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The **nail bed** is a specialized structure of the epidermis that is found at the tips of our fingers and toes. The nail body is formed on the nail bed, and protects the tips of our fingers and toes as they are the farthest extremities and the parts of the body that experience the maximum mechanical stress (see Figure ... | {
"Header 1": "6. Integumentary System",
"Header 2": "Hair",
"Header 3": "Nails",
"token_count": 357,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/Med_v1/med_textbook/Building-a-Medical-Terminology-Foundation.pdf"
} |
When the body becomes warm, sudoriferous glands produce sweat to cool the body. Sweat glands develop from epidermal projections into the dermis and are classified as merocrine glands; that is, the secretions are excreted by **exocytosis** through a duct without affecting the cells of the gland. There are two types of s... | {
"Header 1": "6. Integumentary System",
"Header 2": "Hair",
"Header 3": "Sudoriferous Glands",
"token_count": 525,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/Med_v1/med_textbook/Building-a-Medical-Terminology-Foundation.pdf"
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All systems in the body accumulate subtle and some not-so-subtle changes as a person ages. Among these changes are reductions in cell division, metabolic activity, blood circulation, hormonal levels, and muscle strength (see Figure 6.9). In the skin, these changes are reflected in decreased mitosis in the stratum basal... | {
"Header 1": "6. Integumentary System",
"Header 2": "**Changes Due to Aging**",
"token_count": 382,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/Med_v1/med_textbook/Building-a-Medical-Terminology-Foundation.pdf"
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It requires about 10 days after initial sun exposure for melanin synthesis to peak, which is why pale-skinned individuals tend to suffer sunburns of the epidermis initially. Dark-skinned individuals can also get sunburns, but are more protected than are pale-skinned individuals. Too much sun exposure can eventually lea... | {
"Header 1": "6. Integumentary System",
"Header 2": "Sun Damage",
"token_count": 236,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/Med_v1/med_textbook/Building-a-Medical-Terminology-Foundation.pdf"
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Basal cell carcinoma is a form of cancer that affects the mitotically active stem cells in the stratum basale of the epidermis. It is the most common of all cancers that occur in the United States and is frequently found on the head, neck, arms, and back, which are are as that are most susceptible to long-term sun expo... | {
"Header 1": "6. Integumentary System",
"Header 2": "Basal Cell Carcinoma (BCC)",
"token_count": 301,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/Med_v1/med_textbook/Building-a-Medical-Terminology-Foundation.pdf"
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Doctors often give their patients the following ABCDE mnemonic to help with the diagnosis of early-stage melanoma. If you observe a mole on your body displaying these signs, consult a doctor.
**A**symmetry – the two sides are not symmetrical **B**orders – the edges are irregular in shape **C**olor – the color is vari... | {
"Header 1": "Squamous Cell Carcinoma (SCC)",
"Header 3": "*ABCDE for Early Diagnosis*",
"token_count": 225,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/Med_v1/med_textbook/Building-a-Medical-Terminology-Foundation.pdf"
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Albinism is a genetic disorder that affects (completely or partially) the coloring of skin, hair, and eyes. This is primarily due to the inability of melanocytes to produce melanin. Individuals with albinism tend to appear white or very pale due to the lack of melanin in their skin and hair. Recall that melanin helps p... | {
"Header 1": "Squamous Cell Carcinoma (SCC)",
"Header 2": "Albinism",
"token_count": 325,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/Med_v1/med_textbook/Building-a-Medical-Terminology-Foundation.pdf"
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Other changes in the appearance of skin colouration can be indicative of diseases associated with other body systems.
- Liver disease or liver cancer can cause the accumulation of bile and the yellow pigment bilirubin, leading to the skin appearing **yellow** or **jaundiced**.
- Tumors of the pituitary gland can resu... | {
"Header 1": "Squamous Cell Carcinoma (SCC)",
"Header 2": "Changes in Skin Colouration",
"token_count": 251,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/Med_v1/med_textbook/Building-a-Medical-Terminology-Foundation.pdf"
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*Figure 6.16. Acne. Acne is a result of over-productive sebaceous glands, which leads to formation of blackheads and inflammation of the skin. From Betts, et al., 2013. Licensed under CC BY 4.0.*
Acne is a skin disturbance that typically occurs on areas of the skin that are rich in sebac... | {
"Header 1": "Squamous Cell Carcinoma (SCC)",
"Header 2": "Changes in Skin Colouration",
"Header 3": "Acne",
"token_count": 327,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/Med_v1/med_textbook/Building-a-Medical-Terminology-Foundation.pdf"
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Because the skin is the part of our bodies that meets the world most directly, it is especially vulnerable to injury. Injuries include **burns, wounds**, as well as **scars** and **calluses**. They can be caused by sharp objects, heat, or excessive pressure or friction to the skin (Betts, et al., 2013).
Skin injuries... | {
"Header 1": "Squamous Cell Carcinoma (SCC)",
"Header 2": "Ringworm",
"Header 3": "**Injuries**",
"token_count": 257,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/Med_v1/med_textbook/Building-a-Medical-Terminology-Foundation.pdf"
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Burns are sometimes measured in terms of the size of the total surface area affected. This is referred to as the *rule of nines*, which associates specific anatomical areas with a percentage that is a factor of nine (see Figure 6.17) (Betts, et al., 2013).
