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▁code . ▁ ▁Pre - World ▁War ▁I ▁history ▁Initial ly ▁all ▁radio ▁stations ▁used ▁spark ▁transmit ters , ▁which ▁could ▁only ▁transmit ▁Mor se ▁code ▁messages . ▁In ▁ 1 9 0 4 , ▁Val dem ar ▁P ou ls en ▁invent ed ▁an ▁" arc - trans mit ter " ▁capable ▁of ▁transm itting ▁full ▁audio , ▁and ▁in ▁late ▁ 1 9 0 6 ▁Lee ▁de ▁Forest ▁founded ▁the ▁Radio ▁Tele phone ▁Company ▁and ▁began ▁producing ▁his ▁own ▁" spark less " ▁arc - trans mit ters . ▁Between ▁ 1 9 0 7 ▁and ▁ 1 9 1 0 ▁de ▁Forest ▁made ▁a ▁number ▁of ▁demonstr ation ▁entertain ment ▁broadcast s , ▁and ▁even ▁spoke ▁about ▁developing ▁news ▁and ▁entertain ment ▁broadcast ing ▁stations , ▁but ▁did ▁not ▁establish ▁a ▁regular ▁service ▁at ▁this ▁time . ▁ ▁In ▁ 1 9 1 4 , ▁de ▁Forest ▁established ▁a ▁labor atory ▁at ▁ 1 3 9 1 ▁S edge wick ▁Avenue ▁in ▁the ▁High bridge ▁section ▁of ▁the ▁Bron x ▁in ▁New ▁York ▁City . ▁V acu um - t ube ▁transmit ters ▁had ▁recently ▁been ▁developed , ▁which ▁were ▁found ▁to ▁be ▁superior ▁to ▁arc - trans mit ters ▁for ▁audio ▁transm issions , ▁and ▁the ▁company ▁now ▁concentr ated ▁on ▁developing ▁vac u um - t ube ▁equipment , ▁including ▁" O sc ill ion " ▁transmit ter ▁tub es . ▁In ▁the ▁summer ▁of ▁ 1 9 1 5 , ▁the ▁company ▁received ▁a ▁license ▁for ▁an |
▁Ex perimental ▁station , ▁with ▁the ▁call ▁sign ▁ 2 X G , ▁located ▁at ▁the ▁High bridge ▁labor atory . ▁ ▁De ▁Forest ▁had ▁susp ended ▁broadcast ing ▁demonstr ations ▁in ▁ 1 9 1 0 , ▁however , ▁he ▁decided ▁to ▁show case ▁the ▁capabilities ▁of ▁the ▁new ▁vac u um - t ube ▁transmit ters ▁by ▁introdu cing ▁a ▁" wire less ▁newspaper " ▁making ▁regular ▁broadcast s ▁of ▁concert s ▁and ▁news ▁bullet ins . ▁There ▁were ▁no ▁formal ▁government ▁reg ulations ▁restrict ing ▁broadcast ing ▁at ▁this ▁time , ▁so ▁the ▁company ▁was ▁free ▁to ▁transmit ▁these ▁programs ▁over ▁ 2 X G . ▁Arr ang ements ▁were ▁made ▁with ▁the ▁Columbia ▁Gram oph one ▁record ▁company ▁to ▁broadcast ▁ph on ograph ▁records ▁from ▁their ▁offices ▁at ▁ 1 0 2 ▁West ▁ 3 8 th ▁Street ▁in ▁New ▁York ▁City — the ▁ph on ograph ▁company ▁supplied ▁records ▁in ▁exchange ▁for ▁" ann oun cing ▁the ▁title ▁and ▁' Col umb ia ▁Gram oph one ▁Company ' ▁with ▁each ▁playing ". ▁The ▁debut ▁program ▁was ▁a ired ▁on ▁October ▁ 2 6 , ▁ 1 9 1 6 , ▁and ▁it ▁was ▁announced ▁that ▁night ly ▁transm issions ▁of ▁news ▁inter sp ers ed ▁with ▁Columbia ▁record ings ▁would ▁be ▁sent ▁from ▁the ▁High bridge ▁labor atory ▁beginning ▁November ▁ 1 . ▁▁ 2 X G ' s ▁original ▁audience ▁was ▁mostly ▁amateur ▁radio ▁operators . ▁ ▁An ▁early ▁report ▁stated ▁that ▁ 2 X G ▁was |
▁broadcast ing ▁on ▁" a ▁wave ▁length ▁of ▁approximately ▁ 8 0 0 ▁meters " ▁( 3 7 5 ▁kil oh ert z ). ▁Carl ▁Dre her ▁would ▁later ▁recall : ▁" The ▁quality ▁was ▁quite ▁good , ▁and ▁I ▁used ▁to ▁listen ▁to ▁the ▁station ▁for ▁hours ▁at ▁a ▁time ". ▁De ▁Forest ▁initially ▁used ▁these ▁broadcast s ▁to ▁advert ise ▁" the ▁products ▁of ▁the ▁De ▁Forest ▁Radio ▁Co ., ▁mostly ▁the ▁radio ▁parts , ▁with ▁all ▁the ▁ze al ▁of ▁our ▁catalog ue ▁and ▁price ▁list ", ▁until ▁comments ▁by ▁Western ▁Electric ▁engine ers ▁caused ▁him ▁to ▁eliminate ▁the ▁sales ▁messages . ▁▁ 1 9 1 6 ▁election ▁night ▁broadcast ▁Some ▁of ▁the ▁programming ▁was ▁orient ed ▁toward ▁a ▁more ▁general ▁audience . ▁On ▁the ▁night ▁of ▁the ▁November ▁ 7 , ▁ 1 9 1 6 ▁Wilson - H ugh es ▁president ial ▁election , ▁ 2 X G , ▁in ▁conj unction ▁with ▁the ▁New ▁York ▁American , ▁broadcast ▁election ▁returns ▁that ▁for ▁the ▁first ▁time ▁were ▁in ▁full ▁audio ▁instead ▁of ▁Mor se ▁code . ▁This ▁program ▁featured ▁tele phon ed ▁bullet ins ▁supplied ▁by ▁the ▁newspaper — which ▁ha iled ▁the ▁effort ▁as ▁" the ▁first ▁time ▁the ▁wireless ▁tele phone ▁has ▁been ▁demonstrated ▁as ▁a ▁practical , ▁service able ▁car rier ▁of ▁election ▁news ▁and ▁comment " — and ▁read ▁over ▁the ▁air ▁by ▁" un ass uming ▁chap " ▁Walter ▁Sch are . ▁Also ▁featured ▁were ▁Columbia ▁record ings ▁that ▁included ▁"' The ▁Star |
