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dev-2783-143 | Sino-Soviet relations soured after the Soviets invaded Czechoslovakia in August 1968. In October, the Chinese demanded North Vietnam cut relations with Moscow, but Hanoi refused.[249] The Chinese began to withdraw in November 1968 in preparation for a clash with the Soviets, which occurred at Zhenbao Island in March 19... | dev-2783 | Vietnam War | 143 | 73,823 | 74,257 |
dev-2783-144 | China "armed and trained" the Khmer Rouge during the civil war and continued to aid them for years afterward.[250] The Khmer Rouge launched ferocious raids into Vietnam in 1975–1978. When Vietnam responded with an invasion that toppled the Khmer Rouge, China launched a brief, punitive invasion of Vietnam in 1979. | dev-2783 | Vietnam War | 144 | 74,258 | 74,574 |
dev-2783-145 | Soviet ships in the South China Sea gave vital early warnings to Viet Cong forces in South Vietnam. The Soviet intelligence ships would pick up American B-52 bombers flying from Okinawa and Guam. Their airspeed and direction would be noted and then relayed to COSVN, North Vietnam's southern headquarters. Using airspeed... | dev-2783 | Vietnam War | 145 | 74,575 | 75,300 |
dev-2783-146 | The Soviet Union supplied North Vietnam with medical supplies, arms, tanks, planes, helicopters, artillery, anti-aircraft missiles and other military equipment. Soviet crews fired Soviet-made surface-to-air missiles at U.S. F-4 Phantoms, which were shot down over Thanh Hóa in 1965. Over a dozen Soviet citizens lost th... | dev-2783 | Vietnam War | 146 | 75,301 | 75,821 |
dev-2783-147 | Some Russian sources give more specific numbers: Between 1953 and 1991, the hardware donated by the Soviet Union included 2,000 tanks, 1,700 APCs, 7,000 artillery guns, over 5,000 anti-aircraft guns, 158 surface-to-air missile launchers, 120 helicopters. During the war, the Soviets sent North Vietnam annual arms shipme... | dev-2783 | Vietnam War | 147 | 75,822 | 76,495 |
dev-2783-148 | As a result of a decision of the Korean Workers' Party in October 1966, in early 1967 North Korea sent a fighter squadron to North Vietnam to back up the North Vietnamese 921st and 923rd fighter squadrons defending Hanoi. They stayed through 1968, and 200 pilots were reported to have served.[256] In addition, at least ... | dev-2783 | Vietnam War | 148 | 76,496 | 76,877 |
dev-2783-149 | The contribution to North Vietnam by the Republic of Cuba, under Fidel Castro have been recognized several times by representatives of the Democratic Republic of Vietnam.[258] Fidel Castro mentioned in his discourses the Batallón Girón (Giron Battalion) as comprising the Cuban contingent that served as military advisor... | dev-2783 | Vietnam War | 149 | 76,878 | 77,780 |
dev-2783-150 | On the anti-communist side, South Korea (a.k.a. the Republic of Korea, ROK) had the second-largest contingent of foreign troops in South Vietnam after the United States. In November 1961, President Park Chung-hee proposed South Korean participation in the war to John F. Kennedy, but Kennedy disagreed.[262] On 1 May 196... | dev-2783 | Vietnam War | 150 | 77,781 | 78,822 |
dev-2783-151 | Approximately 320,000 South Korean soldiers were sent to Vietnam,[265] each serving a one-year tour of duty. Maximum troop levels peaked at 50,000 in 1968, however all were withdrawn by 1973.[266] About 5,099 South Koreans were killed and 10,962 wounded during the war. South Korea claimed to have killed 41,000 Viet Con... | dev-2783 | Vietnam War | 151 | 78,823 | 79,321 |
dev-2783-152 | Thai Army formations, including the Royal Thai Volunteer Regiment (Queen's Cobras) and later the Royal Thai Army Expeditionary Division (Black Panthers), saw action in South Vietnam between 1965 and 1971. Thai forces saw much more action in the covert war in Laos between 1964 and 1972, though Thai regular formations th... | dev-2783 | Vietnam War | 152 | 79,322 | 79,857 |
dev-2783-153 | Australia and New Zealand, close allies of the United States and members of the Southeast Asia Treaty Organization (SEATO) and the ANZUS military co-operation treaty, sent ground troops to Vietnam. Both nations had gained experience in counterinsurgency and jungle warfare during the Malayan Emergency and World War II. ... | dev-2783 | Vietnam War | 153 | 79,858 | 80,935 |
dev-2783-154 | Some 10,450 Filipino troops were dispatched to South Vietnam. They were primarily engaged in medical and other civilian pacification projects. These forces operated under the designation PHLCAG-V or Philippine Civic Action Group-Vietnam. More noteworthy was the fact that the naval base in Subic Bay was used for the U.S... | dev-2783 | Vietnam War | 154 | 80,936 | 81,539 |