*Figure 6.17 Calculating the Si... | {
"Header 1": "Squamous Cell Carcinoma (SCC)",
"Header 2": "Ringworm",
"Header 3": "*Burn Classification*",
"token_count": 478,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/Med_v1/med_textbook/Building-a-Medical-Terminology-Foundation.pdf"
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Most cuts or wounds, with the exception of ones that only scratch the epidermis, lead to **scar** formation. Scarring occurs in cases in which there is repair of skin damage, but the skin fails to regenerate the original skin structure. Fibroblasts generate scar tissue in the form of collagen, and the bulk of repair is... | {
"Header 1": "Squamous Cell Carcinoma (SCC)",
"Header 2": "Scars and Keloids",
"token_count": 317,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/Med_v1/med_textbook/Building-a-Medical-Terminology-Foundation.pdf"
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Skin and its underlying tissue can be affected by excessive pressure. One example of this is called a bedsore. Bedsores, also called decubitus ulcers, are caused by constant, long-term, unrelieved pressure on certain body parts that are bony, reducing blood flow to the area and leading to **necrosis** . Bedsores are mo... | {
"Header 1": "Squamous Cell Carcinoma (SCC)",
"Header 2": "Bedsores and Stretch Marks",
"token_count": 244,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/Med_v1/med_textbook/Building-a-Medical-Terminology-Foundation.pdf"
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**Figure 6.1 image description:** This illustration shows a cross section of skin tissue. The outermost layer is called the epidermis, and occupies one fifth of the cross section. Several hairs are emerging from the surface. The epidermis dives around one of the hairs, forming a follicle. The middle layer is called the... | {
"Header 1": "Squamous Cell Carcinoma (SCC)",
"Header 2": "**Image Descriptions**",
"token_count": 1894,
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If youholdyour breathfor longer than3minutes your autonomicnervous system willtake control.
How long you can hold your breath as you continue reading… How long can you do it? Chances are you are feeling uncomfortable already. A typical human cannot survive without breathing for more than three minutes, and even if yo... | {
"Header 1": "7. Respiratory System",
"Header 2": "**Introduction to the Respiratory System**",
"Header 3": "*Did You Know?*",
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The major entrance and exit for the respiratory system is through the **nose**. When discussing the nose, it is helpful to divide it into two major sections:
- **external nose**
- **internal nose**
The **nares** open into the nasal cavity, which is separated into left and right sections by the nasal septum (Figure ... | {
"Header 1": "7. Respiratory System",
"Header 2": "The Nose and its Adjacent Structures",
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The **pharynx** is divided into three major regions: the **nasopharynx**, the **oropharynx**, and the **laryngopharynx** (see Figure 7.4).
> *Figure 7.4 Divisions of the Pharynx. The pharynx is divided into three regions: the nasopharynx, the oropharynx, and the laryngopharynx. From Betts, et al., 2013. Licensed unde... | {
"Header 1": "7. Respiratory System",
"Header 2": "The Nose and its Adjacent Structures",
"Header 3": "Pharynx",
"token_count": 567,
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The structure of the **larynx** is formed by several pieces of cartilage. Three large cartilage pieces form the major structure of the **larynx**.
- Thyroid cartilage (anterior):
- The thyroid cartilage is the largest piece of cartilage that makes up the larynx. The thyroid cartilage consists of the **laryngeal** pro... | {
"Header 1": "7. Respiratory System",
"Header 2": "Larynx",
"token_count": 618,
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The **trachea** is formed by 16 to 20 stacked, C-shaped pieces of hyaline cartilage that are connected by dense connective tissue. The trachealis muscle and elastic connective tissue together form the **fibroelastic membrane**. The fibroelastic membrane allows the trachea to stretch and expand slightly during inhalatio... | {
"Header 1": "7. Respiratory System",
"Header 2": "Larynx",
"Header 3": "Trachea",
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The trachea branches into the right and left primary bronchi at the **carina**. These bronchi are also lined by pseudostratified ciliated columnar epithelium containing mucus-producing goblet cells (Figure 7.7b). The carina is a raised structure that contains specialized nervous tissue that induces violent coughing if ... | {
"Header 1": "7. Respiratory System",
"Header 2": "Bronchial Tree",
"token_count": 302,
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The lungs are pyramid-shaped, paired organs that are connected to the trachea by the right and left bronchi; on the inferior surface, the lungs are bordered by the **diaphragm**. The lungs are enclosed by the pleurae, which are attached to the mediastinum. The right lung is shorter and wider than the left lung, and the... | {
"Header 1": "7. Respiratory System",
"Header 2": "Gross Anatomy of the Lungs",
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The major function of the lungs is to perform gas exchange, which requires blood from the pulmonary circulation.
- This blood supply contains deoxygenated blood and travels to the lungs where **erythrocytes** pick up oxygen to be transported to tissues throughout the body.
- The **pulmonary artery** carries deoxygena... | {
"Header 1": "7. Respiratory System",
"Header 2": "Blood Supply",
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Each lung is enclosed within a cavity that is surrounded by the pleura. The pleura (plural = pleurae) is a
serous membrane that surrounds the lung. The right and left pleurae, which enclose the right and left lungs, respectively, are separated by the mediastinum.