▁Sp ang led ▁B anner ,' ▁' Col umb ia , ▁the ▁Gem ▁of ▁the ▁Ocean ,' ▁' D ix ie ,' ▁' America ' ▁and ▁other ▁air s ▁long ▁loved ▁by ▁Americans ". ▁Just ▁before ▁shut ting ▁down ▁at ▁ 1 1 : 0 0 ▁PM , ▁the ▁station ▁incorrectly ▁announced ▁that ▁Charles ▁Evans ▁Hugh es ▁had ▁won , ▁however ▁the ▁next ▁day ▁it ▁was ▁learned ▁that ▁late ▁tot als ▁from ▁California ▁had ▁t ilt ed ▁the ▁election ▁in ▁Wood row ▁Wilson ' s ▁favor . ▁It ▁was ▁estimated ▁that ▁ 7 , 0 0 0 ▁persons ▁received ▁the ▁broadcast . ▁ ▁The ▁concert s ▁continued , ▁with ▁listen ers ▁reported ▁as ▁far ▁away ▁at ▁Cape ▁H atter as , ▁North ▁Carolina . ▁A ▁" radio ▁dance " ▁held ▁in ▁Mor rist own , ▁New ▁Jersey ▁at ▁the ▁end ▁of ▁the ▁year ▁received ▁w ides p read ▁public ity . ▁However , ▁with ▁the ▁entry ▁of ▁the ▁United ▁States ▁into ▁World ▁War ▁One ▁on ▁April ▁ 6 , ▁ 1 9 1 7 , ▁all ▁civil ian ▁radio ▁stations ▁were ▁ordered ▁shut ▁down , ▁and ▁ 2 X G ▁was ▁sil enced ▁for ▁the ▁duration ▁of ▁the ▁conflict . ▁ ▁Post - World ▁War ▁I ▁react iv ation ▁Effect ive ▁October ▁ 1 , ▁ 1 9 1 9 , ▁the ▁ban ▁on ▁civil ian ▁radio ▁stations ▁was ▁ended , ▁and ▁the ▁De ▁Forest ▁" High bridge ▁Station " ▁soon ▁renew ed ▁operation , ▁once ▁more ▁with ▁an ▁Ex perimental ▁license ▁and |
▁the ▁call sign ▁ 2 X G . ▁For ▁this ▁rev ival ▁Bob ▁G ow en ▁and ▁Bill ▁Gar ity ▁worked ▁as ▁announ cers , ▁with ▁Richard ▁Klein ▁acting ▁as ▁program ▁director . ▁Ph on ograph ▁records ▁were ▁now ▁supplied ▁by ▁the ▁Brun sw ick - Bal ke - Coll ender ▁company , ▁again ▁in ▁exchange ▁for ▁prom ot ional ▁announ c ements . ▁There ▁were ▁also ▁live ▁performances , ▁including ▁multiple ▁appearances ▁by ▁V aug hn ▁De ▁Le ath — for ▁these ▁broadcast s ▁she ▁earned ▁the ▁sob ri quet ▁" The ▁Original ▁Radio ▁Girl ". ▁ ▁In ▁early ▁ 1 9 2 0 , ▁the ▁ 2 X G ▁transmit ter ▁was ▁moved ▁from ▁the ▁Bron x ▁to ▁Manh attan ▁to ▁take ▁advantage ▁of ▁an ▁offer ▁by ▁Emil ▁J . ▁Simon ▁to ▁use ▁an ▁anten na ▁located ▁at op ▁the ▁World ' s ▁Tower ▁building . ▁This ▁also ▁brought ▁the ▁station ' s ▁studio ▁closer ▁to ▁artists ▁in ▁the ▁the atr ical ▁district . ▁However , ▁the ▁move ▁had ▁not ▁been ▁approved ▁by ▁government ▁regul ators , ▁and ▁the ▁second ▁district ▁Radio ▁Ins pect or , ▁Arthur ▁B atch eller , ▁ordered ▁the ▁station ▁to ▁susp end ▁operations . ▁De ▁Forest ▁respond ed ▁by ▁moving ▁to ▁San ▁Francisco ▁in ▁March , ▁taking ▁the ▁ 2 X G ▁transmit ter ▁with ▁him , ▁where ▁he ▁established ▁a ▁new ▁station , ▁ 6 X C , ▁which ▁operated ▁as ▁" The ▁California ▁Theater ▁station ", ▁and ▁developed ▁an ▁even ▁more ▁extensive ▁program ▁schedule |
. ▁However , ▁shortly ▁there after ▁de ▁Forest ▁would ▁ce ase ▁invol vement ▁with ▁radio ▁work ▁altogether , ▁in ▁order ▁to ▁concent rate ▁on ▁developing ▁the ▁Ph on of il m ▁sound - on - film ▁system . ▁ ▁The ▁De ▁Forest ▁company ▁eventually ▁returned ▁to ▁the ▁New ▁York ▁City ▁air w aves ▁on ▁a ▁more ▁limited ▁basis . ▁In ▁December ▁ 1 9 2 0 , ▁V aug hn ▁De ▁Le ath ▁made ▁a ▁return ▁eng agement ▁of ▁week ly ▁concert s , ▁and ▁the ▁next ▁month ▁there ▁was ▁a ▁report ▁that ▁the ▁De ▁Forest ▁labor ator ies ▁were ▁broadcast ing ▁a ▁night ly ▁concert ▁between ▁ 7 : 3 0 ▁and ▁ 8 : 3 0 . ▁However , ▁audio ▁transmission ▁and ▁broadcast ing ▁experiment ation ▁by ▁the ▁company ▁was ▁now ▁primarily ▁conducted ▁through ▁experimental ▁station ▁ 2 XX , ▁located ▁at ▁the ▁home ▁of ▁De ▁Forest ' s ▁Chief ▁Engine er , ▁Robert ▁G ow en , ▁in ▁O ss ining , ▁New ▁York . ▁ ▁On ▁October ▁ 1 3 , ▁ 1 9 2 1 ▁the ▁De ▁Forest ▁company ▁was ▁issued ▁a ▁broadcast ing ▁station ▁authorization ▁in ▁the ▁form ▁of ▁a ▁Limited ▁Com mer cial ▁license ▁with ▁the ▁randomly ▁assigned ▁call ▁letters ▁W J X , ▁operating ▁on ▁ 3 6 0 ▁meters ▁( 8 3 3 ▁kil oh ert z ) ▁at ▁its ▁S edge wick ▁Avenue ▁facility . ▁This ▁was ▁the ▁first ▁broadcast ing ▁license ▁issued ▁for ▁a ▁station ▁in ▁New ▁York ▁City ▁proper , ▁however |