dev-2783-155 | Since November 1967, Taiwan secretly operated a cargo transport detachment to assist the United States and South Vietnam. Taiwan also provided military training units for the South Vietnamese diving units, later known as the Lien Doi Nguoi Nhai (LDMN) or "Frogman unit" in English.[16] Military commandos from Taiwan wer... | dev-2783 | Vietnam War | 155 | 81,540 | 81,949 |
dev-2783-156 | The Brazilian government of President Castelo Branco officially supported the United States's position in South Vietnam and contributed a medical team and supplies to the country—the only Latin American country to do so[17] | dev-2783 | Vietnam War | 156 | 81,950 | 82,175 |
dev-2783-157 | Canada, India and Poland constituted the International Control Commission, which was supposed to monitor the 1954 ceasefire agreement.[274] Officially, Canada did not have partisan involvement in the Vietnam War and diplomatically it was "non-belligerent" though there is evidence to the contrary.[275][276] The Vietnam ... | dev-2783 | Vietnam War | 157 | 82,176 | 82,632 |
dev-2783-158 | The ethnic minority peoples of south Vietnam like the Christian Montagnards (Degar), Hindu and Muslim Cham and the Buddhist Khmer Krom banded together in the United Front for the Liberation of Oppressed Races (French: Front Uni de Lutte des Races Opprimées, acronym: FULRO) to fight against the Vietnamese for autonomy ... | dev-2783 | Vietnam War | 158 | 82,633 | 83,186 |
dev-2783-159 | During the war, the South Vietnamese President Ngo Dinh Diem began a program to settle ethnic Vietnamese Kinh on Montagnard lands in the Central Highlands region. This provoked a backlash from the Montagnards. The Cambodians under both the pro-China King Sihanouk and the pro-American Lon Nol supported their fellow co-e... | dev-2783 | Vietnam War | 159 | 83,187 | 83,585 |
dev-2783-160 | A large number of war crimes took place during the Vietnam War. War crimes were committed by both sides during the conflict and included rape, massacres of civilians, bombings of civilian targets, terrorism, the widespread use of torture and the murder of prisoners of war. Additional common crimes included theft, arson... | dev-2783 | Vietnam War | 160 | 83,586 | 83,981 |
dev-2783-161 | In 1968, the Vietnam War Crimes Working Group (VWCWG) was established by the Pentagon task force set up in the wake of the My Lai Massacre, to attempt to ascertain the veracity of emerging claims of war crimes by U.S. armed forces in Vietnam, during the Vietnam War period. | dev-2783 | Vietnam War | 161 | 83,982 | 84,255 |
dev-2783-162 | Sworn statements by witnesses and status reports for top military officers indicated that 320 incidents had factual basis.[279] The substantiated cases included 7 massacres between 1967 and 1971 in which at least 137 civilians were killed; seventy eight further attacks targeting non-combatants resulting in at least 57 ... | dev-2783 | Vietnam War | 162 | 84,256 | 84,928 |
dev-2783-163 | During their visits to transit detention facilities under American administration in 1968 and 1969, the International Red Cross recorded many cases of torture and inhumane treatment before the captives were handed over to South Vietnamese authorities.[281] | dev-2783 | Vietnam War | 163 | 84,929 | 85,185 |
dev-2783-164 | The war involved the establishment of numerous free-fire zones by U.S. forces as a tactic to prevent Viet Cong fighters from sheltering in South Vietnamese villages. Such practice, which involved the assumption that any individual appearing in the designated zones was an enemy combatant that could be freely targeted by... | dev-2783 | Vietnam War | 164 | 85,186 | 86,308 |
dev-2783-165 | In terms of atrocities by the South Vietnamese, during the Diem era (1954–1963) R.J. Rummel estimated that 16,000 to 167,000 South Vietnamese civilians were killed in democide; for 1964 to 1975, Rummel estimated a total of 42,000 to 128,000 killed in democide. Thus, the total for 1954 to 1975 is from 57,000 to 284,00... | dev-2783 | Vietnam War | 165 | 86,309 | 87,368 |
dev-2783-166 | Due to the particularly heavy impact of cluster bombs during this war, Laos was a strong advocate of the Convention on Cluster Munitions to ban the weapons, and was host to the First Meeting of States Parties to the convention in November 2010.[288] | dev-2783 | Vietnam War | 166 | 87,369 | 87,618 |
dev-2783-167 | South Korean forces were also accused of war crimes as well. One documented event was the Phong Nhị and Phong Nhất massacre where the 2nd Marine Brigade of the South Korean Army purportedly killed 69–79 civilians on 12 February 1968 in Phong Nhị and Phong Nhất village, Điện Bàn District of Quảng Nam Province in South V... | dev-2783 | Vietnam War | 167 | 87,619 | 88,086 |
