page_content stringlengths 12 2.63M | metadata unknown |
|---|---|
Inflammation of the liver is referred to as hepatitis. It can be caused by heavy alcohol use, toxins, drugs, or as a result of an autoimmune response, but it is most often caused by a virus. Viral hepatitis is caused by one of several viruses: hepatitis A, B, C, D, or E. In the United States, 90% of hepatitis cases are... | {
"Header 1": "Hepatitis",
"token_count": 521,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/Med_v1/med_textbook/Medical-Terminology-for-Healthcare-Professions.pdf"
} |
*Figure 14.1 A Child Catches a Falling Leaf. Hormones of the endocrine system coordinate and control growth, metabolism, temperature regulation, the stress response, reproduction, and many other functions. (credit: "seenthroughmylense"/flickr.com). From Betts et al., 2013. Licensed under... | {
"Header 1": "**Introduction to the Endocrine System**",
"token_count": 207,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/Med_v1/med_textbook/Medical-Terminology-for-Healthcare-Professions.pdf"
} |
The endocrine system consists of cells, tissues, and organs that secrete hormones as a primary or secondary function. The **endocrine gland** is the major player in this system. The primary function of the endocrine gland is to secrete hormones directly into the surrounding fluid. The surrounding fluid (interstitial fl... | {
"Header 1": "**Anatomy (Structures) of the Endocrine System**",
"token_count": 456,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/Med_v1/med_textbook/Medical-Terminology-for-Healthcare-Professions.pdf"
} |
The **endocrine system** uses one method of communication called chemical signaling. These chemical signals are sent by the endocrine organs. The endocrine organs secrete chemicals—called **hormones**—into the fluid outside of the tissue cells (extracellular fluid). Hormones are then transported primarily via the blood... | {
"Header 1": "Endocrine Signaling",
"token_count": 539,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/Med_v1/med_textbook/Medical-Terminology-for-Healthcare-Professions.pdf"
} |
There are four different types of chemical signaling occurring in multicellular organisms: endocrine signaling, **autocrine** signaling, **paracrine** signaling, and direct signaling.
In **endocrine signaling**, hormones secreted into the extracellular fluid spreads into the blood or lymphatic system, and can, theref... | {
"Header 1": "Other Types of Chemical Signaling",
"token_count": 304,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/Med_v1/med_textbook/Medical-Terminology-for-Healthcare-Professions.pdf"
} |
Although a given hormone may travel throughout the body in the bloodstream, it will affect the activity only of its target cells; that is, cells with receptors for that particular hormone. Once the hormone binds to the receptor, a chain of events is initiated that leads to the target cell's response. Hormones play a cr... | {
"Header 1": "Hormones",
"token_count": 762,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/Med_v1/med_textbook/Medical-Terminology-for-Healthcare-Professions.pdf"
} |
The message a hormone sends is received by a **hormone receptor**, a protein located either inside the cell or within the cell membrane. The receptor will process the message by initiating other signaling events or cellular mechanisms that result in the target cell's response. Hormone receptors recognize molecules with... | {
"Header 1": "*Pathways of Hormone Action*",
"token_count": 237,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/Med_v1/med_textbook/Medical-Terminology-for-Healthcare-Professions.pdf"
} |
You will recall that target cells must have receptors specific to a given hormone if that hormone is to trigger a response, but several other factors influence the target cell response. For example, the presence of a significant level of a hormone circulating in the bloodstream can cause its target cells to decrease th... | {
"Header 1": "*Factors Affecting Target Cell Response*",
"token_count": 365,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/Med_v1/med_textbook/Medical-Terminology-for-Healthcare-Professions.pdf"
} |
The contribution of feedback loops to homeostasis will only be briefly reviewed here. Positive feedback loops are characterized by the release of additional hormones in response to an original hormone release. The release of oxytocin during childbirth is a positive feedback loop. The initial release of oxytocin begins ... | {
"Header 1": "*Role of Feedback Loops*",
"token_count": 356,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/Med_v1/med_textbook/Medical-Terminology-for-Healthcare-Professions.pdf"
} |
The anterior pituitary originates from the digestive tract in the embryo and migrates toward the brain during fetal development. There are three regions: the pars distalis is the most anterior, the pars intermedia is adjacent to the posterior pituitary, and the pars tuberalis is a slender "tube" that wraps the infundib... | {
"Header 1": "Anterior Pituitary Gland",
"token_count": 590,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/Med_v1/med_textbook/Medical-Terminology-for-Healthcare-Professions.pdf"
} |
The endocrine system regulates the growth of the human body, protein synthesis, and cellular replication. A major hormone involved in this process is **growth hormone (GH)**, also called somatotropin—a protein hormone produced and secreted by the anterior pituitary gland. Its primary function is anabolic; it promotes p... | {
"Header 1": "*Growth Hormone*",
"token_count": 576,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/Med_v1/med_textbook/Medical-Terminology-for-Healthcare-Professions.pdf"
} |
The posterior pituitary is actually an extension of the neurons of the nuclei of the hypothalamus. The cell bodies of these regions rest in the hypothalamus, but their axons descend as the hypothalamic–hypophyseal tract within the infundibulum and end in axon terminals that comprise the posterior pituitary (see Figure ... | {
"Header 1": "Posterior Pituitary Gland",
"token_count": 277,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/Med_v1/med_textbook/Medical-Terminology-for-Healthcare-Professions.pdf"
} |
When fetal development is complete, the peptide-derived hormone **oxytocin** (tocia- = "childbirth") stimulates uterine contractions and dilation of the cervix. Throughout most of pregnancy, oxytocin hormone receptors are not expressed at high levels in the uterus. Toward the end of pregnancy, the synthesis of oxytocin... | {
"Header 1": "*Oxytocin*",