, ▁despite ▁its ▁her itage ▁there ▁was ▁minimal , ▁if ▁any , ▁programming ▁ever ▁broadcast ▁by ▁W J X . ▁Effect ive ▁December ▁ 1 , ▁ 1 9 2 1 , ▁ 3 6 0 ▁meters ▁was ▁designated ▁as ▁the ▁common ▁" ent ertain ment " ▁broadcast ing ▁w avel ength , ▁and ▁stations ▁within ▁a ▁region ▁had ▁to ▁dev ise ▁times h aring ▁agre ements ▁to ▁allocate ▁the ▁hours ▁during ▁which ▁they ▁could ▁operate . ▁But ▁a ▁mid - 1 9 2 2 ▁agreement ▁covering ▁the ▁New ▁York ▁City ▁area ▁didn ' t ▁even ▁list ▁W J X ▁as ▁being ▁active . ▁W J X ▁continued ▁to ▁be ▁included ▁in ▁the ▁official ▁government ▁lists ▁of ▁stations ▁holding ▁lic enses ▁through ▁early ▁ 1 9 2 4 , ▁but ▁contemporary ▁newsp apers ▁and ▁mag az ines ▁providing ▁station ▁programming ▁information ▁do ▁not ▁contain ▁any ▁evidence ▁that ▁the ▁station ▁was ▁actually ▁on ▁the ▁air . ▁In ▁June ▁ 1 9 2 4 , ▁W J X ▁( al ong ▁with ▁ 2 X G ) ▁was ▁officially ▁deleted ▁by ▁the ▁government . ▁ ▁References ▁ ▁Category : Radio ▁stations ▁in ▁New ▁York ▁City ▁Category : Ex perimental ▁radio ▁Category : Radio ▁stations ▁established ▁in ▁ 1 9 2 0 ▁Category : History ▁of ▁radio ▁Category : High bridge , ▁Bron x ▁Category : Def unct ▁radio ▁stations ▁in ▁the ▁United ▁States <0x0A> </s> ▁Ad ão ▁N unes ▁D orn elles ▁( A pril ▁ 2 , ▁ 1 9 2 3 ▁– ▁August |
▁ 3 0 , ▁ 1 9 9 1 ), ▁better ▁known ▁as ▁’ ’ Ad ão z inho ’ ’ , ▁was ▁a ▁Brazil ian ▁footballer ▁who ▁played ▁the ▁stri ker ▁role ▁for ▁the ▁Brazil ian ▁team , ▁he ▁started ▁in ▁three ▁matches . ▁He ▁participated ▁at ▁the ▁ 1 9 5 0 ▁FIFA ▁World ▁Cup , ▁without ▁playing ▁a ▁game . ▁Ad ão z inho ▁was ▁born ▁in ▁Porto ▁A leg re ▁and ▁played ▁for ▁Internacional , ▁until ▁ 1 9 5 0 ▁when ▁a ▁move ▁to ▁Fl am engo ▁was ▁agreed . ▁He ▁died ▁in ▁August ▁ 1 9 9 1 , ▁aged ▁ 6 8 . ▁ ▁Club s ▁ ▁Di ário ▁Official ▁F . ▁C .: ▁ 1 9 3 2 ▁– ▁ 1 9 4 2 ▁ ▁Internacional : ▁ 1 9 4 3 ▁– ▁ 1 9 5 1 ▁ ▁Fl am engo : ▁ 1 9 5 1 ▁– ▁ 1 9 5 3 ▁ ▁XV ▁de ▁Ja ú : ▁ 1 9 5 1 ▁– ▁ 1 9 5 3 ▁ ▁Hon ours ▁ ▁Campeonato ▁Ga ú cho : ▁five ▁times ▁( 1 9 4 4 , ▁ 1 9 4 5 , ▁ 1 9 4 7 , ▁ 1 9 4 8 , ▁ 1 9 5 0 ) ▁ ▁Campeonato ▁C ari oca : ▁ 1 9 5 3 . ▁ ▁FIFA ▁World ▁Cup : ▁Run ner - up ▁ 1 9 5 0 ▁ ▁References ▁ ▁Category : 1 9 |
2 3 ▁birth s ▁Category : 1 9 9 1 ▁death s ▁Category : S ports people ▁from ▁Porto ▁A leg re ▁Category : B raz ilian ▁football ers ▁Category : Associ ation ▁football ▁for wards ▁Category : 1 9 5 0 ▁FIFA ▁World ▁Cup ▁players ▁Category : Cl ube ▁de ▁Reg at as ▁do ▁Fl am engo ▁football ers ▁Category : S port ▁Club ▁Internacional ▁players ▁Category : Esp orte ▁Cl ube ▁XV ▁de ▁Nov embro ▁( J a ú ) ▁players ▁Category : B raz il ▁international ▁football ers <0x0A> </s> ▁Mont ▁I da ▁is ▁an ▁un in cor por ated ▁community ▁in ▁Anderson ▁County , ▁Kansas , ▁in ▁the ▁United ▁States . ▁ ▁History ▁Mont ▁I da ▁had ▁its ▁start ▁in ▁the ▁year ▁ 1 8 8 0 ▁by ▁the ▁building ▁of ▁the ▁rail road ▁through ▁that ▁territory . ▁ ▁A ▁post ▁office ▁was ▁opened ▁in ▁Mont ▁I da ▁in ▁ 1 8 8 0 , ▁and ▁remained ▁in ▁operation ▁until ▁it ▁was ▁dis cont in ued ▁in ▁ 1 9 4 4 . ▁ ▁References ▁ ▁Category : Un in cor por ated ▁communities ▁in ▁Anderson ▁County , ▁Kansas ▁Category : Un in cor por ated ▁communities ▁in ▁Kansas <0x0A> </s> ▁Bl arf ▁( st yl ized ▁in ▁all ▁caps ) ▁is ▁a ▁musical ▁side ▁project ▁of ▁American ▁com ed ian ▁Eric ▁Andre . ▁Bl arf ▁was ▁originally ▁a ▁band ▁composed ▁of ▁Andre ▁and ▁other ▁un named ▁band m ates , ▁but ▁it ▁quickly ▁dis band ed . ▁In |
▁ 2 0 1 9 , ▁Andre ▁rev ived ▁the ▁name ▁of ▁the ▁band ▁as ▁a ▁solo ▁act , ▁yet ▁still ▁acting ▁as ▁a ▁band , ▁and ▁released ▁the ▁album ▁Ce ase ▁& ▁Des ist ▁through ▁St ones ▁Th row ▁Records . ▁ ▁History ▁ ▁After ▁Eric ▁Andre ▁en rolled ▁at ▁the ▁Ber k lee ▁School ▁of ▁Music ▁in ▁Boston , ▁Massachusetts , ▁he ▁formed ▁the ▁band ▁Bl arf . ▁The ▁band ' s ▁goal ▁was ▁to ▁m im ic ▁the ▁styles ▁of ▁Frank ▁Z appa ▁and ▁the ▁Be ast ie ▁Boys . ▁The ▁band ▁was ▁short - l ived ▁because ▁the ▁band ' s ▁drum mer ▁" got ▁married ▁at ▁ 1 8 ▁to ▁an ▁extremely ▁pro - life ▁woman ," ▁and ▁Andre ▁had ▁made ▁a ▁song ▁called ▁" I ▁Love ▁Ab ort ions ". ▁ ▁On ▁December ▁ 2 5 , ▁ 2 0 1 4 , ▁Andre ▁independently ▁released ▁a ▁collabor ative ▁EP ▁with ▁Canadian ▁record ▁producer ▁The ▁First ▁Se ed , ▁titled ▁B L AR F . ▁ ▁On ▁June ▁ 6 , ▁ 2 0 1 9 , ▁it ▁was ▁revealed ▁that ▁a ▁new ▁artist ▁was ▁signed ▁to ▁St ones ▁Th row ▁Records ▁named ▁Bl arf ▁and ▁that ▁his ▁debut ▁studio ▁album ▁Ce ase ▁& ▁Des ist ▁would ▁be ▁released ▁on ▁June ▁ 2 6 . ▁Bl arf ▁was ▁soon ▁rum ored ▁to ▁be ▁an ▁alias ▁of ▁Andre , ▁however ▁Bl arf ▁den ies ▁it . ▁Andre ▁as ▁himself ▁even ▁ins ists ▁they ▁are ▁not ▁the ▁same ▁person |
