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In another set of experiments, Hämmerling used two species of *Acetabularia* that have different cap morphologies, *A.*
*crenulata* and *A. mediterranea* (**[Figure 10.4](#page-417-0)**). He cut the caps from both types of cells and then grafted the stalk from an *A. crenulata* onto an *A. mediterranea* foot,... | {
"Header 1": "**10.1 Using Microbiology to Discover the Secrets of Life**",
"Header 2": "**Foundations of Genetics**",
"token_count": 1282,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/Med_v1/med_textbook/Microbiology-LR.pdf"
} |
- What organism did Morgan and his colleagues use to develop the Chromosomal Theory of Inheritance? What traits did they track?
- What did Hämmerling prove with his experiments on *Acetabularia*?
By the beginning of the 20th century, a great deal of work had already been done on charac... | {
"Header 1": "**10.1 Using Microbiology to Discover the Secrets of Life**",
"Header 2": "**Link to Learning**",
"token_count": 1984,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/Med_v1/med_textbook/Microbiology-LR.pdf"
} |
#### **Learning Objectives**
- Describe the biochemical structure of deoxyribonucleotides
- Identify the base pairs used in the synthesis of deoxyribonucleotides
- Explain why the double helix of DNA is described as antiparallel
In **[Microbial Metabolism](#page-324-1)**, we discussed three classes of macromolecule... | {
"Header 1": "**10.1 Using Microbiology to Discover the Secrets of Life**",
"Header 2": "**10.2 Structure and Function of DNA**",
"token_count": 1641,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/Med_v1/med_textbook/Microbiology-LR.pdf"
} |
a British scientist, were working together in the 1950s to discover DNA's structure. They used Chargaff's rules and Franklin and Wilkins' X-ray diffraction images of DNA fibers to piece together the purine-pyrimidine pairing of the double helical DNA molecule (**[Figure 10.15](#page-429-0)**). In April 1953, Watson and... | {
"Header 1": "**10.1 Using Microbiology to Discover the Secrets of Life**",
"Header 2": "**10.2 Structure and Function of DNA**",
"token_count": 408,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/Med_v1/med_textbook/Microbiology-LR.pdf"
} |
4356 (1953):738–740.
<sup>9.</sup> R. Franklin, R.G. Gosling. "Molecular Configuration in Sodium Thymonucleate." *Nature* 171 no. 4356 (1953):740–741.
<sup>10.</sup> R.O. Day et al. "A Crystalline Fragment of the Double Helix: The Structure of the Dinucleoside Phosphate Guanylyl-3',5'-Cytidine." *Proceedings of the... | {
"Header 1": "**10.1 Using Microbiology to Discover the Secrets of Life**",
"Header 2": "**10.2 Structure and Function of DNA**",
"token_count": 2021,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/Med_v1/med_textbook/Microbiology-LR.pdf"
} |
Wolfinger "For Female Scientists, There's No Good Time to Have Children." *The Atlantic* July 29, 2013.
http://www.theatlantic.com/sexes/archive/2013/07/for-female-scientists-theres-no-good-time-to-have-children/278165/.
<sup>12.</sup> S.A. Seabury et al. "Trends in the Earnings of Male and Female Health Care Profe... | {
"Header 1": "**10.1 Using Microbiology to Discover the Secrets of Life**",
"Header 2": "**10.2 Structure and Function of DNA**",
"token_count": 966,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/Med_v1/med_textbook/Microbiology-LR.pdf"
} |
#### **Learning Objectives**
- Describe the biochemical structure of ribonucleotides
- Describe the similarities and differences between RNA and DNA
- Describe the functions of the three main types of RNA used in protein synthesis
- Explain how RNA can serve as hereditary information
Structurally speaking, **ribonu... | {
"Header 1": "**10.3 Structure and Function of RNA**",
"token_count": 519,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/Med_v1/med_textbook/Microbiology-LR.pdf"
} |
Cells access the information stored in DNA by creating RNA to direct the synthesis of proteins through the process of translation. Proteins within a cell have many functions, including building cellular structures and serving as enzyme catalysts for cellular chemical reactions that give cells their specific characteris... | {
"Header 1": "**10.3 Structure and Function of RNA**",
"Header 2": "**Functions of RNA in Protein Synthesis**",
"token_count": 1522,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/Med_v1/med_textbook/Microbiology-LR.pdf"
} |
#### **Learning Objectives**
- Define gene and genotype and differentiate genotype from phenotype
- Describe chromosome structure and packaging
- Compare prokaryotic and eukaryotic chromosomes
- Explain why extrachromosomal DNA is important in a cell
Thus far, we have discussed the structure and function of individ... | {
"Header 1": "**10.4 Structure and Function of Cellular Genomes**",
"token_count": 1585,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/Med_v1/med_textbook/Microbiology-LR.pdf"
} |
In addition to genes, a genome also contains many regions of **noncoding DNA** that do not encode proteins or stable RNA products. Noncoding DNA is commonly found in areas prior to the start of coding sequences of genes as well as in intergenic regions (i.e., DNA sequences located between genes) (**[Figure 10.25](#page... | {
"Header 1": "**10.4 Structure and Function of Cellular Genomes**",
"Header 2": "**Noncoding DNA**",
"token_count": 319,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/Med_v1/med_textbook/Microbiology-LR.pdf"
} |
Although most DNA is contained within a cell's chromosomes, many cells have additional molecules of DNA outside the chromosomes, called **extrachromosomal DNA**, that are also part of its genome. The genomes of eukaryotic cells would also include the chromosomes from any organelles such as mitochondria and/or chloropla... | {
"Header 1": "**10.4 Structure and Function of Cellular Genomes**",
"Header 2": "**Extrachromosomal DNA**",
"token_count": 2027,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/Med_v1/med_textbook/Microbiology-LR.pdf"
} |
Viral genomes are typically smaller than most bacterial genomes, encoding only a few genes, because they rely on their hosts to carry out many of the functions required for their replication. The diversity of viral genome structures and their implications for viral replication life cycles are discussed in more detail i... | {
"Header 1": "**10.4 Structure and Function of Cellular Genomes**",
"Header 2": "**Extrachromosomal DNA**",
"token_count": 1953,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/Med_v1/med_textbook/Microbiology-LR.pdf"
} |
#### **[10.4 Structure and Function of Cellular Genomes](#page-438-0)**
- The entire genetic content of a cell is its **genome**.