The pleurae consist of two layers:
- 1. The **visc... | {
"Header 1": "7. Respiratory System",
"Header 2": "Pleura of the Lungs",
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Breathing usually occurs without thought, although at times you can consciously control it, such as when you swim under water, sing a song, or blow bubbles. The respiratory rate is the total number of breaths that occur each minute. Respiratory rate can be an important indicator of diseas... | {
"Header 1": "7. Respiratory System",
"Header 2": "Respiratory Rate and Control of Ventilation",
"token_count": 225,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/Med_v1/med_textbook/Building-a-Medical-Terminology-Foundation.pdf"
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The burning of a tobacco cigarette creates multiple chemical compounds that are released through mainstream smoke, which is inhaled by the smoker, and through sidestream smoke, which is the smoke that is given off by the burning cigarette. **Second-hand smoke**, which is a combination of sidestream smoke and the mainst... | {
"Header 1": "7. Respiratory System",
"Header 2": "The Effects of Second-Hand Tobacco Smoke",
"token_count": 310,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/Med_v1/med_textbook/Building-a-Medical-Terminology-Foundation.pdf"
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COPD is a term used to represent a number of respiratory diseases including chronic bronchitis and emphysema. COPD is a **chronic** condition with most symptoms appearing in people in their middle 50s. Symptoms include
shortness of breath, cough, and sputum production. Symptoms during flare ups or times of **exacerba... | {
"Header 1": "7. Respiratory System",
"Header 2": "Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease (COPD)",
"token_count": 221,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/Med_v1/med_textbook/Building-a-Medical-Terminology-Foundation.pdf"
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Asthma is a common chronic condition that affects all age groups. In 2011/2012 there were 3.8 million Canadians diagnosed with asthma and a disproportionate number of children and youth (Government of Canada, 2018). To learn more, visit the Asthma in Canada Data Blog . Asthma is a chronic disease characterized by infla... | {
"Header 1": "7. Respiratory System",
"Header 2": "Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease (COPD)",
"Header 3": "Asthma",
"token_count": 337,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/Med_v1/med_textbook/Building-a-Medical-Terminology-Foundation.pdf"
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Lung cancer is a leading cause of cancer death among both males and females in Canada with 98% occurring in adults over 50. Symptoms often appear in the late stages with 50% being diagnosed at STAGE IV (Government of Canada, 2019a). Symptoms may include shortness of breath, wheezing, blood in the mucus, chronic chest i... | {
"Header 1": "7. Respiratory System",
"Header 2": "Lung Cancer",
"token_count": 269,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/Med_v1/med_textbook/Building-a-Medical-Terminology-Foundation.pdf"
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Sleep apnea is a **chronic** disorder that occurs in children and adults. It is characterized by the **cessation** of breathing during sleep. These episodes may last for several seconds or several minutes, and may differ in the frequency with which they are experienced. Sleep apnea leads to poor sleep, symptoms include... | {
"Header 1": "7. Respiratory System",
"Header 2": "Sleep Apnea",
"token_count": 205,
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Spirometry testing is used to find out how well lungs are working by measuring air volume.
- **Respiratory volume**, describes the amount of air in a given space within the lungs, or which can be moved by the lung, and is dependent on a variety of factors.
- **Tidal volume**, refers to the amount of air that enters t... | {
"Header 1": "7. Respiratory System",
"Header 2": "Spirometry Testing",
"token_count": 422,
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The renal artery first divides into segmental arteries, followed by further branching to form interlobar arteries that pass through the renal columns to reach the cortex (see Figure 8.3). The **interlobar** arteries, in turn, branch into **arcuate** arteries, cortical **radiate** arteries, and then into afferent arteri... | {
"Header 1": "8. Urinary System",
"Header 2": "Kidney(s)",
"Header 3": "*Nephrons and Vessels*",
"token_count": 575,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/Med_v1/med_textbook/Building-a-Medical-Terminology-Foundation.pdf"
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The kidneys and ureters are completely **retroperitoneal**, and the bladder has a **peritoneal** covering only over the dome. As urine is formed, it drains into the **calyces** of the kidney, which merge to form the funnel-shaped renal pelvis in the hilum of each kidney. The hilum narrows to become the **ureter** of ea... | {
"Header 1": "8. Urinary System",
"Header 2": "Kidney(s)",
"Header 3": "*Ureter(s)*",
"token_count": 222,
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The urinary bladder collects urine from both ureters ( see Figure 8.5). The bladder lies anterior to the uterus in females, posterior to the pubic bone and anterior to the rectum. During late pregnancy, its capacity is reduced due to compression by the enlarging uterus, resulting in increased frequency of urination. In... | {
"Header 1": "8. Urinary System",
"Header 2": "Bladder",
"token_count": 236,
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The urethra transports urine from the bladder to the outside of the body for disposal. The urethra is the only urologic organ that shows any significant anatomic difference between males and females; all other urine transport structures are identical (see Figure 8.6).