, ▁writing ▁on ▁Twitter ▁" Pe ople ▁are ▁confusing ▁this ▁gu y ▁B L AR F ▁on ▁@ ston est h row ▁for ▁me ! ". ▁For ▁Bl arf ' s ▁very ▁rare ▁public ▁appearances , ▁he ▁is ▁usually ▁seen ▁we aring ▁a ▁Ron ald ▁Mc Donald ▁cost ume . ▁ ▁The ▁lead ▁single ▁to ▁the ▁album , ▁" Bad ass ▁Bull sh it ▁Benjamin ▁But tons ▁But th ole ▁Ass ass in ", ▁was ▁released ▁on ▁June ▁ 1 8 ▁with ▁an ▁accomp any ing ▁music ▁video . ▁Ce ase ▁& ▁Des ist ▁was ▁then ▁released ▁as ▁scheduled ▁on ▁June ▁ 2 6 , ▁ 2 0 1 9 , ▁through ▁St ones ▁Th row . ▁The ▁album ▁is ▁heavily ▁sample - based ▁and ▁contains ▁elements ▁of ▁pl under phon ics ▁and ▁noise ▁music . ▁Music ▁videos ▁for ▁tracks ▁" B an ana " ▁and ▁" Bo om ▁Ba " ▁were ▁released ▁on ▁July ▁ 3 1 ▁and ▁August ▁ 1 2 , ▁ 2 0 1 9 , ▁respectively . ▁ ▁Andre ▁performed ▁live ▁as ▁Bl arf ▁for ▁the ▁first ▁time ▁on ▁July ▁ 6 , ▁ 2 0 1 9 , ▁in ▁Los ▁Angeles ▁with ▁fellow ▁experimental ▁mus icians ▁Th under cat , ▁DOM i ▁and ▁J D ▁Beck . ▁ ▁Disc ography ▁ ▁Studio ▁albums ▁Ce ase ▁& ▁Des ist ▁( 2 0 1 9 ) ▁ ▁Ext ended ▁plays ▁ ▁B L AR F ▁ ▁( 2 0 1 4 ) ▁ ▁Singles ▁ ▁" Bad ass ▁Bull |
sh it ▁Benjamin ▁But tons ▁But th ole ▁Ass ass in " ▁( 2 0 1 9 ) ▁ ▁" B an ana " ▁( 2 0 1 9 ) ▁ ▁" Bo om ▁Ba " ▁( 2 0 1 9 ) ▁ ▁References ▁ ▁Category : American ▁music <0x0A> </s> ▁Daniel ▁Me j ías ▁H urt ado ▁( born ▁ 2 6 ▁July ▁ 1 9 8 2 ) ▁is ▁an ▁And or ran ▁international ▁footballer ▁who ▁plays ▁club ▁football ▁for ▁FC ▁And or ra , ▁as ▁a ▁mid f iel der . ▁ ▁He ▁made ▁his ▁international ▁debut ▁for ▁the ▁And or ra ▁national ▁football ▁team ▁in ▁ 2 0 1 0 . ▁ ▁References ▁ ▁External ▁links ▁ ▁F AF ▁profile ▁ ▁Category : 1 9 8 2 ▁birth s ▁Category : L iving ▁people ▁Category : Pe ople ▁from ▁Barcelona ▁Category : S ports people ▁from ▁Barcelona ▁Category : And or ran ▁football ers ▁Category : Span ish ▁football ers ▁Category : C atal an ▁football ers ▁Category : Associ ation ▁football ▁mid field ers ▁Category : Seg unda ▁División ▁B ▁players ▁Category : T erc era ▁División ▁players ▁Category : FC ▁Barcelona ▁C ▁players ▁Category : CF ▁Per al ada ▁players ▁Category : And or ra ▁international ▁football ers ▁Category : FC ▁And or ra ▁players <0x0A> </s> ▁D ror ▁Pale y ▁( born ▁March ▁ 2 5 , ▁ 1 9 5 6 ) ▁is ▁a ▁Canadian - tra ined ▁orth op edic ▁sur geon , ▁who |
▁special izes ▁in ▁lim b ▁length ening ▁and ▁de form ity ▁correction ▁procedures . ▁ ▁Education ▁ ▁Dr . ▁Pale y ▁trained ▁in ▁surg ery ▁at ▁the ▁Joh ns ▁Hop kins ▁Hospital ▁and ▁in ▁orth op edic ▁surg ery ▁at ▁the ▁University ▁of ▁Toronto ▁Medical ▁School . ▁He ▁moved ▁to ▁Baltimore ▁to ▁join ▁the ▁University ▁of ▁Maryland ▁in ▁ 1 9 8 7 . ▁From ▁ 1 9 8 7 ▁to ▁ 2 0 0 1 , ▁Pale y ▁worked ▁at ▁the ▁University ▁of ▁Maryland ▁as ▁professor ▁of ▁Orth oped ics ▁and ▁chief ▁of ▁Ped iat ric ▁Orth oped ics . ▁ ▁Career ▁ ▁Pale y ▁has ▁been ▁lic ensed ▁with ▁the ▁Province ▁of ▁Ontario , ▁Canada ▁since ▁ 1 9 8 0 , ▁the ▁Maryland ▁Board ▁of ▁Phys icians ▁since ▁ 1 9 8 6 , ▁and ▁with ▁the ▁Florida ▁department ▁of ▁Health ▁since ▁ 2 0 0 9 . ▁ ▁In ▁ 1 9 9 1 , ▁Pale y ▁co - f ounded ▁the ▁Maryland ▁Center ▁for ▁Lim b ▁L ength ening ▁and ▁Re const ruction ▁at ▁James ▁Lawrence ▁K ern an ▁Hospital ▁with ▁Dr . ▁John ▁Her zen berg . ▁ ▁In ▁ 2 0 0 1 , ▁they ▁formed ▁the ▁International ▁Center ▁for ▁Lim b ▁L ength ening ▁at ▁S ina i ▁Hospital . ▁He ▁author ed ▁a ▁book , ▁Princi ples ▁of ▁De form ity ▁Cor re ction ▁() ▁in ▁ 2 0 0 2 , ▁that ▁was ▁edited ▁by ▁Her zen berg . ▁ ▁Pale y ▁was |