"token_count": 376,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/Med_v1/med_textbook/Medical-Terminology-for-Healthcare-Professions.pdf"
} |
The solute concentration of the blood, or blood osmolarity, may change in response to the consumption of certain foods and fluids, as well as in response to disease, injury, medications, or other factors. Blood osmolarity is constantly monitored by **osmoreceptors**—specialized cells within the hypothalamus that are pa... | {
"Header 1": "*Antidiuretic Hormone (ADH)*",
"token_count": 445,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/Med_v1/med_textbook/Medical-Terminology-for-Healthcare-Professions.pdf"
} |
The endocrine glands secrete a variety of hormones that control the development and regulation of the reproductive system (these glands include the anterior pituitary, the adrenal cortex, and the gonads—the testes in males and the ovaries in females). Much of the development of the reproductive system occurs during pub... | {
"Header 1": "*Follicle-Stimulating Hormone and Luteinizing Hormone*",
"token_count": 308,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/Med_v1/med_textbook/Medical-Terminology-for-Healthcare-Professions.pdf"
} |
A butterfly-shaped organ, the **thyroid gland** is located anterior to the trachea, just inferior to the larynx (see Figure 14.7). The medial region, called the isthmus, is flanked by wing-shaped left and right lobes. Each of the thyroid lobes is embedded with parathyroid glands, primarily on their posterior surfaces. ... | {
"Header 1": "Thyroid Gland",
"token_count": 322,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/Med_v1/med_textbook/Medical-Terminology-for-Healthcare-Professions.pdf"
} |
The release of T3 and T4 from the thyroid gland is regulated by thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH). Low blood levels of T3 and T4 stimulate the release of thyrotropin-releasing hormone (TRH) from the hypothalamus, which triggers the secretion of TSH from the anterior pituitary. In turn, TSH stimulates the thyroid gland ... | {
"Header 1": "*Regulation of TH Synthesis*",
"token_count": 222,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/Med_v1/med_textbook/Medical-Terminology-for-Healthcare-Professions.pdf"
} |
The **adrenal glands** are wedges of glandular and neuroendocrine tissue adhering to the top of the kidneys by a fibrous capsule (see Figure 14.8). The adrenal glands have a rich blood supply and experience one of the highest rates of blood flow in the body. They are served by several arteries branching off the aorta, ... | {
"Header 1": "Adrenal Gland",
"token_count": 861,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/Med_v1/med_textbook/Medical-Terminology-for-Healthcare-Professions.pdf"
} |
The most superficial region of the adrenal cortex is the zona glomerulosa, which produces a group of hormones collectively referred to as **mineralocorticoids** because of their effect on body minerals, especially sodium and potassium. These hormones are essential for fluid and electrolyte balance.
**Aldosterone** is... | {
"Header 1": "*Hormones of the Zona Glomerulosa*",
"token_count": 441,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/Med_v1/med_textbook/Medical-Terminology-for-Healthcare-Professions.pdf"
} |
The intermediate region of the adrenal cortex is the zona fasciculata, named as such because the cells form small fascicles (bundles) separated by tiny blood vessels. The cells of the zona fasciculata produce hormones called **glucocorticoids** because of their role in glucose metabolism. The most important of these is... | {
"Header 1": "*Hormones of the Zona Fasciculata*",
"token_count": 361,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/Med_v1/med_textbook/Medical-Terminology-for-Healthcare-Professions.pdf"
} |
As noted earlier, the adrenal cortex releases glucocorticoids in response to long-term stress such as severe illness. In contrast, the adrenal medulla releases its hormones in response to acute, short-term stress mediated by the sympathetic nervous system (SNS).
The medullary tissue is composed of unique postganglion... | {
"Header 1": "*Adrenal Medulla*",
"token_count": 407,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/Med_v1/med_textbook/Medical-Terminology-for-Healthcare-Professions.pdf"
} |
The **pancreas** is a long, slender organ, most of which is located posterior to the bottom half of the stomach (see Figure 14.9). Although it is primarily an exocrine gland, secreting a variety of digestive enzymes, the pancreas has an endocrine function. Its **pancreatic islets**—clusters of cells formerly known as t... | {
"Header 1": "**Pancreas**",
"token_count": 266,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/Med_v1/med_textbook/Medical-Terminology-for-Healthcare-Professions.pdf"
} |
The pancreatic islets each contain four varieties of cells:
- The **alpha cell** produces the hormone glucagon and makes up approximately 20% of each islet. Glucagon plays an important role in blood glucose regulation; low blood glucose levels stimulate its release.
- The **beta cell** produces the hormone insulin an... | {
"Header 1": "Cells and Secretions of the Pancreatic Islets",
"token_count": 248,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/Med_v1/med_textbook/Medical-Terminology-for-Healthcare-Professions.pdf"
} |
The male testes and female ovaries—which produce the sex cells (sperm and ova) and secrete the gonadal hormones. The roles of the gonadotropins released from the anterior pituitary (FSH and LH) were discussed earlier.
The primary hormone produced by the male testes is **testosterone**, a steroid hormone important in ... | {
"Header 1": "**Gonadal Glands**",
"token_count": 455,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/Med_v1/med_textbook/Medical-Terminology-for-Healthcare-Professions.pdf"
} |
Endocrinology is a specialization in the field of medicine that focuses on the treatment of endocrine system disorders. Endocrinologists—medical doctors who specialize in this field—are experts in treating diseases associated with hormonal systems, ranging from thyroid disease to diabetes. Endocrine surgeons treat endo... | {
"Header 1": "**Medical Specialties and Procedures Related to the Endocrine System**",
"token_count": 222,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/Med_v1/med_textbook/Medical-Terminology-for-Healthcare-Professions.pdf"
} |
**Figure 14.1 image description:** This photo shows a young girl reaching for an orange leaf on an oak tree. She is on a walkway near a creek. The opposite shore is a deep slope covered with more trees in autumn colors. [Return to Figure 14.1].
