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Erectile dysfunction (ED) is a condition in which a man has difficulty either initiating or maintaining an erection. The combined prevalence of minimal, moderate, and complete ED is approximately 40 percent in men at age 40, and reaches nearly 70 percent by 70 years of age. In addition to aging, ED is associated with d... | {
"Header 1": "**27.1 | Anatomy and Physiology of the Male Reproductive System**",
"Header 3": "**Male Reproductive System**",
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The regulation of testosterone concentrations throughout the body is critical for male reproductive function. The intricate interplay between the endocrine system and the reproductive system is shown in **[Figure 27.8](#page-1234-0)**.
**Figure 27.8 Regulation of Testosterone Productio... | {
"Header 1": "**27.1 | Anatomy and Physiology of the Male Reproductive System**",
"Header 3": "**Control of Testosterone**",
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Declines in Leydig cell activity can occur in men beginning at 40 to 50 years of age. The resulting reduction in circulating testosterone concentrations can lead to symptoms of andropause, also known as male menopause. While the reduction in sex steroids in men is akin to female menopause, there is no clear sign—such a... | {
"Header 1": "**27.1 | Anatomy and Physiology of the Male Reproductive System**",
"Header 3": "**Male Reproductive System**",
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By the end of this section, you will be able to:
- Describe the structure and function of the organs of the female reproductive system
- List the steps of oogenesis
- Describe the hormonal changes that occur during the ovarian and menstrual cycles
- Trace the path of an oocyte from ovary to fertilization
The female... | {
"Header 1": "**27.2 | Anatomy and Physiology of the Female Reproductive System**",
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The external female reproductive structures are referred to collectively as the **vulva** (**[Figure 27.10](#page-1237-0)**). The **mons pubis** is a pad of fat that is located at the anterior, over the pubic bone. After puberty, it becomes covered in pubic hair. The **labia majora** (labia = "lips"; majora = "larger")... | {
"Header 1": "**27.2 | Anatomy and Physiology of the Female Reproductive System**",
"Header 3": "**External Female Genitals**",
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The **vagina**, shown at the bottom of **[Figure 27.9](#page-1236-0)** and **[Figure 27.9](#page-1236-0)**, is a muscular canal (approximately 10 cm long) that serves as the entrance to the reproductive tract. It also serves as the exit from the uterus during menses and childbirth. The outer walls of the anterior and p... | {
"Header 1": "**27.2 | Anatomy and Physiology of the Female Reproductive System**",
"Header 3": "**Vagina**",
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The **ovaries** are the female gonads (see **[Figure 27.9](#page-1236-0)**). Paired ovals, they are each about 2 to 3 cm in length, about the size of an almond. The ovaries are located within the pelvic cavity, and are supported by the mesovarium, an extension of the peritoneum that connects the ovaries to the **broad ... | {
"Header 1": "**27.2 | Anatomy and Physiology of the Female Reproductive System**",
"Header 3": "**Ovaries**",
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Gametogenesis in females is called **oogenesis**. The process begins with the ovarian stem cells, or **oogonia** (**[Figure 27.11](#page-1238-0)**). Oogonia are formed during fetal development, and divide via mitosis, much like spermatogonia in the testis. Unlike spermatogonia, however, oogonia form primary oocytes in ... | {
"Header 1": "**27.2 | Anatomy and Physiology of the Female Reproductive System**",
"Header 3": "**Oogenesis**",
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When we talk about human DNA, we're usually referring to nuclear DNA; that is, the DNA coiled into chromosomal bundles in the nucleus of our cells. We inherit half of our nuclear DNA from our father, and half from our mother. However, mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) comes only from the mitochondria in the cytoplasm of the fa... | {
"Header 1": "**27.2 | Anatomy and Physiology of the Female Reproductive System**",
"Header 3": "**Mapping Human History with Mitochondrial DNA**",
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Again, ovarian follicles are oocytes and their supporting cells. They grow and develop in a process called **folliculogenesis**, which typically leads to ovulation of one follicle approximately every 28 days, along with death to multiple other follicles. The death of ovarian follicles is called atresia, and can occur a... | {
"Header 1": "**27.2 | Anatomy and Physiology of the Female Reproductive System**",
"Header 3": "**Folliculogenesis**",
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The process of development that we have just described, from primordial follicle to early tertiary follicle, takes approximately two months in humans. The final stages of development of a small cohort of tertiary follicles, ending with ovulation of a secondary oocyte, occur over a course of approximately 28 days. These... | {
"Header 1": "**27.2 | Anatomy and Physiology of the Female Reproductive System**",
"Header 3": "**Hormonal Control of the Ovarian Cycle**",
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The **uterine tubes** (also called fallopian tubes or oviducts) serve as the conduit of the oocyte from the ovary to the uterus (**[Figure 27.14](#page-1244-0)**). Each of the two uterine tubes is close to, but not directly connected to, the ovary and divided into sections. The **isthmus** is the narrow medial end of e... | {
"Header 1": "**27.2 | Anatomy and Physiology of the Female Reproductive System**",
"Header 3": "**The Uterine Tubes**",
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The **uterus** is the muscular organ that nourishes and supports the growing embryo (see **[Figure 27.14](#page-1244-0)**). Its average size is approximately 5 cm wide by 7 cm long (approximately 2 in by 3 in) when a female is not pregnant. It has three sections. The portion of the uterus superior to the opening of the... | {
"Header 1": "**27.2 | Anatomy and Physiology of the Female Reproductive System**",
"Header 3": "**The Uterus and Cervix**",
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Now that we have discussed the maturation of the cohort of tertiary follicles in the ovary, the build-up and then shedding of the endometrial lining in the uterus, and the function of the uterine tubes and vagina, we can put everything together to talk about the three phases of the **menstrual cycle**—the series of cha... | {
"Header 1": "**27.2 | Anatomy and Physiology of the Female Reproductive System**",
"Header 3": "**The Menstrual Cycle**",