dev-2783-168 | Ami Pedahzur has written that "the overall volume and lethality of Viet Cong terrorism rivals or exceeds all but a handful of terrorist campaigns waged over the last third of the twentieth century".[290] Notable Viet Cong atrocities include the massacre of over 3,000 unarmed civilians at Huế during the Tet Offensive an... | dev-2783 | Vietnam War | 168 | 88,087 | 88,957 |
dev-2783-169 | During the Vietnam War, American women served on active duty doing a variety of jobs. Early in 1963, the Army Nurse Corps (ANC) launched Operation Nightingale, an intensive effort to recruit nurses to serve in Vietnam.[294] First Lieutenant Sharon Lane was the only female military nurse to be killed by enemy gunfire du... | dev-2783 | Vietnam War | 169 | 88,958 | 89,504 |
dev-2783-170 | Although a small number of women were assigned to combat zones, they were never allowed directly in the field of battle. The women who served in the military were solely volunteers. They faced a plethora of challenges, one of which was the relatively small number of female soldiers. Living in a male-dominated environme... | dev-2783 | Vietnam War | 170 | 89,505 | 90,422 |
dev-2783-171 | Unlike the American women who went to Vietnam, North Vietnamese women were enlisted and fought in the combat zone as well as providing manual labor to keep the Ho Chi Minh trail open and cook for the soldiers. They also worked in the rice fields in North Vietnam and Viet Cong-held farming areas in South Vietnam's Mekon... | dev-2783 | Vietnam War | 171 | 90,423 | 91,019 |
dev-2783-172 | In South Vietnam, many women voluntarily served in the ARVN's Women's Armed Force Corps (WAFC) and various other Women's corps in the military. Some, like in the WAFC, fought in combat with other soldiers. Others served as nurses and doctors in the battlefield and in military hospitals, or served in South Vietnam or Am... | dev-2783 | Vietnam War | 172 | 91,020 | 91,443 |
dev-2783-173 | The war saw more than one million rural people migrate or flee the fighting in the South Vietnamese countryside to the cities, especially Saigon. Among the internal refugees were many young women who became the ubiquitous "bargirls" of wartime South Vietnam "hawking her wares—be that cigarettes, liquor, or herself" t... | dev-2783 | Vietnam War | 173 | 91,444 | 91,854 |
dev-2783-174 | 8,040 Vietnamese women came to the United States as war brides between 1964 and 1975.[304] Many mixed-blood Amerasian children were left behind when their American fathers returned to the United States after their tour of duty in South Vietnam. 26,000 of them were permitted to immigrate to the United States in the 1980... | dev-2783 | Vietnam War | 174 | 91,855 | 92,192 |
dev-2783-175 | The experience of American military personnel of African origin during the Vietnam War had received significant attention. For example, the website "African-American Involvement in the Vietnam War" compiles examples of such coverage,[306] as does the print and broadcast work of journalist Wallace Terry. | dev-2783 | Vietnam War | 175 | 92,193 | 92,497 |
dev-2783-176 | Terry's book Bloods: An Oral History of the Vietnam War by Black Veterans (1984), includes observations about the impact of the war on the black community in general and on black servicemen specifically. Points he makes on the latter topic include: the higher proportion of combat casualties in Vietnam among African Ame... | dev-2783 | Vietnam War | 176 | 92,498 | 93,548 |
dev-2783-177 | During the early stages of their insurgency, the Viet Cong mainly sustained itself with captured arms (often of American manufacture)[309] or crude, self-made weapons (e.g. copies of the US Thompson submachine gun[310] and shotguns made of galvanized pipes).[311] Most arms were captured from poorly defended ARVN militi... | dev-2783 | Vietnam War | 177 | 93,549 | 93,885 |
dev-2783-178 | In the summer and fall of 1967, all Viet Cong battalions were reequipped with arms of Soviet design such as the AK-47 assault rifle and the RPG-2 anti-tank weapon.[313] Their weapons were principally of Chinese[314] or Soviet manufacture.[315] | dev-2783 | Vietnam War | 178 | 93,886 | 94,129 |
dev-2783-179 | While the Viet Cong had both amphibious tanks (such as the PT-76) and light tanks (such as the Type 62), they also used bicycles to transport munitions. The US' heavily armored, 90Â mm M48A3 Patton tank saw extensive action during the Vietnam War and over 600 were deployed with US Forces. They played an important role ... | dev-2783 | Vietnam War | 179 | 94,130 | 94,470 |
dev-2783-180 | The US service rifle was initially the M14 (though some units were still using the WWII-era M1 Garand for a lack of M14s). Found to be unsuitable for jungle warfare, the M14 was replaced by M16 which was more accurate and lighter than the AK-47. For a period, the gun suffered from a jamming flaw known as "failure to ex... | dev-2783 | Vietnam War | 180 | 94,471 | 95,400 |