*Figure 8.6. Femal... | {
"Header 1": "8. Urinary System",
"Header 2": "Urethra",
"token_count": 354,
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Micturition is a less-often used, but proper term for **urination** or **voiding**. It results from an interplay of involuntary and voluntary actions by the internal and external urethral sphincters. When bladder volume reaches about 150 mL, an urge to void is sensed but is easily overridden. Voluntary control of urina... | {
"Header 1": "8. Urinary System",
"Header 2": "Urethra",
"Header 3": "*Micturition Reflex*",
"token_count": 562,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/Med_v1/med_textbook/Building-a-Medical-Terminology-Foundation.pdf"
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The volume of filtrate formed by both kidneys per minute is termed the **glomerular filtration rate** (GFR). The
heart pumps about 5 L blood per min under resting conditions. Approximately 20 percent or one liter enters the kidneys to be filtered. On average, this liter results in the production of about 125 mL/min f... | {
"Header 1": "8. Urinary System",
"Header 2": "Glomerular Filtration Rate (GFR)",
"token_count": 964,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/Med_v1/med_textbook/Building-a-Medical-Terminology-Foundation.pdf"
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The renal corpuscle filters the blood to create a filtrate that differs from blood mainly in the absence of cells and large proteins. From this point to the ends of the collecting ducts, the filtrate or forming urine is undergoing modification through **secretion** and **reabsorption** before true urine is produced. He... | {
"Header 1": "8. Urinary System",
"Header 2": "Reabsorption and Secretion",
"token_count": 221,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/Med_v1/med_textbook/Building-a-Medical-Terminology-Foundation.pdf"
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Urinalysis (urine analysis) often provides clues to renal disease. Normally, only traces of protein are found in urine, and when higher amounts are found, damage to the glomeruli is the likely basis. Unusually large quantities of urine may point to diseases like diabetes mellitus or **hypothalamic** tumors that cause d... | {
"Header 1": "8. Urinary System",
"Header 2": "Reabsorption and Secretion",
"Header 3": "Urinalysis",
"token_count": 658,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/Med_v1/med_textbook/Building-a-Medical-Terminology-Foundation.pdf"
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Renin is an **enzyme** that is produced by the granular cells of the afferent arteriole. It enzymatically converts angiotensinogen (made by the liver, freely circulating) into angiotensin I. Its release is stimulated by **prostaglandins** to decreased extracellular fluid volume.
Angiotensin II is a potent vasoconstri... | {
"Header 1": "8. Urinary System",
"Header 2": "Renin–Angiotensin–Aldosterone",
"token_count": 239,
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**Sperm** are smaller than most cells in the body; in fact, the volume of a sperm
cell is 85,000 times less than that of the female gamete. Approximately 100 to 300 million sperm are produced each day, whereas women typically ovulate only one **oocyte** per month as is true for most cells in the body, the structure o... | {
"Header 1": "9. Male Reproductive System",
"Header 2": "**Physiology (Function) of the Male Reproductive System**",
"Header 3": "Sperm",
"token_count": 205,
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Chlamydia is one of the most common sexually transmitted infections (STIs) caused by bacteria that infect the cervix, urethra and other reproductive organs. Chlamydia is easy to treat and can be cured. Many people with chlamydia do not have any symptoms and unknowingly pass the infection to their sexual partner(s). If ... | {
"Header 1": "9. Male Reproductive System",
"Header 2": "Sexually Transmitted Infections (STIs)",
"Header 3": "*Chlamydia (CT)*",
"token_count": 322,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/Med_v1/med_textbook/Building-a-Medical-Terminology-Foundation.pdf"
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Gonorrhea is a sexually transmitted infection (STI) caused by bacteria that infects the cervix, urethra and other reproductive organs. Infections can also infect the throat and anus. Gonorrhea can be treated and cured. Many people infected with gonorrhea have no symptoms and can unknowingly pass the infection on to the... | {
"Header 1": "9. Male Reproductive System",
"Header 2": "Sexually Transmitted Infections (STIs)",
"Header 3": "*Gonorrhea (Gonococcus) – (GC)*",
"token_count": 374,
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Genital herpes is a sexually transmitted infection (STI) that is caused by a virus called herpes simplex virus (HSV). There are two types of herpes simplex viruses:
- Type 1- oral herpes or cold sores (HSV-1)
- Type 2- genital herpes (HSV-2).
These viruses are very similar and either type can cause genital herpes o... | {
"Header 1": "9. Male Reproductive System",
"Header 2": "Herpes Simplex Virus (HSV)",
"token_count": 554,
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(Also, Cowper's glands) glands that secrete a lubricating mucus that cleans and lubricates the urethra prior to and during ejaculation.
#### **Corpus cavernosum**
Either of two columns of erectile tissue in the penis that fill with blood during an erection.
#### **Corpus spongiosum**
(Plural = corpora cavernosa... | {
"Header 1": "9. Male Reproductive System",
"Header 2": "**Male Reproductive Vocabulary**",
"Header 3": "**Bulbourethral glands**",
"token_count": 210,
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The external female reproductive structures are referred to collectively as the **vulva** and they include:
- The **mons pubis** is a pad of fat that is located at the anterior, over the pubic bone. After puberty, it becomes covered in pubic hair.
- The **labia majora** (labia = "lips"; majora = "larger") are folds o... | {
"Header 1": "10. Female Reproductive System",
"Header 2": "External Female Genitals",
"token_count": 355,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/Med_v1/med_textbook/Building-a-Medical-Terminology-Foundation.pdf"
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The **vagina** is a muscular canal (approximately 10 cm long) that is the entrance to the reproductive tract. It also serves as the exit from the uterus during menses and childbirth. The outer walls of the anterior and posterior vagina are columns with ridges. The superior **fornix** meets the uterine cervix. The cervi... | {
"Header 1": "10. Female Reproductive System",
"Header 2": "Vagina",
"token_count": 357,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/Med_v1/med_textbook/Building-a-Medical-Terminology-Foundation.pdf"
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Fallopiantubes arenot connectedto the ovaries. Insteadfimbriae catchthe oocyte like a baseball ina glove.