- **Genes** code for proteins, or stable RNA molecules, each of which carries out a specific function in the cell.
- Although the **genotype** that a cell possesses remains constant, exp... | {
"Header 1": "**10.4 Structure and Function of Cellular Genomes**",
"Header 2": "**Extrachromosomal DNA**",
"token_count": 2032,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/Med_v1/med_textbook/Microbiology-LR.pdf"
} |
In 1954, French scientist and future Nobel laureate Jacques Monod (1910–1976) famously said, "What is true in *E. coli* is true in the elephant," suggesting that the biochemistry of life was maintained throughout evolution and is shared in all forms of known life. Since Monod's famous statement, we have learned a great... | {
"Header 1": "**Introduction**",
"token_count": 233,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/Med_v1/med_textbook/Microbiology-LR.pdf"
} |
#### **Learning Objectives**
- Explain the two functions of the genome
- Explain the meaning of the central dogma of molecular biology
- Differentiate between genotype and phenotype and explain how environmental factors influence phenotype
DNA serves two essential functions that deal with cellular information. Firs... | {
"Header 1": "**Introduction**",
"Header 2": "**11.1 The Functions of Genetic Material**",
"token_count": 499,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/Med_v1/med_textbook/Microbiology-LR.pdf"
} |
Mark is 60-year-old software engineer who suffers from type II diabetes, which he monitors and keeps under control largely through diet and exercise. One spring morning, while doing some gardening, he scraped his lower leg while walking through blackberry brambles. He continued working all day in the yard and did not b... | {
"Header 1": "**Part 1 Clinical Focus**",
"token_count": 1097,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/Med_v1/med_textbook/Microbiology-LR.pdf"
} |
#### **Learning Objectives**
- Explain the meaning of semiconservative DNA replication
- Explain why DNA replication is bidirectional and includes both a leading and lagging strand
- Explain why Okazaki fragments are formed
- Describe the process of DNA replication and the functions of the enzymes involved
- Identify... | {
"Header 1": "**11.2 DNA Replication**",
"token_count": 2022,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/Med_v1/med_textbook/Microbiology-LR.pdf"
} |
This is because DNA polymerase requires a free 3'-OH group to which it can add nucleotides by forming a covalent phosphodiester bond between the 3'-OH end and the 5' phosphate of the next nucleotide. This also means that it cannot add nucleotides if a free 3'-OH group is not available, which is the case for a single st... | {
"Header 1": "**11.2 DNA Replication**",
"token_count": 1687,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/Med_v1/med_textbook/Microbiology-LR.pdf"
} |
Eukaryotic genomes are much more complex and larger than prokaryotic genomes and are typically composed of multiple linear chromosomes (**[Table 11.2](#page-463-0)**). The human genome, for example, has 3 billion base pairs per haploid set of chromosomes, and 6 billion base pairs are inserted during replication. There ... | {
"Header 1": "**11.2 DNA Replication**",
"Header 2": "**DNA Replication in Eukaryotes**",
"token_count": 1636,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/Med_v1/med_textbook/Microbiology-LR.pdf"
} |
To copy their nucleic acids, plasmids and viruses frequently use variations on the pattern of DNA replication described for prokaryote genomes. For more information on the wide range of viral replication strategies, see **[The](#page-260-0) [Viral Life Cycle](#page-260-0)**.
#### **Rolling Circle Replication**
Wher... | {
"Header 1": "**11.2 DNA Replication**",
"Header 2": "**DNA Replication of Extrachromosomal Elements: Plasmids and Viruses**",
"token_count": 432,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/Med_v1/med_textbook/Microbiology-LR.pdf"
} |
#### **Learning Objectives**
- Explain how RNA is synthesized using DNA as a template
- Distinguish between transcription in prokaryotes and eukaryotes
During the process of **transcription**, the information encoded within the DNA sequence of one or more genes is transcribed into a strand of RNA, also called an **... | {
"Header 1": "**11.3 RNA Transcription**",
"token_count": 1883,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/Med_v1/med_textbook/Microbiology-LR.pdf"
} |
#### **Learning Objectives**
- Describe the genetic code and explain why it is considered almost universal
- Explain the process of translation and the functions of the molecular machinery of translation
- Compare translation in eukaryotes and prokaryotes
The synthesis of proteins consumes more of a cell's energy t... | {
"Header 1": "**11.3 RNA Transcription**",
"Header 2": "**11.4 Protein Synthesis (Translation)**",
"token_count": 1253,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/Med_v1/med_textbook/Microbiology-LR.pdf"
} |
In addition to the mRNA template, many molecules and macromolecules contribute to the process of translation. The composition of each component varies across taxa; for instance, ribosomes may consist of different numbers of ribosomal RNAs (rRNAs) and polypeptides depending on the organism. However, the general structur... | {
"Header 1": "**11.3 RNA Transcription**",
"Header 2": "**The Protein Synthesis Machinery**",
"token_count": 1321,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/Med_v1/med_textbook/Microbiology-LR.pdf"
} |
Translation is similar in prokaryotes and eukaryotes. Here we will explore how translation occurs in *E. coli*, a representative prokaryote, and specify any differences between bacterial and eukaryotic translation.
