Figure 8.7](#page-305-0)**). The carpal bones are arranged in two rows, forming a proximal row of four carpal bones and a distal row of four carpal bones. The bones in the proximal row, running from the lateral (thumb) side to the... | {
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The palm of the hand contains five elongated metacarpal bones. These bones lie between the carpal bones of the wrist and the bones of the fingers and thumb (see **[Figure 8.7](#page-305-0)**). The proximal end of each metacarpal bone articulates with one of the distal carpal bones. Each of these articulations is a **ca... | {
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"Header 3": "**Metacarpal Bones**",
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The fingers and thumb contain 14 bones, each of which is called a phalanx bone (plural = phalanges), named after the ancient Greek phalanx (a rectangular block of soldiers). The thumb ( **pollex**) is digit number 1 and has two phalanges, a proximal phalanx, and a distal phalanx bone (see **[Figure 8.7](#page-305-0)**)... | {
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Due to our constant use of the hands and the rest of our upper limbs, an injury to any of these areas will cause a significant loss of functional ability. Many fractures result from a hard fall onto an outstretched hand. The resulting transmission of force up the limb may result in a fracture of the humerus, radius, or... | {
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"Header 3": "**Appendicular System: Fractures of Upper Limb Bones**",
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By the end of this section, you will be able to:
- Define the pelvic girdle and describe the bones and ligaments of the pelvis
- Explain the three regions of the hip bone and identify their bony landmarks
- Describe the openings of the pelvis and the boundaries of the greater and lesser pelvis
The **pelvic girdle**... | {
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The hip bone, or coxal bone, forms the pelvic girdle portion of the pelvis. The paired hip bones are the large, curved bones that form the lateral and anterior aspects of the pelvis. Each adult hip bone is formed by three separate bones that fuse together during the late teenage years. These bony components are the ili... | {
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"Header 3": "**Hip Bone**",
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When you place your hands on your waist, you can feel the arching, superior margin of the ilium along your waistline (see **[Figure 8.13](#page-311-0)**). This curved, superior margin of the ilium is the **iliac crest**. The rounded, anterior termination of the iliac crest is the **anterior superior iliac spine**. This... | {
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The pubis forms the anterior portion of the hip bone (see **[Figure 8.13](#page-311-0)**). The enlarged medial portion of the pubis is the **pubic body**. Located superiorly on the pubic body is a small bump called the **pubic tubercle**. The **superior pubic ramus** is the segment of bone that passes laterally from th... | {
"Header 1": "**8.3 | The Pelvic Girdle and Pelvis**",
"Header 3": "**Pubis**",
"token_count": 291,
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The pelvis consists of four bones: the right and left hip bones, the sacrum, and the coccyx (see **[Figure 8.12](#page-310-1)**). The pelvis has several important functions. Its primary role is to support the weight of the upper body when sitting and to transfer this weight to the lower limbs when standing. It serves a... | {
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"Header 3": "**Pelvis**",
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The differences between the adult female and male pelvis relate to function and body size. In general, the bones of the male pelvis are thicker and heavier, adapted for support of the male's heavier physical build and stronger muscles. The greater sciatic notch of the male hip bone is narrower and deeper than the broad... | {
"Header 1": "**8.3 | The Pelvic Girdle and Pelvis**",
"Header 3": "**Comparison of the Female and Male Pelvis**",
"token_count": 472,
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} |
A forensic pathologist (also known as a medical examiner) is a medically trained physician who has been specifically trained in pathology to examine the bodies of the deceased to determine the cause of death. A forensic pathologist applies his or her understanding of disease as well as toxins, blood and DNA analysis, f... | {
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"Header 2": "**Forensic Pathology and Forensic Anthropology**",
"token_count": 447,
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By the end of this section, you will be able to:
- Identify the divisions of the lower limb and describe the bones of each region
- Describe the bones and bony landmarks that articulate at each joint of the lower limb
Like the upper limb, the lower limb is divided into three regions. The **thigh** is that portion o... | {
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The femur, or thigh bone, is the single bone of the thigh region (**[Figure 8.16](#page-316-0)**). It is the longest and strongest bone of the body, and accounts for approximately one-quarter of a person's total height. The rounded, proximal end is the **head of the femur**, which articulates with the acetabulum of the... | {
"Header 1": "**8.4 | Bones of the Lower Limb**",
"Header 3": "**Femur**",
"token_count": 967,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/Med_v1/med_textbook/AnatomyAndPhysiology-LR.pdf"
} |
The patella (kneecap) is largest sesamoid bone of the body (see **[Figure 8.16](#page-316-0)**). A sesamoid bone is a bone that is incorporated into the tendon of a muscle where that tendon crosses a joint. The sesamoid bone articulates with the underlying bones to prevent damage to the muscle tendon due to rubbing aga... | {
"Header 1": "**8.4 | Bones of the Lower Limb**",
"Header 3": "**Patella**",
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Runner's knee, also known as patellofemoral syndrome, is the most common overuse injury among runners. It is most frequent in adolescents and young adults, and is more common in females. It often results from excessive running, particularly downhill, but may also occur in athletes who do a lot of knee bending, such as ... | {
"Header 1": "**8.4 | Bones of the Lower Limb**",
"Header 3": "**Runner's Knee**",
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The tibia (shin bone) is the medial bone of the leg and is larger than the fibula, with which it is paired (**[Figure 8.18](#page-320-0)**). The tibia is the main weight-bearing bone of the lower leg and the second longest bone of the body, after the femur. The medial side of the tibia is located immediately under the ... | {
"Header 1": "**8.4 | Bones of the Lower Limb**",
"Header 3": "**Tibia**",
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The fibula is the slender bone located on the lateral side of the leg (see **[Figure 8.18](#page-320-0)**). The fibula does not bear weight. It serves primarily for muscle attachments and thus is largely surrounded by muscles. Only the proximal and distal ends of the fibula can be palpated.
