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Arthritis is a common disorder of synovial joints that involves inflammation of the joint. This often results in significant joint pain, along with swelling, stiffness, and reduced joint mobility. There are more than 100 different forms of arthritis. Arthritis may arise from aging, damage to the articular cartilage, au... | {
"Header 1": "**9.4 | Synovial Joints**",
"Header 3": "**Joints**",
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By the end of this section, you will be able to:
- Define the different types of body movements
- Identify the joints that allow for these motions
Synovial joints allow the body a tremendous range of movements. Each movement at a synovial joint results from the contraction or relaxation of the muscles that are atta... | {
"Header 1": "**9.5 | Types of Body Movements**",
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**Flexion** and **extension** are movements that take place within the sagittal plane and involve anterior or posterior movements of the body or limbs. For the vertebral column, flexion (anterior flexion) is an anterior (forward) bending of the neck or body, while extension involves a posterior-directed motion, such as... | {
"Header 1": "**9.5 | Types of Body Movements**",
"Header 3": "**Flexion and Extension**",
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**Abduction** and **adduction** motions occur within the coronal plane and involve medial-lateral motions of the limbs, fingers, toes, or thumb. Abduction moves the limb laterally away from the midline of the body, while adduction is the opposing movement that brings the limb toward the body or across the midline. For ... | {
"Header 1": "**9.5 | Types of Body Movements**",
"Header 3": "**Abduction and Adduction**",
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**Rotation** can occur within the vertebral column, at a pivot joint, or at a ball-and-socket joint. Rotation of the neck or body is the twisting movement produced by the summation of the small rotational movements available between adjacent vertebrae. At a pivot joint, one bone rotates in relation to another bone. Thi... | {
"Header 1": "**9.5 | Types of Body Movements**",
"Header 3": "**Rotation**",
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Supination and pronation are movements of the forearm. In the anatomical position, the upper limb is held next to the body with the palm facing forward. This is the **supinated position** of the forearm. In this position, the radius and ulna are parallel to each other. When the palm of the hand faces backward, the fore... | {
"Header 1": "**9.5 | Types of Body Movements**",
"Header 3": "**Supination and Pronation**",
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Superior and inferior rotation are movements of the scapula and are defined by the direction of movement of the glenoid cavity. These motions involve rotation of the scapula around a point inferior to the scapular spine and are produced by combinations of muscles acting on the scapula. During **superior rotation**, the... | {
"Header 1": "**9.5 | Types of Body Movements**",
"Header 3": "**Superior Rotation and Inferior Rotation**",
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By the end of this section, you will be able to:
- Describe the bones that articulate together to form selected synovial joints
- Discuss the movements available at each joint
- Describe the structures that support and prevent excess movements at each joint
Each synovial joint of the body is specialized to perform ... | {
"Header 1": "**9.6 | Anatomy of Selected Synovial Joints**",
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In addition to being held together by the intervertebral discs, adjacent vertebrae also articulate with each other at synovial joints formed between the superior and inferior articular processes called **zygapophysial joints** (facet joints) (see **[Figure](#page-342-1) [9.3](#page-342-1)**). These are plane joints tha... | {
"Header 1": "**9.6 | Anatomy of Selected Synovial Joints**",
"Header 3": "**Articulations of the Vertebral Column**",
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The **temporomandibular joint (TMJ)** is the joint that allows for opening (mandibular depression) and closing (mandibular elevation) of the mouth, as well as side-to-side and protraction/retraction motions of the lower jaw. This joint involves the articulation between the mandibular fossa and articular tubercle of the... | {
"Header 1": "**9.6 | Anatomy of Selected Synovial Joints**",
"Header 3": "**Temporomandibular Joint**",
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The shoulder joint is called the **glenohumeral joint**. This is a ball-and-socket joint formed by the articulation between the head of the humerus and the glenoid cavity of the scapula (**[Figure 9.16](#page-364-0)**). This joint has the largest range of motion of any joint in the body. However, this freedom of moveme... | {
"Header 1": "**9.6 | Anatomy of Selected Synovial Joints**",
"Header 3": "**Shoulder Joint**",
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The **elbow joint** is a uniaxial hinge joint formed by the **humeroulnar joint**, the articulation between the trochlea of the humerus and the trochlear notch of the ulna. Also associated with the elbow are the **humeroradial joint** and the proximal radioulnar joint. All three of these joints are enclosed within a si... | {
"Header 1": "**9.6 | Anatomy of Selected Synovial Joints**",
"Header 3": "**Elbow Joint**",
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The hip joint is a multiaxial ball-and-socket joint between the head of the femur and the acetabulum of the hip bone (**[Figure](#page-368-0) [9.18](#page-368-0)**). The hip carries the weight of the body and thus requires strength and stability during standing and walking. For these reasons, its range of motion is mor... | {
"Header 1": "**9.6 | Anatomy of Selected Synovial Joints**",
"Header 3": "**Hip Joint**",
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The knee joint is the largest joint of the body (**[Figure 9.19](#page-370-0)**). It actually consists of three articulations. The **femoropatellar joint** is found between the patella and the distal femur. The **medial tibiofemoral joint** and **lateral tibiofemoral joint** are located between the medial and lateral c... | {
"Header 1": "**9.6 | Anatomy of Selected Synovial Joints**",
"Header 3": "**Knee Joint**",