#### **Initiation**
The **initiation of protein synthesis** begins with the formation of an initiatio... | {
"Header 1": "**11.3 RNA Transcription**",
"Header 2": "**The Mechanism of Protein Synthesis**",
"token_count": 1655,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/Med_v1/med_textbook/Microbiology-LR.pdf"
} |
#### **Learning Objectives**
- Compare point mutations and frameshift mutations
- Describe the differences between missense, nonsense, and silent mutations
- Describe the differences between light and dark repair
- Explain how different mutagens act
- Explain why the Ames test can be used to detect carcinogens
- Anal... | {
"Header 1": "**11.5 Mutations**",
"token_count": 1997,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/Med_v1/med_textbook/Microbiology-LR.pdf"
} |
Chemicals called **nucleoside analogs** are structurally similar to normal nucleotide bases and can be incorporated into DNA during replication (**[Figure 11.20](#page-480-0)**). These base analogs induce mutations because they often have different base-pairing rules than the bases they replace. Other chemical mutagens... | {
"Header 1": "**11.5 Mutations**",
"token_count": 2012,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/Med_v1/med_textbook/Microbiology-LR.pdf"
} |
If a distortion in the double helix is found that was introduced by the pyrimidine dimer, the enzyme complex cuts the sugar-phosphate backbone several bases upstream and downstream of the dimer, and the segment of DNA between these two cuts is then enzymatically removed. DNA pol I replaces the missing nucleotides with ... | {
"Header 1": "**11.5 Mutations**",
"token_count": 1284,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/Med_v1/med_textbook/Microbiology-LR.pdf"
} |
#### **Learning Objectives**
- Compare the processes of transformation, transduction, and conjugation
- Explain how asexual gene transfer results in prokaryotic genetic diversity
- Explain the structure and consequences for bacterial genetic diversity of transposons
Typically, when we consider genetic transfer, we ... | {
"Header 1": "**11.6 How Asexual Prokaryotes Achieve Genetic Diversity**",
"token_count": 2010,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/Med_v1/med_textbook/Microbiology-LR.pdf"
} |
Its symptoms largely result from the production of the cholera toxin (CT), which ultimately activates a chloride transporter to pump chloride ions out of the epithelial cells into the gut lumen. Water then follows the chloride ions, causing the prolific watery diarrhea characteristic of cholera. The gene encoding the c... | {
"Header 1": "**11.6 How Asexual Prokaryotes Achieve Genetic Diversity**",
"token_count": 2034,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/Med_v1/med_textbook/Microbiology-LR.pdf"
} |
Genetic elements called **transposons** (transposable elements), or "jumping genes," are molecules of DNA that include special inverted repeat sequences at their ends and a gene encoding the enzyme transposase (**[Figure 11.31](#page-494-1)**). Transposons allow the entire sequence to independently excise from one loca... | {
"Header 1": "**11.6 How Asexual Prokaryotes Achieve Genetic Diversity**",
"Header 2": "**Transposition**",
"token_count": 874,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/Med_v1/med_textbook/Microbiology-LR.pdf"
} |
#### **Learning Objectives**
- Compare inducible operons and repressible operons
- Describe why regulation of operons is important
Each nucleated cell in a multicellular organism contains copies of the same DNA. Similarly, all cells in two pure bacterial cultures inoculated from the same starting colony contain the... | {
"Header 1": "**11.7 Gene Regulation: Operon Theory**",
"token_count": 1967,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/Med_v1/med_textbook/Microbiology-LR.pdf"
} |
#### **The** *lac* **Operon: An Inducible Operon**
The *lac* operon is an example of an inducible operon that is also subject to activation in the absence of glucose (**[Figure 11.34](#page-498-0)**). The *lac* operon encodes three structural genes necessary to acquire and process th... | {
"Header 1": "**11.7 Gene Regulation: Operon Theory**",
"token_count": 1999,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/Med_v1/med_textbook/Microbiology-LR.pdf"
} |
Although most gene expression is regulated at the level of transcription initiation in prokaryotes, there are also mechanisms to control both the completion of transcription as well as translation concurrently. Since their discovery, these mechanisms have been shown to control the completion of transcription and transl... | {
"Header 1": "**11.7 Gene Regulation: Operon Theory**",
"Header 2": "**Additional Methods of Regulation in Bacteria: Attenuation and Riboswitches**",
"token_count": 598,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/Med_v1/med_textbook/Microbiology-LR.pdf"
} |
Although the focus on our discussion of transcriptional control used prokaryotic operons as examples, eukaryotic transcriptional control is similar in many ways. As in prokaryotes, eukaryotic transcription can be controlled through the binding of transcription factors including repressors and activators. Interestingly,... | {
"Header 1": "**11.7 Gene Regulation: Operon Theory**",
"Header 2": "**Other Factors Affecting Gene Expression in Prokaryotes and Eukaryotes**",
"token_count": 1987,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/Med_v1/med_textbook/Microbiology-LR.pdf"
} |
All tRNAs with a specific anticodon will carry the same amino acid.
- **Initiation** of translation occurs when the small ribosomal subunit binds with **initiation factors** and an initiator tRNA at the **start codon** of an mRNA, followed by the binding to the initiation complex of the large ribosomal subunit.
- In pr... | {
"Header 1": "**11.7 Gene Regulation: Operon Theory**",
"Header 2": "**Other Factors Affecting Gene Expression in Prokaryotes and Eukaryotes**",
"token_count": 2028,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/Med_v1/med_textbook/Microbiology-LR.pdf"
} |
Watson and Crick's identification of the structure of DNA in 1953 was the seminal event in the field of genetic engineering. Since the 1970s, there has been a veritable explosion in scientists' ability to manipulate DNA in ways that have revolutionized the fields of biology, medicine, diagnostics, forensics, and indust... | {
"Header 1": "**Modern Applications of Microbial Genetics**",
"Header 2": "**Introduction**",
"token_count": 253,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/Med_v1/med_textbook/Microbiology-LR.pdf"
} |
#### **Learning Objectives**
- Identify tools of molecular genetics that are derived from microorganisms
- Describe the methods used to create recombinant DNA molecules
- Describe methods used to introduce DNA into prokaryotic cells
- List the types of genomic libraries and describe their uses
- Describe the methods ... | {
"Header 1": "**12.1 Microbes and the Tools of Genetic Engineering**",
"token_count": 2038,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/Med_v1/med_textbook/Microbiology-LR.pdf"
} |
**Figure 12.4** The artificially constructed plasmid vector pUC19 is commonly used for cloning foreign DNA. Arrows indicate the directions in which the genes are transcribed. Note the polylinker site, containing multiple unique restriction enzyme recognition sites, found within the *lac... | {
"Header 1": "**12.1 Microbes and the Tools of Genetic Engineering**",
"token_count": 2005,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/Med_v1/med_textbook/Microbiology-LR.pdf"
} |
**Figure 12.8** Complementary DNA (cDNA) is made from mRNA by the retroviral enzyme reverse transcriptase, converted into double-stranded copies, and inserted into either plasmid vectors or bacteriophage, producing a cDNA library. (credit "micrograph": modification of work by National I... | {
"Header 1": "**12.1 Microbes and the Tools of Genetic Engineering**",
"token_count": 1657,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/Med_v1/med_textbook/Microbiology-LR.pdf"
} |
#### **Learning Objectives**
- Explain the use of nucleic acid probes to visualize specific DNA sequences
- Explain the use of gel electrophoresis to separate DNA fragments
- Explain the principle of restriction fragment length polymorphism analysis and its uses
- Compare and contrast Southern and northern blots
- Ex... | {
"Header 1": "**12.2 Visualizing and Characterizing DNA, RNA, and Protein**",
"token_count": 2045,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/Med_v1/med_textbook/Microbiology-LR.pdf"
} |
RFLP analysis can also be used on human DNA to determine inheritance patterns of chromosomes with variant genes, including those associated with heritable diseases or to establish paternity.