**Figure 14.2 image description:** This diagram shows the endocrine gland... | {
"Header 1": "**Image Descriptions**",
"token_count": 2037,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/Med_v1/med_textbook/Medical-Terminology-for-Healthcare-Professions.pdf"
} |
The urinary system has roles you may be well aware of on a daily basis. Cleansing the blood and ridding the body of wastes probably come to mind. However, there are additional, equally important functions, played by the system. Take, for example, regulation of **pH**, a function shared with the lungs and the buffers in... | {
"Header 1": "**Introduction to the Urinary System**",
"token_count": 216,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/Med_v1/med_textbook/Medical-Terminology-for-Healthcare-Professions.pdf"
} |
A frontal section through the kidney reveals an outer region called the **renal cortex** and an inner region called the **medulla** (see Figure 15.2). The **renal columns** are connective tissue extensions that radiate downward from the cortex through the medulla to separate the most characteristic features of the medu... | {
"Header 1": "*Kidneys' Internal Structure*",
"token_count": 242,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/Med_v1/med_textbook/Medical-Terminology-for-Healthcare-Professions.pdf"
} |
The renal artery first divides into segmental arteries, followed by further branching to form interlobar arteries that pass through the renal columns to reach the cortex (see Figure 15.3). The **interlobar** arteries, in turn, branch into **arcuate** arteries, cortical **radiate** arteries, and then into afferent arter... | {
"Header 1": "*Nephrons and Vessels*",
"token_count": 586,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/Med_v1/med_textbook/Medical-Terminology-for-Healthcare-Professions.pdf"
} |
The kidneys and ureters are completely **retroperitoneal**, and the bladder has a **peritoneal** covering only over the dome. As urine is formed, it drains into the calyces of the kidney, which merge to form the funnel-shaped renal pelvis in the hilum of each kidney. The hilum narrows to become the **ureter** of each k... | {
"Header 1": "*Ureters*",
"token_count": 220,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/Med_v1/med_textbook/Medical-Terminology-for-Healthcare-Professions.pdf"
} |
The urinary bladder collects urine from both ureters ( see Figure 15.5). The bladder lies anterior to the uterus in females, posterior to the pubic bone and anterior to the rectum. During late pregnancy, its capacity is reduced due to compression by the enlarging uterus, resulting in increased frequency of urination. I... | {
"Header 1": "Bladder",
"token_count": 237,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/Med_v1/med_textbook/Medical-Terminology-for-Healthcare-Professions.pdf"
} |
The urethra transports urine from the bladder to the outside of the body for disposal. The urethra is the only urologic organ that shows any significant anatomic difference between males and females; all other urine transport structures are identical (see Figure 15.6).
*Figure 15.6. Fem... | {
"Header 1": "Urethra",
"token_count": 341,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/Med_v1/med_textbook/Medical-Terminology-for-Healthcare-Professions.pdf"
} |
Micturition is a less-often used, but proper term for **urination** or **voiding**. It results from an interplay of involuntary and voluntary actions by the internal and external urethral sphincters. When bladder volume reaches about 150 mL, an urge to void is sensed but is easily overridden. Voluntary control of urina... | {
"Header 1": "*Micturition Reflex*",
"token_count": 538,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/Med_v1/med_textbook/Medical-Terminology-for-Healthcare-Professions.pdf"
} |
The volume of filtrate formed by both kidneys per minute is termed the **glomerular filtration rate** (GFR). The heart pumps about 5 L blood per min under resting conditions. Approximately 20% or one liter enters the kidneys to be filtered. On average, this liter results in the production of about 125 mL/min filtrate p... | {
"Header 1": "Glomerular Filtration Rate (GFR)",
"token_count": 968,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/Med_v1/med_textbook/Medical-Terminology-for-Healthcare-Professions.pdf"
} |
The renal corpuscle filters the blood to create a filtrate that differs from blood mainly in the absence of cells and large proteins. From this point to the ends of the collecting ducts, the filtrate or forming urine is undergoing modification through **secretion** and **reabsorption** before true urine is produced. He... | {
"Header 1": "Reabsorption and Secretion",
"token_count": 221,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/Med_v1/med_textbook/Medical-Terminology-for-Healthcare-Professions.pdf"
} |
Urinalysis (urine analysis) often provides clues to renal disease. Normally, only traces of protein are found in urine, and when higher amounts are found, damage to the glomeruli is the likely basis. Unusually large quantities of urine may point to diseases like diabetes mellitus or hypothalamic tumors that cause diabe... | {
"Header 1": "Urinalysis",
"token_count": 621,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/Med_v1/med_textbook/Medical-Terminology-for-Healthcare-Professions.pdf"
} |
Renin is an **enzyme** that is produced by the granular cells of the afferent arteriole. It enzymatically converts angiotensinogen (made by the liver, freely circulating) into angiotensin I. Its release is stimulated by **prostaglandins** to decrease extracellular fluid volume.
Angiotensin II is a potent vasoconstric... | {
"Header 1": "Renin–Angiotensin–Aldosterone",
"token_count": 238,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/Med_v1/med_textbook/Medical-Terminology-for-Healthcare-Professions.pdf"
} |
**Sperm** is smaller than most cells in the body; in fact, the volume of a sperm cell is 85,000 times less than that of the female gamete. Approximately 100 to 300 million sperm are produced each day, whereas women typically ovulate only one **oocyte** per month as is true for most cells in the body, the structure of s... | {
"Header 1": "Sperm",
"token_count": 205,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/Med_v1/med_textbook/Medical-Terminology-for-Healthcare-Professions.pdf"
} |
Gonorrhea is a sexually transmitted disease caused by the bacterium *Neisseria gonorrhoeae.* It infects the mucous membranes of the reproductive tract, including the urethra in men. Infections can also infect the mouth, throat, eyes, and anus. Gonorrhea is spread through unprotected oral, vaginal or anal sex with an in... | {
"Header 1": "*Gonorrhea (Gonococcus)*",
"token_count": 218,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/Med_v1/med_textbook/Medical-Terminology-for-Healthcare-Professions.pdf"
} |
Genital herpes is a sexually transmitted disease that is caused by a virus called the herpes simplex virus (HSV). There are two types of herpes simplex viruses:
- Type 1- oral herpes or cold sores (HSV-1)
- Type 2- genital herpes (HSV-2)
Signs and symptoms might include **dysuria**, enlarged glands, **myalgia**, an... | {
"Header 1": "Herpes Simplex Virus (HSV)",
"token_count": 412,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/Med_v1/med_textbook/Medical-Terminology-for-Healthcare-Professions.pdf"
} |
The external female reproductive structures are referred to collectively as the **vulva** and they include:
- The **mons pubis,** a pad of fat that is located at the anterior, over the pubic bone. After puberty, it becomes covered in pubic hair.