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Injuries to the knee are common. Since this joint is primarily supported by muscles and ligaments, injuries to any of these structures will result in pain or knee instability. Injury to the posterior cruciate ligament occurs when the knee is flexed and the tibia is driven posteriorly, such as falling and landing on the... | {
"Header 1": "**9.6 | Anatomy of Selected Synovial Joints**",
"Header 3": "**Joints**",
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The ankle is formed by the **talocrural joint** (**[Figure 9.21](#page-374-0)**). It consists of the articulations between the talus bone of the foot and the distal ends of the tibia and fibula of the leg (crural = "leg"). The superior aspect of the talus bone is square-shaped and has three areas of articulation. The t... | {
"Header 1": "**9.6 | Anatomy of Selected Synovial Joints**",
"Header 3": "**Ankle and Foot Joints**",
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The ankle is the most frequently injured joint in the body, with the most common injury being an inversion ankle sprain. A sprain is the stretching or tearing of the supporting ligaments. Excess inversion causes the talus bone to tilt laterally, thus damaging the ligaments on the lateral side of the ankle. The anterior... | {
"Header 1": "**9.6 | Anatomy of Selected Synovial Joints**",
"Header 3": "**Joints**",
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By the end of this section, you will be able to:
- Describe the two processes by which mesenchyme can give rise to bone
- Discuss the process by which joints of the limbs are formed
Joints form during embryonic development in conjunction with the formation and growth of the associated bones. The embryonic tissue th... | {
"Header 1": "**9.7 | Development of Joints**",
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**abduction** movement in the coronal plane that moves a limb laterally away from the body; spreading of the fingers
**acetabular labrum** lip of fibrocartilage that surrounds outer margin of the acetabulum on the hip bone
**adduction** movement in the coronal plane that moves a limb medially toward or across the m... | {
"Header 1": "**9.7 | Development of Joints**",
"Header 3": "**KEY TERMS**",
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motion involving anterior bending of the vertebral column
- **fontanelles** expanded areas of fibrous connective tissue that separate the braincase bones of the skull prior to birth and during the first year after birth
- **glenohumeral joint** shoulder joint; articulation between the glenoid cavity of the scapula and ... | {
"Header 1": "**9.7 | Development of Joints**",
"Header 3": "**KEY TERMS**",
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twisting of the vertebral column resulting from the summation of small motions between adjacent vertebrae
- **rotator cuff** strong connective tissue structure formed by the fusion of four rotator cuff muscle tendons to the articular capsule of the shoulder joint; surrounds and supports superior, anterior, lateral, and... | {
"Header 1": "**9.7 | Development of Joints**",
"Header 3": "**KEY TERMS**",
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Structural classifications of the body joints are based on how the bones are held together and articulate with each other. At fibrous joints, the adjacent bones are directly united to each other by fibrous connective tissue. Similarly, at a cartilaginous joint, the adjacent bones are united by cartilage. In contrast, a... | {
"Header 1": "**9.7 | Development of Joints**",
"Header 3": "**[9.1 Classificati](#page-340-1)[on of Joints](#page-341-0)**",
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Fibrous joints are where adjacent bones are strongly united by fibrous connective tissue. The gap filled by connective tissue may be narrow or wide. The three types of fibrous joints are sutures, gomphoses, and syndesmoses. A suture is the narrow fibrous joint that unites most bones of the skull. At a gomphosis, the ro... | {
"Header 1": "**9.7 | Development of Joints**",
"Header 3": "**[9.2 Fibrous Joints](#page-343-0)**",
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There are two types of cartilaginous joints. A synchondrosis is formed when the adjacent bones are united by hyaline cartilage. A temporary synchondrosis is formed by the epiphyseal plate of a growing long bone, which is lost when the epiphyseal plate ossifies as the bone reaches maturity. The synchondrosis is thus rep... | {
"Header 1": "**9.7 | Development of Joints**",
"Header 3": "**[9.3 Cartilaginous Joints](#page-345-0)**",
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Synovial joints are the most common type of joints in the body. They are characterized by the presence of a joint cavity, inside of which the bones of the joint articulate with each other. The articulating surfaces of the bones at a synovial joint are not directly connected to each other by connective tissue or cartila... | {
"Header 1": "**9.7 | Development of Joints**",
"Header 3": "**[9.4 Synovial Joints](#page-347-0)**",
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The variety of movements provided by the different types of synovial joints allows for a large range of body motions and gives you tremendous mobility. These movements allow you to flex or extend your body or limbs, medially rotate and adduct your arms and flex your elbows to hold a heavy object against your chest, rai... | {
"Header 1": "**9.7 | Development of Joints**",
"Header 3": "**[9.5 Types of Body Movements](#page-356-0)**",
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Although synovial joints share many common features, each joint of the body is specialized for certain movements and activities. The joints of the upper limb provide for large ranges of motion, which give the upper limb great mobility, thus enabling actions such as the throwing of a ball or typing on a keyboard. The jo... | {
"Header 1": "**9.7 | Development of Joints**",
"Header 3": "**[9.6 Anatomy of Selected Synovial Joints](#page-361-0)**",
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During embryonic growth, bones and joints develop from mesenchyme, an embryonic tissue that gives rise to bone, cartilage, and fibrous connective tissues. In the skull, the bones develop either directly from mesenchyme through the process of intramembranous ossification, or indirectly through endochondral ossification,... | {
"Header 1": "**9.7 | Development of Joints**",
"Header 3": "**[9.7 Development of Joints](#page-376-0)**",
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**53.** Define how joints are classified based on function. Describe and give an example for each functional type of joint.