The fallopian tubes are the conduit of the **oocyte** from the ovary to the uterus. Each of the two fallopian tubes is close to, but not directly connected to, the ovary.
• The **isthmus** is the narrow medial ... | {
"Header 1": "10. Female Reproductive System",
"Header 2": "The Fallopian Tubes",
"Header 3": "*Did You Know?*",
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The **uterus** is the muscular organ that nourishes and supports the growing embryo. Its average size is approximately 5 cm wide by 7 cm long and it has three sections.
- The portion of the uterus **superior** to the opening of the uterine tubes is called the **fundus**.
- The middle section of the uterus is called t... | {
"Header 1": "10. Female Reproductive System",
"Header 2": "The Uterus and Cervix",
"token_count": 293,
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The three phases of the menstrual cycle are:
- 1. The **menses phase** of the menstrual cycle is the phase during which reproductive hormone levels are low, the woman menstruates, and the lining is shed. The menses phase lasts between 2 – 7 days with an average of 5 days.
- 2. The **proliferative phase** is when mens... | {
"Header 1": "10. Female Reproductive System",
"Header 2": "**The Menstrual Cycle**",
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Cervical cancer is typically slow-growing cancer and is highly curable when found and treated early. Advanced cervical cancer may cause abnormal bleeding or discharge from the vagina such as bleeding after sex. It is diagnosed during a Papanicolaou test (or Pap smear) which looks for precancers, cell changes, on the ce... | {
"Header 1": "10. Female Reproductive System",
"Header 2": "**Cervical Cancer**",
"token_count": 224,
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Endometriosis is an abnormal condition of the **endometrium**. Endometriosis occurs when this tissue grows and implants outside the uterus. The female hormone estrogen causes these implants to grow, bleed, and break down. They are implanted outside the uterus have no way to leave the body. They become painful, inflamed... | {
"Header 1": "10. Female Reproductive System",
"Header 2": "**Cervical Cancer**",
"Header 3": "**Endometriosis**",
"token_count": 253,
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Polycystic Ovary Syndrome (PCOS) has no known etiology but researchers have linked it to excessive insulin production. Excessive insulin in the body can release extra male hormones in women. Since the ovaries produce high levels of **androgens** this causes the eggs to develop into cysts and instead of releasing during... | {
"Header 1": "10. Female Reproductive System",
"Header 2": "**Cervical Cancer**",
"Header 3": "**PCOS**",
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**Chlamydia** is one of the most common sexually transmitted infections (STIs) caused by bacteria that infect the cervix, urethra and other reproductive organs. Chlamydia is easy to treat and can be cured. Many people with chlamydia do not have any symptoms and unknowingly pass the infection to their sexual partner(s).... | {
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"Header 2": "Chlamydia (CT)",
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Gonorrhea is a sexually transmitted infection (STI) caused by bacteria that infects the cervix, urethra and other reproductive organs. Infections can also infect the throat and anus. Gonorrhea can be treated and cured. Many people infected with Gonorrhea have no symptoms and can unknowingly pass the infection on to the... | {
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"Header 2": "Gonorrhea (Gonococcus) – (GC)",
"token_count": 348,
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Genital herpes is a sexually transmitted infection (STI) that is caused by a virus called herpes simplex virus (HSV). There are two types of herpes simplex viruses:
- Type 1- oral herpes or cold sores (HSV-1)
- Type 2- genital herpes (HSV-2).
These viruses are very similar and either type can cause genital herpes o... | {
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"Header 2": "Herpes Simplex Virus (HSV)",
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A **hysterectomy** is done to stage or treat female reproductive cancers, treat precancerous conditions of the cervix and some non-cancerous conditions that have not responded to other forms of treatment. There are three types of hysterectomy:
- A **total hysterectomy** removes both the uterus and the cervix.
- A **s... | {
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"Header 2": "Hysterectomy",
"token_count": 207,
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**Fertilization** occurs when a **sperm** and an **oocyte** (egg) combine. Because each of these reproductive cells is a haploid cell containing half of the genetic material needed to form a human being, their combination forms a diploid cell. This new single cell is called a **zygote**.
Most of the time, a woman rel... | {
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"Header 2": "**Fertilization**",
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The process of childbirth can be divided into three stages (see Figure 11.1):
- cervical dilation
- expulsion of the newborn
- after birth
For vaginal birth to occur, the cervix must dilate fully to 10 cm in diameter, wide enough to deliver the newborn's head. The dilation stage is the longest stage of labour and t... | {
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"Header 2": "**Stages of Childbirth**",
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TheApgar score was introducedin1952 byDr. VirginiaApgar to assess the effect of anesthesia on newborns andmothers in labour.
In the minutes following birth, a newborn must undergo dramatic systemic changes to be able to survive outside the womb. An obstetrician, midwife, or nurse can estimate how well a newborn is do... | {
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"Header 3": "*Did You Know?*",
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*Did You Know?*
According toHealth Canada, one insix Canadiancoupleshave struggled withconceiving (Fertility, 2019).
IVF, which stands for in **vitro fertilization**, is an assisted reproductive technology. In vitro, which in Latin translates to in glass, refers to a procedure that takes place outside of the body. ... | {
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A procedure where an incision is made to widen the vaginal opening to prevent ripping or tearing of the perineum during delivery.
#### **Gestation**
The process of being pregnant.