Forensic scientists use RFLP analysis as a form of DNA fingerprinting, which is useful for analyzing DNA obtained from crime sc... | {
"Header 1": "**12.2 Visualizing and Characterizing DNA, RNA, and Protein**",
"token_count": 2045,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/Med_v1/med_textbook/Microbiology-LR.pdf"
} |
Kayla did not recall any recent tick bites (the typical means by which Lyme disease is transmitted) and she did not have the typical bull's-eye rash associated with Lyme disease (**[Figure 12.19](#page-537-1)**). However, 20–30% of patients with Lyme disease never develop this rash, so the physician did not want to rul... | {
"Header 1": "**12.2 Visualizing and Characterizing DNA, RNA, and Protein**",
"token_count": 2035,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/Med_v1/med_textbook/Microbiology-LR.pdf"
} |
The products of the four reactions were then run in separate lanes side by side on long, narrow PAGE gels, and the bands of varying lengths were detected by autoradiography. Today, this process has been simplified with the use of ddNTPs, each labeled with a different colored fluorescent dye or fluorochrome (**[Figure 1... | {
"Header 1": "**12.2 Visualizing and Characterizing DNA, RNA, and Protein**",
"token_count": 1789,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/Med_v1/med_textbook/Microbiology-LR.pdf"
} |
#### **Learning Objectives**
- Explain the uses of genome-wide comparative analyses
- Summarize the advantages of genetically engineered pharmaceutical products
Advances in molecular biology have led to the creation of entirely new fields of science. Among these are fields that study aspects of whole genomes, colle... | {
"Header 1": "**12.3 Whole Genome Methods and Pharmaceutical Applications of Genetic Engineering**",
"token_count": 2024,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/Med_v1/med_textbook/Microbiology-LR.pdf"
} |
*Go back to the [previous](#page-537-0) Clinical Focus box.*
#### **Recombinant DNA Technology and Pharmaceutical Production**
Genetic engineering has provided a way to create new pharmaceutical products called **recombinant DNA pharmaceuticals**. Such products include antibiotic drugs, vaccines, and hormones use... | {
"Header 1": "**12.3 Whole Genome Methods and Pharmaceutical Applications of Genetic Engineering**",
"token_count": 1643,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/Med_v1/med_textbook/Microbiology-LR.pdf"
} |
Human diseases that result from genetic mutations are often difficult to treat with drugs or other traditional forms of therapy because the signs and symptoms of disease result from abnormalities in a patient's genome. For example, a patient may have a genetic mutation that prevents the expression of a specific protein... | {
"Header 1": "**12.4 Gene Therapy**",
"Header 2": "**Mechanisms and Risks of Gene Therapy**",
"token_count": 2034,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/Med_v1/med_textbook/Microbiology-LR.pdf"
} |
It is also easy to see how a researcher might view the short-term risks for a small group of study participants as a small price to pay for the potential benefits of a game-changing new treatment.
Gelsinger's death led to increased scrutiny of gene therapy, and subsequent negative outcomes of gene therapy have result... | {
"Header 1": "**12.4 Gene Therapy**",
"Header 2": "**Mechanisms and Risks of Gene Therapy**",
"token_count": 2013,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/Med_v1/med_textbook/Microbiology-LR.pdf"
} |
How clean is clean? People wash their cars and vacuum the carpets, but most would not want to eat from these surfaces. Similarly, we might eat with silverware cleaned in a dishwasher, but we could not use the same dishwasher to clean surgical instruments. As these examples illustrate, "clean" is a relative term. Car wa... | {
"Header 1": "**Introduction**",
"token_count": 315,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/Med_v1/med_textbook/Microbiology-LR.pdf"
} |
#### **Learning Objectives**
- Compare disinfectants, antiseptics, and sterilants
- Describe the principles of controlling the presence of microorganisms through sterilization and disinfection
- Differentiate between microorganisms of various biological safety levels and explain methods used for handling microbes at ... | {
"Header 1": "**13.1 Controlling Microbial Growth**",
"token_count": 2045,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/Med_v1/med_textbook/Microbiology-LR.pdf"
} |
The most extreme protocols for microbial control aim to achieve **sterilization**: the complete removal or killing of all vegetative cells, endospores, and viruses from the targeted item or environment. Sterilization protocols are generally reserved for laboratory, medical, manufacturing, and food industry settings, wh... | {
"Header 1": "**13.1 Controlling Microbial Growth**",
"Header 2": "**Sterilization**",
"token_count": 1548,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/Med_v1/med_textbook/Microbiology-LR.pdf"
} |
| | Common Protocols for | r Control of Microbial G ... | {
"Header 1": "**13.1 Controlling Microbial Growth**",
"Header 2": "**Sterilization**",
"token_count": 1647,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/Med_v1/med_textbook/Microbiology-LR.pdf"
} |
#### **Learning Objectives**
• Understand and compare various physical methods of controlling microbial growth, including heating, refrigeration, freezing, high-pressure treatment, desiccation, lyophilization, irradiation, and filtration
For thousands of years, humans have used various physical methods of microbial... | {
"Header 1": "**13.2 Using Physical Methods to Control Microorganisms**",
"token_count": 2043,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/Med_v1/med_textbook/Microbiology-LR.pdf"
} |
Traditional **pasteurization** kills pathogens and reduces the number of spoilage-causing microbes while maintaining food quality. The process of pasteurization was first developed by Louis Pasteur in the 1860s as a method for preventing the spoilage of beer and wine. Today, pasteurization is most commonly used to kill... | {
"Header 1": "**13.2 Using Physical Methods to Control Microorganisms**",
"token_count": 2043,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/Med_v1/med_textbook/Microbiology-LR.pdf"
} |
Drying, also known as **desiccation** or dehydration, is a method that has been used for millennia to preserve foods such as raisins, prunes, and jerky. It works because all cells, including microbes, require water for their metabolism and survival. Although drying controls microbial growth, it might not kill all micro... | {
"Header 1": "**13.2 Using Physical Methods to Control Microorganisms**",
"Header 2": "**Desiccation**",
"token_count": 2022,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/Med_v1/med_textbook/Microbiology-LR.pdf"
} |
Sonication is useful in the laboratory for efficiently lysing cells to release their contents for further research; outside the laboratory, sonication is used for cleaning surgical instruments, lenses, and a variety of other objects such as coins, tools, and musical instruments.
