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An important function of the lymphatic system is to return the fluid (lymph) to the blood. **Lymph** may be thought of as recycled blood plasma. Blood pressure causes leakage of fluid from the blood capillaries, resulting in the accumulation of fluid in the **interstitial space**. In humans, 20 liters of plasma is rele... | {
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The lymphatic capillaries empty into larger lymphatic vessels, which are similar to veins in terms of their threetunic structure and the presence of valves. These one-way valves are located fairly close to one another, and each one causes a bulge in the lymphatic vessel, giving the vessels a beaded appearance (see Figu... | {
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"Header 2": "Larger Lymphatic Vessels, Trunks, and Ducts",
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The **primary lymphoid organs** are the bone marrow and thymus gland. The lymphoid organs are where lymphocytes mature, proliferate, and are selected, which enables them to attack pathogens without harming the cells of the body.
- Bone Marrow
- Recall that all blood cells, including lymphocytes, are formed in the red... | {
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Lymph nodes function to remove debris and pathogens from the lymph, and are thus sometimes referred to as the "filters of the lymph" (see Figure 14.6). Any bacteria that infect the interstitial fluid are taken up by the lymphatic capillaries and transported to a regional lymph node. Dendritic cells and macrophages with... | {
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The other lymphoid tissues, the **lymphoid nodules**, consist of a dense cluster of lymphocytes without a surrounding fibrous capsule. These nodules are located in the respiratory and digestive tracts, areas routinely exposed to environmental pathogens.
**Tonsils** are lymphoid nodules located along the inner surface... | {
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The immune system is a collection of barriers, cells, and soluble proteins that interact and communicate with each other in extraordinarily complex ways. The modern model of immune function is organized into a three phases immune response (based on the timing of their effects). Ideally, this response will rid the body ... | {
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"Header 2": "**The Organization of the Immune System**",
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Barrier defenses are part of the body's most basic innate defense mechanisms. They are not a *response* to infections, but rather are continuously working to protect against pathogens by preventing them from entering the body, destroying them after they enter, or flushing them out before they can establish themselves. ... | {
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Innate immune responses are critical to the early control of infections. Whereas barrier defenses are the body's first line of physical defense against pathogens, innate immune responses are the first line of physiological defense. Innate responses occur rapidly, but with less specificity and effectiveness than the ada... | {
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Phagocytes: Macrophages and Neutrophils
A phagocyte is a cell that is able to surround and engulf a particle or cell, a process called **phagocytosis**. The phagocytes of the immune system engulf other particles or cells, either to clean an area of debris, old cells, or to kill pathogenic organisms such as bacteria. ... | {
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The hallmark of the innate immune response is **inflammation**. Stub a toe, cut a finger, or do any activity that causes tissue damage and inflammation will result, with its four characteristics: **heat, redness, pain,** and **swelling** ("loss of function" is sometimes mentioned as a fifth characteristic). It is impor... | {
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- The first exposure to a pathogen is called a **primary adaptive response.**
- Symptoms of a first infection, called primary disease, are always relatively severe because it takes time for an initial adaptive immune response to a pathogen to become effective.
- Upon re-exposure to the same pathogen, a **secondary adap... | {
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"Header 3": "• **Immunological Memory**",
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As stated above, lymphocytes are the primary cells of adaptive immune responses. These cells were introduced in the previous chapter and are summarized in the following table:
| CELL TYPE | DESCRIPTION AND DETAILS ... | {
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"Header 3": "*Lymphocytes: B Cells, T Cells, Plasma Cells*",
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Immunity to pathogens, and the ability to control pathogen growth so that damage to the tissues of the body is limited, can be acquired by:
1. The active development of an immune response in the infected individual.
**or**
2. The passive transfer of immune components from an immune individual to a non-immune one.... | {
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The immune system and pathogens are in a slow, evolutionary race to see who stays on top. Early childhood is a time when the body develops much of its immunological memory that protects it from diseases in adulthood. Pathogens have shown the ability, however, to evade the body's immune responses, as described below.
... | {
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With the use of **tissue typing** and anti-rejection drugs, transplantation of organs and the control of the antitransplant immune response have made huge strides in the past 50 years.
Immunosuppressive drugs such as cyclosporine A have made transplants more successful, but tissue matching is still key. Family member... | {
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It is clear that with some cancers, like Kaposi's sarcoma (see Figure 14.14), for example, that a healthy immune system does a good job at controlling them. This disease, which is caused by the human herpes virus, is almost never observed in individuals with strong immune systems. Other examples of cancers caused by vi... | {
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In order to protect the entire body from infection, the immune system is required to interact with other organ systems, sometimes in complex ways. For example, hormones such as cortisol (naturally produced by the adrenal cortex) and prednisone (synthetic) are well known for their abilities to suppress T cell immune mec... | {
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While many inherited immunodeficiencies exist, the most serious is **severe combined immunodeficiency disease (SCID)**. This complex disease is caused by many different genetic defects which result in impaired B cell and T cell arms of the adaptive immune response. Children with this disease usually die of opportunisti... | {
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Although many viruses cause suppression of the immune system, only **HIV** wipes it out completely. HIV is transmitted through semen, vaginal fluids, and blood, and can be caught by risky sexual behaviors and the sharing of needles by intravenous drug users. There are sometimes, but not always, flu-like symptoms in the... | {
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Over-reactive immune responses include the **hypersensitivities**: allergies and inflammatory responses to nonpathogenic environmental substances (Betts, et al., 2013). The table below compares different
hypersensitivities.