- The **labia majora** (labia = "lips"; majora = "larger"), folds of hai... | {
"Header 1": "External Female Genitals",
"token_count": 354,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/Med_v1/med_textbook/Medical-Terminology-for-Healthcare-Professions.pdf"
} |
The **vagina** is a muscular canal (approximately 10 cm long) that is the entrance to the reproductive tract. It also serves as the exit from the uterus during menses and childbirth. The outer walls of the anterior and posterior vagina are columns with ridges. The superior **fornix** meets the uterine cervix. The cervi... | {
"Header 1": "Vagina",
"token_count": 360,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/Med_v1/med_textbook/Medical-Terminology-for-Healthcare-Professions.pdf"
} |
The fallopian tubes, also known as uterine tubes, are the conduit of the **oocyte** from the ovary to the uterus. Each of the two fallopian tubes is close to, but not directly connected to, the ovary.
- The **isthmus** is the narrow medial end of each fallopian tube that is connected to the uterus.
- The wide distal ... | {
"Header 1": "The Fallopian Tubes",
"token_count": 240,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/Med_v1/med_textbook/Medical-Terminology-for-Healthcare-Professions.pdf"
} |
Following ovulation, the Fallopian tube receives the oocyte. Oocytes lack flagella, and therefore cannot move on their own.
- High concentrations of estrogen that occur around the time of ovulation induce contractions of the smooth muscle along the length of the fallopian tube.
- These contractions occur every 4 to 8... | {
"Header 1": "**Physiology (Function) of the Female Reproductive System-Ovulation**",
"token_count": 263,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/Med_v1/med_textbook/Medical-Terminology-for-Healthcare-Professions.pdf"
} |
The three phases of the menstrual cycle are:
- 1. The **menses phase** of the menstrual cycle is the phase during which reproductive hormone levels are low, the woman menstruates, and the lining is shed. The menses phase lasts between 2 to 7 days with an average of 5 days.
- 2. The **proliferative phase** is when men... | {
"Header 1": "**The Menstrual Cycle**",
"token_count": 203,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/Med_v1/med_textbook/Medical-Terminology-for-Healthcare-Professions.pdf"
} |
**Menopause** is the cessation of the menstrual cycle that occurs as a result of the loss of ovarian follicles and the hormones that they produce, namely estrogen. The earliest changes occur during the menopausal transition, often referred to as **perimenopause**, when a woman's cycle becomes irregular but does not sto... | {
"Header 1": "**Menopause**",
"token_count": 252,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/Med_v1/med_textbook/Medical-Terminology-for-Healthcare-Professions.pdf"
} |
Endometriosis is an abnormal condition of the **endometrium**. Endometriosis occurs when this tissue grows and implants outside the uterus. The female hormone estrogen causes these implants to grow, bleed, and become inflamed. The inflammation causes scar tissue around nearby organs, which can interfere with their norm... | {
"Header 1": "Endometriosis",
"token_count": 230,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/Med_v1/med_textbook/Medical-Terminology-for-Healthcare-Professions.pdf"
} |
Polycystic ovary syndrome (PCOS) has no known etiology, but researchers have linked it to excessive production of insulin and **androgens**. Excessive insulin in the body can cause insulin resistance and lead to type 2 diabetes. High levels of androgens can prevent the ovaries from releasing an egg during the menstrual... | {
"Header 1": "Polycystic Ovary Syndrome (PCOS)",
"token_count": 217,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/Med_v1/med_textbook/Medical-Terminology-for-Healthcare-Professions.pdf"
} |
Chlamydia is one of the most common sexually transmitted diseases. It is caused by the bacterium *Chlamydia trachomatis,* which infects the cervix and other organs of the reproductive tract in women. Chlamydia spreads through unprotected oral, anal, or vaginal sex with an infected person. Chlamydia can also spread from... | {
"Header 1": "*Chlamydia*",
"token_count": 233,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/Med_v1/med_textbook/Medical-Terminology-for-Healthcare-Professions.pdf"
} |
Gonorrhea is a sexually transmitted disease caused by the bacterium *Neisseria gonorrhoeae.* It infects the mucous membranes of the reproductive tract, including the cervix, uterus, and fallopian tubes in women. Infections can also infect the mouth, throat, eyes, and anus. Gonorrhea is spread through unprotected oral, ... | {
"Header 1": "*Gonorrhea (Gonococcus)*",
"token_count": 269,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/Med_v1/med_textbook/Medical-Terminology-for-Healthcare-Professions.pdf"
} |
Genital herpes is a sexually transmitted disease that is caused by a virus called the herpes simplex virus (HSV). There are two types of herpes simplex viruses:
- Type 1- oral herpes or cold sores (HSV-1)
- Type 2- genital herpes (HSV-2).