**54.** Explain the reasons for why joints differ in their degree of mobility.
**55.** Distinguish between a narrow and wide fibrous joint and give an example of each.
**56.** The periodonta... | {
"Header 1": "**9.7 | Development of Joints**",
"Header 3": "**CRITICAL THINKING QUESTIONS**",
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After studying this chapter, you will be able to:
- Explain the organization of muscle tissue
- Describe the function and structure of skeletal, cardiac muscle, and smooth muscle
- Explain how muscles work with tendons to move the body
- Describe how muscles contract and relax
- Define the process of muscle metabolis... | {
"Header 1": "**Introduction**",
"Header 2": "**Chapter Objectives**",
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By the end of this section, you will be able to:
- Describe the different types of muscle
- Explain contractibility and extensibility
Muscle is one of the four primary tissue types of the body, and the body contains three types of muscle tissue: skeletal muscle, cardiac muscle, and smooth muscle (**[Figure 10.2](#p... | {
"Header 1": "**10.1 | Overview of Muscle Tissues**",
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By the end of this section, you will be able to:
- Describe the layers of connective tissues packaging skeletal muscle
- Explain how muscles work with tendons to move the body
- Identify areas of the skeletal muscle fibers
- Describe excitation-contraction coupling
The best-known feature of skeletal muscle is its a... | {
"Header 1": "**10.2 | Skeletal Muscle**",
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Because skeletal muscle cells are long and cylindrical, they are commonly referred to as muscle fibers. Skeletal muscle fibers can be quite large for human cells, with diameters up to 100 *μ*m and lengths up to 30 cm (11.8 in) in the Sartorius of the upper leg. During early development, embryonic myoblasts, each with i... | {
"Header 1": "**10.2 | Skeletal Muscle**",
"Header 3": "**Skeletal Muscle Fibers**",
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The striated appearance of skeletal muscle fibers is due to the arrangement of the myofilaments of actin and myosin in sequential order from one end of the muscle fiber to the other. Each packet of these microfilaments and their regulatory proteins, **troponin** and **tropomyosin** (along with other proteins) is called... | {
"Header 1": "**10.2 | Skeletal Muscle**",
"Header 3": "**The Sarcomere**",
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Another specialization of the skeletal muscle is the site where a motor neuron's terminal meets the muscle fiber—called the **neuromuscular junction (NMJ)**. This is where the muscle fiber first responds to signaling by the motor neuron. Every skeletal muscle fiber in every skeletal muscle is innervated by a motor neur... | {
"Header 1": "**10.2 | Skeletal Muscle**",
"Header 3": "**The Neuromuscular Junction**",
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All living cells have membrane potentials, or electrical gradients across their membranes. The inside of the membrane is usually around -60 to -90 mV, relative to the outside. This is referred to as a cell's membrane potential. Neurons and muscle cells can use their membrane potentials to generate electrical signals. T... | {
"Header 1": "**10.2 | Skeletal Muscle**",
"Header 3": "**Excitation-Contraction Coupling**",
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By the end of this section, you will be able to:
- Describe the components involved in a muscle contraction
- Explain how muscles contract and relax
- Describe the sliding filament model of muscle contraction
The sequence of events that result in the contraction of an individual muscle fiber begins with a signal—th... | {
"Header 1": "**10.3 | Muscle Fiber Contraction and Relaxation**",
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When signaled by a motor neuron, a skeletal muscle fiber contracts as the thin filaments are pulled and then slide past the thick filaments within the fiber's sarcomeres. This process is known as the sliding filament model of muscle contraction (**[Figure 10.10](#page-399-0)**). The sliding can only occur when myosin-b... | {
"Header 1": "**10.3 | Muscle Fiber Contraction and Relaxation**",
"Header 3": "**The Sliding Filament Model of Contraction**",
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For thin filaments to continue to slide past thick filaments during muscle contraction, myosin heads must pull the actin at the binding sites, detach, re-cock, attach to more binding sites, pull, detach, re-cock, etc. This repeated movement is known as the cross-bridge cycle. This motion of the myosin heads is similar ... | {
"Header 1": "**10.3 | Muscle Fiber Contraction and Relaxation**",
"Header 3": "**ATP and Muscle Contraction**",
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ATP supplies the energy for muscle contraction to take place. In addition to its direct role in the cross-bridge cycle, ATP also provides the energy for the active-transport Ca++ pumps in the SR. Muscle contraction does not occur without sufficient amounts of ATP. The amount of ATP stored in muscle is very low, only su... | {
"Header 1": "**10.3 | Muscle Fiber Contraction and Relaxation**",
"Header 3": "**Sources of ATP**",
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Duchenne muscular dystrophy (DMD) is a progressive weakening of the skeletal muscles. It is one of several diseases collectively referred to as "muscular dystrophy." DMD is caused by a lack of the protein dystrophin, which helps the thin filaments of myofibrils bind to the sarcolemma. Without sufficient dystrophin, mus... | {
"Header 1": "**10.3 | Muscle Fiber Contraction and Relaxation**",
"Header 3": "**Muscular System**",
"token_count": 345,
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By the end of this section, you will be able to:
- Explain concentric, isotonic, and eccentric contractions
- Describe the length-tension relationship
- Describe the three phases of a muscle twitch
- Define wave summation, tetanus, and treppe
To move an object, referred to as load, the sarcomeres in the muscle fibe... | {
"Header 1": "**10.4 | Nervous System Control of Muscle Tension**",
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As you have learned, every skeletal muscle fiber must be innervated by the axon terminal of a motor neuron in order to contract. Each muscle fiber is innervated by only one motor neuron. The actual group of muscle fibers in a muscle innervated by a single motor neuron is called a **motor unit**. The size of a motor uni... | {
"Header 1": "**10.4 | Nervous System Control of Muscle Tension**",
"Header 3": "**Motor Units**",
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When a skeletal muscle fiber contracts, myosin heads attach to actin to form cross-bridges followed by the thin filaments sliding over the thick filaments as the heads pull the actin, and this results in sarcomere shortening, creating the tension of the muscle contraction. The cross-bridges can only form where thin and... | {
"Header 1": "**10.4 | Nervous System Control of Muscle Tension**",
"Header 3": "**The Length-Tension Range of a Sarcomere**",
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A single action potential from a motor neuron will produce a single contraction in the muscle fibers of its motor unit. This isolated contraction is called a **twitch**. A twitch can last for a few milliseconds or 100 milliseconds, depending on the muscle type. The tension produced by a single twitch can be measured by... | {
"Header 1": "**10.4 | Nervous System Control of Muscle Tension**",
"Header 3": "**The Frequency of Motor Neuron Stimulation**",
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When a skeletal muscle has been dormant for an extended period and then activated to contract, with all other things being equal, the initial contractions generate about one-half the force of later contractions. The muscle tension increases in a graded manner that to some looks like a set of stairs. This tension increa... | {
"Header 1": "**10.4 | Nervous System Control of Muscle Tension**",
"Header 3": "**Treppe**",
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Skeletal muscles are rarely completely relaxed, or flaccid. Even if a muscle is not producing movement, it is contracted a small amount to maintain its contractile proteins and produce **muscle tone**. The tension produced by muscle tone allows muscles to continually stabilize joints and maintain posture.