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The **menses phase** of the menstrual cycle is the phase during which the lining is shed; that is, the days that the woman menstruates. Although it averages approximately five days, the menses phase can last from 2 to 7 days, or longer. As shown in **[Figure 27.15](#page-1246-0)**, the menses phase occurs during the ea... | {
"Header 1": "**27.2 | Anatomy and Physiology of the Female Reproductive System**",
"Header 3": "**Menses Phase**",
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Once menstrual flow ceases, the endometrium begins to proliferate again, marking the beginning of the **proliferative phase** of the menstrual cycle (see **[Figure 27.15](#page-1246-0)**). It occurs when the granulosa and theca cells of the tertiary follicles begin to produce increased amounts of estrogen. These rising... | {
"Header 1": "**27.2 | Anatomy and Physiology of the Female Reproductive System**",
"Header 3": "**Proliferative Phase**",
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In addition to prompting the LH surge, high estrogen levels increase the uterine tube contractions that facilitate the pick-up and transfer of the ovulated oocyte. High estrogen levels also slightly decrease the acidity of the vagina, making it more hospitable to sperm. In the ovary, the luteinization of the granulosa ... | {
"Header 1": "**27.2 | Anatomy and Physiology of the Female Reproductive System**",
"Header 3": "**Secretory Phase**",
"token_count": 336,
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Research over many years has confirmed that cervical cancer is most often caused by a sexually transmitted infection with human papillomavirus (HPV). There are over 100 related viruses in the HPV family, and the characteristics of each strain determine the outcome of the infection. In all cases, the virus enters body c... | {
"Header 1": "**27.2 | Anatomy and Physiology of the Female Reproductive System**",
"Header 3": "**Female Reproductive System**",
"token_count": 865,
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Whereas the breasts are located far from the other female reproductive organs, they are considered accessory organs of the female reproductive system. The function of the breasts is to supply milk to an infant in a process called lactation. The external features of the breast include a nipple surrounded by a pigmented ... | {
"Header 1": "**27.2 | Anatomy and Physiology of the Female Reproductive System**",
"Header 3": "**The Breasts**",
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Birth control pills take advantage of the negative feedback system that regulates the ovarian and menstrual cycles to stop ovulation and prevent pregnancy. Typically they work by providing a constant level of both estrogen and progesterone, which negatively feeds back onto the hypothalamus and pituitary, thus preventin... | {
"Header 1": "**27.2 | Anatomy and Physiology of the Female Reproductive System**",
"Header 3": "**Hormonal Birth Control**",
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Female fertility (the ability to conceive) peaks when women are in their twenties, and is slowly reduced until a women reaches 35 years of age. After that time, fertility declines more rapidly, until it ends completely at the end of menopause. Menopause is the cessation of the menstrual cycle that occurs as a result of... | {
"Header 1": "**27.2 | Anatomy and Physiology of the Female Reproductive System**",
"Header 3": "**Female Reproductive System**",
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Females are considered the "fundamental" sex—that is, without much chemical prompting, all fertilized eggs would develop into females. To become a male, an individual must be exposed to the cascade of factors initiated by a single gene on the male Y chromosome. This is called the SRY (*S*ex-determining *R*egion of the ... | {
"Header 1": "**27.3 | Development of the Male and Female Reproductive Systems**",
"Header 3": "**Development of the Sexual Organs in the Embryo and Fetus**",
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**Puberty** is the stage of development at which individuals become sexually mature. Though the outcomes of puberty for boys and girls are very different, the hormonal control of the process is very similar. In addition, though the timing of these events varies between individuals, the sequence of changes that occur is... | {
"Header 1": "**27.3 | Development of the Male and Female Reproductive Systems**",
"Header 3": "**Further Sexual Development Occurs at Puberty**",
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As a girl reaches puberty, typically the first change that is visible is the development of the breast tissue. This is followed by the growth of axillary and pubic hair. A growth spurt normally starts at approximately age 9 to 11, and may last two years or more. During this time, a girl's height can increase 3 inches a... | {
"Header 1": "**27.3 | Development of the Male and Female Reproductive Systems**",
"Header 3": "**Table 27.1**",
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**alveoli** (of the breast) milk-secreting cells in the mammary gland - **ampulla** (of the uterine tube) middle portion of the uterine tube in which fertilization often occurs - **antrum** fluid-filled chamber that characterizes a mature tertiary (antral) follicle - **areola** highly pigmented, circular area surroundi... | {
"Header 1": "**27.3 | Development of the Male and Female Reproductive Systems**",
"Header 3": "**KEY TERMS**",
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sustentacular cell - **sperm** (also, spermatozoon) male gamete - **spermatic cord** bundle of nerves and blood vessels that supplies the testes; contains ductus deferens - **spermatid** immature sperm cells produced by meiosis II of secondary spermatocytes - **spermatocyte** cell that results from the division of sper... | {
"Header 1": "**27.3 | Development of the Male and Female Reproductive Systems**",
"Header 3": "**KEY TERMS**",
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Gametes are the reproductive cells that combine to form offspring. Organs called gonads produce the gametes, along with the hormones that regulate human reproduction. The male gametes are called sperm. Spermatogenesis, the production of sperm, occurs within the seminiferous tubules that make up most of the testis. The ... | {
"Header 1": "**27.3 | Development of the Male and Female Reproductive Systems**",
"Header 3": "**[27.1 Anatomy an](#page-1224-1)[d Physiology of the Male Reproductive System](#page-1225-0)**",
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The external female genitalia are collectively called the vulva. The vagina is the pathway into and out of the uterus. The man's penis is inserted into the vagina to deliver sperm, and the baby exits the uterus through the vagina during childbirth.