Signs and symptoms might include **dysuria**, enlarged glands, **myalgia**, a... | {
"Header 1": "Herpes Simplex Virus (HSV)",
"token_count": 412,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/Med_v1/med_textbook/Medical-Terminology-for-Healthcare-Professions.pdf"
} |
A **hysterectomy** is performed to stage or treat endometriosis, cancers, and precancers of the female reproductive tract, and some non-cancerous conditions that have not responded to other forms of treatment. There are three types of hysterectomy:
- A **total hysterectomy** removes both the uterus and the cervix.
- ... | {
"Header 1": "Hysterectomy",
"token_count": 222,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/Med_v1/med_textbook/Medical-Terminology-for-Healthcare-Professions.pdf"
} |
**Fertilization** occurs when **sperm** and an **oocyte** combine. Because each of these reproductive cells is a haploid cell containing half of the genetic material needed to form a human being, their combination forms a diploid cell. This new single cell is called a **zygote**.
Most of the time, a woman releases a ... | {
"Header 1": "**Fertilization**",
"token_count": 366,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/Med_v1/med_textbook/Medical-Terminology-for-Healthcare-Professions.pdf"
} |
In the minutes following birth, a newborn must undergo dramatic systemic changes to be able to survive outside the womb. An obstetrician, midwife, or nurse can estimate how well a newborn is doing by obtaining an **Apgar score**. The Apgar score was introduced in 1952 by the anesthesiologist Dr. Virginia Apgar as a met... | {
"Header 1": "**Homeostasis in the Newborn: Apgar Score**",
"token_count": 456,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/Med_v1/med_textbook/Medical-Terminology-for-Healthcare-Professions.pdf"
} |
IVF, which stands for **in vitro fertilization**, is an assisted reproductive technology. In vitro, which in Latin translates to in glass, refers to a procedure that takes place outside of the body. There are many different indications for IVF. For example, a woman may produce normal eggs, but the eggs cannot reach the... | {
"Header 1": "In Vitro Fertilization (IVF)",
"token_count": 263,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/Med_v1/med_textbook/Medical-Terminology-for-Healthcare-Professions.pdf"
} |
**Figure 18.1 image description:** This multi-part figure shows the different stages of childbirth. The top panel shows dilation of the cervix (undilated vs fully dilated), the middle panel shows birth (presentation of the head, rotation and delivery of anterior shoulder, delivery of posterior shoulder, delivery of low... | {
"Header 1": "**Image Descriptions**",
"token_count": 397,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/Med_v1/med_textbook/Medical-Terminology-for-Healthcare-Professions.pdf"
} |
From boiling thermal hot springs to deep beneath the Antarctic ice, microorganisms can be found almost everywhere on earth in great quantities. Microorganisms (or microbes, as they are also called) are small organisms. Most are so small that they cannot be seen without a microscope.
Most microorganisms are harmless t... | {
"Header 1": "**An Invisible World**",
"Header 2": "**Introduction**",
"token_count": 285,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/Med_v1/med_textbook/Microbiology-LR.pdf"
} |
#### **Learning Objectives**
- Describe how our ancestors improved food with the use of invisible microbes
- Describe how the causes of sickness and disease were explained in ancient times, prior to the invention of the microscope
- Describe key historical events associated with the birth of microbiology
Most peopl... | {
"Header 1": "**1.1 What Our Ancestors Knew**",
"token_count": 2040,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/Med_v1/med_textbook/Microbiology-LR.pdf"
} |
doi: 10.1016/ s0140-6736(05)79939-6.
<sup>6.</sup> L. Capasso, L. "5300 Years Ago, the Ice Man Used Natural Laxatives and Antibiotics." *The Lancet*, 352 no. 9143 (1998): 1864. doi: 10.1016/s0140-6736(05)79939-6.
**Figure 1.4** (a) The *Cloaca Maxima*, or "Greatest Sewer" (shown in red... | {
"Header 1": "**1.1 What Our Ancestors Knew**",
"token_count": 2036,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/Med_v1/med_textbook/Microbiology-LR.pdf"
} |
Ingredients in a growth medium can be modified to grow unique types of microorganisms.
- **A Petri dish** is a flat-lidded dish that is typically 10–11 centimeters (cm) in diameter and 1–1.5 cm high. Petri dishes made out of either plastic or glass are used to hold growth media (**[Figure 1.7](#page-32-1)**).
- **Test ... | {
"Header 1": "**1.1 What Our Ancestors Knew**",
"token_count": 390,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/Med_v1/med_textbook/Microbiology-LR.pdf"
} |
#### **Learning Objectives**
- Describe how microorganisms are classified and distinguished as unique species
- Compare historical and current systems of taxonomy used to classify microorganisms
Once microbes became visible to humans with the help of microscopes, scientists began to realize their enormous diversity... | {
"Header 1": "**1.2 A Systematic Approach**",
"token_count": 2029,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/Med_v1/med_textbook/Microbiology-LR.pdf"
} |
Today, newly discovered organisms can be given names derived from Latin, Greek, or English. Sometimes these names reflect some distinctive trait of the organism; in other cases, microorganisms are named after the scientists who discovered them. The archaeon *Haloquadratum walsbyi* is an example of both of these naming ... | {
"Header 1": "**1.2 A Systematic Approach**",
"token_count": 1055,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/Med_v1/med_textbook/Microbiology-LR.pdf"
} |
#### **Learning Objectives**
- List the various types of microorganisms and describe their defining characteristics
- Give examples of different types of cellular and viral microorganisms and infectious agents
- Describe the similarities and differences between archaea and bacteria
- Provide an overview of the field ... | {
"Header 1": "**1.3 Types of Microorganisms**",
"token_count": 2045,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/Med_v1/med_textbook/Microbiology-LR.pdf"
} |
**Figure 1.16** *Giardia lamblia*, an intestinal protozoan parasite that infects humans and other mammals, causing severe diarrhea. (credit: modification of work by Centers for Disease Control and Prevention)
#### **Fungi**
**Fungi** (singular: fungus) are also eukaryotes. Some mult... | {
"Header 1": "**1.3 Types of Microorganisms**",
"token_count": 1381,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/Med_v1/med_textbook/Microbiology-LR.pdf"
} |
**Microbiology** is a broad term that encompasses the study of all different types of microorganisms. But in practice, microbiologists tend to specialize in one of several subfields. For example, **bacteriology** is the study of bacteria; **mycology** is the study of fungi; **protozoology** is the study of protozoa; **... | {
"Header 1": "**1.3 Types of Microorganisms**",
"Header 2": "**Microbiology as a Field of Study**",
"token_count": 1919,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/Med_v1/med_textbook/Microbiology-LR.pdf"
} |
#### **[1.2 A Systematic Approach](#page-32-0)**
- Carolus Linnaeus developed a taxonomic system for categorizing organisms into related groups.