Muscle tone... | {
"Header 1": "**10.4 | Nervous System Control of Muscle Tension**",
"Header 3": "**Muscle Tone**",
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By the end of this section, you will be able to:
- Describe the types of skeletal muscle fibers
- Explain fast and slow muscle fibers
Two criteria to consider when classifying the types of muscle fibers are how fast some fibers contract relative to others, and how fibers produce ATP. Using these criteria, there are... | {
"Header 1": "**10.5 | Types of Muscle Fibers**",
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Slow fibers are predominantly used in endurance exercises that require little force but involve numerous repetitions. The aerobic metabolism used by slow-twitch fibers allows them to maintain contractions over long periods. Endurance training modifies these slow fibers to make them even more efficient by producing more... | {
"Header 1": "**10.6 | Exercise and Muscle Performance**",
"Header 3": "**Endurance Exercise**",
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Resistance exercises, as opposed to endurance exercise, require large amounts of FG fibers to produce short, powerful movements that are not repeated over long periods. The high rates of ATP hydrolysis and cross-bridge formation in FG fibers result in powerful muscle contractions. Muscles used for power have a higher r... | {
"Header 1": "**10.6 | Exercise and Muscle Performance**",
"Header 3": "**Resistance Exercise**",
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Some athletes attempt to boost their performance by using various agents that may enhance muscle performance. Anabolic steroids are one of the more widely known agents used to boost muscle mass and increase power output. Anabolic steroids are a form of testosterone, a male sex hormone that stimulates muscle formation, ... | {
"Header 1": "**10.6 | Exercise and Muscle Performance**",
"Header 3": "**Performance-Enhancing Substances**",
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Although atrophy due to disuse can often be reversed with exercise, muscle atrophy with age, referred to as sarcopenia, is irreversible. This is a primary reason why even highly trained athletes succumb to declining performance with age. This decline is noticeable in athletes whose sports require strength and powerful ... | {
"Header 1": "**10.6 | Exercise and Muscle Performance**",
"Header 3": "**Aging and Muscle Tissue**",
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By the end of this section, you will be able to:
- Describe intercalated discs and gap junctions
- Describe a desmosome
Cardiac muscle tissue is only found in the heart. Highly coordinated contractions of cardiac muscle pump blood into the vessels of the circulatory system. Similar to skeletal muscle, cardiac muscl... | {
"Header 1": "**10.7 | Cardiac Muscle Tissue**",
"token_count": 847,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/Med_v1/med_textbook/AnatomyAndPhysiology-LR.pdf"
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By the end of this section, you will be able to:
- Describe a dense body
- Explain how smooth muscle works with internal organs and passageways through the body
- Explain how smooth muscles differ from skeletal and cardiac muscles
- Explain the difference between single-unit and multi-unit smooth muscle
Smooth musc... | {
"Header 1": "**10.8 | Smooth Muscle**",
"token_count": 1856,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/Med_v1/med_textbook/AnatomyAndPhysiology-LR.pdf"
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By the end of this section, you will be able to:
- Describe the function of satellite cells
- Define fibrosis
- Explain which muscle has the greatest regeneration ability
Most muscle tissue of the body arises from embryonic mesoderm. Paraxial mesodermal cells adjacent to the neural tube form blocks of cells called ... | {
"Header 1": "**10.9 | Development and Regeneration of Muscle Tissue**",
"token_count": 640,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/Med_v1/med_textbook/AnatomyAndPhysiology-LR.pdf"
} |
As muscle cells die, they are not regenerated but instead are replaced by connective tissue and adipose tissue, which do not possess the contractile abilities of muscle tissue. Muscles atrophy when they are not used, and over time if atrophy is prolonged, muscle cells die. It is therefore important that those who are s... | {
"Header 1": "**10.9 | Development and Regeneration of Muscle Tissue**",
"Header 3": "**Physical Therapist**",
"token_count": 424,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/Med_v1/med_textbook/AnatomyAndPhysiology-LR.pdf"
} |
**acetylcholine (ACh)** neurotransmitter that binds at a motor end-plate to trigger depolarization
**actin** protein that makes up most of the thin myofilaments in a sarcomere muscle fiber
- **action potential** change in voltage of a cell membrane in response to a stimulus that results in transmission of an electr... | {
"Header 1": "**10.9 | Development and Regeneration of Muscle Tissue**",
"Header 3": "**KEY TERMS**",
"token_count": 1736,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/Med_v1/med_textbook/AnatomyAndPhysiology-LR.pdf"
} |
A sarcomere is the smallest contractile portion of a muscle. Myofibrils are composed of thick and thin filaments. Thick filaments are composed of the protein myosin; thin filaments are composed of the protein actin. Troponin and tropomyosin are regulatory proteins.