The ovaries produce oocytes, the female gametes, in a process called ... | {
"Header 1": "**27.3 | Development of the Male and Female Reproductive Systems**",
"Header 3": "**[27.2 Anatomy and Physiology of the Female Reproductive System](#page-1235-0)**",
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The reproductive systems of males and females begin to develop soon after conception. A gene on the male's Y chromosome called *SRY* is critical in stimulating a cascade of events that simultaneously stimulate testis development and repress the development of female structures. Testosterone produced by Leydig cells in ... | {
"Header 1": "**27.3 | Development of the Male and Female Reproductive Systems**",
"Header 3": "**[27.3 Development of the Male and Female Reproductive Systems](#page-1251-0)**",
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Fertilization is a numbers game. During ejaculation, hundreds of millions of sperm (spermatozoa) are released into the vagina. Almost immediately, millions of these sperm are overcome by the acidity of the vagina (approximately pH 3.8), and millions more may be blocked from entering the uterus by thick cervical mucus. ... | {
"Header 1": "**28.1 | Fertilization**",
"Header 3": "**Transit of Sperm**",
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Upon ovulation, the oocyte released by the ovary is swept into—and along—the uterine tube. Fertilization must occur in the distal uterine tube because an unfertilized oocyte cannot survive the 72-hour journey to the uterus. As you will recall from your study of the oogenesis, this oocyte (specifically a secondary oocyt... | {
"Header 1": "**28.1 | Fertilization**",
"Header 3": "**Contact Between Sperm and Oocyte**",
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Recall that at the point of fertilization, the oocyte has not yet completed meiosis; all secondary oocytes remain arrested in metaphase of meiosis II until fertilization. Only upon fertilization does the oocyte complete meiosis. The unneeded complement of genetic material that results is stored in a second polar body t... | {
"Header 1": "**28.1 | Fertilization**",
"Header 3": "**The Zygote**",
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IVF, which stands for in vitro fertilization, is an assisted reproductive technology. In vitro, which in Latin translates to "in glass," refers to a procedure that takes place outside of the body. There are many different indications for IVF. For example, a woman may produce normal eggs, but the eggs cannot reach the u... | {
"Header 1": "**28.1 | Fertilization**",
"Header 3": "**In Vitro Fertilization**",
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By the end of this section, you will be able to:
- Distinguish the stages of embryonic development that occur before implantation
- Describe the process of implantation
- List and describe four embryonic membranes
- Explain gastrulation
- Describe how the placenta is formed and identify its functions
- Explain how an... | {
"Header 1": "**28.2 | Embryonic Development**",
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Following fertilization, the zygote and its associated membranes, together referred to as the **conceptus**, continue to be projected toward the uterus by peristalsis and beating cilia. During its journey to the uterus, the zygote undergoes five or six rapid mitotic cell divisions. Although each **cleavage** results in... | {
"Header 1": "**28.2 | Embryonic Development**",
"Header 3": "**Pre-implantation Embryonic Development**",
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At the end of the first week, the blastocyst comes in contact with the uterine wall and adheres to it, embedding itself in the uterine lining via the trophoblast cells. Thus begins the process of **implantation**, which signals the end of the pre-embryonic stage of development (**[Figure 28.5](#page-1269-0)**). Implant... | {
"Header 1": "**28.2 | Embryonic Development**",
"Header 3": "**Implantation**",
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In the vast majority of ectopic pregnancies, the embryo does not complete its journey to the uterus and implants in the uterine tube, referred to as a tubal pregnancy. However, there are also ovarian ectopic pregnancies (in which the egg never left the ovary) and abdominal ectopic pregnancies (in which an egg was "lost... | {
"Header 1": "**28.2 | Embryonic Development**",
"Header 3": "**Development of the Embryo**",
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During the second week of development, with the embryo implanted in the uterus, cells within the blastocyst start to organize into layers. Some grow to form the extra-embryonic membranes needed to support and protect the growing embryo: the amnion, the yolk sac, the allantois, and the chorion.