▁among ▁the ▁first ▁orth op edic ▁sur ge ons ▁to ▁use ▁the ▁P RE C ICE ▁intr amed ull ary ▁n ail ▁for ▁cos met ic ▁leg ▁length ening , ▁as ▁well ▁as ▁its ▁second ▁version ▁( PRE C ICE ▁ 2 ). ▁ ▁In ▁ 2 0 1 3 , ▁Smith ▁& ▁Nep hew ▁released ▁a ▁new ▁Mod ular ▁Rail ▁System ▁for ▁external ▁fix ation ▁and ▁lim b ▁de form ity ▁correction , ▁in ▁collaboration ▁with ▁Pale y . ▁ ▁As ▁of ▁ 2 0 1 4 ▁Pale y ▁had ▁developed ▁around ▁ 1 0 0 ▁surg ical ▁procedures ▁to ▁re construct ▁lim bs . ▁ ▁Books ▁ ▁Personal ▁life ▁ ▁Pale y ▁lives ▁in ▁West ▁Pal m ▁Beach ▁and ▁has ▁three ▁children . ▁He ▁is ▁fl uent ▁in ▁six ▁languages ▁and ▁practices ▁cy cling , ▁ski ing ▁and ▁rock ▁clim bing . ▁ ▁References ▁ ▁External ▁links ▁Pale y ▁Institute ▁ ▁Category : Can ad ian ▁orth op edic ▁sur ge ons ▁Category : 1 9 5 6 ▁birth s ▁Category : L iving ▁people <0x0A> </s> ▁For ▁the ▁ 1 9 3 4 ▁Is le ▁of ▁Man ▁T T ▁R aces ▁despite ▁the ▁winning ▁of ▁four ▁T T ▁R aces ▁in ▁ 2 ▁years , ▁Stanley ▁Wood s ▁part ed ▁with ▁N orton ▁motor - cy cles ▁over ▁the ▁issue ▁of ▁prize ▁money ▁and ▁race ▁tact ics ▁and ▁joined ▁Hus q var na ▁alongside ▁Er nie ▁N ott . ▁ ▁The ▁ 1 9 3 4 ▁Junior ▁T T ▁Race |
▁was ▁won ▁by ▁J imm ie ▁Gut hr ie ▁r iding ▁for ▁N orton ▁at ▁an ▁average ▁race ▁speed ▁of ▁ 7 9 . 1 6 m ph ▁from ▁J imm ie ▁Sim pson ▁and ▁Er nie ▁N ott ▁a ▁distant ▁third ▁r iding ▁for ▁the ▁Swedish ▁Hus q var na ▁marque . ▁ ▁During ▁the ▁first ▁lap ▁of ▁the ▁ 1 9 3 4 ▁Light weight ▁Race , ▁Syd ▁Cra bt ree , ▁the ▁winner ▁of ▁the ▁ 1 9 2 9 ▁Light weight ▁Race ▁crash ed ▁at ▁the ▁Stone break ers ▁H ut ▁on ▁the ▁Mountain ▁Section ▁and ▁was ▁killed . ▁The ▁ 1 9 3 4 ▁Light weight ▁T T ▁Race ▁was ▁won ▁by ▁J imm ie ▁Sim pson ▁r iding ▁a ▁Rud ge ▁motor - cycle ▁in ▁ 3 ▁hours , ▁ 2 3 ▁minutes ▁and ▁ 1 0 ▁seconds ▁at ▁an ▁average ▁race ▁speed ▁of ▁ 7 0 . 8 1 m ph . ▁The ▁ 1 9 3 4 ▁Light weight ▁T T ▁Race ▁provided ▁Rud ge ▁with ▁another ▁ 1 - 2 - 3 ▁win ▁since ▁the ▁ 1 9 3 0 ▁Junior ▁T T ▁Race ▁and ▁J imm ie ▁Sim pson ' s ▁only ▁T T ▁Race ▁victory ▁winning ▁from ▁team - m ates ▁Er nie ▁N ott ▁and ▁Graham ▁Walker ▁taking ▁ 2 nd ▁and ▁ 3 rd ▁places . ▁ ▁The ▁ 1 9 3 4 ▁Senior ▁T T ▁Race ▁was ▁led ▁by ▁Stanley ▁Wood s ▁r iding ▁for ▁Hus q |
var na ▁but ▁retired ▁on ▁the ▁Mountain ▁Section ▁on ▁the ▁last ▁lap ▁after ▁running - out ▁of ▁fuel . ▁This ▁handed ▁a ▁Junior / S en ior ▁double ▁win ▁to ▁J imm ie ▁Gut hr ie ▁r iding ▁the ▁works ▁N orton ▁at ▁an ▁average ▁speed ▁of ▁ 7 8 . 0 1 m ph ▁from ▁J imm ie ▁Sim pson ▁r iding ▁a ▁N orton ▁in ▁his ▁last ▁T T ▁Race ▁and ▁Walter ▁Rus k ▁with ▁a ▁Vel oc ette . ▁ ▁Senior ▁T T ▁( 5 0 0 cc ) ▁ 7 ▁la ps ▁( 2 6 4 . 1 1 ▁miles ) ▁Mountain ▁Cour se . ▁ ▁Junior ▁T T ▁( 3 5 0 cc ) ▁ 7 ▁la ps ▁( 2 6 4 . 1 1 ▁miles ) ▁Mountain ▁Cour se . ▁ ▁Light weight ▁T T ▁( 2 5 0 cc ) ▁ 7 ▁la ps ▁( 2 6 4 . 1 1 ▁miles ) ▁Mountain ▁Cour se . ▁ ▁Notes ▁ ▁Major ▁alter ations ▁to ▁the ▁S na ef ell ▁mountain ▁course ▁are ▁carried ▁out ▁for ▁the ▁ 1 9 3 4 ▁T T ▁R aces . ▁This ▁includes ▁the ▁removal ▁of ▁the ▁East ▁Mountain ▁sheep - gate . ▁ ▁S ources ▁ ▁External ▁links ▁ ▁D etailed ▁race ▁results ▁ ▁Is le ▁of ▁Man ▁T T ▁w inners ▁ ▁Mountain ▁Cour se ▁map ▁ ▁Is le ▁of ▁Man ▁T T ▁# 1 9 3 4 ▁Is le <0x0A> </s> ▁Kin ▁is ▁a ▁village ▁in ▁Ye |
▁Township ▁in ▁M aw lam y ine ▁District ▁in ▁the ▁Mon ▁State ▁of ▁south - east ▁My an mar . ▁It ▁is ▁located ▁on ▁the ▁right ▁bank ▁( nor thern ▁side ) ▁of ▁the ▁Ye ▁River . ▁ ▁Notes ▁ ▁External ▁links ▁ ▁" K in ▁Map ▁— ▁Sat ellite ▁Im ages ▁of ▁Kin " ▁Map land ia ▁World ▁Gazette er ▁ ▁Category : Pop ulated ▁places ▁in ▁Mon ▁State <0x0A> </s> ▁C ▁High ▁School ▁Jag d ish pur ▁is ▁a ▁school ▁in ▁Si wan , ▁Bi har , ▁India . ▁The ▁school ▁was ▁established ▁in ▁collaboration ▁between ▁Bi har ▁and ▁central ▁government ▁and ▁is ▁affili ated ▁with ▁the ▁Bi har ▁School ▁Ex am ination ▁Board , ▁Pat na . ▁The ▁mot to ▁of ▁the ▁school ▁is ▁" St ud y ▁Before ▁S aty ." ▁ ▁Location ▁The ▁school ▁has ▁ 2 ▁buildings , ▁one ▁for ▁gr ades ▁ 1 - 6 ▁and ▁another ▁for ▁gr ades ▁ 7 - 1 0 . ▁The ▁school ▁campus ▁is ▁located ▁in ▁N aut an , ▁Si wan , ▁Bi har , ▁in ▁village ▁Jag d ish pur . ▁ ▁Cultural ▁events ▁The ▁school ▁hosts ▁many ▁cultural ▁events ▁under ▁another ▁organisation ▁called ▁" Sp ic ▁Mac ay ". ▁These ▁include ▁the ▁District ▁School ▁Int ensive ▁in ▁December ▁ 2 0 1 0 , ▁The ▁school ▁hosts ▁football , ▁cr icket ▁and ▁basketball ▁champion ships . ▁Rec ently ▁the ▁int ra - school ▁ch ess ▁championship ▁was ▁held ▁here . ▁C ▁High ▁School ▁Jag d ish pur |