#### **Filtration**
Filtration is a ... | {
"Header 1": "**13.2 Using Physical Methods to Control Microorganisms**",
"Header 2": "**Desiccation**",
"token_count": 914,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/Med_v1/med_textbook/Microbiology-LR.pdf"
} |
This **[video \(https://openstax.org/l/22BSCsdesvideo\)](https://openstax.org/l/22BSCsdesvideo)** shows how BSCs are designed and explains how they protect personnel, the environment, and the product.
#### **Filtration in Hospitals**
HEPA filters are also commonly used in hospitals a... | {
"Header 1": "**13.2 Using Physical Methods to Control Microorganisms**",
"Header 2": "**Link to Learning**",
"token_count": 1673,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/Med_v1/med_textbook/Microbiology-LR.pdf"
} |
#### **Learning Objectives**
• Understand and compare various chemicals used to control microbial growth, including their uses, advantages and disadvantages, chemical structure, and mode of action
In addition to physical methods of microbial control, chemicals are also used to control microbial growth. A wide varie... | {
"Header 1": "**13.3 Using Chemicals to Control Microorganisms**",
"token_count": 2036,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/Med_v1/med_textbook/Microbiology-LR.pdf"
} |
Some of the first chemical disinfectants and antiseptics to be used were heavy metals. Heavy metals kill microbes by binding to proteins, thus inhibiting enzymatic activity (**[Figure 13.21](#page-587-0)**). Heavy metals are oligodynamic, meaning that very small concentrations show significant antimicrobial activity. I... | {
"Header 1": "**13.3 Using Chemicals to Control Microorganisms**",
"Header 2": "**Heavy Metals**",
"token_count": 2024,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/Med_v1/med_textbook/Microbiology-LR.pdf"
} |
Although chlorinated compounds are relatively effective disinfectants, they have their disadvantages. Some may irritate the skin, nose, or eyes of some individuals, and they may not completely eliminate certain hardy organisms
18. World Health Organization. "Benefits and Risks of the Use of Chlorine-Containing Disi... | {
"Header 1": "**13.3 Using Chemicals to Control Microorganisms**",
"Header 2": "**Heavy Metals**",
"token_count": 335,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/Med_v1/med_textbook/Microbiology-LR.pdf"
} |
Alcohols make up another group of chemicals commonly used as disinfectants and antiseptics. They work by rapidly denaturing proteins, which inhibits cell metabolism, and by disrupting membranes, which leads to cell lysis. Once denatured, the proteins may potentially refold if enough water is present in the solution. Al... | {
"Header 1": "**13.3 Using Chemicals to Control Microorganisms**",
"Header 2": "**Alcohols**",
"token_count": 1904,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/Med_v1/med_textbook/Microbiology-LR.pdf"
} |
Bisbiguanides were first synthesized in the 20th century and are cationic (positively charged) molecules known for their antiseptic properties (**[Figure 13.28](#page-594-0)**). One important **bisbiguanide** antiseptic is chlorhexidine. It has broad-spectrum activity against yeasts, gram-positive bacteria, and gram-ne... | {
"Header 1": "**13.3 Using Chemicals to Control Microorganisms**",
"Header 2": "**Alcohols**",
"Header 3": "**Bisbiguanides**",
"token_count": 384,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/Med_v1/med_textbook/Microbiology-LR.pdf"
} |
The **alkylating agent**s are a group of strong disinfecting chemicals that act by replacing a hydrogen atom within a molecule with an alkyl group (CnH2n+1), thereby inactivating enzymes and nucleic acids (**[Figure 13.29](#page-596-0)**). The alkylating agent formaldehyde (CH2OH) is commonly used in solution at a conc... | {
"Header 1": "**13.3 Using Chemicals to Control Microorganisms**",
"Header 2": "**Alkylating Agents**",
"token_count": 2035,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/Med_v1/med_textbook/Microbiology-LR.pdf"
} |
Within the last 15 years, the use of **supercritical fluids**, especially supercritical carbon dioxide (scCO2), has gained popularity for certain sterilizing applications. When carbon dioxide is brought to approximately 10 times atmospheric pressure, it reaches a supercritical state that has physical properties between... | {
"Header 1": "**13.3 Using Chemicals to Control Microorganisms**",
"Header 2": "**Supercritical Fluids**",
"token_count": 369,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/Med_v1/med_textbook/Microbiology-LR.pdf"
} |
Chemical preservatives are used to inhibit microbial growth and minimize spoilage in some foods. Commonly used chemical preservatives include sorbic acid, benzoic acid, and propionic acid, and their more soluble salts potassium sorbate, sodium benzoate, and calcium propionate, all of which are used to control the growt... | {
"Header 1": "**13.3 Using Chemicals to Control Microorganisms**",
"Header 2": "**Chemical Food Preservatives**",
"token_count": 1014,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/Med_v1/med_textbook/Microbiology-LR.pdf"
} |
#### **Learning Objectives**
- Describe why the phenol coefficient is used
- Compare and contrast the disk-diffusion, use-dilution, and in-use methods for testing the effectiveness of antiseptics, disinfectants, and sterilants
The effectiveness of various chemical disinfectants is reflected in the terms used to des... | {
"Header 1": "**13.4 Testing the Effectiveness of Antiseptics and Disinfectants**",
"token_count": 326,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/Med_v1/med_textbook/Microbiology-LR.pdf"
} |
The effectiveness of a disinfectant or antiseptic can be determined in a number of ways. Historically, a chemical agent's effectiveness was often compared with that of phenol, the first chemical agent used by Joseph Lister. In 1903, British chemists Samuel Rideal (1863–1929) and J. T. Ainslie Walker (1868–1930) establi... | {
"Header 1": "**13.4 Testing the Effectiveness of Antiseptics and Disinfectants**",