At the beginning of the... | {
"Header 1": "**28.2 | Embryonic Development**",
"Header 3": "**Embryonic Membranes**",
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As the third week of development begins, the two-layered disc of cells becomes a three-layered disc through the process of **gastrulation**, during which the cells transition from totipotency to multipotency. The embryo, which takes the shape of an oval-shaped disc, forms an indentation called the **primitive streak** ... | {
"Header 1": "**28.2 | Embryonic Development**",
"Header 3": "**Embryogenesis**",
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During the first several weeks of development, the cells of the endometrium—referred to as decidual cells—nourish the nascent embryo. During prenatal weeks 4–12, the developing placenta gradually takes over the role of feeding the embryo, and the decidual cells are no longer needed. The mature placenta is composed of t... | {
"Header 1": "**28.2 | Embryonic Development**",
"Header 3": "**Development of the Placenta**",
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Following gastrulation, rudiments of the central nervous system develop from the ectoderm in the process of **neurulation** (**[Figure 28.13](#page-1276-0)**). Specialized neuroectodermal tissues along the length of the embryo thicken into the **neural plate**. During the fourth week, tissues on either side of the plat... | {
"Header 1": "**28.2 | Embryonic Development**",
"Header 3": "**Organogenesis**",
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Sexual differentiation does not begin until the fetal period, during weeks 9–12. Embryonic males and females, though genetically distinguishable, are morphologically identical (**[Figure 28.16](#page-1279-0)**). Bipotential gonads, or gonads that can develop into male or female sexual organs, are connected to a central... | {
"Header 1": "**28.3 | Fetal Development**",
"Header 3": "**Sexual Differentiation**",
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During prenatal development, the fetal circulatory system is integrated with the placenta via the umbilical cord so that the fetus receives both oxygen and nutrients from the placenta. However, after childbirth, the umbilical cord is severed, and the newborn's circulatory system must be reconfigured. When the heart fir... | {
"Header 1": "**28.3 | Fetal Development**",
"Header 3": "**The Fetal Circulatory System**",
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During weeks 9–12 of fetal development, the brain continues to expand, the body elongates, and ossification continues. Fetal movements are frequent during this period, but are jerky and not well-controlled. The bone marrow begins to take over the process of erythrocyte production—a task that the liver performed during ... | {
"Header 1": "**28.3 | Fetal Development**",
"Header 3": "**Other Organ Systems**",
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Throughout the second half of gestation, the fetal intestines accumulate a tarry, greenish black meconium. The newborn's first stools consist almost entirely of meconium; they later transition to seedy yellow stools or slightly formed tan stools as meconium is cleared and replaced with digested breast milk or formula, ... | {
"Header 1": "**28.3 | Fetal Development**",
"Header 3": "**Developing Fetus**",
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By the end of this section, you will be able to:
- Explain how estrogen, progesterone, and hCG are involved in maintaining pregnancy
- List the contributors to weight gain during pregnancy
- Describe the major changes to the maternal digestive, circulatory, and integumentary systems during pregnancy
- Summarize the e... | {
"Header 1": "**28.4 | Maternal Changes During Pregnancy, Labor, and Birth**",
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Virtually all of the effects of pregnancy can be attributed in some way to the influence of hormones—particularly estrogens, progesterone, and hCG. During weeks 7–12 from the LMP, the pregnancy hormones are primarily generated by the corpus luteum. Progesterone secreted by the corpus luteum stimulates the production of... | {
"Header 1": "**28.4 | Maternal Changes During Pregnancy, Labor, and Birth**",
"Header 3": "**Effects of Hormones**",
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The second and third trimesters of pregnancy are associated with dramatic changes in maternal anatomy and physiology. The most obvious anatomical sign of pregnancy is the dramatic enlargement of the abdominal region, coupled with maternal weight gain. This weight results from the growing fetus as well as the enlarged u... | {
"Header 1": "**28.4 | Maternal Changes During Pregnancy, Labor, and Birth**",
"Header 3": "**Weight Gain**",
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Nausea and vomiting, sometimes triggered by an increased sensitivity to odors, are common during the first few weeks to months of pregnancy. This phenomenon is often referred to as "morning sickness," although the nausea may persist all day. The source of pregnancy nausea is thought to be the increased circulation of p... | {
"Header 1": "**28.4 | Maternal Changes During Pregnancy, Labor, and Birth**",
"Header 3": "**Digestive and Urinary System Changes**",
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The dermis stretches extensively to accommodate the growing uterus, breast tissue, and fat deposits on the thighs and hips. Torn connective tissue beneath the dermis can cause striae (stretch marks) on the abdomen, which appear as red or purple marks during pregnancy that fade to a silvery white color in the months aft... | {
"Header 1": "**28.4 | Maternal Changes During Pregnancy, Labor, and Birth**",
"Header 3": "**Integumentary System Changes**",
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Childbirth, or **parturition**, typically occurs within a week of a woman's due date, unless the woman is pregnant with more than one fetus, which usually causes her to go into labor early. As a pregnancy progresses into its final weeks, several physiological changes occur in response to hormones that trigger labor.