Muscle contraction is described by the sliding filam... | {
"Header 1": "**10.9 | Development and Regeneration of Muscle Tissue**",
"Header 3": "**[10.3 Muscle Fiber Contraction and Relaxation](#page-396-0)**",
"token_count": 225,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/Med_v1/med_textbook/AnatomyAndPhysiology-LR.pdf"
} |
ATP provides the energy for muscle contraction. The three mechanisms for ATP regeneration are creatine phosphate, anaerobic glycolysis, and aerobic metabolism. Creatine phosphate provides about the first 15 seconds of ATP at the beginning of muscle contraction. Anaerobic glycolysis produces small amounts of ATP in the ... | {
"Header 1": "**10.9 | Development and Regeneration of Muscle Tissue**",
"Header 3": "**[10.5 Types of Muscle Fibers](#page-409-0)**",
"token_count": 204,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/Med_v1/med_textbook/AnatomyAndPhysiology-LR.pdf"
} |
Smooth muscle is found throughout the body around various organs and tracts. Smooth muscle cells have a single nucleus, and are spindle-shaped. Smooth muscle cells can undergo hyperplasia, mitotically dividing to produce new cells. The smooth cells are nonstriated, but their sarcoplasm is filled with actin and myosin, ... | {
"Header 1": "**10.9 | Development and Regeneration of Muscle Tissue**",
"Header 3": "**[10.8 Smooth Muscle](#page-414-0)**",
"token_count": 339,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/Med_v1/med_textbook/AnatomyAndPhysiology-LR.pdf"
} |
After studying this chapter, you will be able to:
- Describe the actions and roles of agonists and antagonists
- Explain the structure and organization of muscle fascicles and their role in generating force
- Explain the criteria used to name skeletal muscles
- Identify the skeletal muscles and their actions on the s... | {
"Header 1": "**Introduction**",
"Header 2": "**Chapter Objectives**",
"token_count": 307,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/Med_v1/med_textbook/AnatomyAndPhysiology-LR.pdf"
} |
To pull on a bone, that is, to change the angle at its synovial joint, which essentially moves the skeleton, a skeletal muscle must also be attached to a fixed part of the skeleton. The moveable end of the muscle that attaches to the bone being pulled is called the muscle's **insertion**, and the end of the muscle atta... | {
"Header 1": "**11.1 | Interactions of Skeletal Muscles, Their Fascicle Arrangement, and Their Lever Systems**",
"Header 3": "**Interactions of Skeletal Muscles in the Body**",
"token_count": 811,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/Med_v1/med_textbook/AnatomyAndPhysiology-LR.pdf"
} |
When exercising, it is important to first warm up the muscles. Stretching pulls on the muscle fibers and it also results in an increased blood flow to the muscles being worked. Without a proper warm-up, it is possible that you may either damage some of the muscle fibers or pull a tendon. A pulled tendon, regardless of ... | {
"Header 1": "**11.1 | Interactions of Skeletal Muscles, Their Fascicle Arrangement, and Their Lever Systems**",
"Header 3": "**Exercise and Stretching**",
"token_count": 213,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/Med_v1/med_textbook/AnatomyAndPhysiology-LR.pdf"
} |
Skeletal muscle is enclosed in connective tissue scaffolding at three levels. Each muscle fiber (cell) is covered by endomysium and the entire muscle is covered by epimysium. When a group of muscle fibers is "bundled" as a unit within the whole muscle by an additional covering of a connective tissue called perimysium, ... | {
"Header 1": "**11.1 | Interactions of Skeletal Muscles, Their Fascicle Arrangement, and Their Lever Systems**",
"Header 3": "**Patterns of Fascicle Organization**",
"token_count": 1320,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/Med_v1/med_textbook/AnatomyAndPhysiology-LR.pdf"
} |
Skeletal muscles do not work by themselves. Muscles are arranged in pairs based on their functions. For muscles attached to the bones of the skeleton, the connection determines the force, speed, and range of movement. These characteristics depend on each other and can explain the general organization of the muscular an... | {
"Header 1": "**11.1 | Interactions of Skeletal Muscles, Their Fascicle Arrangement, and Their Lever Systems**",
"Header 3": "**The Lever System of Muscle and Bone Interactions**",
"token_count": 248,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/Med_v1/med_textbook/AnatomyAndPhysiology-LR.pdf"
} |
By the end of this section, you will be able to:
- Describe the criteria used to name skeletal muscles
- Explain how understanding the muscle names helps describe shapes, location, and actions of various muscles
The Greeks and Romans conducted the first studies done on the human body in Western culture. The educate... | {
"Header 1": "**11.2 | Naming Skeletal Muscles**",
"token_count": 651,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/Med_v1/med_textbook/AnatomyAndPhysiology-LR.pdf"
} |
| Example | Latin or Greek<br>Translation | Mnemonic Device |
|-------------|-------------------------------|--------------------------------------------------------------------------|
| ad | to; toward | ADvance toward your goal ... | {
"Header 1": "**11.2 | Naming Skeletal Muscles**",
"Header 3": "**Mnemonic Device for Latin Roots**",
"token_count": 936,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/Med_v1/med_textbook/AnatomyAndPhysiology-LR.pdf"
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The origins of the muscles of facial expression are on the surface of the skull (remember, the origin of a muscle does not move). The insertions of these muscles have fibers intertwined with connective tissue and the dermis of the skin. Because the muscles insert in the skin rather than on bone, when they contract, the... | {
"Header 1": "**11.3 | Axial Muscles of the Head, Neck, and Back**",
"Header 3": "**Muscles That Create Facial Expression**",
"token_count": 1311,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/Med_v1/med_textbook/AnatomyAndPhysiology-LR.pdf"
} |
The movement of the eyeball is under the control of the **extrinsic eye muscles**, which originate outside the eye and insert onto the outer surface of the white of the eye. These muscles are located inside the eye socket and cannot be seen on any part of the visible eyeball (**[Figure 11.9](#page-437-0)** and **[Table... | {
"Header 1": "**11.3 | Axial Muscles of the Head, Neck, and Back**",
"Header 3": "**Muscles That Move the Eyes**",
"token_count": 790,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/Med_v1/med_textbook/AnatomyAndPhysiology-LR.pdf"
} |
In anatomical terminology, chewing is called **mastication**. Muscles involved in chewing must be able to exert enough pressure to bite through and then chew food before it is swallowed (**Figure 11.10** and **Table 11.4**). The **masseter** muscle is the main muscle used for chewing because it elevates the mandible (l... | {
"Header 1": "**11.3 | Axial Muscles of the Head, Neck, and Back**",
"Header 3": "**Muscles That Move the Lower Jaw**",
"token_count": 432,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/Med_v1/med_textbook/AnatomyAndPhysiology-LR.pdf"
} |
Although the tongue is obviously important for tasting food, it is also necessary for mastication, **deglutition** (swallowing), and speech (**[Figure 11.11](#page-439-0)** and **[Figure 11.12](#page-440-0)**). Because it is so moveable, the tongue facilitates complex speech patterns and sounds.