' s ▁cr icket ▁team ▁is ▁one ▁of ▁the ▁best ▁cr icket ▁teams ▁in ▁N aut an . ▁ ▁Games ▁and ▁sports ▁C ▁High ▁School ▁Jag d ish pur ▁has ▁many ▁prov isions ▁for ▁sports ▁and ▁games , ▁including ▁a ▁bad m inton ▁ar ena , ▁a ▁football ▁pitch ▁and ▁a ▁hockey ▁ground . ▁The ▁school ▁has ▁various ▁sports ▁clubs ▁such ▁as ▁football , ▁basketball ▁etc . ▁The ▁school ▁hosts ▁many ▁inter - school ▁sports ▁compet itions ▁for ▁N aut an ' s ▁schools . ▁ ▁References ▁ ▁Category : High ▁schools ▁and ▁secondary ▁schools ▁in ▁Bi har ▁Category : S iw an ▁district <0x0A> </s> ▁Harold ▁Wood ▁Hospital ▁was ▁a ▁hospital ▁in ▁east ▁London , ▁United ▁Kingdom . ▁It ▁was ▁located ▁in ▁G ub b ins ▁Lane , ▁Harold ▁Wood ▁in ▁Rom ford , ▁in ▁the ▁London ▁Bor ough ▁of ▁Ha ver ing . ▁It ▁was ▁managed ▁by ▁B ark ing , ▁Ha ver ing ▁and ▁Red bridge ▁H osp it als ▁N HS ▁Trust . ▁The ▁Ha ver ing ▁Camp us ▁of ▁London ▁South ▁Bank ▁University , ▁an ▁N HS ▁poly cl in ic ▁and ▁a ▁long ▁term ▁conditions ▁unit ▁continue ▁to ▁operate ▁at ▁the ▁hospital ▁site , ▁and ▁a ▁resident ial ▁development ▁by ▁Coun tr ys ide ▁Properties ▁known ▁as ▁Kings ▁Park ▁is ▁in ▁development . ▁ ▁History ▁The ▁hospital ▁was ▁opened ▁in ▁ 1 9 0 9 ▁by ▁West ▁Ham ▁County ▁Bor ough ▁council , ▁as ▁the ▁G range ▁con val es cent ▁home ▁for ▁children , ▁which ▁operated |
▁with ▁the ▁nearby ▁Pla ist ow ▁fe ver ▁hospital . ▁The ▁G range ▁had ▁been ▁a ▁private ▁house , ▁built ▁in ▁ 1 8 8 4 ▁by ▁John ▁Com pton , ▁owner ▁of ▁the ▁G ub b ins ▁estate . ▁The ▁con val es cent ▁home ▁was ▁maintained ▁by ▁the ▁county ▁bor ough ▁until ▁the ▁Second ▁World ▁War , ▁as ▁an ▁emer gency ▁hospital . ▁After ▁the ▁war ▁it ▁became ▁a ▁permanent ▁hospital , ▁and ▁in ▁the ▁ 1 9 6 0 s ▁was ▁significantly ▁en larg ed . ▁ ▁After ▁services ▁re located ▁to ▁Queen ' s ▁Hospital ▁and ▁to ▁King ▁George ▁Hospital ▁in ▁Red bridge , ▁the ▁hospital ▁was ▁closed ▁on ▁ 1 3 ▁December ▁ 2 0 0 6 . ▁The ▁site ▁vac ated ▁by ▁the ▁hospital ▁was ▁ear mark ed ▁for ▁a ▁ 4 7 0 - home ▁housing ▁development . ▁The ▁original ▁plan ▁to ▁keep ▁certain ▁N HS ▁facilities ▁was ▁su pers eded ▁and ▁the ▁entire ▁plot ▁was ▁approved ▁for ▁resident ial ▁development . ▁Local ▁residents ▁opposed ▁the ▁proposal ▁of ▁over ▁ 8 0 0 ▁dwell ings , ▁including ▁a ▁ 9 - store y ▁block . ▁A ▁resident ial ▁development ▁by ▁Coun tr ys ide ▁Properties ▁known ▁as ▁Kings ▁Park ▁is ▁in ▁development . ▁ ▁See ▁also ▁▁ ▁Health care ▁in ▁London ▁ ▁List ▁of ▁hosp it als ▁in ▁England ▁ ▁References ▁ ▁Category : H ouses ▁completed ▁in ▁ 1 8 8 4 ▁Category : H osp it als ▁dis est ab lished ▁in ▁ 2 |
0 0 6 ▁Category : Def unct ▁hosp it als ▁in ▁England ▁Category : He alth ▁in ▁the ▁London ▁Bor ough ▁of ▁Ha ver ing ▁Category : N HS ▁hosp it als ▁in ▁London <0x0A> </s> ▁Ath ena ▁() ▁is ▁a ▁god dess ▁of ▁wisdom , ▁strateg ic - war ▁and ▁we aving ▁in ▁Greek ▁myth ology . ▁ ▁Ath ena ▁may ▁also ▁refer ▁to : ▁ ▁Places ▁ ▁Ath ena , ▁Oregon , ▁a ▁town ▁in ▁northern ▁Oregon ▁ ▁People ▁ ▁Princess ▁Ath ena ▁of ▁Den mark ▁( born ▁ 2 0 1 2 ) ▁ ▁Comp an ies ▁ ▁Ath ena ▁( company ), ▁a ▁Japanese ▁video ▁game ▁company ▁ ▁Ath ena ▁E iz ou , ▁a ▁Japanese ▁adult ▁video ▁company ▁ ▁Ath ena ▁( ret ail er ), ▁a ▁British ▁art ▁ret ail er ▁famous ▁for ▁its ▁post ers ▁ ▁Ath ena ▁Techn ologies , ▁a ▁Virginia - based ▁company ▁special izing ▁in ▁navigation ▁and ▁control ▁systems ▁for ▁un mann ed ▁aer ial ▁vehicles ▁ ▁ath ena he alth , ▁a ▁Massachusetts - based ▁Health care ▁technology ▁company ▁ ▁Media ▁and ▁entertain ment ▁ ▁Film ▁and ▁television ▁ ▁Ath ena ▁( film ), ▁a ▁ 1 9 5 4 ▁M GM ▁musical ▁film ▁st arring ▁Jane ▁Pow ell , ▁Edmund ▁Pur dom , ▁Deb bie ▁Reyn olds , ▁Vic ▁Dam one ▁and ▁Louis ▁Cal h ern ▁ ▁Lieutenant ▁Ath ena , ▁a ▁character ▁in ▁the ▁ 1 9 7 8 ▁television ▁series ▁Batt l est ar ▁Gal act ica ▁ |