- **Binomial nomenclature** assigns organisms Latinized scientific names with a genus and species designation.
- A **phylogenetic tree** is a way of showing how different ... | {
"Header 1": "**1.3 Types of Microorganisms**",
"Header 2": "**Microbiology as a Field of Study**",
"token_count": 652,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/Med_v1/med_textbook/Microbiology-LR.pdf"
} |
When we look at a rainbow, its colors span the full spectrum of light that the human eye can detect and differentiate. Each hue represents a different frequency of visible light, processed by our eyes and brains and rendered as red, orange, yellow, green, or one of the many other familiar colors that have always been a... | {
"Header 1": "**Introduction**",
"token_count": 273,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/Med_v1/med_textbook/Microbiology-LR.pdf"
} |
#### **Learning Objectives**
- Identify and define the characteristics of electromagnetic radiation (EMR) used in microscopy
- Explain how lenses are used in microscopy to manipulate visible and ultraviolet (UV) light
Visible light consists of electromagnetic waves that behave like other waves. Hence, many of the p... | {
"Header 1": "**Introduction**",
"Header 2": "**2.1 The Properties of Light**",
"token_count": 1937,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/Med_v1/med_textbook/Microbiology-LR.pdf"
} |
Visible light is just one form of electromagnetic radiation (EMR), a type of energy that is all around us. Other forms of EMR include microwaves, X-rays, and radio waves, among others. The different types of EMR fall on the electromagnetic spectrum, which is defined in terms of wavelength and frequency. The spectrum of... | {
"Header 1": "**Introduction**",
"Header 2": "**Electromagnetic Spectrum and Color**",
"token_count": 1310,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/Med_v1/med_textbook/Microbiology-LR.pdf"
} |
#### **Learning Objectives**
- Describe historical developments and individual contributions that led to the invention and development of the microscope
- Compare and contrast the features of simple and compound microscopes
Some of the fundamental characteristics and functions of microscopes can be understood in th... | {
"Header 1": "**2.2 Peering Into the Invisible World**",
"token_count": 1501,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/Med_v1/med_textbook/Microbiology-LR.pdf"
} |
#### **Learning Objectives**
- Identify and describe the parts of a brightfield microscope
- Calculate total magnification for a compound microscope
- Describe the distinguishing features and typical uses for various types of light microscopes, electron microscopes, and scanning probe microscopes
The early pioneers... | {
"Header 1": "**2.3 Instruments of Microscopy**",
"token_count": 2041,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/Med_v1/med_textbook/Microbiology-LR.pdf"
} |
**Figure 2.14** An opaque light stop inserted into a brightfield microscope is used to produce a darkfield image. The light stop blocks light traveling directly from the illuminator to the objective lens, allowing only light reflected or refracted off the specimen to reach the eye.
Dar... | {
"Header 1": "**2.3 Instruments of Microscopy**",
"token_count": 2023,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/Med_v1/med_textbook/Microbiology-LR.pdf"
} |
**Figure 2.19** (a) A direct immunofluorescent stain is used to visualize *Neisseria gonorrhoeae*, the bacterium that causes gonorrhea. (b) An indirect immunofluorescent stain is used to visualize larvae of *Schistosoma mansoni*, a parasitic worm that causes schistosomiasis, an intestina... | {
"Header 1": "**2.3 Instruments of Microscopy**",
"token_count": 836,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/Med_v1/med_textbook/Microbiology-LR.pdf"
} |
The maximum theoretical resolution of images created by light microscopes is ultimately limited by the wavelengths of visible light. Most light microscopes can only magnify 1000⨯, and a few can magnify up to 1500⨯, but this does not begin to approach the magnifying power of an **electron microscope (EM)**, which uses s... | {
"Header 1": "**2.3 Instruments of Microscopy**",
"Header 2": "**Electron Microscopy**",
"token_count": 1505,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/Med_v1/med_textbook/Microbiology-LR.pdf"
} |
A **scanning probe microscope** does not use light or electrons, but rather very sharp probes that are passed over the surface of the specimen and interact with it directly. This produces information that can be assembled into images with magnifications up to 100,000,000⨯. Such large magnifications can be used to obser... | {
"Header 1": "**2.3 Instruments of Microscopy**",
"Header 2": "**Scanning Probe Microscopy**",
"token_count": 1843,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/Med_v1/med_textbook/Microbiology-LR.pdf"
} |
In clinical settings, light microscopes are the most commonly used microscopes. There are two basic types of preparation used to view specimens with a light microscope: wet mounts and fixed specimens.