![](_page_439_Figure_... | {
"Header 1": "**11.3 | Axial Muscles of the Head, Neck, and Back**",
"Header 3": "**Muscles That Move the Tongue**",
"token_count": 1182,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/Med_v1/med_textbook/AnatomyAndPhysiology-LR.pdf"
} |
Tongue muscles can be extrinsic or intrinsic. Extrinsic tongue muscles insert into the tongue from outside origins, and the intrinsic tongue muscles insert into the tongue from origins within it. The extrinsic muscles move the whole tongue in different directions, whereas the intrinsic muscles allow the tongue to chang... | {
"Header 1": "**11.3 | Axial Muscles of the Head, Neck, and Back**",
"Header 3": "**Figure 11.12 Muscles for Tongue Movement, Swallowing, and Speech**",
"token_count": 205,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/Med_v1/med_textbook/AnatomyAndPhysiology-LR.pdf"
} |
Before surgery, a patient must be made ready for general anesthesia. The normal homeostatic controls of the body are put "on hold" so that the patient can be prepped for surgery. Control of respiration must be switched from the patient's homeostatic control to the control of the anesthesiologist. The drugs used for ane... | {
"Header 1": "**11.3 | Axial Muscles of the Head, Neck, and Back**",
"Header 3": "**Anesthesia and the Tongue Muscles**",
"token_count": 273,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/Med_v1/med_textbook/AnatomyAndPhysiology-LR.pdf"
} |
The muscles of the anterior neck assist in deglutition (swallowing) and speech by controlling the positions of the larynx (voice box), and the hyoid bone, a horseshoe-shaped bone that functions as a solid foundation on which the tongue can move. The muscles of the neck are categorized according to their position relati... | {
"Header 1": "**11.3 | Axial Muscles of the Head, Neck, and Back**",
"Header 3": "**Muscles of the Anterior Neck**",
"token_count": 439,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/Med_v1/med_textbook/AnatomyAndPhysiology-LR.pdf"
} |
The head, attached to the top of the vertebral column, is balanced, moved, and rotated by the neck muscles (**[Table 11.5](#page-442-0)**). When these muscles act unilaterally, the head rotates. When they contract bilaterally, the head flexes or extends. The major muscle that laterally flexes and rotates the head is th... | {
"Header 1": "**11.3 | Axial Muscles of the Head, Neck, and Back**",
"Header 3": "**Muscles That Move the Head**",
"token_count": 665,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/Med_v1/med_textbook/AnatomyAndPhysiology-LR.pdf"
} |
The posterior muscles of the neck are primarily concerned with head movements, like extension. The back muscles stabilize and move the vertebral column, and are grouped according to the lengths and direction of the fascicles.
The **splenius** muscles originate at the midline and run laterally and superiorly to their ... | {
"Header 1": "**11.3 | Axial Muscles of the Head, Neck, and Back**",
"Header 3": "**Muscles of the Posterior Neck and the Back**",
"token_count": 730,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/Med_v1/med_textbook/AnatomyAndPhysiology-LR.pdf"
} |
There are four pairs of abdominal muscles that cover the anterior and lateral abdominal region and meet at the anterior midline. These muscles of the anterolateral abdominal wall can be divided into four groups: the external obliques, the internal obliques, the transversus abdominis, and the rectus abdominis (**[Figure... | {
"Header 1": "**11.4 | Axial Muscles of the Abdominal Wall and Thorax**",
"Header 3": "**Muscles of the Abdomen**",
"token_count": 554,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/Med_v1/med_textbook/AnatomyAndPhysiology-LR.pdf"
} |
There are three flat skeletal muscles in the antero-lateral wall of the abdomen. The **external oblique**, closest to the surface, extend inferiorly and medially, in the direction of sliding one's four fingers into pants pockets. Perpendicular to it is the intermediate **internal oblique**, extending superiorly and med... | {
"Header 1": "**11.4 | Axial Muscles of the Abdominal Wall and Thorax**",
"Header 3": "**Table 11.6**",
"token_count": 378,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/Med_v1/med_textbook/AnatomyAndPhysiology-LR.pdf"
} |
Those who have a muscle or joint injury will most likely be sent to a physical therapist (PT) after seeing their regular doctor. PTs have a master's degree or doctorate, and are highly trained experts in the mechanics of body movements. Many PTs also specialize in sports injuries.