The **head of the fibula**... | {
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The posterior half of the foot is formed by seven tarsal bones (**[Figure 8.19](#page-321-0)**). The most superior bone is the **talus**. This has a relatively square-shaped, upper surface that articulates with the tibia and fibula to form the **ankle joint**. Three areas of articulation form the ankle joint: The super... | {
"Header 1": "**8.4 | Bones of the Lower Limb**",
"Header 3": "**Tarsal Bones**",
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The anterior half of the foot is formed by the five metatarsal bones, which are located between the tarsal bones of the posterior foot and the phalanges of the toes (see **[Figure 8.19](#page-321-0)**). These elongated bones are numbered 1–5, starting with the medial side of the foot. The first metatarsal bone is short... | {
"Header 1": "**8.4 | Bones of the Lower Limb**",
"Header 3": "**Metatarsal Bones**",
"token_count": 261,
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The toes contain a total of 14 phalanx bones (phalanges), arranged in a similar manner as the phalanges of the fingers (see **[Figure 8.19](#page-321-0)**). The toes are numbered 1–5, starting with the big toe ( **hallux**). The big toe has two phalanx bones, the proximal and distal phalanges. The remaining toes all ha... | {
"Header 1": "**8.4 | Bones of the Lower Limb**",
"Header 3": "**Phalanges**",
"token_count": 230,
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When the foot comes into contact with the ground during walking, running, or jumping activities, the impact of the body weight puts a tremendous amount of pressure and force on the foot. During running, the force applied to each foot as it contacts the ground can be up to 2.5 times your body weight. The bones, joints, ... | {
"Header 1": "**8.4 | Bones of the Lower Limb**",
"Header 3": "**Arches of the Foot**",
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Each upper and lower limb initially develops as a small bulge called a **limb bud**, which appears on the lateral side of the early embryo. The upper limb bud appears near the end of the fourth week of development, with the lower limb bud appearing shortly after (**[Figure 8.20](#page-324-0)**).
![](_page_324_Picture... | {
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"Header 3": "**Limb Growth**",
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All of the girdle and limb bones, except for the clavicle, develop by the process of endochondral ossification. This process begins as the mesenchyme within the limb bud differentiates into hyaline cartilage to form cartilage models for future bones. By the twelfth week, a primary ossification center will have appeared... | {
"Header 1": "**8.5 | Development of the Appendicular Skeleton**",
"Header 3": "**Ossification of Appendicular Bones**",
"token_count": 764,
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Clubfoot, also known as talipes, is a congenital (present at birth) disorder of unknown cause and is the most common deformity of the lower limb. It affects the foot and ankle, causing the foot to be twisted inward at a sharp angle, like the head of a golf club (**[Figure 8.21](#page-326-0)**). Clubfoot has a frequency... | {
"Header 1": "**8.5 | Development of the Appendicular Skeleton**",
"Header 3": "**Appendicular System: Congenital Clubfoot**",
"token_count": 738,
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The pectoral girdle, consisting of the clavicle and the scapula, attaches each upper limb to the axial skeleton. The clavicle is an anterior bone whose sternal end articulates with the manubrium of the sternum at the sternoclavicular joint. The sternal end is also anchored to the first rib by the costoclavicular ligame... | {
"Header 1": "**8.5 | Development of the Appendicular Skeleton**",
"Header 3": "**[8.1 The Pectora](#page-296-1)[l Girdle](#page-297-0)**",
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Each upper limb is divided into three regions and contains a total of 30 bones. The upper arm is the region located between the shoulder and elbow joints. This area contains the humerus. The proximal humerus consists of the head, which articulates with the scapula at the glenohumeral joint, the greater and lesser tuber... | {
"Header 1": "**8.5 | Development of the Appendicular Skeleton**",
"Header 3": "**[8.2 Bones of the Upper Limb](#page-301-0)**",
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The pelvic girdle, consisting of a hip bone, serves to attach a lower limb to the axial skeleton. The hip bone articulates posteriorly at the sacroiliac joint with the sacrum, which is part of the axial skeleton. The right and left hip bones converge anteriorly and articulate with each other at the pubic symphysis. The... | {
"Header 1": "**8.5 | Development of the Appendicular Skeleton**",
"Header 3": "**[8.3 The Pelvic Girdle and Pelvis](#page-310-0)**",
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The lower limb is divided into three regions. These are the thigh, located between the hip and knee joints; the leg, located between the knee and ankle joints; and distal to the ankle, the foot. There are 30 bones in each lower limb. These are the femur, patella, tibia, fibula, seven tarsal bones, five metatarsal bones... | {