"Header 2": "**Phenol Coefficient**",
"token_count": 380,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/Med_v1/med_textbook/Microbiology-LR.pdf"
} |
The **disk-diffusion method** involves applying different chemicals to separate, sterile filter paper disks (**[Figure](#page-601-0) [13.31](#page-601-0)**). The disks are then placed on an agar plate that has been inoculated with the targeted bacterium and the chemicals diffuse out of the disks into the agar where the... | {
"Header 1": "**13.4 Testing the Effectiveness of Antiseptics and Disinfectants**",
"Header 2": "**Disk-Diffusion Method**",
"token_count": 390,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/Med_v1/med_textbook/Microbiology-LR.pdf"
} |
Other methods are also used for measuring the effectiveness of a chemical agent in clinical settings. The **use-dilution test** is commonly used to determine a chemical's disinfection effectiveness on an inanimate surface. For this test, a cylinder of stainless steel is dipped in a culture of the targeted microorganism... | {
"Header 1": "**13.4 Testing the Effectiveness of Antiseptics and Disinfectants**",
"Header 2": "**Use-Dilution Test**",
"token_count": 1902,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/Med_v1/med_textbook/Microbiology-LR.pdf"
} |
These BSLs are determined by the agent's infectivity, ease of transmission, and potential disease severity, as well as the type of work being performed with the agent.
- **Disinfection** removes potential pathogens from a fomite, whereas **antisepsis** uses antimicrobial chemicals safe enough for tissues; in both cases... | {
"Header 1": "**13.4 Testing the Effectiveness of Antiseptics and Disinfectants**",
"Header 2": "**Use-Dilution Test**",
"token_count": 2003,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/Med_v1/med_textbook/Microbiology-LR.pdf"
} |
#### **Learning Objectives**
- Compare and contrast natural, semisynthetic, and synthetic antimicrobial drugs
- Describe the chemotherapeutic approaches of ancient societies
- Describe the historically important individuals and events that led to the development of antimicrobial drugs
Most people associate the term... | {
"Header 1": "**14.1 History of Chemotherapy and Antimicrobial**",
"Header 2": "**Discovery**",
"token_count": 904,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/Med_v1/med_textbook/Microbiology-LR.pdf"
} |
Societies relied on traditional medicine for thousands of years; however, the first half of the 20th century brought an era of strategic drug discovery. In the early 1900s, the German physician and scientist Paul Ehrlich (1854–1915) set out to discover or synthesize chemical compounds capable of killing infectious micr... | {
"Header 1": "**14.1 History of Chemotherapy and Antimicrobial**",
"Header 2": "**The First Antimicrobial Drugs**",
"token_count": 1573,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/Med_v1/med_textbook/Microbiology-LR.pdf"
} |
#### **Learning Objectives**
- Contrast bacteriostatic versus bactericidal antibacterial activities
- Contrast broad-spectrum drugs versus narrow-spectrum drugs
- Explain the significance of superinfections
- Discuss the significance of dosage and the route of administration of a drug
- Identify factors and variables... | {
"Header 1": "**14.2 Fundamentals of Antimicrobial Chemotherapy**",
"token_count": 800,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/Med_v1/med_textbook/Microbiology-LR.pdf"
} |
The amount of medication given during a certain time interval is the **dosage**, and it must be determined carefully to ensure that optimum therapeutic drug levels are achieved at the site of infection without causing significant toxicity (side effects) to the patient. Each drug class is associated with a variety of po... | {
"Header 1": "**14.2 Fundamentals of Antimicrobial Chemotherapy**",
"Header 2": "**Dosage and Route of Administration**",
"token_count": 2021,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/Med_v1/med_textbook/Microbiology-LR.pdf"
} |
#### **Learning Objective**
• Describe the mechanisms of action associated with drugs that inhibit cell wall biosynthesis, protein synthesis, membrane function, nucleic acid synthesis, and metabolic pathways
An important quality for an antimicrobial drug is **selective toxicity**, meaning that it selectively kills ... | {
"Header 1": "**14.3 Mechanisms of Antibacterial Drugs**",
"token_count": 665,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/Med_v1/med_textbook/Microbiology-LR.pdf"
} |
Several different classes of antibacterials block steps in the biosynthesis of peptidoglycan, making cells more susceptible to osmotic lysis (**[Table 14.2](#page-625-0)**). Therefore, antibacterials that target cell wall biosynthesis are bactericidal in their action. Because human cells do not make peptidoglycan, this... | {
"Header 1": "**14.3 Mechanisms of Antibacterial Drugs**",
"Header 2": "**Inhibitors of Cell Wall Biosynthesis**",
"token_count": 1599,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/Med_v1/med_textbook/Microbiology-LR.pdf"
} |
#### **Drugs that Inhibit Bacterial Cell Wall Synthesis**
| Mechanism of Action | Drug Class | Specific<br>Drugs | Natural or<br>Semisynthetic | Spectrum of Activity |
|----------------------------... | {
"Header 1": "**14.3 Mechanisms of Antibacterial Drugs**",
"Header 2": "**Inhibitors of Cell Wall Biosynthesis**",
"token_count": 2023,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/Med_v1/med_textbook/Microbiology-LR.pdf"
} |
This mechanism highlights the similarity between 70S ribosomes of bacteria and the 70S ribosomes within our mitochondria. The second mechanism of anemia is idiosyncratic (i.e., the mechanism is not understood), and involves an irreversible lethal loss of blood cell production known as aplastic anemia. This mechanism of... | {
"Header 1": "**14.3 Mechanisms of Antibacterial Drugs**",
"Header 2": "**Inhibitors of Cell Wall Biosynthesis**",
"token_count": 2025,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/Med_v1/med_textbook/Microbiology-LR.pdf"