dev-2783-181 | The M60 machine gun GPMG (General Purpose Machine Gun) was the main machine gun of the US army at the time and many of them were put on helicopters, to provide suppressive fire when landing in hostile regions. The MAC-10 machine pistol was supplied to many special forces troops in the midpoint of the war. It also armed... | dev-2783 | Vietnam War | 181 | 95,401 | 95,751 |
dev-2783-182 | Two aircraft which were prominent in the war were the AC-130 "Spectre" Gunship and the UH-1 "Huey" gunship. The AC-130 was a heavily armed ground-attack aircraft variant of the C-130 Hercules transport plane; it was used to provide close air support, air interdiction and force protection. The AC-130H "Spectre" was arme... | dev-2783 | Vietnam War | 182 | 95,752 | 96,343 |
dev-2783-183 | The Claymore M18A1, an anti-personnel mine, was widely used during the war. Unlike a conventional land mine, the Claymore is command-detonated and directional, meaning it is fired by remote-control and shoots a pattern of 700 one-eighth-inch steel balls into the kill zone like a shotgun. | dev-2783 | Vietnam War | 183 | 96,344 | 96,632 |
dev-2783-184 | The aircraft ordnance used during the war included precision-guided munition, cluster bombs, and napalm, a thickening/gelling agent generally mixed with petroleum or a similar fuel for use in an incendiary device, initially against buildings and later primarily as an anti-personnel weapon that sticks to skin and can bu... | dev-2783 | Vietnam War | 184 | 96,633 | 96,977 |
dev-2783-185 | The Vietnam War was the first conflict where U.S. forces had secure voice communication equipment available at the tactical level. The National Security Agency ran a crash program to provide U.S. forces with a family of security equipment code named NESTOR, fielding 17,000 units initially. Eventually 30,000 units were ... | dev-2783 | Vietnam War | 185 | 96,978 | 97,840 |
dev-2783-186 | The U.S. dropped over 7 million tons of bombs on Indochina during the war—more than triple the 2.1 million tons of bombs the U.S. dropped on Europe and Asia during all of World War II, and more than ten times the amount dropped by the U.S. during the Korean War. 500 thousand tons were dropped on Cambodia, 1 million t... | dev-2783 | Vietnam War | 186 | 97,841 | 98,818 |
dev-2783-187 | After the conflict officially ended in April 30th, 1975 with the fall of Saigon, government officials were sent from the North to take over the old regime. However, without financial support from the US to the South, and the North already received heavy lost after the war, the newly united Vietnam was in serious condit... | dev-2783 | Vietnam War | 187 | 98,819 | 99,772 |
dev-2783-188 | On 2 July 1976, North and South Vietnam were merged to form the Socialist Republic of Vietnam.[323] Despite speculation that the victorious North Vietnamese would, in President Nixon's words, "massacre the civilians there [South Vietnam] by the millions," there is a widespread consensus that no mass executions in fact ... | dev-2783 | Vietnam War | 188 | 99,773 | 100,958 |
dev-2783-189 | By 1975, the Viet Minh had lost influence over the Cambodian communists.[327] Phnom Penh, the capital of Cambodia, fell to the Khmer Rouge on 17 April 1975. Under the leadership of Pol Pot, the Khmer Rouge would eventually kill 1–3 million Cambodians out of a population of around 8 million, in one of the bloodiest ge... | dev-2783 | Vietnam War | 189 | 100,959 | 101,317 |
dev-2783-190 | The relationship between Vietnam and Cambodia, then ruled by the Khmer Rouge communist party, escalated right after the end of the war, April 1975. In respond to the Khmer Rouge taking over Phu Quoc on 17th April and Tho Chu on 4th May of 1975, and was thought to be responsible for the disappear of 500 Vietnamese nativ... | dev-2783 | Vietnam War | 190 | 101,318 | 102,150 |
dev-2783-191 | The Pathet Lao overthrew the monarchy of Laos in December 1975, establishing the Lao People's Democratic Republic under the leadership of a member of the royal family, Souphanouvong. The change in regime was "quite peaceful, a sort of Asiatic'velvet revolution'"—although 30,000 former officials were sent to reeducati... | dev-2783 | Vietnam War | 191 | 102,151 | 102,620 |
dev-2783-192 | The millions of cluster bombs the US dropped on southeast Asia rendered the landscape hazardous. In Laos alone, some 80 million bombs failed to explode and remain scattered throughout the country, rendering vast swathes of land impossible to cultivate and killing or maiming 50 Laotians every year.[333]There was a total... | dev-2783 | Vietnam War | 192 | 102,621 | 103,290 |