... | {
"Header 1": "**28.4 | Maternal Changes During Pregnancy, Labor, and Birth**",
"Header 3": "**Physiology of Labor**",
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For vaginal birth to occur, the cervix must dilate fully to 10 cm in diameter—wide enough to deliver the newborn's head. The **dilation** stage is the longest stage of labor and typically takes 6–12 hours. However, it varies widely and may take minutes, hours, or days, depending in part on whether the mother has given ... | {
"Header 1": "**28.4 | Maternal Changes During Pregnancy, Labor, and Birth**",
"Header 3": "**Cervical Dilation**",
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The **expulsion** stage begins when the fetal head enters the birth canal and ends with birth of the newborn. It typically takes up to 2 hours, but it can last longer or be completed in minutes, depending in part on the orientation of the fetus. The vertex presentation known as the occiput anterior vertex is the most c... | {
"Header 1": "**28.4 | Maternal Changes During Pregnancy, Labor, and Birth**",
"Header 3": "**Expulsion Stage**",
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The delivery of the placenta and associated membranes, commonly referred to as the **afterbirth**, marks the final stage of childbirth. After expulsion of the newborn, the myometrium continues to contract. This movement shears the placenta from the back of the uterine wall. It is then easily delivered through the vagin... | {
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"Header 3": "**Afterbirth**",
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By the end of this section, you will be able to:
- Discuss the importance of an infant's first breath
- Explain the closing of the cardiac shunts
- Describe thermoregulation in the newborn
- Summarize the importance of intestinal flora in the newborn
From a fetal perspective, the process of birth is a crisis. In th... | {
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Although the fetus "practices" breathing by inhaling amniotic fluid in utero, there is no air in the uterus and thus no true opportunity to breathe. (There is also no need to breathe because the placenta supplies the fetus with all the oxygenated blood it needs.) During gestation, the partially collapsed lungs are fill... | {
"Header 1": "**28.5 | Adjustments of the Infant at Birth and Postnatal Stages**",
"Header 3": "**Respiratory Adjustments**",
"token_count": 263,
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The process of clamping and cutting the umbilical cord collapses the umbilical blood vessels. In the absence of medical assistance, this occlusion would occur naturally within 20 minutes of birth because the Wharton's jelly within the umbilical cord would swell in response to the lower temperature outside of the mother... | {
"Header 1": "**28.5 | Adjustments of the Infant at Birth and Postnatal Stages**",
"Header 3": "**Circulatory Adjustments**",
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The fetus floats in warm amniotic fluid that is maintained at a temperature of approximately 98.6°F with very little fluctuation. Birth exposes newborns to a cooler environment in which they have to regulate their own body temperature. Newborns have a higher ratio of surface area to volume than adults. This means that ... | {
"Header 1": "**28.5 | Adjustments of the Infant at Birth and Postnatal Stages**",
"Header 3": "**Thermoregulatory Adjustments**",
"token_count": 346,
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In the minutes following birth, a newborn must undergo dramatic systemic changes to be able to survive outside the womb. An obstetrician, midwife, or nurse can estimate how well a newborn is doing by obtaining an Apgar score. The Apgar score was introduced in 1952 by the anesthesiologist Dr. Virginia Apgar as a method ... | {
"Header 1": "**28.5 | Adjustments of the Infant at Birth and Postnatal Stages**",
"Header 3": "**Homeostasis in the Newborn: Apgar Score**",
"token_count": 433,
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Mammary glands are modified sweat glands. The non-pregnant and non-lactating female breast is composed primarily of adipose and collagenous tissue, with mammary glands making up a very minor proportion of breast volume. The mammary gland is composed of milk-transporting lactiferous ducts, which expand and branch extens... | {
"Header 1": "**28.6 | Lactation**",
"Header 3": "**Structure of the Lactating Breast**",
"token_count": 286,
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The pituitary hormone **prolactin** is instrumental in the establishment and maintenance of breast milk supply. It also is important for the mobilization of maternal micronutrients for breast milk.
Near the fifth week of pregnancy, the level of circulating prolactin begins to increase, eventually rising to approximat... | {
"Header 1": "**28.6 | Lactation**",
"Header 3": "**The Process of Lactation**",
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**Table 28.3 \*Cow's milk should never be given to an infant. Its composition is not suitable and its proteins are difficult for the infant to digest.**
Colostrum is secreted during the first 48–72 hours postpartum. Only a small volume of colostrum is produced—approximately 3 ounces in a 24-hour period—but it is suff... | {
"Header 1": "**28.6 | Lactation**",
"Header 3": "**Compositions of Human Colostrum, Mature Breast Milk, and Cow's Milk (g/L)**",
"token_count": 724,
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Each human body cell has a full complement of DNA stored in 23 pairs of chromosomes. **[Figure 28.24](#page-1295-0)** shows the pairs in a systematic arrangement called a **karyotype**. Among these is one pair of chromosomes, called the **sex chromosomes**, that determines the sex of the individual (XX in females, XY i... | {
"Header 1": "**28.7 | Patterns of Inheritance**",
"Header 3": "**From Genotype to Phenotype**",
"token_count": 853,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/Med_v1/med_textbook/AnatomyAndPhysiology-LR.pdf"
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Our contemporary understanding of genetics rests on the work of a nineteenth-century monk. Working in the mid-1800s, long before anyone knew about genes or chromosomes, Gregor Mendel discovered that garden peas transmit their physical characteristics to subsequent generations in a discrete and predictable fashion. When... | {
"Header 1": "**28.7 | Patterns of Inheritance**",
"Header 3": "**Mendel's Theory of Inheritance**",
"token_count": 1819,
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In the case of cystic fibrosis, the disorder is recessive to the normal phenotype. However, a genetic abnormality may be dominant to the normal phenotype. When the dominant allele is located on one of the 22 pairs of autosomes (nonsex chromosomes), we refer to its inheritance pattern as **autosomal dominant**. An examp... | {
"Header 1": "**28.7 | Patterns of Inheritance**",
"Header 3": "**Autosomal Dominant Inheritance**",
"token_count": 453,
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When a genetic disorder is inherited in an **autosomal recessive** pattern, the disorder corresponds to the recessive phenotype. Heterozygous individuals will not display symptoms of this disorder, because their unaffected gene will compensate. Such an individual is called a **carrier**. Carriers for an autosomal reces... | {