| TYPE OF<br>HYPERSENSITIVITY | DETAILS AND EXPLANATION ... | {
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The worst cases of the immune system over-reacting are autoimmune diseases in which the immune systems begin to attack cells of the patient's own body, causing chronic inflammation and significant damage. The trigger for these diseases is often unknown, although environmental and genetic factors are likely involved. Tr... | {
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Histologically, tonsils do not contain a complete capsule, and the epithelial layer invaginates deeply into the interior of the tonsil to form tonsillar crypts.
#### **Cytokine**
Soluble, short-range, cell-to-cell communication molecule.
#### **Deep Lymphatic Vessels**
Lymphatic vessels of the organs.
#### **... | {
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Precursor to macrophages and dendritic cells seen in the blood.
#### **Mucosa-associated lymphoid tissue (malt)**
Lymphoid nodule associated with the mucosa.
#### **Mucosal**
Mucous membranes line body cavities that open to the outside world, including the respiratory tract, gastrointestinal tract, urinary trac... | {
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Large duct that drains lymph from the lower limbs, left thorax, left upper limb, and the left side of the head.
#### **Thymocytes**
Lymphocytes that develop into T-cells in the thymus gland.
#### **Thymus**
Primary lymphoid organ, where t lymphocytes proliferate and mature.
#### **Tonsils**
Lymphoid nodules... | {
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**Figure 14.1 image description:** The left panel shows a female human body, and the entire lymphatic system is shown Labels read (clockwise from top): thymus, lymph nodes, thymus, spleen, lymph vessel, bone marrow, right lymphatic duct, entering vein, tonsil, adenoid. The right panel shows magnified images of the thym... | {
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The digestive system is continually at work, yet people seldom appreciate the complex tasks it performs in a choreographed biologic symphony. Consider what happens when you eat an apple. Of course, you enjoy the apple's taste as you chew it, but in the hours that follow, unless something goes amiss and you get a stomac... | {
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The cheeks, tongue, and palate frame the mouth, which is
also called the **oral cavity** (or buccal cavity). The structures of the mouth are illustrated in Figure 15.2.
At the entrance to the mouth are the lips, or **labia** (singular = labium). Their outer covering is skin, which t... | {
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Perhaps you have heard it said that the **tongue** is the strongest muscle in the body. Those who stake this claim cite its strength proportionate to its size. Although it is difficult to quantify the relative strength of different muscles, it remains indisputable that the tongue is a workhorse, facilitating **ingestio... | {
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Many small **salivary glands** are housed within the mucous membranes of the mouth and tongue. These minor **exocrine** glands are constantly secreting **saliva**, either directly into the oral cavity or indirectly through ducts, even while you sleep. In fact, an average of 1 to 1.5 liters of saliva is secreted each da... | {
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The pharynx (throat) is involved in both digestion and respiration. It receives food and air from the mouth, and air from the nasal cavities. When food enters the pharynx, involuntary muscle contractions close off the air passageways. A short tube of skeletal muscle lined with a **mucous membrane**, the pharynx runs fr... | {
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The esophagus is a muscular tube that connects the pharynx to the stomach. It is approximately 25.4 cm (10 in) in length, located posterior to the trachea, and remains in a collapsed form when not engaged in swallowing. As you can see in Figure 15.4, the esophagus runs a mainly straight route through the mediastinum of... | {
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There are four main regions in the **stomach**: the cardia, fundus, body, and pylorus (see Figure 15.5). The **cardia** (or
cardiac region) is the point where the esophagus connects to the stomach and through which food passes into the stomach. Located inferior to the diaphragm, above and to the left of the cardia, i... | {
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Your body absorbs 90 per cent of our nutrients through the **small intestine**, into your blood.
Chyme released from the stomach enters the **small intestine**, which is the primary digestive organ in the body. Not only is this where most digestion occurs, it is also where practically all absorption occurs. The longe... | {
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The **large intestine** is the terminal part of the alimentary canal. The primary function of this organ is to finish absorption of nutrients and water, synthesize certain vitamins, form feces, and eliminate feces from the body.