} |
Chemical modifications to the original quinolone backbone have resulted in the production of **fluoroquinolones**, like ciprofloxacin and levofloxacin, which also inhibit the activity of DNA gyrase. Ciprofloxacin and levofloxacin are effective against a broad spectrum of gram-positive or gram-negative bacteria, and are... | {
"Header 1": "**14.3 Mechanisms of Antibacterial Drugs**",
"Header 2": "**Inhibitors of Cell Wall Biosynthesis**",
"token_count": 426,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/Med_v1/med_textbook/Microbiology-LR.pdf"
} |
Some synthetic drugs control bacterial infections by functioning as **antimetabolites**, competitive inhibitors for bacterial metabolic enzymes (**[Table 14.6](#page-633-0)**). The **sulfonamides** (**sulfa drugs**) are the oldest synthetic antibacterial agents and are structural analogues of *para*-aminobenzoic acid (... | {
"Header 1": "**14.3 Mechanisms of Antibacterial Drugs**",
"Header 2": "**Inhibitors of Metabolic Pathways**",
"token_count": 1013,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/Med_v1/med_textbook/Microbiology-LR.pdf"
} |
Bedaquiline, representing the synthetic antibacterial class of compounds called the diarylquinolones, uses a novel mode of action that specifically inhibits mycobacterial growth. Although the specific mechanism has yet to be elucidated, this compound appears to interfere with the function of ATP synthases, perhaps by i... | {
"Header 1": "**14.3 Mechanisms of Antibacterial Drugs**",
"Header 2": "**Inhibitor of ATP Synthase**",
"token_count": 233,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/Med_v1/med_textbook/Microbiology-LR.pdf"
} |
#### **Learning Objective**
• Explain the differences between modes of action of drugs that target fungi, protozoa, helminths, and viruses
Because fungi, protozoa, and helminths are eukaryotic, their cells are very similar to human cells, making it more difficult to develop drugs with selective toxicity. Additional... | {
"Header 1": "**14.3 Mechanisms of Antibacterial Drugs**",
"Header 2": "**14.4 Mechanisms of Other Antimicrobial Drugs**",
"token_count": 1605,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/Med_v1/med_textbook/Microbiology-LR.pdf"
} |
(credit right: modification of work by "Maya and Rike"/Wikimedia Commons)
| Mechanism of Action | Drug Class | Specific<br>Drugs | Clinical Uses ... | {
"Header 1": "**14.3 Mechanisms of Antibacterial Drugs**",
"Header 2": "**14.4 Mechanisms of Other Antimicrobial Drugs**",
"token_count": 2030,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/Med_v1/med_textbook/Microbiology-LR.pdf"
} |
Long-term prophylactic use of chloroquine or mefloquine may result in serious side effects, including hallucinations or cardiac issues. Patients with glucose-6-phosphate dehydrogenase deficiency experience severe anemia when treated with chloroquine.
| Mechanism of Action | Drug Class ... | {
"Header 1": "**14.3 Mechanisms of Antibacterial Drugs**",
"Header 2": "**14.4 Mechanisms of Other Antimicrobial Drugs**",
"token_count": 434,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/Med_v1/med_textbook/Microbiology-LR.pdf"
} |
Because helminths are multicellular eukaryotes like humans, developing drugs with selective toxicity against them is extremely challenging. Despite this, several effective classes have been developed (**[Table 14.9](#page-641-0)**). Synthetic **benzimidazoles**, like **mebendazole** and **albendazole**, bind to helmint... | {
"Header 1": "**14.3 Mechanisms of Antibacterial Drugs**",
"Header 2": "**Antihelminthic Drugs**",
"token_count": 2025,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/Med_v1/med_textbook/Microbiology-LR.pdf"
} |
Use of amantadine can result in neurological side effects, but the side effects of rimantadine seem less severe. Interestingly, because of their effects on brain chemicals such as dopamine and NMDA (N-methyl D-aspartate), amantadine and rimantadine are also used for the treatment of Parkinson's disease.
Neuraminidase... | {
"Header 1": "**14.3 Mechanisms of Antibacterial Drugs**",
"Header 2": "**Antihelminthic Drugs**",
"token_count": 1644,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/Med_v1/med_textbook/Microbiology-LR.pdf"
} |
#### **Learning Objectives**
- Explain the concept of drug resistance
- Describe how microorganisms develop or acquire drug resistance
- Describe the different mechanisms of antimicrobial drug resistance
Antimicrobial resistance is not a new phenomenon. In nature, microbes are constantly evolving in order to overco... | {
"Header 1": "**14.5 Drug Resistance**",
"token_count": 1617,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/Med_v1/med_textbook/Microbiology-LR.pdf"
} |
From a clinical perspective, our greatest concerns are **multidrug-resistant microbes (MDRs)** and cross resistance. MDRs are colloquially known as "superbugs" and carry one or more resistance mechanism(s), making them resistant to multiple antimicrobials. In **cross-resistance**, a single resistance mechanism confers ... | {
"Header 1": "**14.5 Drug Resistance**",
"Header 2": "**Multidrug-Resistant Microbes and Cross Resistance**",
"token_count": 1652,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/Med_v1/med_textbook/Microbiology-LR.pdf"
} |
Gram-negative pathogens that produce **extended-spectrum β-lactamases (ESBLs)** show resistance well beyond just penicillins. The spectrum of β-lactams inactivated by ESBLs provides for resistance to all penicillins, cephalosporins, monobactams, and the β-lactamase-inhibitor combinations, but not the carbapenems. An ev... | {
"Header 1": "**14.5 Drug Resistance**",
"Header 2": "**Extended-Spectrum β-Lactamase–Producing Gram-Negative Pathogens**",
"token_count": 1649,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/Med_v1/med_textbook/Microbiology-LR.pdf"
} |
#### **Learning Objectives**
- Describe how the Kirby-Bauer disk diffusion test determines the susceptibility of a microbe to an antibacterial drug.