"Header 1": "**28.7 | Patterns of Inheritance**",
"Header 3": "**Autosomal Recessive Inheritance**",
"token_count": 424,
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An **X-linked** transmission pattern involves genes located on the X chromosome of the 23rd pair (**[Figure 28.28](#page-1299-0)**). Recall that a male has one X and one Y chromosome. When a father transmits a Y chromosome, the child is male, and when he transmits an X chromosome, the child is female. A mother can tran... | {
"Header 1": "**28.7 | Patterns of Inheritance**",
"Header 3": "**X-linked Dominant or Recessive Inheritance**",
"token_count": 780,
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Not all genetic disorders are inherited in a dominant–recessive pattern. In **incomplete dominance**, the offspring express a heterozygous phenotype that is intermediate between one parent's homozygous dominant trait and the other parent's homozygous recessive trait. An example of this can be seen in snapdragons when r... | {
"Header 1": "**28.7 | Patterns of Inheritance**",
"Header 3": "**Other Inheritance Patterns: Incomplete Dominance, Codominance, and Lethal Alleles**",
"token_count": 617,
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**Table 28.4**
Certain combinations of alleles can be lethal, meaning they prevent the individual from developing in utero, or cause a shortened life span. In **recessive lethal** inheritance patterns, a child who is born to two heterozygous (carrier) parents and who inherited the faulty allele from both would not su... | {
"Header 1": "**28.7 | Patterns of Inheritance**",
"Header 3": "**Expression of Blood Types**",
"token_count": 302,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/Med_v1/med_textbook/AnatomyAndPhysiology-LR.pdf"
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Sometimes a genetic disease is not caused by a mutation in a gene, but by the presence of an incorrect number of chromosomes. For example, Down syndrome is caused by having three copies of chromosome 21. This is known as trisomy 21. The most common cause of trisomy 21 is chromosomal nondisjunction during meiosis. The f... | {
"Header 1": "**28.7 | Patterns of Inheritance**",
"Header 3": "**Chromosomal Disorders**",
"token_count": 204,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/Med_v1/med_textbook/AnatomyAndPhysiology-LR.pdf"
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Given the intricate orchestration of gene expression, cell migration, and cell differentiation during prenatal development, it is amazing that the vast majority of newborns are healthy and free of major birth defects. When a woman over 35 is pregnant or intends to become pregnant, or her partner is over 55, or if there... | {
"Header 1": "**28.7 | Patterns of Inheritance**",
"Header 3": "**Genetic Counselor**",
"token_count": 543,
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- **acrosomal reaction** release of digestive enzymes by sperm that enables them to burrow through the corona radiata and penetrate the zona pellucida of an oocyte prior to fertilization
- **acrosome** cap-like vesicle located at the anterior-most region of a sperm that is rich with lysosomal enzymes capable of digesti... | {
"Header 1": "**28.7 | Patterns of Inheritance**",
"Header 3": "**KEY TERMS**",
"token_count": 1966,
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mesoderm-derived structure that provides support for growing fetus
**organogenesis** development of the rudimentary structures of all of an embryo's organs from the germ layers
- **parturition** childbirth
- **phenotype** physical or biochemical manifestation of the genotype; expression of the alleles
- **placenta*... | {
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"Header 3": "**KEY TERMS**",
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Hundreds of millions of sperm deposited in the vagina travel toward the oocyte, but only a few hundred actually reach it. The number of sperm that reach the oocyte is greatly reduced because of conditions within the female reproductive tract. Many sperm are overcome by the acidity of the vagina, others are blocked by m... | {
"Header 1": "**28.7 | Patterns of Inheritance**",
"Header 3": "**[28.1 Fertilization](#page-1262-1)**",
"token_count": 337,
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As the zygote travels toward the uterus, it undergoes numerous cleavages in which the number of cells doubles (blastomeres). Upon reaching the uterus, the conceptus has become a tightly packed sphere of cells called the morula, which then forms into a blastocyst consisting of an inner cell mass within a fluid-filled ca... | {
"Header 1": "**28.7 | Patterns of Inheritance**",
"Header 3": "**[28.2 Embryonic Development](#page-1267-0)**",
"token_count": 285,
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The fetal period lasts from the ninth week of development until birth. During this period, male and female gonads differentiate. The fetal circulatory system becomes much more specialized and efficient than its embryonic counterpart. It includes three shunts—the ductus venosus, the foramen ovale, and the ductus arterio... | {
"Header 1": "**28.7 | Patterns of Inheritance**",
"Header 3": "**[28.3 Fetal Development](#page-1278-0)**",
"token_count": 218,
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Hormones (especially estrogens, progesterone, and hCG) secreted by the corpus luteum and later by the placenta are responsible for most of the changes experienced during pregnancy. Estrogen maintains the pregnancy, promotes fetal viability, and stimulates tissue growth in the mother and developing fetus. Progesterone p... | {
"Header 1": "**28.7 | Patterns of Inheritance**",
"Header 3": "**[28.4 Maternal Changes During Pregnancy, Labor, and Birth](#page-1283-0)**",
"token_count": 209,
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The lactating mother supplies all the hydration and nutrients that a growing infant needs for the first 4–6 months of life. During pregnancy, the body prepares for lactation by stimulating the growth and development of branching lactiferous ducts and alveoli lined with milk-secreting lactocytes, and by creating colostr... | {
"Header 1": "**28.7 | Patterns of Inheritance**",
"Header 3": "**[28.6 Lactation](#page-1292-0)**",
"token_count": 232,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/Med_v1/med_textbook/AnatomyAndPhysiology-LR.pdf"
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There are two aspects to a person's genetic makeup. Their genotype refers to the genetic makeup of the chromosomes found in all their cells and the alleles that are passed down from their parents. Their phenotype is the expression of that genotype, based on the interaction of the paired alleles, as well as how environm... | {
"Header 1": "**28.7 | Patterns of Inheritance**",
"Header 3": "**[28.7 Patterns of Inheritance](#page-1294-0)**",
"token_count": 331,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/Med_v1/med_textbook/AnatomyAndPhysiology-LR.pdf"
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Welcome to *Building a Medical Terminology Foundation*. Medical terminology is a language that is used in health care settings. Medical terms are built from Greek and Latin word parts and in addition include **acronymns**, **eponyms**, and **modern-day language terms**.