dev-2783-193 | Over 3 million people left Vietnam, Laos, and Cambodia in the Indochina refugee crisis. Most Asian countries were unwilling to accept these refugees, many of whom fled by boat and were known as boat people.[335] Between 1975 and 1998, an estimated 1.2 million refugees from Vietnam and other Southeast Asian countries re... | dev-2783 | Vietnam War | 193 | 103,291 | 104,040 |
dev-2783-194 | Agent Orange and similar chemical substances used by the U.S. have also caused a considerable number of deaths and injuries in the intervening years, including among the US Air Force crew which handled them. Scientific reports have concluded that refugees exposed to chemical sprays while in South Vietnam continued to e... | dev-2783 | Vietnam War | 194 | 104,041 | 105,293 |
dev-2783-195 | In the post-war era, Americans struggled to absorb the lessons of the military intervention.[343] As General Maxwell Taylor, one of the principal architects of the war, noted, "First, we didn't know ourselves. We thought that we were going into another Korean War, but this was a different country. Secondly, we didn't k... | dev-2783 | Vietnam War | 195 | 105,294 | 106,159 |
dev-2783-196 | Some have suggested that "the responsibility for the ultimate failure of this policy [America's withdrawal from Vietnam] lies not with the men who fought, but with those in Congress…"[346] Alternatively, the official history of the United States Army noted that "tactics have often seemed to exist apart from larger issu... | dev-2783 | Vietnam War | 196 | 106,160 | 107,068 |
dev-2783-197 | U.S. Secretary of State Henry Kissinger wrote in a secret memo to President Gerald Ford that "in terms of military tactics, we cannot help draw the conclusion that our armed forces are not suited to this kind of war. Even the Special Forces who had been designed for it could not prevail."[347] Secretary of Defense Robe... | dev-2783 | Vietnam War | 197 | 107,069 | 107,519 |
dev-2783-198 | Doubts surfaced as to the effectiveness of large-scale, sustained bombing. As Army Chief of Staff Harold Keith Johnson noted, "if anything came out of Vietnam, it was that air power couldn't do the job."[349] Even General William Westmoreland admitted that the bombing had been ineffective. As he remarked, "I still doub... | dev-2783 | Vietnam War | 198 | 107,520 | 107,894 |
dev-2783-199 | The inability to bring Hanoi to the bargaining table by bombing also illustrated another U.S. miscalculation. The North's leadership was composed of hardened communists who had been fighting for thirty years. They had defeated the French, and their tenacity as both nationalists and communists was formidable. Ho Chi Min... | dev-2783 | Vietnam War | 199 | 107,895 | 108,356 |
dev-2783-200 | The Vietnam War called into question the U.S. Army doctrine. Marine Corps General Victor H. Krulak heavily criticised Westmoreland's attrition strategy, calling it "wasteful of American lives… with small likelihood of a successful outcome."[349] In addition, doubts surfaced about the ability of the military to train ... | dev-2783 | Vietnam War | 200 | 108,357 | 108,692 |
dev-2783-201 | Between 1953 and 1975, the United States spent $168 billion on the war ($1.02 trillion in FY2015 dollars).[351][not in citation given] This resulted in a large federal budget deficit. | dev-2783 | Vietnam War | 201 | 108,693 | 108,876 |
dev-2783-202 | More than 3 million Americans served in the Vietnam War, some 1.5 million of whom actually saw combat in Vietnam.[352] James E. Westheider wrote that "At the height of American involvement in 1968, for example, there were 543,000 American military personnel in Vietnam, but only 80,000 were considered combat troops."[35... | dev-2783 | Vietnam War | 202 | 108,877 | 109,309 |
dev-2783-203 | By war's end, 58,220 American soldiers had been killed,[A 2] more than 150,000 had been wounded, and at least 21,000 had been permanently disabled.[354] The average age of the U.S. troops killed in Vietnam was 23.11 years.[355] According to Dale Kueter, "Of those killed in combat, 86.3 percent were white, 12.5 percent ... | dev-2783 | Vietnam War | 203 | 109,310 | 110,403 |
dev-2783-204 | As of 2013, the U.S. government is paying Vietnam veterans and their families or survivors more than $22 billion a year in war-related claims.[361][362] | dev-2783 | Vietnam War | 204 | 110,404 | 110,556 |
dev-2783-205 | As the Vietnam War continued inconclusively and became more unpopular with the American public, morale declined and disciplinary problems grew among American enlisted men and junior, non-career officers. Drug use, racial tensions, and the growing incidence of fragging—attempting to kill unpopular officers and non-commi... | dev-2783 | Vietnam War | 205 | 110,557 | 111,758 |