If you injured your shoulder while y... | {
"Header 1": "**11.4 | Axial Muscles of the Abdominal Wall and Thorax**",
"Header 3": "**Physical Therapists**",
"token_count": 298,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/Med_v1/med_textbook/AnatomyAndPhysiology-LR.pdf"
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The muscles of the chest serve to facilitate breathing by changing the size of the thoracic cavity (**[Table 11.7](#page-447-0)**). When you inhale, your chest rises because the cavity expands. Alternately, when you exhale, your chest falls because the thoracic cavity decreases in size.
| Movement |... | {
"Header 1": "**11.4 | Axial Muscles of the Abdominal Wall and Thorax**",
"Header 3": "**Muscles of the Thorax**",
"token_count": 291,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/Med_v1/med_textbook/AnatomyAndPhysiology-LR.pdf"
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The change in volume of the thoracic cavity during breathing is due to the alternate contraction and relaxation of the **diaphragm** (**[Figure 11.17](#page-447-1)**). It separates the thoracic and abdominal cavities, and is dome-shaped at rest. The superior surface of the diaphragm is convex, creating the elevated flo... | {
"Header 1": "**11.4 | Axial Muscles of the Abdominal Wall and Thorax**",
"Header 3": "**The Diaphragm**",
"token_count": 436,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/Med_v1/med_textbook/AnatomyAndPhysiology-LR.pdf"
} |
There are three sets of muscles, called **intercostal muscles**, which span each of the intercostal spaces. The principal role of the intercostal muscles is to assist in breathing by changing the dimensions of the rib cage (**[Figure 11.18](#page-448-0)**).
**Figure 11.18 Intercostal Mu... | {
"Header 1": "**11.4 | Axial Muscles of the Abdominal Wall and Thorax**",
"Header 3": "**The Intercostal Muscles**",
"token_count": 249,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/Med_v1/med_textbook/AnatomyAndPhysiology-LR.pdf"
} |
The pelvic floor is a muscular sheet that defines the inferior portion of the pelvic cavity. The **pelvic diaphragm**, spanning anteriorly to posteriorly from the pubis to the coccyx, comprises the levator ani and the ischiococcygeus. Its openings include the anal canal and urethra, and the vagina in women.
The large... | {
"Header 1": "**11.4 | Axial Muscles of the Abdominal Wall and Thorax**",
"Header 3": "**Muscles of the Pelvic Floor and Perineum**",
"token_count": 1166,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/Med_v1/med_textbook/AnatomyAndPhysiology-LR.pdf"
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Muscles that position the pectoral girdle are located either on the anterior thorax or on the posterior thorax (**[Figure 11.22](#page-451-0)** and **[Table 11.8](#page-451-1)**). The anterior muscles include the **subclavius**, **pectoralis minor**, and **serratus anterior**. The posterior muscles include the **trapez... | {
"Header 1": "**11.5 | Muscles of the Pectoral Girdle and Upper Limbs**",
"Header 3": "**Muscles That Position the Pectoral Girdle**",
"token_count": 869,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/Med_v1/med_textbook/AnatomyAndPhysiology-LR.pdf"
} |
Similar to the muscles that position the pectoral girdle, muscles that cross the shoulder joint and move the humerus bone of the arm include both axial and scapular muscles (**[Figure 11.23](#page-452-0)** and **[Figure 11.24](#page-453-0)**). The two axial muscles are the pectoralis major and the latissimus dorsi. The... | {
"Header 1": "**11.5 | Muscles of the Pectoral Girdle and Upper Limbs**",
"Header 3": "**Muscles That Move the Humerus**",
"token_count": 1195,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/Med_v1/med_textbook/AnatomyAndPhysiology-LR.pdf"
} |
The rest of the shoulder muscles originate on the scapula. The anatomical and ligamental structure of the shoulder joint and the arrangements of the muscles covering it, allows the arm to carry out different types of movements. The **deltoid**, the thick muscle that creates the rounded lines of the shoulder is the majo... | {
"Header 1": "**11.5 | Muscles of the Pectoral Girdle and Upper Limbs**",
"Header 3": "**Figure 11.24 Muscles That Move the Humerus**",
"token_count": 343,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/Med_v1/med_textbook/AnatomyAndPhysiology-LR.pdf"
} |
The forearm, made of the radius and ulna bones, has four main types of action at the hinge of the elbow joint: flexion, extension, pronation, and supination. The forearm flexors include the biceps brachii, brachialis, and brachioradialis. The extensors are the **triceps brachii** and **anconeus**. The pronators are the... | {
"Header 1": "**11.5 | Muscles of the Pectoral Girdle and Upper Limbs**",
"Header 3": "**Muscles That Move the Forearm**",
"token_count": 1042,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/Med_v1/med_textbook/AnatomyAndPhysiology-LR.pdf"
} |
The muscles in the **anterior compartment of the forearm** (anterior flexor compartment of the forearm) originate on the humerus and insert onto different parts of the hand. These make up the bulk of the forearm. From lateral to medial, the **superficial anterior compartment of the forearm** includes the **flexor carpi... | {
"Header 1": "**11.5 | Muscles of the Pectoral Girdle and Upper Limbs**",
"Header 3": "**Muscles of the Arm That Move the Wrists, Hands, and Fingers**",
"token_count": 1687,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/Med_v1/med_textbook/AnatomyAndPhysiology-LR.pdf"
} |
The **intrinsic muscles of the hand** both originate and insert within it (**[Figure 11.28](#page-457-1)**). These muscles allow your fingers to also make precise movements for actions, such as typing or writing. These muscles are divided into three groups. The **thenar** muscles are on the radial aspect of the palm. T... | {
"Header 1": "**11.5 | Muscles of the Pectoral Girdle and Upper Limbs**",
"Header 3": "**Intrinsic Muscles of the Hand**",
"token_count": 569,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/Med_v1/med_textbook/AnatomyAndPhysiology-LR.pdf"
} |
Most muscles that insert on the femur (the thigh bone) and move it, originate on the pelvic girdle. The **psoas major** and **iliacus** make up the **iliopsoas group**. Some of the largest and most powerful muscles in the body are the gluteal muscles or **gluteal group**. The **gluteus maximus** is the largest; deep to... | {
"Header 1": "**11.6 | Appendicular Muscles of the Pelvic Girdle and Lower Limbs**",
"Header 3": "**Gluteal Region Muscles That Move the Femur**",
"token_count": 1829,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/Med_v1/med_textbook/AnatomyAndPhysiology-LR.pdf"
} |
The **tensor fascia lata** is a thick, squarish muscle in the superior aspect of the lateral thigh. It acts as a synergist of the gluteus medius and iliopsoas in flexing and abducting the thigh. It also helps stabilize the lateral aspect of the knee by pulling on the **iliotibial tract** (band), making it taut. Deep to... | {
"Header 1": "**11.6 | Appendicular Muscles of the Pelvic Girdle and Lower Limbs**",
"Header 3": "**Figure 11.30 Gluteal Region Muscles That Move the Femur**",
"token_count": 276,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/Med_v1/med_textbook/AnatomyAndPhysiology-LR.pdf"
} |
Deep fascia in the thigh separates it into medial, anterior, and posterior compartments (see **[Figure 11.29](#page-460-0)** and **[Figure 11.31](#page-462-0)**). The muscles in the **medial compartment of the thigh** are responsible for adducting the femur at the hip. Along with the adductor longus, adductor brevis, a... | {
"Header 1": "**11.6 | Appendicular Muscles of the Pelvic Girdle and Lower Limbs**",
"Header 3": "**Thigh Muscles That Move the Femur, Tibia, and Fibula**",
"token_count": 1494,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/Med_v1/med_textbook/AnatomyAndPhysiology-LR.pdf"
} |
Similar to the thigh muscles, the muscles of the leg are divided by deep fascia into compartments, although the leg has three: anterior, lateral, and posterior (**[Figure 11.32](#page-463-0)** and **[Figure 11.33](#page-464-0)**).