The large intestine runs from the appendix to the anus. It frames the small intestine on ... | {
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The first part of the large intestine is the **cecum**, a sac-like structure that is suspended inferior to the ileocecal valve. It is about 6 cm (2.4 in) long, receives the contents of the ileum, and continues the absorption of water and salts. The **appendix** (or vermiform appendix) is a winding tube that attaches to... | {
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The cecum blends seamlessly with the **colon**. Upon entering the colon, the food residue first travels up the **ascending colon** on the right side of the abdomen. At the inferior surface of the liver, the colon bends to form the **right colic flexure** (hepatic flexure) and becomes the **transverse colon**. The regio... | {
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The **liver** is the largest gland in the body, weighing about three pounds in an adult. It is also one of the most important organs. In addition to being an accessory digestive organ, it plays a number of roles in metabolism and regulation. The liver lies inferior to the diaphragm in the right upper quadrant of the ab... | {
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The soft, oblong, glandular **pancreas** lies transversely in the retroperitoneum behind the stomach. Its head is nestled into the "c-shaped" curvature of the duodenum with the body extending to the left about 15.2 cm (6 in) and ending as a tapering tail in the **hilum** of the spleen. It is a curious mix of **exocrine... | {
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The **gallbladder** is 8–10 cm (~3–4 in) long and is nested in a shallow area on the posterior aspect of the right lobe of the liver. This muscular sac stores, concentrates, and, when stimulated, propels the bile into the duodenum via the common bile duct. It is divided into three regions. The **fundus** is the widest ... | {
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The processes of digestion include six activities: ingestion, **propulsion**, mechanical or physical digestion, chemical digestion, absorption, and **defecation**.
The first of these processes, **ingestion**, refers to the entry of food into the alimentary canal through the mouth. There, the food is chewed and mixed ... | {
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Age-related changes in the digestive system begin in the mouth and can affect virtually every aspect of the digestive system. Taste buds become less sensitive, so food isn't as appetizing as it once was. A slice of pizza is a challenge, not a treat, when you have lost teeth, your gums are diseased, and your salivary gl... | {
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The skeletal system includes all of the bones, cartilages, and ligaments of the body that support and give shape to the body and body structures. The **skeleton** consists of the bones of the body. For adults, there are 206 bones in the skeleton. Younger individuals have higher numbers of bones because some bones fuse ... | {
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The **axial skeleton** forms the vertical, central axis of the body and includes all bones of the head, neck, chest, and back (see Figure 16.1). It serves to protect the brain, spinal cord, heart, and lungs. It also serves as the attachment site for muscles that move the head, neck, and back, and for muscles that act a... | {
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The vertebral column is also known as the spinal column or spine (see Figure 16.2). It consists of a sequence of vertebrae (singular = vertebra), each of which is separated and united by an **intervertebral disc**. Together, the vertebrae and intervertebral discs form the vertebral column. It is a flexible column that ... | {
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- **Cervical** C1 to C7 the first 7 vertebrae in the neck region
- **Thoracic** T1 to T12 the next 12 vertebrae that forms the outward curvature of the spine
- **Lumbar** L1 to L5 the next 5 vertebrae that forms the inner curvature of spine
- **Sacrum** the triangular-shaped bone at the base of the spine
- **Coccyx** t... | {
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The bones of the upper limbs include the bones of the arms, wrists, and hands.
Bones of the Arm
- **Humerus** the bone in upper arm
- **Radius** the bone that runs thumb-side of the forearm
- **Ulna** the bone that runs on the side of the little finger of the forearm
*Did You Know?*
The appendicular skeleton ha... | {
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*Watch this video:*
Most bones connect to at least one other bone in the body. The area where bones meet bones or where bones meet cartilage are called **articulations**. Joints can be classified based on their ability to move. At **movable** joints, the articulating surfaces of the ad... | {
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*Figure 16.8 Movements of the Body, Part 1. Synovial joints give the body many ways in which to move. (a) and (b) Flexion and extension motions are in the sagittal (anterior and posterior) plane of motion. These movements take place at the shoulder, hip, elbow, knee, wrist, metacarpophalangeal, metatarsophalangeal, and... | {
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*Figure 16.9 Movements of the Body, Part 2. (g) Supination of the forearm turns the hand to the palm forward position in which the radius and ulna are parallel, while forearm pronation turns the hand to the palm backward position in which the radius crosses over the ulna to form an "X." (h) Dorsiflexion of the foot at ... | {
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Developmental anomalies, pathological changes, or obesity can enhance the normal vertebral column curves, resulting in the development of abnormal or excessive curvatures (see Figure 16.10). Disorders associated with the curvature of the spine include:
- **Kyphosis:** Also referred to as humpback, is an excessive pos... | {
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"Header 2": "Disorders of the Curvature of the Spine",
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"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/Med_v1/med_textbook/Building-a-Medical-Terminology-Foundation.pdf"
} |
A **fracture** is a broken bone. It will heal whether or not a physician resets it in its anatomical position. If the bone is not reset correctly, the healing process will keep the bone in its deformed position. **Crepitation or crepitus** is the creaking or popping sound that is heard when fractured bones move against... | {
"Header 1": "16. Skeletal System",
"Header 2": "Fractures",
"token_count": 406,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/Med_v1/med_textbook/Building-a-Medical-Terminology-Foundation.pdf"
} |
Common diagnostic procedures related specifically to the skeletal system include x-rays, bone mineral density testing, and arthroscopy.