dev-2783-206 | Ron Milam has questioned the severity of the "breakdown" of the U.S. armed forces, especially among combat troops, as reflecting the opinions of "angry colonels" who deplored the erosion of traditional military values during the Vietnam War.[365] Although acknowledging serious problems, he questions the alleged "near m... | dev-2783 | Vietnam War | 206 | 111,759 | 112,521 |
dev-2783-207 | The morale and discipline problems and resistance to conscription (the draft) were important factors leading to the creation of an all-volunteer military force by the United States and the termination of conscription. The last conscript was inducted into the army in 1973.[367][368] The all-volunteer military moderated ... | dev-2783 | Vietnam War | 207 | 112,522 | 112,942 |
dev-2783-208 | One of the most controversial aspects of the U.S. military effort in Southeast Asia was the widespread use of chemical defoliants between 1961 and 1971. They were used to defoliate large parts of the countryside to prevent the Viet Cong from being able to hide their weapons and encampments under the foliage. These chem... | dev-2783 | Vietnam War | 208 | 112,943 | 113,373 |
dev-2783-209 | Early in the American military effort, it was decided that since the enemy were hiding their activities under triple-canopy jungle, a useful first step might be to defoliate certain areas. This was especially true of growth surrounding bases (both large and small) in what became known as Operation Ranch Hand. Corporati... | dev-2783 | Vietnam War | 209 | 113,374 | 114,540 |
dev-2783-210 | The defoliants, which were distributed in drums marked with color-coded bands, included the "Rainbow Herbicides"—Agent Pink, Agent Green, Agent Purple, Agent Blue, Agent White, and, most famously, Agent Orange, which included dioxin as a by-product of its manufacture. About 11–12 million gallons (41.6–45.4 million L) o... | dev-2783 | Vietnam War | 210 | 114,541 | 115,102 |
dev-2783-211 | In 1961 and 1962, the Kennedy administration authorized the use of chemicals to destroy rice crops. Between 1961 and 1967, the U.S. Air Force sprayed 20 million U.S. gallons (75,700,000 L) of concentrated herbicides over 6 million acres (24,000 km2) of crops and trees, affecting an estimated 13% of South Vietnam's land... | dev-2783 | Vietnam War | 211 | 115,103 | 115,582 |
dev-2783-212 | Vietnamese victims affected by Agent Orange attempted a class action lawsuit against Dow Chemical and other US chemical manufacturers, but District Court Judge Jack B. Weinstein dismissed their case.[376] They appealed, but the dismissal was cemented in February 2008 by the Court of Appeals for the Second Circuit.[377]... | dev-2783 | Vietnam War | 212 | 115,583 | 116,291 |
dev-2783-213 | The U.S. Veterans Administration has listed prostate cancer, respiratory cancers, multiple myeloma, Diabetes mellitus type 2, B-cell lymphomas, soft-tissue sarcoma, chloracne, porphyria cutanea tarda, peripheral neuropathy, and spina bifida in children of veterans exposed to Agent Orange.[379] | dev-2783 | Vietnam War | 213 | 116,292 | 116,586 |
dev-2783-214 | Estimates of the number of casualties vary, with one source suggesting up to 3.8 million violent war deaths in Vietnam for the period 1955 to 2002.[382] Between 195,000 and 430,000 South Vietnamese civilians died in the war.[35][41] Extrapolating from a 1969 US intelligence report, Guenter Lewy estimated 65,000 North V... | dev-2783 | Vietnam War | 214 | 116,587 | 118,669 |
dev-2783-215 | Between 240,000[61][62] and 300,000[60] Cambodians died during the war. 20,000–62,000 Laotians also died,[59] and 58,222 U.S. military personnel were killed, of which 1,596 are still listed as missing as of 2015[update].[391] | dev-2783 | Vietnam War | 215 | 118,670 | 118,897 |
dev-2783-216 | Unexploded ordnance, mostly from U.S. bombing, continue to detonate and kill people today. According to the Vietnamese government, ordnance has killed some 42,000 people since the war officially ended.[392][393] According to the government of Laos, unexploded ordnance has killed or injured over 20,000 Laotians since th... | dev-2783 | Vietnam War | 216 | 118,898 | 119,240 |
dev-2783-217 | The Vietnam War has been featured extensively in television, film, video games, and literature in the participant countries. In American popular culture, the "Crazy Vietnam Veteran", who was suffering from posttraumatic stress disorder, became a common stock character after the war. | dev-2783 | Vietnam War | 217 | 119,241 | 119,524 |
dev-2783-218 | One of the first major films based on the Vietnam War was John Wayne's pro-war film, The Green Berets (1968). Further cinematic representations were released during the 1970s and 1980s, including Michael Cimino's The Deer Hunter (1978), Francis Ford Coppola's Apocalypse Now (1979), Oliver Stone's Platoon (1986) – based... | dev-2783 | Vietnam War | 218 | 119,525 | 120,080 |