#### **Gestational Diabetes**
The condition or developing diabetes during pregnancy. The newborn tend to be large at delivery and th... | {
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"Header 2": "Prenatal Screening and Diagnostic Testing",
"Header 3": "**Episiotomy**",
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**Figure 11.1 image description:** This multi-part figure shows the different stages of childbirth. The top panel shows dilation of the cervix (undilated vs fully dilated), the middle panel shows birth (presentation of the head, rotation and delivery of anterior shoulder, delivery of posterior shoulder, delivery of low... | {
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"Header 2": "**References**",
"Header 3": "**Image Descriptions**",
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The human heart is located within the thoracic cavity, between the lungs in the space known as the **mediastinum**. Figure 12.1 shows the position of the heart within the thoracic cavity. Within the mediastinum, the heart is separated from the other mediastinal structures by a tough membrane known as the pericardium, o... | {
"Header 1": "12. Cardiovascular System - Heart",
"Header 2": "**Anatomy of the Heart**",
"Header 3": "Location",
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The heart consists of four chambers:
- The upper chambers are the right and left **atria** (singular: atrium).
- The lower chambers are the right and left **ventricles.**
The **interventricular septum** is a muscular wall that separates the right and left ventricles. The interatrial septum separates the right and l... | {
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"Header 2": "Internal Structures of the Heart",
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Theheart soundsheard througha stethoscope are the sounds ofthe four heart valves opening and closing at specific times during one cardiac cycle.
1. Blood that is carrying carbon dioxide and waste products from the body tissues is returned to the **right atrium** via the **superior vena cava** and the **inferior vena ... | {
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Blood exiting from the right ventricle flows into the pulmonary trunk, which bifurcates into the two pulmonary
arteries. These vessels branch to supply blood to the pulmonary capillaries, where gas exchange occurs within the lung alveoli. Blood returns via the pulmonary veins to the left atrium.
![](_page_188_Pictu... | {
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"Header 3": "*Pulmonary Circuit*",
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Myocardial cells require their own blood supply to carry out their function of contracting and relaxing the heart
in order to pump blood. Their own blood supply provides nutrients and oxygen and carry away carbon dioxide and waste. These functions are provided by the coronary arteries and coronary veins.
| Concept ... | {
"Header 1": "12. Cardiovascular System - Heart",
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Anterior view of frontal section of the heart. Image description available.
*Figure 12.6. Conduction System of the Heart. Specialized conducting components of the heart include the sinoatrial node, the internodal pathways, the atrioventricular node, the atrioventricular bundle, the rig... | {
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"Header 3": "*Watch this video:*",
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The heart of a well-trained athlete can be considerably larger than the average person's heart. This is because exercise results in an increase in muscle cells called **hypertrophy** . Hearts of athletes can pump blood more effectively at lower rates than those of non-athletes. However, when an enlarged heart is not th... | {
"Header 1": "12. Cardiovascular System - Heart",
"Header 2": "Cardiomyopathy",
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An aneurysm is a defect in the wall of an artery in which the wall becomes thin and weak and starts to balloon out as blood pulses against the vessel wall. This can happen to any artery and even to the myocardial walls. Aneurysms sometimes occur in the portion of the aorta that is in the thorax (see Figure 12.8). If th... | {
"Header 1": "12. Cardiovascular System - Heart",
"Header 2": "Valvular Heart Disease",
"Header 3": "Aneurysms",
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Fetal circulation is different from **postnatal** circulation. There are 2 extra openings in the fetal heart, the **foramen ovale** and the **ductus arteriosus**, which allow blood circulation that bypasses the immature fetal lungs. The fetal blood is reoxygenated by the mother's lungs and transported between mother an... | {
"Header 1": "12. Cardiovascular System - Heart",
"Header 2": "Heart Defects",
"token_count": 767,
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**Coronary artery disease** occurs when the buildup of **plaque** in the coronary arteries obstructs the flow of blood and decreases **compliance** of the vessels. This condition is called **atherosclerosis**. As the disease progresses and coronary blood vessels become more and more narrow, cells of the myocardium beco... | {
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"Header 2": "Heart Defects",
"Header 3": "Coronary Artery Disease (CAD)",
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An MI normally results from a lack of blood flow to a region of the heart, resulting in death of the cardiac muscle cells. An MI often occurs when a coronary artery is blocked by the buildup of atherosclerotic plaque. It can also occur when a piece of an atherosclerotic plaque breaks off and travels through the coronar... | {
"Header 1": "12. Cardiovascular System - Heart",
"Header 2": "Myocardial Infarction",
"Header 3": "**Myocardial infarction (MI)** is the medical term for a heart attack.",
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The heart's natural pacemaker, the sinoatrial (SA) node initiates an electrical impulse 60-90 times per minute in a resting adult. This impulse travels through the heart's conduction system in order to ensure a smooth, coordinated pumping action. This electrical activity can be detected ... | {
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"Header 2": "Arrhythmia",
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**Bradycardia** is the condition in which resting adult heart rate drops below 60 bpm. a client exhibiting symptoms such as weakness, fatigue, dizziness, **syncope**, chest discomfort, palpitations or respiratory distress may indicate that the heart is not providing sufficient oxygenated blood to the tissues. If the pa... | {
"Header 1": "12. Cardiovascular System - Heart",
"Header 2": "Abnormal Heart Rates",
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A **heart block** refers to an interruption in the normal conduction pathway. Heart blocks are generally named after the part of the conduction system that is causing the problem. For example, bundle branch blocks occur within either the left or right atrioventricular bundle branches.