- **X-rays** are common diagnostic tests used to confirm or rule out fractures and broken bones. The radiation dose is low so it is considered a safe diagnostic test (Ontario Associa... | {
"Header 1": "16. Skeletal System",
"Header 2": "Diagnostic Procedures",
"token_count": 211,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/Med_v1/med_textbook/Building-a-Medical-Terminology-Foundation.pdf"
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**Figure 16.1 image description:** This diagram shows the human skeleton and identifies the major bones. The left panel shows the anterior view (from the front) and the right panel shows the posterior view (from the back). Labels read (from the top of skull): skull (cranial portion, facial portion), pectoral shoulder g... | {
"Header 1": "16. Skeletal System",
"Header 2": "**Skeletal System Vocabulary**",
"Header 3": "**Image Descriptions**",
"token_count": 1872,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/Med_v1/med_textbook/Building-a-Medical-Terminology-Foundation.pdf"
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Muscle is one of the four primary tissue types of the body, and it is made up of specialized cells called fibers. The body contains three types of muscle tissue: **skeletal muscle**, **cardiac muscle**, and **smooth muscle** (see Figure 17.1). All three muscle tissues have some properties in common; they all exhibit a ... | {
"Header 1": "17. Muscular System",
"Header 2": "**Anatomy (Structures) of the Muscular System**",
"token_count": 232,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/Med_v1/med_textbook/Building-a-Medical-Terminology-Foundation.pdf"
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Skeletal muscles act not only to produce movement but also to stop movement, such as resisting gravity to maintain posture. Small, constant adjustments of the skeletal muscles are needed to hold a body upright or balanced in any position. Muscles also prevent excess movement of the bones and joints, maintaining skeleta... | {
"Header 1": "17. Muscular System",
"Header 2": "Three Types of Muscle Tissues",
"Header 3": "*Skeletal Muscle*",
"token_count": 245,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/Med_v1/med_textbook/Building-a-Medical-Terminology-Foundation.pdf"
} |
**Electromyography (EMG)** is a procedure that assesses the function of nerve cells that control muscles. Electrodes, either attached to the skin or inserted into the muscle, allow for the recording of electrical impulses. EMG can indicate functional problems with the peripheral nerves, muscles, or with the signals bet... | {
"Header 1": "17. Muscular System",
"Header 2": "Diagnostic Procedures",
"token_count": 248,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/Med_v1/med_textbook/Building-a-Medical-Terminology-Foundation.pdf"
} |
Ask anyone what the senses are, and they are likely to list the five major senses as **taste, smell, touch, hearing, and sight**. However, these are not all of the senses. The most obvious omission from this list is **balance**. Touch can be further subdivided into pressure, vibration, stretch, and hair-follicle positi... | {
"Header 1": "18. Sensory Systems",
"Header 2": "**Introduction to the Sensory Systems**",
"token_count": 253,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/Med_v1/med_textbook/Building-a-Medical-Terminology-Foundation.pdf"
} |
Gustation is the special sense associated with the tongue. The surface of the tongue, along with the rest of the oral cavity, is lined by a stratified squamous epithelium. Raised bumps called papillae contain the structures for gustatory transduction. There are **four types of papillae**, based on their appearance:
-... | {
"Header 1": "18. Sensory Systems",
"Header 2": "Gustation (Taste)",
"token_count": 283,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/Med_v1/med_textbook/Building-a-Medical-Terminology-Foundation.pdf"
} |
Hearing, or **audition**, is the **transduction** of sound waves into a neural signal that is made possible by the structures of the ear (see Figure 18.1).