dev-2783-219 | The war also influenced a generation of musicians and songwriters in Vietnam and the United States, both anti-war and pro/anti-communist. The band Country Joe and the Fish recorded "I-Feel-Like-I'm-Fixin'-To-Die Rag" / The "Fish" Cheer in 1965, and it became one of the most influential anti-Vietnam protest anthems.[44]... | dev-2783 | Vietnam War | 219 | 120,081 | 120,651 |
dev-2783-220 | On May 25, 2012, President Barack Obama issued a proclamation of the commemoration of the 50th Anniversary of the Vietnam War.[394][395] On November 10, 2017, President Donald Trump issued a proclamation commemorating the 50th Anniversary of the Vietnam War.[396][397][398][399] | dev-2783 | Vietnam War | 220 | 120,652 | 120,930 |
dev-6923-0 | The Confederate States of America (CSA or C.S.), commonly referred to as the Confederacy, was an unrecognized country in North America that existed from 1861 to 1865. The Confederacy was originally formed by seven secessionist slave-holding states – South Carolina, Mississippi, Florida, Alabama, Georgia, Louisiana, and... | dev-6923 | Confederate States of America | 0 | 0 | 542 |
dev-6923-1 | Each state declared its secession from the United States following the November 1860 election of Republican candidate Abraham Lincoln to the U.S. presidency on a platform which opposed the expansion of slavery into the western territories. Before Lincoln took office in March, a new Confederate government was establishe... | dev-6923 | Confederate States of America | 1 | 543 | 1,550 |
dev-6923-2 | The government of the United States (the Union) rejected the claims of secession and considered the Confederacy illegitimate. The War began with the Confederate attack upon Fort Sumter on April 12, 1861, a Union fort in the harbor of Charleston, South Carolina. No foreign government officially recognized the Confederac... | dev-6923 | Confederate States of America | 2 | 1,551 | 2,552 |
dev-6923-3 | On March 11, 1861, the Confederate Constitution of seven state signatories – South Carolina, Mississippi, Florida, Alabama, Georgia, Louisiana, and Texas – replaced the February 7 Provisional Confederate States Constitution with one stating in its preamble a desire for a "permanent federal government". Four additional ... | dev-6923 | Confederate States of America | 3 | 2,553 | 3,836 |
dev-6923-4 | Confederate control over its claimed territory and population in congressional districts steadily shrank from 73% to 34% during the course of the Civil War due to the Union's successful overland campaigns, its control of the inland waterways into the South, and its blockade of the southern coast.[8] With the Emancipati... | dev-6923 | Confederate States of America | 4 | 3,837 | 4,790 |
dev-6923-5 | These losses created an insurmountable disadvantage in men, materiel, and finance. Public support for Confederate President Jefferson Davis's administration eroded over time due to repeated military reverses, economic hardships, and allegations of autocratic government. After four years of campaigning, Richmond was cap... | dev-6923 | Confederate States of America | 5 | 4,791 | 5,407 |
dev-6923-6 | The U.S. government began a decade-long process known as Reconstruction which attempted to resolve the political and constitutional issues of the Civil War. The priorities were: to guarantee that Confederate nationalism and slavery were ended, to ratify and enforce the Thirteenth Amendment which outlawed slavery; the F... | dev-6923 | Confederate States of America | 6 | 5,408 | 5,924 |
dev-6923-7 | By 1877, the Compromise of 1877 ended Reconstruction in the former Confederate states. Federal troops were withdrawn from the South, where conservative white Southern Democrats had already regained political control of state governments, often through extreme violence and fraud to suppress black voting. Confederate vet... | dev-6923 | Confederate States of America | 7 | 5,925 | 7,216 |
dev-6923-8 | The Confederacy was established in the Montgomery Convention in February 1861 (before Lincoln's inauguration in March) and was disintegrated in April and May 1865. It was formed by delegations from seven Southern slave states that had proclaimed their secession from the Union. After the fighting began in April, four ad... | dev-6923 | Confederate States of America | 8 | 7,217 | 7,798 |
dev-6923-9 | Many southern whites had considered themselves more Southern than American[13][14] and were prepared to fight for their state and their region to be independent of the larger nation. That regionalism became a Southern nationalism, or the "Cause". For the duration of its existence, the Confederacy underwent trial by war... | dev-6923 | Confederate States of America | 9 | 7,799 | 9,019 |