"Header 1": "**8.5 | Development of the Appendicular Skeleton**",
"Header 3": "**[8.4 Bones of the Lower Limb](#page-315-0)**",
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The bones of the appendicular skeleton arise from embryonic mesenchyme. Limb buds appear at the end of the fourth week. The apical ectodermal ridge, located at the end of the limb bud, stimulates growth and elongation of the limb. During the sixth week, the distal end of the limb bud becomes paddle-shaped, and selectiv... | {
"Header 1": "**8.5 | Development of the Appendicular Skeleton**",
"Header 3": "**[8.5 Development of the Appendicular Skeleton](#page-323-0)**",
"token_count": 322,
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After this chapter, you will be able to:
- Discuss both functional and structural classifications for body joints
- Describe the characteristic features for fibrous, cartilaginous, and synovial joints and give examples of each
- Define and identify the different body movements
- Discuss the structure of specific body... | {
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"Header 2": "**Chapter Objectives**",
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By the end of this section, you will be able to:
- Distinguish between the functional and structural classifications for joints
- Describe the three functional types of joints and give an example of each
- List the three types of diarthrodial joints
A **joint**, also called an **articulation**, is any place where a... | {
"Header 1": "**9.1 | Classification of Joints**",
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An **amphiarthrosis** is a joint that has limited mobility. An example of this type of joint is the cartilaginous joint that unites the bodies of adjacent vertebrae. Filling the gap between the vertebrae is a thick pad of fibrocartilage called an intervertebral disc (**[Figure 9.3](#page-342-1)**). Each intervertebral ... | {
"Header 1": "**9.1 | Classification of Joints**",
"Header 3": "**Amphiarthrosis**",
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A freely mobile joint is classified as a **diarthrosis**. These types of joints include all synovial joints of the body, which provide the majority of body movements. Most diarthrotic joints are found in the appendicular skeleton and thus give the limbs a wide range of motion. These joints are divided into three catego... | {
"Header 1": "**9.1 | Classification of Joints**",
"Header 3": "**Diarthrosis**",
"token_count": 482,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/Med_v1/med_textbook/AnatomyAndPhysiology-LR.pdf"
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By the end of this section, you will be able to:
- Describe the structural features of fibrous joints
- Distinguish between a suture, syndesmosis, and gomphosis
- Give an example of each type of fibrous joint
At a fibrous joint, the adjacent bones are directly connected to each other by fibrous connective tissue, a... | {
"Header 1": "**9.2 | Fibrous Joints**",
"token_count": 350,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/Med_v1/med_textbook/AnatomyAndPhysiology-LR.pdf"
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All the bones of the skull, except for the mandible, are joined to each other by a fibrous joint called a **suture**. The fibrous connective tissue found at a suture ("to bind or sew") strongly unites the adjacent skull bones and thus helps to protect the brain and form the face. In adults, the skull bones are closely ... | {
"Header 1": "**9.2 | Fibrous Joints**",
"Header 3": "**Suture**",
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A **syndesmosis** ("fastened with a band") is a type of fibrous joint in which two parallel bones are united to each other by fibrous connective tissue. The gap between the bones may be narrow, with the bones joined by ligaments, or the gap may be wide and filled in by a broad sheet of connective tissue called an **int... | {
"Header 1": "**9.2 | Fibrous Joints**",
"Header 3": "**Syndesmosis**",
"token_count": 534,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/Med_v1/med_textbook/AnatomyAndPhysiology-LR.pdf"
} |
By the end of this section, you will be able to:
- Describe the structural features of cartilaginous joints
- Distinguish between a synchondrosis and symphysis
- Give an example of each type of cartilaginous joint
As the name indicates, at a cartilaginous joint, the adjacent bones are united by cartilage, a tough b... | {
"Header 1": "**9.3 | Cartilaginous Joints**",
"token_count": 389,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/Med_v1/med_textbook/AnatomyAndPhysiology-LR.pdf"
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A **synchondrosis** ("joined by cartilage") is a cartilaginous joint where bones are joined together by hyaline cartilage, or where bone is united to hyaline cartilage. A synchondrosis may be temporary or permanent. A temporary synchondrosis is the epiphyseal plate (growth plate) of a growing long bone. The epiphyseal ... | {
"Header 1": "**9.3 | Cartilaginous Joints**",
"Header 3": "**Synchondrosis**",
"token_count": 762,