**Figure 11.32 Muscles of the Lower Leg** The muscles of... | {
"Header 1": "**11.6 | Appendicular Muscles of the Pelvic Girdle and Lower Limbs**",
"Header 3": "**Muscles That Move the Feet and Toes**",
"token_count": 1664,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/Med_v1/med_textbook/AnatomyAndPhysiology-LR.pdf"
} |
The muscles in the **anterior compartment of the leg**: the **tibialis anterior**, a long and thick muscle on the lateral surface of the tibia, the **extensor hallucis longus**, deep under it, and the **extensor digitorum longus**, lateral to it, all contribute to raising the front of the foot when they contract. The *... | {
"Header 1": "**11.6 | Appendicular Muscles of the Pelvic Girdle and Lower Limbs**",
"Header 3": "**Figure 11.33 Muscles That Move the Feet and Toes**",
"token_count": 1834,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/Med_v1/med_textbook/AnatomyAndPhysiology-LR.pdf"
} |
**abduct** move away from midline in the sagittal plane
**abductor** moves the bone away from the midline
**abductor digiti minimi** muscle that abducts the little finger
**abductor pollicis brevis** muscle that abducts the thumb
**abductor pollicis longus** muscle that inserts into the first metacarpal
**add... | {
"Header 1": "**11.6 | Appendicular Muscles of the Pelvic Girdle and Lower Limbs**",
"Header 3": "**KEY TERMS**",
"token_count": 514,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/Med_v1/med_textbook/AnatomyAndPhysiology-LR.pdf"
} |
**brachioradialis** muscle that can flex the forearm quickly or help lift a load slowly
**brevis** short
**buccinator** muscle that compresses the cheek **calcaneal tendon** (also, Achilles tendon) strong tendon that inserts into the calcaneal bone of the ankle
**caval opening** opening in the diaphragm that al... | {
"Header 1": "**11.6 | Appendicular Muscles of the Pelvic Girdle and Lower Limbs**",
"Header 3": "**KEY TERMS**",
"token_count": 2045,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/Med_v1/med_textbook/AnatomyAndPhysiology-LR.pdf"
} |
and allows upward and backward motion of the tongue
**stylohyoid** muscle that elevates the hyoid bone posteriorly
**subclavius** muscle that stabilizes the clavicle during movement
**subscapularis** muscle that originates on the anterior scapula and medially rotates the arm
- **superficial anterior compartment... | {
"Header 1": "**11.6 | Appendicular Muscles of the Pelvic Girdle and Lower Limbs**",
"Header 3": "**KEY TERMS**",
"token_count": 669,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/Med_v1/med_textbook/AnatomyAndPhysiology-LR.pdf"
} |
Muscles are either axial muscles or appendicular. The axial muscles are grouped based on location, function, or both. Some axial muscles cross over to the appendicular skeleton. The muscles of the head and neck are all axial. The muscles in the face create facial expression by inserting into the skin rather than onto b... | {
"Header 1": "**11.6 | Appendicular Muscles of the Pelvic Girdle and Lower Limbs**",
"Header 3": "**[11.3 Axial Muscles of the Head, Neck, and Back](#page-434-0)**",
"token_count": 431,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/Med_v1/med_textbook/AnatomyAndPhysiology-LR.pdf"
} |
Made of skin, fascia, and four pairs of muscle, the anterior abdominal wall protects the organs located in the abdomen and moves the vertebral column. These muscles include the rectus abdominis, which extends through the entire length of the trunk, the external oblique, the internal oblique, and the transversus abdomin... | {
"Header 1": "**11.6 | Appendicular Muscles of the Pelvic Girdle and Lower Limbs**",
"Header 3": "**[11.4 Axial Muscles of the Abdominal Wall and Thorax](#page-444-0)**",
"token_count": 235,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/Med_v1/med_textbook/AnatomyAndPhysiology-LR.pdf"
} |
The clavicle and scapula make up the pectoral girdle, which provides a stable origin for the muscles that move the humerus. The muscles that position and stabilize the pectoral girdle are located on the thorax. The anterior thoracic muscles are the subclavius, pectoralis minor, and the serratus anterior. The posterior ... | {
"Header 1": "**11.6 | Appendicular Muscles of the Pelvic Girdle and Lower Limbs**",
"Header 3": "**[11.5 Muscles of the Pectoral Girdle and Upper Limbs](#page-450-0)**",
"token_count": 601,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/Med_v1/med_textbook/AnatomyAndPhysiology-LR.pdf"
} |
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