*Figure 18.1 Structures of the Ear. The external ear contains the auricle, ear canal, and tympanic membrane. The middle ear contain... | {
"Header 1": "18. Sensory Systems",
"Header 2": "Audition (Hearing)",
"token_count": 1105,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/Med_v1/med_textbook/Building-a-Medical-Terminology-Foundation.pdf"
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Along with audition, the **inner ear** is responsible for **encoding** information about **equilibrium**. The cells that sense head position, head movement, and body motion are located within the vestibule of the inner ear. Head position is sensed by otolith organs, whereas head movement is sensed by the semicircular c... | {
"Header 1": "18. Sensory Systems",
"Header 2": "Equilibrium (Balance)",
"token_count": 264,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/Med_v1/med_textbook/Building-a-Medical-Terminology-Foundation.pdf"
} |
Somatosensation is considered a general sense, as opposed to the special senses discussed in this section. Somatosensation is the group of **sensory modalities** that are associated with touch, **proprioception**, and **interoception**. These modalities include pressure, vibration, light touch, tickle, itch, temperatur... | {
"Header 1": "18. Sensory Systems",
"Header 2": "**Somatosensation (Touch)**",
"token_count": 243,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/Med_v1/med_textbook/Building-a-Medical-Terminology-Foundation.pdf"
} |
Vision is the special sense of sight that is based on the transduction of light stimuli received through the eyes. The eyes are located within either orbit in the skull. The bony orbits surround the eyeballs, protecting them and anchoring the soft tissues of the eye (see Figure 18.4). Th... | {
"Header 1": "18. Sensory Systems",
"Header 2": "Watch this video:",
"token_count": 1812,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/Med_v1/med_textbook/Building-a-Medical-Terminology-Foundation.pdf"
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Blunt force trauma to the face, such as that common in many car accidents, can lead to the loss of the olfactory nerve, and subsequently, loss of the sense of smell. This condition is known as **anosmia**. When the frontal lobe of the brain moves relative to the ethmoid bone, the olfactory tract axons may be sheared ap... | {
"Header 1": "18. Sensory Systems",
"Header 2": "Olfactory Diseases and Disorders",
"Header 3": "*Anosmia*",
"token_count": 315,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/Med_v1/med_textbook/Building-a-Medical-Terminology-Foundation.pdf"
} |
This is a condition where the affected eye rotates due to mismatched eye coordination. Each eye is focused differently as described below:
- **Estropia:** the convergence of one or both eyes medially.
- **Extropia:** the deviation of one eye laterally.
- **Hypertropia:** the deviation of one eye superiorly.
- **Hypot... | {
"Header 1": "18. Sensory Systems",
"Header 2": "Eye Diseases and Disorders",
"Header 3": "*Strabismus*",
"token_count": 206,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/Med_v1/med_textbook/Building-a-Medical-Terminology-Foundation.pdf"
} |
The nervous system can be divided into two major regions: the central and peripheral nervous systems. The **central nervous system (CNS)** is the brain and spinal cord, and the **peripheral nervous system (PNS)** is everything else (see Figure 19.1). The brain is contained within the cranial cavity of the skull, and th... | {
"Header 1": "19. Nervous System",
"Header 2": "**Anatomy (Structures) of the Nervous System**",
"Header 3": "The Central and Peripheral Nervous Systems",
"token_count": 391,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/Med_v1/med_textbook/Building-a-Medical-Terminology-Foundation.pdf"
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The brain has over 100 billion neurons.
play a supporting role for nervous tissue. Ongoing research pursues an expanded role that glial cells might play in signalling, but neurons are still considered the basis of this function. Neurons are important, but without glial support they would not be able to perform their ... | {
"Header 1": "19. Nervous System",
"Header 2": "**Anatomy (Structures) of the Nervous System**",
"Header 3": "*Did You Know?*",
"token_count": 649,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/Med_v1/med_textbook/Building-a-Medical-Terminology-Foundation.pdf"
} |
The iconic gray mantle of the human brain, which appears to make up most of the mass of the brain, is the **cerebrum** (see Figure 19.3). The wrinkled portion is the cerebral cortex, and the rest of the structure is beneath that outer covering. There is a large separation between the two sides of the cerebrum called th... | {
"Header 1": "19. Nervous System",
"Header 2": "The Adult Brain",
"Header 3": "*The Cerebrum*",
"token_count": 420,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/Med_v1/med_textbook/Building-a-Medical-Terminology-Foundation.pdf"
} |
The cerebrum is covered by a continuous layer of gray matter that wraps around either side of the forebrain—the **cerebral cortex**. This thin, extensive region of wrinkled gray matter is responsible for the higher functions of the nervous system. A gyrus (plural = gyri) is the ridge of one of those wrinkles, and a sul... | {
"Header 1": "19. Nervous System",
"Header 2": "The Adult Brain",
"Header 3": "*Cerebral Cortex*",
"token_count": 562,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/Med_v1/med_textbook/Building-a-Medical-Terminology-Foundation.pdf"
} |
Inferior and slightly anterior to the thalamus is the **hypothalamus**, the other major region of the diencephalon. The hypothalamus is a collection of nuclei that are largely involved in regulating homeostasis. The hypothalamus is the executive region in charge of the **autonomic nervous system** and the endocrine sys... | {
"Header 1": "19. Nervous System",
"Header 2": "The Adult Brain",
"Header 3": "*Hypothalamus*",