**AV** blocks are often describe... | {
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"Header 2": "Abnormal Heart Rates",
"Header 3": "Heart Block",
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Our large, complex bodies need blood to deliver nutrients to and remove wastes from our trillions of cells. The heart, as discussed in the previous chapter, pumps blood throughout the body in a network of blood vessels. Together, these three components—blood, heart, and vessels—makes up the cardiovascular system.
Vir... | {
"Header 1": "13. Cardiovascular System - Blood Vessels and Blood",
"Header 2": "**Introduction to the Blood Vessels and Blood**",
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Blood pumped by the heart flows through a series of vessels known as arteries, arterioles, capillaries, venules, and veins before returning to the heart.
- **Arteries** transport blood away from the heart and branch into smaller vessels, forming arterioles.
- **Arterioles** distribute blood to capillary beds, the sit... | {
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"Header 2": "**Anatomy of the Blood Vessels**",
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Many arteries and veins share the same names, parallel one another throughout the body, and are very similar on the right and left sides of the body. For example, you will find a pair of **femoral** arteries and a pair of femoral veins, with one vessel on each side of the body. In contrast, some vessels closer to the m... | {
"Header 1": "13. Cardiovascular System - Blood Vessels and Blood",
"Header 2": "**The Major Arteries and Veins in the Human Body**",
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Arteries and veins transport blood in two distinct circuits: the **systemic circuit** and the **pulmonary circuit**. Systemic arteries provide blood rich in oxygen to the body's tissues. The blood returned to the heart through systemic veins has less oxygen, since much of the oxygen carried by the arteries has been del... | {
"Header 1": "13. Cardiovascular System - Blood Vessels and Blood",
"Header 2": "**Physiology of the Blood Vessels**",
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**Blood pressure** is the force exerted by blood upon the walls of the blood vessels or the chambers of the heart. Blood pressure may be measured in capillaries and veins, as well as the vessels of the pulmonary circulation; however, the general term 'blood pressure' refers to the pressure of blood flowing in the arter... | {
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"Header 2": "Blood Pressure",
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**Blood** is a connective tissue made up of cellular elements and an extracellular matrix. The cellular elements are
referred to as the **formed elements and** include **red blood cells (RBCs)**, **white blood cells (WBCs)**, and **platelets**. The extracellular matrix, called **plasma**, makes blood unique among con... | {
"Header 1": "13. Cardiovascular System - Blood Vessels and Blood",
"Header 2": "**The Composition (Anatomy) of Blood and the Functions of the Components**",
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The lifespan of the formed elements is very brief. Although one type of leukocyte (memory cells) can survive for years, most **erythrocytes**, **leukocytes**, and **platelets** normally live only a few hours to a few weeks. Thus, the body must form new blood cells and platelets quickly and continuously, a process known... | {
"Header 1": "13. Cardiovascular System - Blood Vessels and Blood",
"Header 2": "Blood Plasma",
"Header 3": "*Hemopoiesis/Hematopoiesis*",
"token_count": 428,
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The most abundant formed elements in blood, erythrocytes are basically sacs packed with an oxygen-carrying compound called hemoglobin. Production of erythrocytes in the red bone marrow occurs at the staggering rate of more than 2 million cells per second. For this production to occur, raw materials including iron, copp... | {
"Header 1": "13. Cardiovascular System - Blood Vessels and Blood",
"Header 2": "Blood Plasma",
"Header 3": "*Erythrocytes*",
"token_count": 241,
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- What is **hemoglobin**?
- Can you name the 5 types of **leukocytes**?
Leukocytes routinely leave the bloodstream to perform their **defensive** functions in the body's tissues, where they are often given distinct names, such as **macrophage** or **microglia**, depending on their function. As shown in Figure 1 below... | {
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"Header 2": "Blood Plasma",
"Header 3": "*Concept Check*",
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Lymphocytes are one of the types of leukocytes and will be discussed in more detail here, since they tie into the next chapter which discussed the body's defenses The three major groups of lymphocytes include natural killer cells, B cells, and T cells.
- **Natural killer (NK) cells** are capable of recognizing cells ... | {
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"Header 2": "Blood Plasma",
"Header 3": "Lymphocytes",
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*Figure 13.12 Hemostasis. (a) An injury to a blood vessel initiates the process of hemostasis. Blood clotting involves three steps. First, vascular spasm constricts the flow of blood. Next, a platelet plug forms to temporarily seal small openings in the vessel. Coagulation then enables the repair of the vessel wall onc... | {
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"Header 2": "Blood Plasma",
"Header 3": "Process of clotting blood. Image description available.",
"token_count": 223,
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In order to understand blood types, it is important to understand several terms that relate to the body's **immune** functions (discussed in detail in the next chapter)
- **Antigens** are substances that the body does not recognize as belonging to itself ("self") and that therefore trigger a **defensive response** fr... | {
"Header 1": "13. Cardiovascular System - Blood Vessels and Blood",
"Header 2": "**Blood Types**",
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ABO blood types are **genetically** determined. Each type is determined by the presence or absence of certain **antigens** on the individual's red blood cell membrane, as well as the presence or absence of certain **antibodies**. Normally the body must be exposed to a **foreign antigen** before an antibody can be produ... | {
"Header 1": "13. Cardiovascular System - Blood Vessels and Blood",
"Header 2": "ABO Blood Group",
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Antibodies to the Rh antigen are produced only in Rh<sup>−</sup> individuals after exposure to the antigen. This process, called sensitization, occurs following a transfusion with Rh-incompatible blood or, more commonly, with the birth of an Rh<sup>+</sup> baby to an Rh<sup>−</sup> mother.