▁Sh aron ▁" A th ena " ▁Ag athon , ▁a ▁character ▁in ▁the ▁ 2 0 0 4 ▁re - im ag ined ▁series ▁Batt l est ar ▁Gal act ica , ▁based ▁very ▁lo os ely ▁on ▁Lieutenant ▁Ath ena ; ▁see ▁Number ▁E ight ▁( B att l est ar ▁Gal act ica ) ▁ ▁Ath ena , ▁a ▁fict ional ▁character ▁in ▁the ▁TV ▁series ▁St arg ate ▁S G - 1 ▁ ▁Ath ena : ▁God dess ▁of ▁War , ▁a ▁ 2 0 1 0 ▁South ▁Korean ▁television ▁drama ▁series ▁about ▁esp ion age ▁and ▁terror ism ▁ ▁Ath ena ▁Grant , ▁L AP D ▁ser ge ant ▁on ▁the ▁TV ▁series ▁ 9 - 1 - 1 ▁ ▁Music ▁ ▁Ath ena ▁( sing er ), ▁a ▁Filip ino ▁singer ▁& ▁actress ▁based ▁in ▁Japan ▁ ▁Ath ena ▁( And read is ), ▁an ▁Ang lo - G reek ▁music ian ▁ ▁Ath ena ▁( band ), ▁a ▁Turkish ▁s ka ▁punk ▁band ▁ ▁" A th ena " ▁( song ), ▁the ▁first ▁track ▁on ▁The ▁Who ' s ▁ 1 9 8 2 ▁studio ▁album , ▁It ' s ▁Hard ▁ ▁" A th ena ", ▁a ▁song ▁by ▁Ti ë sto ▁from ▁the ▁album ▁Par ade ▁of ▁the ▁Athlet es ▁ ▁Liter ature ▁ ▁Ath ena ▁( nov el ), ▁a ▁ 1 9 9 5 ▁novel ▁by ▁John ▁Ban ville ▁ ▁Comics ▁and ▁animation ▁ ▁Ath ena ▁( Mar vel ▁Comics ), |
▁a ▁Marvel ▁Comics ▁character ▁and ▁member ▁of ▁the ▁Olymp ian ▁God s ▁ ▁Then a , ▁another ▁Marvel ▁Comics ▁character ▁who ▁has ▁gone ▁by ▁the ▁name ▁Ath ena , ▁a ▁member ▁of ▁the ▁E tern als ▁ ▁Ath ena ▁( Saint ▁Se i ya ), ▁a ▁character ▁based ▁on ▁the ▁god dess ▁in ▁the ▁m anga / an ime ▁Saint ▁Se i ya ▁ ▁T enn ous u ▁Ath ena , ▁a ▁character ▁in ▁the ▁m anga / an ime ▁Hay ate ▁the ▁Com bat ▁Butler ▁and ▁the ▁e pon ym ous ▁protagon ist ' s ▁first ▁true ▁love ▁ ▁Ath ena , ▁the ▁first ▁oppon ent ▁of ▁God ou ▁K us an agi ▁in ▁the ▁m anga / an ime ▁" C amp ione !" ▁ ▁Video ▁games ▁ ▁Ath ena ▁( ar cade ▁game ), ▁a ▁ 1 9 8 6 ▁ar cade ▁game ▁made ▁by ▁SN K , ▁whose ▁main ▁character ▁is ▁" Pr in cess ▁Ath ena " ▁ ▁Ath ena : ▁Full ▁Th rott le , ▁a ▁ 2 0 0 6 ▁sequ el ▁to ▁the ▁ar cade ▁game ▁ ▁Ath ena ▁As ami ya , ▁a ▁character ▁in ▁the ▁video ▁game ▁Ps y cho ▁Sold ier ▁and ▁The ▁King ▁of ▁F igh ters ▁series , ▁described ▁as ▁a ▁desc endant ▁of ▁Princess ▁Ath ena ▁ ▁Ath ena , ▁an ▁important ▁character ▁in ▁the ▁Sony ▁Play Station ▁ 2 ▁game ▁God ▁of ▁War ▁Ath ena ▁the ▁Glad i ator , ▁an ▁important ▁character ▁from ▁the ▁Border lands ▁video |
▁game ▁series ▁Ath ena ▁Cy kes , ▁a ▁defense ▁att orney ▁from ▁the ▁A ce ▁Att orney ▁franch ise ▁ ▁Science ▁and ▁technology ▁▁ ▁Ath ena , ▁the ▁scientific ▁payload ▁on ▁the ▁two ▁ro vers ▁of ▁the ▁Mars ▁Ex pl oration ▁R over ▁mission ▁ ▁A TH EN A , ▁a ▁C ER N ▁ant im atter ▁research ▁project ▁ ▁A TH EN A ▁computer , ▁an ▁early ▁miss ile ▁guidance ▁computer ▁ ▁Ath ena ▁( ro cket ▁family ), ▁a ▁series ▁of ▁light ▁ro cket ▁boost ers ▁from ▁Lock he ed ▁Martin ▁Ath ena ▁I ▁Ath ena ▁II ▁ ▁Ath ena ▁( space craft ), ▁a ▁small ▁space craft ▁proposed ▁to ▁visit ▁P allas ▁astero id ▁ ▁Advanced ▁T eles cope ▁for ▁High ▁Energy ▁Ast ro physics , ▁previously ▁the ▁International ▁X - ray ▁Observ atory , ▁a ▁planned ▁space ▁teles cope ▁by ▁E SA ▁ ▁Advanced ▁Test ▁High ▁Energy ▁As set , ▁a ▁directed - energy ▁weapon ▁ ▁Ath ena - F id us , ▁a ▁French - Ital ian ▁military ▁tele communic ations ▁satellite ▁ ▁Project ▁Ath ena , ▁a ▁project ▁to ▁produce ▁a ▁computing ▁environment ▁for ▁educational ▁use ▁ ▁X ▁Ath ena ▁Widget s , ▁X ▁Window ▁System ' s ▁widget ▁tool kit ▁ ▁Sh ips ▁ ▁Ath ena ▁( y acht ), ▁formerly ▁the ▁largest ▁private ▁sail ing ▁y acht ▁in ▁the ▁world ▁ ▁MS ▁Ath ena , ▁former ▁trans at l antic ▁l iner ▁Stockholm ▁ ▁MS ▁Ath ina ▁B , ▁co aster ▁that ▁be ached ▁at |
▁Bright on ▁in ▁ 1 9 8 0 , ▁sometimes ▁mis - report ed ▁as ▁Ath ena ▁B ▁ ▁F V ▁Ath ena , ▁a ▁super t raw ler ▁and ▁factory ▁ship ▁that ▁caught ▁fire ▁in ▁October ▁ 2 0 1 0 ▁ ▁SS ▁Ath ena , ▁a ▁ 1 8 9 3 ▁Greek ▁steam ship ▁ ▁Other ▁uses ▁ ▁M our ning ▁Ath ena , ▁a ▁Greek ▁relief ▁sculpt ure ▁d ating ▁around ▁c . 4 7 0 ▁BC ▁ ▁Operation ▁A TH EN A , ▁Canadian ▁Forces ▁contribution ▁to ▁the ▁post - 9 / 1 1 ▁War ▁in ▁Afghan istan ▁ ▁Le ic ester ▁Ath ena , ▁a ▁confer encing ▁and ▁ban quet ing ▁ven ue ▁in ▁Le ic ester , ▁UK ▁ ▁A TH EN A ▁( Europe an ▁cultural ▁her itage ▁project ) ▁a ▁European ▁Union - fund ed ▁project ▁on ▁access ▁to ▁cultural ▁her itage ▁networks ▁ ▁November ▁ 2 0 1 2 ▁nor ' e aster , ▁referred ▁to ▁by ▁The ▁We ather ▁Channel ▁as ▁Winter ▁Storm ▁Ath ena ▁ ▁See ▁also ▁A ten a ▁( disambiguation ) ▁Ath ene ▁( disambiguation ) ▁Ath ens ▁( disambiguation ) ▁Ath ina ▁( disambiguation ) ▁Al ten a ▁( disambiguation ) ▁SS ▁A then ia ▁A eth ina , ▁a ▁genus ▁of ▁be et le ▁including ▁the ▁small ▁h ive ▁be et le ▁( A eth ina ▁tum ida ) <0x0A> </s> ▁This ▁article ▁describes ▁the ▁principal ▁types ▁of ▁religious ▁Jewish ▁music ▁from ▁the ▁days ▁of ▁the ▁Temple ▁to |