"token_count": 246,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/Med_v1/med_textbook/Building-a-Medical-Terminology-Foundation.pdf"
} |
The midbrain and hindbrain (composed of the **pons** and the **medulla**) are collectively referred to as the brain stem (see Figure 19.6). The structure emerges from the ventral surface of the forebrain as a tapering cone that connects the brain to the spinal cord. Attached to the brain stem, but considered a separate... | {
"Header 1": "19. Nervous System",
"Header 2": "The Adult Brain",
"Header 3": "*Brain Stem*",
"token_count": 272,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/Med_v1/med_textbook/Building-a-Medical-Terminology-Foundation.pdf"
} |
The description of the CNS is concentrated on the structures of the brain, but the spinal cord is another major organ of the system. Whereas the brain develops out of expansions of the neural tube into primary and then secondary vesicles, the spinal cord maintains the tube structure and is only specialized into certain... | {
"Header 1": "19. Nervous System",
"Header 2": "The Adult Brain",
"Header 3": "**The Spinal Cord**",
"token_count": 552,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/Med_v1/med_textbook/Building-a-Medical-Terminology-Foundation.pdf"
} |
As you learned in the first section, the main part of a neuron is the **cell body**, which is also known as the soma (soma = "body"). The cell body contains the nucleus and most of the major organelles. But what makes neurons special is that they have many extensions of their cell membranes, which are generally referre... | {
"Header 1": "19. Nervous System",
"Header 2": "The Adult Brain",
"Header 3": "Parts of a Neuron",
"token_count": 582,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/Med_v1/med_textbook/Building-a-Medical-Terminology-Foundation.pdf"
} |
There are many neurons in the nervous system—a number in the trillions. And there are many different types of neurons. They can be classified by many different criteria. The first way to classify them is by the number of processes attached to the cell body. Using the standard model of neurons, one of these processes is... | {
"Header 1": "19. Nervous System",
"Header 2": "Types of Neurons",
"token_count": 694,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/Med_v1/med_textbook/Building-a-Medical-Terminology-Foundation.pdf"
} |
Glial cells, or neuroglia or simply glia, are the other type of cell found in nervous tissue. They are considered to be supporting cells, and many functions are directed at helping neurons complete their function for communication. The name glia comes from the Greek word that means "glue," and was coined by the German ... | {
"Header 1": "19. Nervous System",
"Header 2": "**Glial Cells**",
"token_count": 333,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/Med_v1/med_textbook/Building-a-Medical-Terminology-Foundation.pdf"
} |
One cell providing support to neurons of the CNS is the astrocyte, so named because it appears to be star-shaped under the microscope (astro- = "star"). **Astrocytes** have many processes extending from their main cell body (not axons or dendrites like neurons, just cell extensions). Those processes extend to interact ... | {
"Header 1": "19. Nervous System",
"Header 2": "Glial Cells of the CNS",
"token_count": 926,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/Med_v1/med_textbook/Building-a-Medical-Terminology-Foundation.pdf"
} |
One of the two types of glial cells found in the PNS is the **satellite** cell. Satellite cells are found in sensory and autonomic ganglia, where they surround the cell bodies of neurons. This accounts for the name, based on their appearance under the microscope. They provide support, performing similar functions in th... | {
"Header 1": "19. Nervous System",
"Header 2": "Glial Cells of the PNS",
"token_count": 303,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/Med_v1/med_textbook/Building-a-Medical-Terminology-Foundation.pdf"
} |
The appearance of the myelin sheath can be thought of as similar to the pastry wrapped around a hot dog for "pigs in a blanket" or a similar food. The glial cell is wrapped around the axon several times with little to no cytoplasm between the glial cell layers. For **oligodendrocytes**, the rest of the cell is separate... | {
"Header 1": "19. Nervous System",
"Header 2": "Myelin",
"token_count": 217,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/Med_v1/med_textbook/Building-a-Medical-Terminology-Foundation.pdf"
} |
The first major function of the nervous system is sensation—receiving information about the environment to gain input about what is happening outside the body (or, sometimes, within the body). The sensory functions of the nervous system register the presence of a change from homeostasis or a particular event in the env... | {
"Header 1": "19. Nervous System",
"Header 2": "**Physiology (Function) of the Nervous System**",
"Header 3": "Sensation",
"token_count": 216,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/Med_v1/med_textbook/Building-a-Medical-Terminology-Foundation.pdf"
} |
The nervous system produces a response on the basis of the stimuli perceived by sensory structures. An obvious response would be the movement of muscles, such as withdrawing a hand from a hot stove, but there are broader uses of the term. The nervous system can cause the contraction of all three types of muscle tissue.... | {
"Header 1": "19. Nervous System",
"Header 2": "**Physiology (Function) of the Nervous System**",
"Header 3": "Response",
"token_count": 209,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/Med_v1/med_textbook/Building-a-Medical-Terminology-Foundation.pdf"
} |
The nervous system can be divided into two parts mostly on the basis of a functional difference in responses. The **somatic nervous system (SNS)** is responsible for conscious perception and voluntary motor responses. Voluntary motor response means the contraction of skeletal muscle, but those contractions are not alwa... | {