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A cartilaginous joint where the bones are joined by fibrocartilage is called a **symphysis** ("growing together"). Fibrocartilage is very strong because it contains numerous bundles of thick collagen fibers, thus giving it a much greater ability to resist pulling and bending forces when compared with hyaline cartilage.... | {
"Header 1": "**9.3 | Cartilaginous Joints**",
"Header 3": "**Symphysis**",
"token_count": 338,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/Med_v1/med_textbook/AnatomyAndPhysiology-LR.pdf"
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By the end of this section, you will be able to:
- Describe the structural features of a synovial joint
- Discuss the function of additional structures associated with synovial joints
- List the six types of synovial joints and give an example of each
Synovial joints are the most common type of joint in the body (*... | {
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Synovial joints are characterized by the presence of a joint cavity. The walls of this space are formed by the **articular capsule**, a fibrous connective tissue structure that is attached to each bone just outside the area of the bone's articulating surface. The bones of the joint articulate with each other within the... | {
"Header 1": "**9.4 | Synovial Joints**",
"Header 3": "**Structural Features of Synovial Joints**",
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A few synovial joints of the body have a fibrocartilage structure located between the articulating bones. This is called an **articular disc**, which is generally small and oval-shaped, or a **meniscus**, which is larger and C-shaped. These structures can serve several functions, depending on the specific joint. In som... | {
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"Header 3": "**Additional Structures Associated with Synovial Joints**",
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Bursitis is the inflammation of a bursa near a joint. This will cause pain, swelling, or tenderness of the bursa and surrounding area, and may also result in joint stiffness. Bursitis is most commonly associated with the bursae found at or near the shoulder, hip, knee, or elbow joints. At the shoulder, subacromial burs... | {
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"Header 3": "**Bursitis**",
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Synovial joints are subdivided based on the shapes of the articulating surfaces of the bones that form each joint. The six types of synovial joints are pivot, hinge, condyloid, saddle, plane, and ball-and socket-joints (**[Figure 9.10](#page-351-0)**).
**Figure 9.10 Types of Synovial Jo... | {
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"Header 3": "**Types of Synovial Joints**",
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At a **pivot joint**, a rounded portion of a bone is enclosed within a ring formed partially by the articulation with another bone and partially by a ligament (see **[Figure 9.10a](#page-351-0)**). The bone rotates within this ring. Since the rotation is around a single axis, pivot joints are functionally classified as... | {
"Header 1": "**9.4 | Synovial Joints**",
"Header 3": "**Pivot Joint**",
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At a **condyloid joint** (ellipsoid joint), the shallow depression at the end of one bone articulates with a rounded structure from an adjacent bone or bones (see **[Figure 9.10](#page-351-0)e**). The knuckle (metacarpophalangeal) joints of the hand between the distal end of a metacarpal bone and the proximal phalanx b... | {
"Header 1": "**9.4 | Synovial Joints**",
"Header 3": "**Condyloid Joint**",
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At a **saddle joint**, both of the articulating surfaces for the bones have a saddle shape, which is concave in one direction and convex in the other (see **[Figure 9.10c](#page-351-0)**). This allows the two bones to fit together like a rider sitting on a saddle. Saddle joints are functionally classified as biaxial jo... | {
"Header 1": "**9.4 | Synovial Joints**",
"Header 3": "**Saddle Joint**",
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At a **plane joint** (gliding joint), the articulating surfaces of the bones are flat or slightly curved and of approximately the same size, which allows the bones to slide against each other (see **[Figure 9.10d](#page-351-0)**). The motion at this type of joint is usually small and tightly constrained by surrounding ... | {
"Header 1": "**9.4 | Synovial Joints**",
"Header 3": "**Plane Joint**",
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"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/Med_v1/med_textbook/AnatomyAndPhysiology-LR.pdf"
} |
The joint with the greatest range of motion is the **ball-and-socket joint**. At these joints, the rounded head of one bone (the ball) fits into the concave articulation (the socket) of the adjacent bone (see **[Figure 9.10](#page-351-0)f**). The hip joint and the glenohumeral (shoulder) joint are the only ball-and-soc... | {
"Header 1": "**9.4 | Synovial Joints**",
"Header 3": "**Ball-and-Socket Joint**",
"token_count": 498,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/Med_v1/med_textbook/AnatomyAndPhysiology-LR.pdf"
} |
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