Learning a new language can be a daunting task.... | {
"Header 1": "Introduction",
"token_count": 203,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/Med_v1/med_textbook/Building-a-Medical-Terminology-Foundation.pdf"
} |
- 1. When combining two **combining form**s you *keep* the **combining form vowel**.
- 2. When combining a **combining form** with a **suffix** that begins with a consonant you *keep* the **combining form vowel**.
- 3. When combining a **combining form** with a **suffix** that begins wi... | {
"Header 1": "2. Medical Language Rules",
"Header 2": "**Language Rules for Building Medical Terms**",
"token_count": 408,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/Med_v1/med_textbook/Building-a-Medical-Terminology-Foundation.pdf"
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**Suffixes** are word parts that are located at the end of words. Suffixes can alter the meaning of medical terms. It is important to spell and pronounce suffixes correctly.
Suffixes in medical terms are common to English language suffixes. Suffixes are not always explicitly stated in the definition of a word. It is ... | {
"Header 1": "4. Suffix",
"token_count": 2020,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/Med_v1/med_textbook/Building-a-Medical-Terminology-Foundation.pdf"
} |
*Learning Objectives*
- Connect medical language learning to the context of anatomy and physiology
- Introduce the basic architecture and levels of organization of the human body
- Evaluate the anatomical position, regional terms, directional terms, body planes, and body quadrants for anatomical positioning
- Describ... | {
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"token_count": 320,
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All matter in the universe is composed of one or more unique pure substances called **elements**, familiar examples are hydrogen, oxygen, carbon, nitrogen, calcium, and iron.
- The smallest unit of any of these pure substances (elements) is an **atom**.
- Atoms are made up of subatomic particles such as the proton, e... | {
"Header 1": "5. Medical Language Within the Context of Anatomy and Physiology",
"Header 2": "**The Levels of Organization**",
"token_count": 632,
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Anatomists and health care providers use terminology for the purpose of precision and to reduce medical errors. For example, is a scar "above the wrist" located on the forearm two or three inches away from the hand? Or is it at the base of the hand? Is it on the palm-side or back-side? By using precise anatomical termi... | {
"Header 1": "5. Medical Language Within the Context of Anatomy and Physiology",
"Header 2": "Watch this video:",
"Header 3": "**Anatomical Position**",
"token_count": 412,
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Directional terms are essential for describing the relative locations of different body structures. For instance, an anatomist might describe one band of tissue as "inferior to" another or a physician might describe a tumor as "superficial to" a deeper body structure. Commit these terms to memory to avoid confusion whe... | {
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"Header 2": "Directional Terms",
"token_count": 573,
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A section is a two-dimensional surface of a three-dimensional structure that has been cut. Modern medical imaging devices enable clinicians to obtain "virtual sections" of living bodies. We call these scans. Body sections and scans can be correctly interpreted, however, only if the viewer understands the plane along wh... | {
"Header 1": "5. Medical Language Within the Context of Anatomy and Physiology",
"Header 2": "**Body Planes**",
"token_count": 257,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/Med_v1/med_textbook/Building-a-Medical-Terminology-Foundation.pdf"
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The body maintains its internal organization by means of membranes, sheaths, and other structures that separate compartments. The **dorsal (posterior) cavity** and the **ventral (anterior) cavity** are the largest body compartments (Figure 5.6). These cavities contain and protect delicate internal organs, and the ventr... | {
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"Header 2": "**Body Cavities and Serous Membranes**",
"token_count": 210,
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The posterior (dorsal) and anterior (ventral) cavities are each subdivided into smaller cavities:
The posterior (dorsal) cavity has two main subdivisions:
- In the posterior (dorsal) cavity, the **cranial cavity** houses the brain
- Protected by the bones of the skulls and **cerebrospinal** fluid
- The **spinal cav... | {
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"Header 2": "Subdivisions of the Posterior (Dorsal) and Anterior (Ventral) Cavities",
"token_count": 253,
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A **tissue membrane** is a thin layer or sheet of cells that covers the outside of the body (for example, skin), the organs (for example, pericardium), internal passageways that lead to the exterior of the body (for example,
abdominal mesenteries), and the lining of the movable joint cavities. There are two basic typ... | {
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"Header 2": "**Abdominal Regions and Quadrants**",
"Header 3": "**Tissue Membranes**",
"token_count": 207,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/Med_v1/med_textbook/Building-a-Medical-Terminology-Foundation.pdf"
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- The **epithelial membrane** is composed of epithelium attached to a layer of connective tissue.