The simplest type of preparation is the **wet mount**, in which the specimen is placed on the slide in a drop of liqu... | {
"Header 1": "**2.4 Staining Microscopic Specimens**",
"Header 3": "**Preparing Specimens for Light Microscopy**",
"token_count": 2036,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/Med_v1/med_textbook/Microbiology-LR.pdf"
} |
However, there are several important considerations in interpreting the results of a Gram stain. First, older bacterial cells may have damage to their cell walls that causes them to appear gramnegative even if the species is gram-positive. Thus, it is best to use fresh bacterial cultures for Gram staining. Second, erro... | {
"Header 1": "**2.4 Staining Microscopic Specimens**",
"Header 3": "**Preparing Specimens for Light Microscopy**",
"token_count": 1992,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/Med_v1/med_textbook/Microbiology-LR.pdf"
} |
Flagella (singular: flagellum) are tail-like cellular structures used for locomotion by some bacteria, archaea, and eukaryotes. Because they are so thin, flagella typically cannot be seen under a light microscope without a specialized **flagella staining** technique. Flagella staining thickens the flagella by first app... | {
"Header 1": "**2.4 Staining Microscopic Specimens**",
"Header 2": "**Flagella Staining**",
"token_count": 2001,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/Med_v1/med_textbook/Microbiology-LR.pdf"
} |
**Figure 2.43** (a) Living, unstained *Treponema pallidum* spirochetes can be viewed under a darkfield microscope. (b) In this brightfield image, a modified Steiner silver stain is used to visualized *T. pallidum* spirochetes. Though the stain kills the cells, it increases the contrast ... | {
"Header 1": "**2.4 Staining Microscopic Specimens**",
"Header 2": "**Flagella Staining**",
"token_count": 2031,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/Med_v1/med_textbook/Microbiology-LR.pdf"
} |
Life takes many forms, from giant redwood trees towering hundreds of feet in the air to the tiniest known microbes, which measure only a few billionths of a meter. Humans have long pondered life's origins and debated the defining characteristics of life, but our understanding of these concepts has changed radically sin... | {
"Header 1": "**Introduction**",
"token_count": 245,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/Med_v1/med_textbook/Microbiology-LR.pdf"
} |
#### **Learning Objectives**
- Explain the theory of spontaneous generation and why people once accepted it as an explanation for the existence of certain types of organisms
- Explain how certain individuals (van Helmont, Redi, Needham, Spallanzani, and Pasteur) tried to prove or disprove spontaneous generation
Hum... | {
"Header 1": "**3.1 Spontaneous Generation**",
"token_count": 2044,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/Med_v1/med_textbook/Microbiology-LR.pdf"
} |
The English scientist Robert Hooke first used the term "cells" in 1665 to describe the small chambers within cork that he observed under a microscope of his own design. To Hooke, thin sections of cork resembled "Honey-comb," or "small Boxes or Bladders of Air." He noted that each "Cavern, Bubble, or Cell" was distinct ... | {
"Header 1": "**3.2 Foundations of Modern Cell Theory**",
"Header 2": "**The Origins of Cell Theory**",
"token_count": 1563,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/Med_v1/med_textbook/Microbiology-LR.pdf"
} |
As scientists were making progress toward understanding the role of cells in plant and animal tissues, others were examining the structures within the cells themselves. In 1831, Scottish botanist Robert Brown (1773–1858) was the first to describe observations of nuclei, which he observed in plant cells. Then, in the ea... | {
"Header 1": "**3.2 Foundations of Modern Cell Theory**",
"Header 2": "**Endosymbiotic Theory**",
"token_count": 1359,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/Med_v1/med_textbook/Microbiology-LR.pdf"
} |
Prior to the discovery of microbes during the 17th century, other theories circulated about the origins of disease. For example, the ancient Greeks proposed the miasma theory, which held that disease originated from particles emanating from decomposing matter, such as that in sewage or cesspits. Such particles infected... | {
"Header 1": "**3.2 Foundations of Modern Cell Theory**",
"Header 2": "**The Germ Theory of Disease**",
"token_count": 1920,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/Med_v1/med_textbook/Microbiology-LR.pdf"
} |
#### **Learning Objectives**
- Explain the distinguishing characteristics of prokaryotic cells
- Describe common cell morphologies and cellular arrangements typical of prokaryotic cells and explain how cells maintain their morphology
- Describe internal and external structures of prokaryotic cells in terms of their p... | {
"Header 1": "**3.3 Unique Characteristics of Prokaryotic Cells**",
"token_count": 2034,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/Med_v1/med_textbook/Microbiology-LR.pdf"
} |
In a hypotonic medium (right), the cell wall prevents the cell membrane from expanding to the point of bursting, although lysis will eventually occur if too much water is absorbed.
- Explain the difference between cell morphology and arrangement.
- What advantages do cell walls provide prokaryotic cells?
#### **The... | {
"Header 1": "**3.3 Unique Characteristics of Prokaryotic Cells**",
"token_count": 751,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/Med_v1/med_textbook/Microbiology-LR.pdf"
} |
each of which are composed of protein and rRNA components.
#### **Inclusions**
As single-celled organisms living in unstable environments, some prokaryotic cells have the ability to store excess nutrients within cytoplasmic structures called **inclusions**. Storing nutrients in a polymerized form is advantageous be... | {
"Header 1": "**3.3 Unique Characteristics of Prokaryotic Cells**",
"token_count": 1298,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/Med_v1/med_textbook/Microbiology-LR.pdf"
} |
**Figure 3.20** (a) Sporulation begins following asymmetric cell division. The forespore becomes surrounded by a double layer of membrane, a cortex, and a protein spore coat, before being released as a mature endospore upon disintegration of the mother cell. (b) An electron micrograph o... | {
"Header 1": "**3.3 Unique Characteristics of Prokaryotic Cells**",
"token_count": 2028,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/Med_v1/med_textbook/Microbiology-LR.pdf"
} |
Structurally, peptidoglycan resembles a layer of meshwork or fabric (**[Figure 3.25](#page-124-0)**). Each layer is composed of long chains of alternating molecules of N-acetylglucosamine (NAG) and N-acetylmuramic acid (NAM). The structure of the long chains has significant two-dimensional tensile strength due to the f... | {
"Header 1": "**3.3 Unique Characteristics of Prokaryotic Cells**",
"token_count": 2035,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/Med_v1/med_textbook/Microbiology-LR.pdf"
} |
**Figure 3.29** (a) Capsules are a type of glycocalyx composed of an organized layer of polysaccharides. (b) A capsule stain of *Pseudomonas aeruginosa*, a bacterial pathogen capable of causing many different types of infections in humans. (credit b: modification of work by American Society for Microbiology)
The ab... | {
"Header 1": "**3.3 Unique Characteristics of Prokaryotic Cells**",
"token_count": 596,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/Med_v1/med_textbook/Microbiology-LR.pdf"
} |
Many bacterial cells have protein appendages embedded within their cell envelopes that extend outward, allowing interaction with the environment. These appendages can attach to other surfaces, transfer DNA, or provide movement. Filamentous appendages include fimbriae, pili, and flagella.