- In a **first pregnancy** ... | {
"Header 1": "13. Cardiovascular System - Blood Vessels and Blood",
"Header 2": "Rh Blood Group",
"Header 3": "*Hemolytic Disease of the Newborn (HDN)*",
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Figure 13.15 is an example of a commercially produced "bedside" card which enables quick typing of both a recipient's and donor's blood before transfusion. The card contains three reaction sites or wells. One is coated with an anti-A antibody, one with an anti-B antibody, and one with an anti-D antibody (tests for the ... | {
"Header 1": "13. Cardiovascular System - Blood Vessels and Blood",
"Header 2": "Blood Transfusions",
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**Arteriosclerosis** is normally defined as the more generalized loss of **compliance**, "hardening of the arteries," whereas **atherosclerosis** is a more specific term for the build-up of **plaque** in the walls of the vessel and is a specific type of arteriosclerosis.
When arteriosclerosis causes vessel compliance... | {
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"Header 2": "Arteriosclerosis",
"token_count": 686,
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Despite the presence of valves and the contributions of other anatomical and physiological adaptations that assist in moving blood through veins, over the course of a day, some blood will inevitably pool, especially in the lower limbs, due to the pull of gravity. Any blood that accumulates in a vein will increase the p... | {
"Header 1": "13. Cardiovascular System - Blood Vessels and Blood",
"Header 2": "Arteriosclerosis",
"Header 3": "Edema and Varicose Veins",
"token_count": 447,
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The loss of too much blood may lead to **circulatory shock**, a life-threatening condition in which the circulatory system is unable to maintain blood flow to adequately supply sufficient oxygen and other nutrients to the tissues to maintain cellular metabolism. It should not be confused with emotional or psychological... | {
"Header 1": "13. Cardiovascular System - Blood Vessels and Blood",
"Header 2": "Hemorrhage",
"Header 3": "*Circulatory Shock*",
"token_count": 502,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/Med_v1/med_textbook/Building-a-Medical-Terminology-Foundation.pdf"
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• **Sickle cell anemia**
- A genetic disorder involving the production of an abnormal type of hemoglobin which delivers less oxygen to tissues and causes erythrocytes to assume a sickle (or crescent) shape.
- **Iron deficiency anemia**
- The most common type of anemia and results when the amount of available iron is ... | {
"Header 1": "13. Cardiovascular System - Blood Vessels and Blood",
"Header 2": "**Blood Disorders**",
"Header 3": "**Anemias Caused by Faulty or Decreased RBC Production:**",
"token_count": 404,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/Med_v1/med_textbook/Building-a-Medical-Terminology-Foundation.pdf"
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**Polycythemia** is an elevated RBC count and is detected in a patient's elevated [pb\_glossary id="1613"]hematocrit. It can occur transiently in a person who is dehydrated; when water intake is inadequate or water losses are excessive, the plasma volume falls. As a result, the hematocrit rises. A mild form of polycyth... | {
"Header 1": "13. Cardiovascular System - Blood Vessels and Blood",
"Header 2": "**Blood Disorders**",
"Header 3": "*Polycythemia*",
"token_count": 217,
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Sometimes, a healthcare provider will order a **bone marrow biopsy**, a diagnostic test of a sample of red bone marrow, or a **bone marrow transplant**, a treatment in which a donor's healthy bone marrow—and its stem cells—replaces the faulty bone marrow of a patient. These tests and procedures are often used to assist... | {
"Header 1": "13. Cardiovascular System - Blood Vessels and Blood",
"Header 2": "Bone Marrow Biopsy/Bone Marrow Transplant",
"token_count": 304,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/Med_v1/med_textbook/Building-a-Medical-Terminology-Foundation.pdf"
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Literally: 'lower than normal amount of oxygen to tissues'. Hypoxia means that a tissue is not getting enough oxygen to survive and cell death is likely.
#### **Ischemia**
Insufficient blood and oxygen to cells of an organ. These cells are starving for oxygen, but they are still alive.
#### **Leukocytes**
White... | {
"Header 1": "13. Cardiovascular System - Blood Vessels and Blood",
"Header 2": "Medical Laboratory Technologist/Assistant",
"Header 3": "**Hypoxia**",
"token_count": 205,
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**Figure 13.1 image description:** The left panel shows the structure of a skeletal muscle vein pump when the muscle is relaxed, and the right panel shows the structure of a skeletal muscle vein pump when the muscle is contracted.[Return to Figure 13.1].
**Figure 13.2 image description:** The top left panel of this f... | {
"Header 1": "13. Cardiovascular System - Blood Vessels and Blood",
"Header 2": "**References**",
"Header 3": "**Image Descriptions**",
"token_count": 2009,
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The **lymphatic system** is a series of vessels, ducts, and trunks that remove interstitial fluid from the tissues and return it the blood. The lymphatic vessels are also used to transport dietary lipids and cells of the **immune system**. Cells of the immune system, lymphocytes, all come from the hematopoietic system ... | {
"Header 1": "14. Lymphatic and Immune Systems",
"Header 2": "**Introduction to the Lymphatic and Immune Systems**",
"token_count": 222,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/Med_v1/med_textbook/Building-a-Medical-Terminology-Foundation.pdf"
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