"Header 1": "19. Nervous System",
"Header 2": "Controlling the Body",
"token_count": 638,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/Med_v1/med_textbook/Building-a-Medical-Terminology-Foundation.pdf"
} |
Orientation is the patient's awareness of his or her immediate circumstances. It is awareness of time, not in terms of the clock, but of the date and what is occurring around the patient. It is awareness of place, such that a patient should know where he or she is and why. It is also awareness of who the patient is—rec... | {
"Header 1": "19. Nervous System",
"Header 2": "Orientation and Memory",
"token_count": 530,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/Med_v1/med_textbook/Building-a-Medical-Terminology-Foundation.pdf"
} |
Language is, arguably, a very human aspect of neurological function. There are certainly strides being made in understanding communication in other species, but much of what makes the human experience seemingly unique is its basis in language. Any understanding of our species is necessarily reflective, as suggested by ... | {
"Header 1": "19. Nervous System",
"Header 2": "Language and Speech",
"token_count": 628,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/Med_v1/med_textbook/Building-a-Medical-Terminology-Foundation.pdf"
} |
Those parts of the brain involved in the reception and interpretation of sensory stimuli are referred to collectively as the sensorium. The cerebral cortex has several regions that are necessary for sensory perception. Several of the subtests can reveal activity associated with these sensory modalities, such as being a... | {
"Header 1": "19. Nervous System",
"Header 2": "Language and Speech",
"Header 3": "Sensorium",
"token_count": 299,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/Med_v1/med_textbook/Building-a-Medical-Terminology-Foundation.pdf"
} |
Planning and producing responses requires an ability to make sense of the world around us. Making judgments and reasoning in the abstract are necessary to produce movements as part of larger responses. For example, when your alarm goes off, do you hit the snooze button or jump out of bed? Is 10 extra minutes in bed wor... | {
"Header 1": "19. Nervous System",
"Header 2": "Judgment and Abstract Reasoning",
"token_count": 225,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/Med_v1/med_textbook/Building-a-Medical-Terminology-Foundation.pdf"
} |
Popular media often refer to right-brained and left-brained people, as if the brain were two independent halves that work differently for different people. This is a popular misinterpretation of an important neurological phenomenon. As an extreme measure to deal with a debilitating condition, the corpus callosum may be... | {
"Header 1": "19. Nervous System",
"Header 2": "Left Brain, Right Brain",
"token_count": 389,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/Med_v1/med_textbook/Building-a-Medical-Terminology-Foundation.pdf"
} |
Neurodegenerative Diseases – Alzheimer's Disease, Parkinson's Disease, Amyotrophic Lateral Sclerosis (ALS) , Multiple sclerosis (MS)
A class of disorders that affect the nervous system are the neurodegenerative diseases: Alzheimer's disease, Parkinson's disease, Huntington's disease, amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (AL... | {
"Header 1": "19. Nervous System",
"Header 2": "**Common Nervous System Abbreviations**",
"Header 3": "**Disease and Disorders**",
"token_count": 453,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/Med_v1/med_textbook/Building-a-Medical-Terminology-Foundation.pdf"
} |
Damage to the nervous system can be limited to individual structures or can be distributed across broad areas of the brain and spinal cord. Localized, limited injury to the nervous system is most often the result of circulatory problems. The loss of blood flow to part of the brain is known as a **stroke**, or a cerebro... | {
"Header 1": "19. Nervous System",
"Header 2": "Other Nerve Disorders",
"Header 3": "*Stroke*",
"token_count": 382,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/Med_v1/med_textbook/Building-a-Medical-Terminology-Foundation.pdf"
} |
Single process of the neuron that carries an electrical signal (action potential) away from the cell body toward a target cell.
#### **Axon hillock**
Tapering of the neuron cell body that gives rise to the axon.
#### **Axon segment**
Single stretch of the axon insulated by myelin and bounded by nodes of Ranvier... | {
"Header 1": "19. Nervous System",
"Header 2": "Electromyography (EMG)",
"Header 3": "**Axon**",
"token_count": 2026,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/Med_v1/med_textbook/Building-a-Medical-Terminology-Foundation.pdf"
} |
#### **Neuroglia**
Supportive tissue of the nervous system, including the network of branched cells in the central nervous system (astrocytes, microglia, and oligodendrocytes) and the supporting cells of the peripheral nervous system (Schwann cells and satellite cells), also called **glia.**
#### **Neurotransmitt... | {
"Header 1": "19. Nervous System",
"Header 2": "Electromyography (EMG)",
"Header 3": "**Axon**",
"token_count": 505,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/Med_v1/med_textbook/Building-a-Medical-Terminology-Foundation.pdf"
} |
Glial cell type in the PNS that provides support for neurons in the ganglia.
#### **Schwann cell**
Glial cell type in the PNS that provides the myelin insulation for axons in nerves.
#### **Sensation**
Nervous system function that receives information from the environment and translates it into the electrical s... | {
"Header 1": "19. Nervous System",
"Header 2": "Electromyography (EMG)",
"Header 3": "**Satellite cell**",
"token_count": 316,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/Med_v1/med_textbook/Building-a-Medical-Terminology-Foundation.pdf"
} |
Narrow junction across which a chemical signal passes from neuron to the next, initiating a new electrical signal in the target cell.