- For example, your skin.
- The **mucous membrane** is also a composite of connective and epithelial tissues.
- Sometimes called mucosae, these epithelial membranes line the body cavities and hollow passageways that open t... | {
"Header 1": "5. Medical Language Within the Context of Anatomy and Physiology",
"Header 2": "Epithelial Membranes",
"token_count": 214,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/Med_v1/med_textbook/Building-a-Medical-Terminology-Foundation.pdf"
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- A **serous membrane** (also referred to as serosa) is an epithelial membrane composed of mesodermally derived epithelium called the mesothelium that is supported by connective tissue. These membranes line the **coelomic** cavities of the body and they cover the organs located within those cavities. They are essential... | {
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"Header 2": "Membranes of the Anterior (Ventral) Body Cavity",
"token_count": 369,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/Med_v1/med_textbook/Building-a-Medical-Terminology-Foundation.pdf"
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**Figure 5.1 image description:** This illustration shows biological organization as a pyramid. The chemical level is at the apex of the pyramid where atoms bond to form molecules with three dimensional structures. An example is shown with two white hydrogen atoms bonding to a red oxygen atom to create water. The next ... | {
"Header 1": "5. Medical Language Within the Context of Anatomy and Physiology",
"Header 2": "**References**",
"Header 3": "**Image Descriptions**",
"token_count": 2037,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/Med_v1/med_textbook/Building-a-Medical-Terminology-Foundation.pdf"
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The pelvic cavity is funnel shaped and is located inferior and anterior to the abdominal cavity. Together the abdominal and pelvic cavity can be referred to as the abdominopelvic cavity while the thoracic, abdominal, and pelvic cavities together can be referred to as the ventral body cavity. [Return to Figure 5.6].
*... | {
"Header 1": "5. Medical Language Within the Context of Anatomy and Physiology",
"Header 2": "**References**",
"Header 3": "**Image Descriptions**",
"token_count": 587,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/Med_v1/med_textbook/Building-a-Medical-Terminology-Foundation.pdf"
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The **epidermis** is composed of keratinized, stratified squamous epithelium. It is made of four or five layers of epithelial cells, depending on its location in the body. It is **avascular**.
- **Thin skin** has four layers of cells. From deep to superficial, these layers are the **stratum basale**, stratum spinosum... | {
"Header 1": "6. Integumentary System",
"Header 2": "**Epidermis**",
"token_count": 547,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/Med_v1/med_textbook/Building-a-Medical-Terminology-Foundation.pdf"
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The dermis contains blood and lymph vessels, nerves, and other structures, such as hair follicles and sweat glands. The dermis is made of two layers (papillary layer and reticular layer) of connective tissue that compose an interconnected mesh of elastin and collagenous fibers, produced by fibroblasts (see Figure 6.4).... | {
"Header 1": "6. Integumentary System",
"Header 2": "**Epidermis**",
"Header 3": "**Dermis**",
"token_count": 231,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/Med_v1/med_textbook/Building-a-Medical-Terminology-Foundation.pdf"
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The integumentary system helps regulate body temperature through its tight association with the **sympathetic nervous system**. The sympathetic nervous system is continuously monitoring body temperature and initiating appropriate motor responses.
- 1. When the **body becomes warm** sweat glands, accessory structures ... | {
"Header 1": "6. Integumentary System",
"Header 2": "Thermoregulation",
"token_count": 529,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/Med_v1/med_textbook/Building-a-Medical-Terminology-Foundation.pdf"
} |
The epidermal layer of human skin synthesizes Vitamin D when exposed to UV radiation. In the presence of sunlight, a form of Vitamin D3 called cholecalciferol is synthesized from a derivative of the steroid cholesterol in the skin. The liver converts cholecalciferol to calcidiol, which is then converted to calcitriol (... | {
"Header 1": "6. Integumentary System",
"Header 2": "**Vitamin D Synthesis**",
"token_count": 230,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/Med_v1/med_textbook/Building-a-Medical-Terminology-Foundation.pdf"
} |
Hair is a keratinous filament growing out of the **epidermis**. It is primarily made of dead, keratinized cells. Strands of hair originate in an epidermal penetration of the dermis called the hair follicle. The hair shaft is the part of the hair not anchored to the follicle, and much of this is exposed at the skin's su... | {
"Header 1": "6. Integumentary System",
"Header 2": "Hair",
"token_count": 245,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/Med_v1/med_textbook/Building-a-Medical-Terminology-Foundation.pdf"
} |
Whenfrightened,the arrectorpilimuscleis responsibleforyourhair standingonend.Thesameis truewhen acat'sfuris raised.
Hair serves a variety of functions, including protection, sensory input, thermoregulation, and communication. For example:
• Hair on the head **protects** the skull from the sun.
• Hair in the nose ... | {
"Header 1": "6. Integumentary System",
"Header 2": "Hair",
"Header 3": "*Did You Know?*",
"token_count": 318,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/Med_v1/med_textbook/Building-a-Medical-Terminology-Foundation.pdf"
} |
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