#### **Fimbriae and Pili**
... | {
"Header 1": "**3.3 Unique Characteristics of Prokaryotic Cells**",
"Header 2": "**Filamentous Appendages**",
"token_count": 1885,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/Med_v1/med_textbook/Microbiology-LR.pdf"
} |
#### **Learning Objectives**
- Explain the distinguishing characteristics of eukaryotic cells
- Describe internal and external structures of prokaryotic cells in terms of their physical structure, chemical structure, and function
- Identify and describe structures and organelles unique to eukaryotic cells
- Compare a... | {
"Header 1": "**3.4 Unique Characteristics of Eukaryotic Cells**",
"token_count": 1162,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/Med_v1/med_textbook/Microbiology-LR.pdf"
} |
Eukaryotic cells display a wide variety of different cell morphologies. Possible shapes include spheroid, ovoid, cuboidal, cylindrical, flat, lenticular, fusiform, discoidal, crescent, ring stellate, and polygonal (**[Figure 3.36](#page-134-0)**). Some eukaryotic cells are irregular in shape, and some are capable of ch... | {
"Header 1": "**3.4 Unique Characteristics of Eukaryotic Cells**",
"Header 2": "**Cell Morphologies**",
"token_count": 349,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/Med_v1/med_textbook/Microbiology-LR.pdf"
} |
Unlike prokaryotic cells, in which DNA is loosely contained in the nucleoid region, eukaryotic cells possess a **nucleus**, which is surrounded by a complex nuclear membrane that houses the DNA genome (**[Figure 3.37](#page-135-0)**). By containing the cell's DNA, the nucleus ultimately controls all activities of the c... | {
"Header 1": "**3.4 Unique Characteristics of Eukaryotic Cells**",
"Header 2": "**Nucleus**",
"token_count": 1021,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/Med_v1/med_textbook/Microbiology-LR.pdf"
} |
The **endomembrane system**, unique to eukaryotic cells, is a series of membranous tubules, sacs, and flattened disks that synthesize many cell components and move materials around within the cell (**[Figure 3.40](#page-137-0)**). Because of their larger cell size, eukaryotic cells require this system to transport mate... | {
"Header 1": "**3.4 Unique Characteristics of Eukaryotic Cells**",
"Header 2": "**Endomembrane System**",
"token_count": 2038,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/Med_v1/med_textbook/Microbiology-LR.pdf"
} |
In ameboid organisms, actin can be found in two forms: a stiffer, polymerized, gel form and a more fluid, unpolymerized soluble form. Actin in the gel form creates stability in the ectoplasm, the gel-like area of cytoplasm just inside the plasma membrane of ameboid protozoans.
Temporary extensions of the cytoplasmic ... | {
"Header 1": "**3.4 Unique Characteristics of Eukaryotic Cells**",
"Header 2": "**Endomembrane System**",
"token_count": 2048,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/Med_v1/med_textbook/Microbiology-LR.pdf"
} |
Stacks of thylakoids called grana form a third membrane layer.
Other organelles similar to mitochondria have arisen in other types of eukaryotes, but their roles differ. Hydrogenosomes are found in some anaerobic eukaryotes and serve as the location of anaerobic hydrogen production. Hydrogenosomes typically lack thei... | {
"Header 1": "**3.4 Unique Characteristics of Eukaryotic Cells**",
"Header 2": "**Endomembrane System**",
"token_count": 1267,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/Med_v1/med_textbook/Microbiology-LR.pdf"
} |
In addition to a plasma membrane, some eukaryotic cells have a cell wall. Cells of fungi, algae, plants, and even some protists have cell walls. Depending upon the type of eukaryotic cell, cell walls can be made of a wide range of materials, including cellulose (fungi and plants); biogenic silica, calcium carbonate, ag... | {
"Header 1": "**3.4 Unique Characteristics of Eukaryotic Cells**",
"Header 2": "**Cell Wall**",
"token_count": 590,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/Med_v1/med_textbook/Microbiology-LR.pdf"
} |
Some eukaryotic cells use **flagella** for locomotion; however, eukaryotic flagella are structurally distinct from those found in prokaryotic cells. Whereas the prokaryotic flagellum is a stiff, rotating structure, a eukaryotic flagellum is more like a flexible whip composed of nine parallel pairs of microtubules surro... | {
"Header 1": "**3.4 Unique Characteristics of Eukaryotic Cells**",
"Header 2": "**Flagella and Cilia**",
"token_count": 2002,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/Med_v1/med_textbook/Microbiology-LR.pdf"
} |
These include vesicles, the endoplasmic reticulum, and the Golgi apparatus.
- The **smooth endoplasmic reticulum** plays a role in lipid biosynthesis, carbohydrate metabolism, and detoxification of toxic compounds. The **rough endoplasmic reticulum** contains membrane-bound 80S ribosomes that synthesize proteins destin... | {
"Header 1": "**3.4 Unique Characteristics of Eukaryotic Cells**",
"Header 2": "**Flagella and Cilia**",
"token_count": 486,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/Med_v1/med_textbook/Microbiology-LR.pdf"
} |
Subsets and Splits
No community queries yet
The top public SQL queries from the community will appear here once available.