#### **Synaptic end bulb**
Swelling at the end of an axon where neurotransmitter molecules are released onto a target cell across a synapse.
#### **Sympathetic nervous system (SNS)... | {
"Header 1": "19. Nervous System",
"Header 2": "Electromyography (EMG)",
"Header 3": "**Synapse**",
"token_count": 329,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/Med_v1/med_textbook/Building-a-Medical-Terminology-Foundation.pdf"
} |
**Figure 19.1 image description:** This diagram shows a silhouette of a human highlighting the nervous system. The central nervous system is composed of the brain and spinal cord. The brain is a large mass of ridged and striated tissue within the head. The spinal cord extends down from the brain and travels through the... | {
"Header 1": "19. Nervous System",
"Header 2": "**References**",
"Header 3": "**Image Descriptions**",
"token_count": 2039,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/Med_v1/med_textbook/Building-a-Medical-Terminology-Foundation.pdf"
} |
The spinal cord is also the somatic and autonomic pathway for sensory and motor functions between the PNS and the brain. The nerves, which are part of the PNS, are the fibers of sensory and motor neurons, which can be either somatic or autonomic. The ganglia, which are part of the PNS, are the areas for the reception o... | {
"Header 1": "19. Nervous System",
"Header 2": "**References**",
"Header 3": "**Image Descriptions**",
"token_count": 306,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/Med_v1/med_textbook/Building-a-Medical-Terminology-Foundation.pdf"
} |
*Figure 20.1 A Child Catches a Falling Leaf. Hormones of the endocrine system coordinate and control growth, metabolism, temperature regulation, the stress response, reproduction, and many other functions. (credit: "seenthroughmylense"/flickr.com). From Betts, et al., 2013. Licensed unde... | {
"Header 1": "20. Endocrine System",
"Header 2": "**Introduction to Endocrine System**",
"token_count": 208,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/Med_v1/med_textbook/Building-a-Medical-Terminology-Foundation.pdf"
} |
*Did You Know?*
The pancreas acts as a endocrine and exocrine gland.
The endocrine system consists of cells, tissues, and organs that secrete hormones as a primary or secondary function. The **endocrine gland** is the major player in this system. The primary function of the endocrine gland is to secrete hormones di... | {
"Header 1": "20. Endocrine System",
"Header 2": "Endocrine System Medical Terms",
"Header 3": "**Anatomy (Structures) of the Endocrine System**",
"token_count": 412,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/Med_v1/med_textbook/Building-a-Medical-Terminology-Foundation.pdf"
} |
The **endocrine system** uses one method of communication called chemical signaling. These chemical signals are sent by the endocrine organs. The endocrine organs secrete chemicals—called **hormones**—into the fluid outside of the tissue cells (extracellular fluid). Hormones are then transported primarily via the blood... | {
"Header 1": "20. Endocrine System",
"Header 2": "Endocrine Signaling",
"token_count": 548,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/Med_v1/med_textbook/Building-a-Medical-Terminology-Foundation.pdf"
} |
There are four different types of chemical signaling occurring in multicellular organisms: endocrine signaling, **autocrine** signaling, **paracrine** signaling, and direct signaling.
In **endocrine signaling**, hormones secreted into the extracellular fluid spreads into the blood or lymphatic system, and can, theref... | {
"Header 1": "20. Endocrine System",
"Header 2": "Other Types of Chemical Signaling",
"token_count": 354,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/Med_v1/med_textbook/Building-a-Medical-Terminology-Foundation.pdf"
} |
Although a given hormone may travel throughout the body in the bloodstream, it will affect the activity only of its target cells; that is, cells with receptors for that particular hormone. Once the hormone binds to the receptor, a chain of events is initiated that leads to the target cell's response. Hormones play a cr... | {
"Header 1": "20. Endocrine System",
"Header 2": "Hormones",
"token_count": 806,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/Med_v1/med_textbook/Building-a-Medical-Terminology-Foundation.pdf"
} |
The message a hormone sends is received by a **hormone receptor**, a protein located either inside the cell or within the cell membrane. The receptor will process the message by initiating other signaling events or cellular mechanisms that result in the target cell's response. Hormone receptors recognize molecules with... | {
"Header 1": "20. Endocrine System",
"Header 2": "Hormones",
"Header 3": "*Pathways of Hormone Action*",
"token_count": 203,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/Med_v1/med_textbook/Building-a-Medical-Terminology-Foundation.pdf"
} |
You will recall that target cells must have receptors specific to a given hormone if that hormone is to trigger a response. But several other factors influence the target cell response. For example, the presence of a significant level of a hormone circulating in the bloodstream can cause its target cells to decrease th... | {
"Header 1": "20. Endocrine System",
"Header 2": "Hormones",
"Header 3": "*Factors Affecting Target Cell Response*",
"token_count": 361,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/Med_v1/med_textbook/Building-a-Medical-Terminology-Foundation.pdf"
} |
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