dev-6923-10 | Southern Democrats chose John Breckinridge as their candidate during the presidential election of 1860, but in no Southern state (other than South Carolina, where the legislature chose the electors) was support for him unanimous; all of the other states recorded at least some popular votes for one or more of the other ... | dev-6923 | Confederate States of America | 10 | 9,020 | 9,738 |
dev-6923-11 | Following South Carolina's unanimous 1860 secession vote, no other Southern states considered the question until 1861, and when they did none had a unanimous vote. All had residents who cast significant numbers of Unionist votes in either the legislature, conventions, popular referendums, or in all three. Voting to rem... | dev-6923 | Confederate States of America | 11 | 9,739 | 10,316 |
dev-6923-12 | The American Civil War became an American tragedy, what some scholars termed the "Brothers' War", pitting "brother against brother, father against son, kith against kin of every degree".[21][22] | dev-6923 | Confederate States of America | 12 | 10,317 | 10,511 |
dev-6923-13 | According to historian Avery O. Craven in 1950, the Confederate States of America was created by secessionists in Southern slave states who believed that the federal government was making them second-class citizens and refused to honor their belief that slavery was beneficial to the Negro.[23] They judged the agent of ... | dev-6923 | Confederate States of America | 13 | 10,512 | 11,275 |
dev-6923-14 | During the campaign for president in 1860, some secessionists threatened disunion should Lincoln (who opposed the expansion of slavery into the territories) be elected, most notably William L. Yancey. Yancey toured the North calling for secession as Stephen A. Douglas toured the South calling for union in the event of ... | dev-6923 | Confederate States of America | 14 | 11,276 | 11,933 |
dev-6923-15 | The immediate catalyst for secession was the victory of the Republican Party and the election of Abraham Lincoln as president in the 1860 elections. American Civil War historian James M. McPherson suggested that, for the Southerners, the most ominous feature of the Republican victories in the Congressional and Presiden... | dev-6923 | Confederate States of America | 15 | 11,934 | 12,843 |
dev-6923-16 | By 1860, sectional disagreements between North and South relate primarily to the maintenance or expansion of slavery in the United States. Historian Drew Gilpin Faust observed that "leaders of the secession movement across the South cited slavery as the most compelling reason for southern independence".[27] Although mo... | dev-6923 | Confederate States of America | 16 | 12,844 | 13,568 |
dev-6923-17 | Historian Emory Thomas assessed the Confederacy's self-image by studying the correspondence sent by the Confederate government in 1861–62 to foreign governments. He found that Confederate diplomacy projected multiple contradictory self-images: | dev-6923 | Confederate States of America | 17 | 13,569 | 13,814 |
dev-6923-18 | The Southern nation was by turns a guileless people attacked by a voracious neighbor, an 'established' nation in some temporary difficulty, a collection of bucolic aristocrats making a romantic stand against the banalities of industrial democracy, a cabal of commercial farmers seeking to make a pawn of King Cotton, an ... | dev-6923 | Confederate States of America | 18 | 13,815 | 14,272 |
dev-6923-19 | In what later became known as the Cornerstone Speech, C.S. Vice President Alexander H. Stephens declared that the "cornerstone" of the new government "rest[ed] upon the great truth that the negro is not equal to the white man; that slavery – subordination to the superior race – is his natural and normal condition. This... | dev-6923 | Confederate States of America | 19 | 14,273 | 14,953 |
dev-6923-20 | Four of the seceding states, the Deep South states of South Carolina,[33] Mississippi,[34] Georgia,[35] and Texas,[36] issued formal declarations of causes, each of which identified the threat to slaveholders' rights as the cause of, or a major cause of, secession. Georgia also claimed a general Federal policy of favor... | dev-6923 | Confederate States of America | 20 | 14,954 | 16,002 |
dev-6923-21 | Alabama did not provide a separate declaration of causes. Instead the Alabama ordinance stated "the election of Abraham Lincoln...by a sectional party, avowedly hostile to the domestic institutions and to the peace and security of the people of the State of Alabama, preceded by many and dangerous infractions of the Con... | dev-6923 | Confederate States of America | 21 | 16,003 | 16,902 |
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