- Explain the significance of the minimal inhibitory concentration and the minimal bactericidal concentration relative to the effectiveness of an antimicrobial drug.
T... | {
"Header 1": "**14.6 Testing the Effectiveness of Antimicrobials**",
"token_count": 1008,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/Med_v1/med_textbook/Microbiology-LR.pdf"
} |
As discussed, the limitations of the Kirby-Bauer disk diffusion test do not allow for a direct comparison of antibacterial potencies to guide selection of the best therapeutic choice. However, antibacterial dilution tests can be used to determine a particular drug's **minimal inhibitory concentration (MIC)**, the lowes... | {
"Header 1": "**14.6 Testing the Effectiveness of Antimicrobials**",
"Header 3": "**Dilution Tests**",
"token_count": 1561,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/Med_v1/med_textbook/Microbiology-LR.pdf"
} |
#### **Learning Objectives**
• Describe the methods and strategies used for discovery of new antimicrobial agents.
With the continued evolution and spread of antimicrobial resistance, and now the identification of pan-resistant bacterial pathogens, the search for new antimicrobials is essential for preventing the p... | {
"Header 1": "**14.7 Current Strategies for Antimicrobial Discovery**",
"token_count": 1842,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/Med_v1/med_textbook/Microbiology-LR.pdf"
} |
#### **[14.3 Mechanisms of Antibacterial Drugs](#page-622-0)**
- Antibacterial compounds exhibit **selective toxicity**, largely due to differences between prokaryotic and eukaryotic cell structure.
- Cell wall synthesis inhibitors, including the **β-lactams**, the **glycopeptides**, and **bacitracin**, interfere w... | {
"Header 1": "**14.7 Current Strategies for Antimicrobial Discovery**",
"token_count": 2016,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/Med_v1/med_textbook/Microbiology-LR.pdf"
} |
Jane woke up one spring morning feeling not quite herself. Her throat felt a bit dry and she was sniffling. She wondered why she felt so lousy. Was it because of a change in the weather? The pollen count? Was she coming down with something? Did she catch a bug from her coworker who sneezed on her in the elevator yester... | {
"Header 1": "**Introduction**",
"token_count": 252,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/Med_v1/med_textbook/Microbiology-LR.pdf"
} |
#### **Learning Objectives**
- Distinguish between signs and symptoms of disease
- Explain the difference between a communicable disease and a noncommunicable disease
- Compare different types of infectious diseases, including iatrogenic, nosocomial, and zoonotic diseases
- Identify and describe the stages of an acut... | {
"Header 1": "**15.1 Characteristics of Infectious Disease**",
"token_count": 2041,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/Med_v1/med_textbook/Microbiology-LR.pdf"
} |
Compounding this, the prevalence of antibiotics in hospital settings can select for drug-resistant bacteria that can cause very serious infections that are difficult to treat.
Certain infectious diseases are not transmitted between humans directly but can be transmitted from animals to humans. Such a disease is calle... | {
"Header 1": "**15.1 Characteristics of Infectious Disease**",
"token_count": 2033,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/Med_v1/med_textbook/Microbiology-LR.pdf"
} |
For example, influenza (caused by Influenzavirus) is considered an acute disease because the incubation period is approximately 1–2 days. Infected individuals can spread influenza to others for approximately 5 days after becoming ill. After approximately 1 week, individuals enter the period of decline.
For a **chroni... | {
"Header 1": "**15.1 Characteristics of Infectious Disease**",
"token_count": 616,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/Med_v1/med_textbook/Microbiology-LR.pdf"
} |
In 1884, Koch published four postulates (**[Table 15.3](#page-674-1)**) that summarized his method for determining whether a particular microorganism was the cause of a particular disease. Each of Koch's postulates represents a criterion that must be met before a disease can be positively linked with a pathogen. In ord... | {
"Header 1": "**15.2 How Pathogens Cause Disease**",
"Header 2": "**Koch's Postulates**",
"token_count": 860,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/Med_v1/med_textbook/Microbiology-LR.pdf"
} |
In 1988, Stanley Falkow (1934–) proposed a revised form of Koch's postulates known as molecular Koch's postulates. These are listed in the left column of **[Table 15.4](#page-676-0)**. The premise for molecular Koch's postulates is not in the ability to isolate a particular pathogen but rather to identify a gene that m... | {
"Header 1": "**15.2 How Pathogens Cause Disease**",
"Header 2": "**Molecular Koch's Postulates**",
"token_count": 2010,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/Med_v1/med_textbook/Microbiology-LR.pdf"
} |
coli, enterotoxigenic (ETEC) | 10,000,000–10,000,000,000 | | | |
| Salmonella enterica serovar Typhi | <1,000 | | | |
| S. enterica serovar Typhimurium | ≥1 | | | |
| Shigella dysenteriae ... | {
"Header 1": "**15.2 How Pathogens Cause Disease**",
"Header 2": "**Molecular Koch's Postulates**",
"token_count": 1960,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/Med_v1/med_textbook/Microbiology-LR.pdf"
} |
#### **Pathogens Capable of Crossing the Placental Barrier (TORCH Infections)**
| | Disease | Pathogen ... | {
"Header 1": "**15.2 How Pathogens Cause Disease**",
"Header 2": "**Molecular Koch's Postulates**",
"token_count": 2028,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/Med_v1/med_textbook/Microbiology-LR.pdf"
} |
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