▁modern ▁times . ▁ ▁History ▁of ▁religious ▁Jewish ▁music ▁ ▁The ▁history ▁of ▁religious ▁Jewish ▁music ▁is ▁about ▁the ▁cant orial , ▁syn agog al , ▁and ▁the ▁Temple ▁music ▁from ▁Bib lic al ▁to ▁Modern ▁times . ▁ ▁The ▁earliest ▁syn agog al ▁music ▁was ▁based ▁on ▁the ▁same ▁system ▁as ▁that ▁used ▁in ▁the ▁Temple ▁in ▁Jerusalem . ▁According ▁to ▁the ▁M ish nah , ▁the ▁regular ▁Temple ▁or chestra ▁consisted ▁of ▁twelve ▁instruments , ▁and ▁the ▁cho ir ▁of ▁twelve ▁male ▁sing ers . ▁A ▁number ▁of ▁additional ▁instruments ▁were ▁known ▁to ▁the ▁ancient ▁Heb rew s , ▁though ▁they ▁were ▁not ▁included ▁in ▁the ▁regular ▁or chestra ▁of ▁the ▁Temple : ▁ ▁the ▁u gg av ▁( small ▁fl ute ), ▁the ▁ab bu v ▁( a ▁re ed ▁fl ute ▁or ▁ob oe - like ▁instrument ). ▁ ▁After ▁the ▁destruction ▁of ▁the ▁Temple ▁and ▁the ▁subsequent ▁di as por a ▁of ▁the ▁Jewish ▁people , ▁music ▁was ▁initially ▁b anned . ▁ ▁Later , ▁these ▁restrictions ▁would ▁relax , ▁save ▁for ▁the ▁Jews ▁of ▁Y emen ▁who ▁maintained ▁strict ▁ad her ence ▁to ▁Tal m ud ic ▁and ▁Ma imon ide an ▁hal ak ha ▁and ▁" inst ead ▁of ▁developing ▁the ▁playing ▁of ▁musical ▁instruments , ▁they ▁perfect ed ▁singing ▁and ▁rh ythm ." ▁( See ▁Y emen ite ▁Jewish ▁poetry . ▁For ▁the ▁modern ▁Y emen ite - Is ra eli ▁musical ▁phenomen on , ▁however , ▁see ▁Y emen ite ▁Jewish ▁music .) ▁ |
▁It ▁was ▁with ▁the ▁pi yy ut im ▁( lit urg ical ▁po ems ) ▁that ▁Jewish ▁music ▁began ▁to ▁cry st all ize ▁into ▁definite ▁form . ▁The ▁cant or ▁sang ▁the ▁pi yy ut im ▁to ▁mel od ies ▁selected ▁by ▁their ▁writer ▁or ▁by ▁himself , ▁thus ▁introdu cing ▁fixed ▁mel od ies ▁into ▁syn agog al ▁music . ▁The ▁music ▁may ▁have ▁preserved ▁a ▁few ▁phr ases ▁in ▁the ▁reading ▁of ▁Script ure ▁which ▁re called ▁songs ▁from ▁the ▁Temple ▁itself ; ▁but ▁generally ▁it ▁echo ed ▁the ▁t ones ▁which ▁the ▁Jew ▁of ▁each ▁age ▁and ▁country ▁heard ▁around ▁him , ▁not ▁merely ▁in ▁the ▁actual ▁borrow ing ▁of ▁t unes , ▁but ▁more ▁in ▁the ▁ton ality ▁on ▁which ▁the ▁local ▁music ▁was ▁based . ▁ ▁Class ical ▁Jewish ▁religious ▁music ▁ ▁From ▁the ▁time ▁of ▁the ▁Renaissance ▁Jewish ▁communities ▁in ▁western ▁Europe ▁have ▁shown ▁some ▁interest ▁in ▁modern izing ▁the ▁service ▁by ▁introdu cing ▁composed ▁music ▁on ▁the ▁European ▁model . ▁ ▁Sal am one ▁Ros si , ▁a ▁composer ▁at ▁the ▁court ▁of ▁Mant ua , ▁published ▁a ▁volume ▁of ▁ps alm ▁settings ▁in ▁a ▁Bar o que ▁style ▁similar ▁to ▁Monte ver di , ▁but ▁this ▁did ▁not ▁become ▁widely ▁popular ▁in ▁syn agog ue ▁use ▁until ▁rev ived ▁in ▁the ▁late ▁ 1 9 th ▁century . ▁ ▁In ▁the ▁ 1 8 th ▁century ▁the ▁Ven ice ▁community ▁commission ed ▁a ▁number ▁of ▁works ▁from ▁non - J ew ish ▁compos ers |
▁such ▁as ▁Carlo ▁G ross i ▁and ▁Bened etto ▁Marcel lo . ▁ ▁Al ready ▁in ▁ 1 6 0 3 , ▁the ▁sources ▁tell ▁us ▁that ▁har ps ich ords ▁were ▁used ▁in ▁the ▁Spanish ▁and ▁Portuguese ▁syn agog ues ▁in ▁Hamburg . ▁Part icular ly ▁in ▁the ▁Amsterdam ▁community , ▁but ▁to ▁some ▁degree ▁also ▁in ▁Hamburg ▁and ▁elsewhere , ▁there ▁was ▁a ▁fl our ishing ▁of ▁classical ▁music ▁in ▁the ▁syn agog ues ▁in ▁the ▁ 1 8 th ▁century . ▁Import ant ▁compos ers ▁of ▁the ▁time ▁include ▁Abraham ▁de ▁C asser es , ▁Christian ▁Joseph ▁L id art i ▁and ▁others . ▁ ▁There ▁was ▁formerly ▁a ▁custom ▁in ▁Amsterdam , ▁inspired ▁by ▁a ▁hint ▁in ▁the ▁Z oh ar , ▁of ▁holding ▁an ▁instrument al ▁concert ▁on ▁Friday ▁afternoon ▁prior ▁to ▁the ▁coming ▁in ▁of ▁the ▁S abb ath , ▁as ▁a ▁means ▁of ▁getting ▁the ▁con greg ants ▁in ▁the ▁right ▁m ood ▁for ▁the ▁Friday ▁night ▁service . ▁ ▁In ▁the ▁Ash ken azi ▁world , ▁the ▁main ▁imp et us ▁towards ▁composed ▁Jewish ▁music ▁came ▁in ▁early ▁ 1 9 th ▁century ▁Vienna , ▁where ▁Sal omon ▁Sul zer ▁composed ▁settings ▁for ▁a ▁large ▁part ▁of ▁the ▁syn agog ue ▁service , ▁reflect ing ▁traditional ▁Jewish ▁music ▁but ▁set ▁in ▁a ▁style ▁rem in is cent ▁of ▁Sch ub ert , ▁who ▁was ▁a ▁friend ▁and ▁contemporary . ▁ ▁Settings ▁in ▁a ▁somewhat ▁similar ▁style ▁were ▁composed ▁by ▁Louis ▁Lew and owski ▁of ▁Berlin |
, ▁Samuel ▁Na umb ourg ▁of ▁Paris ▁and ▁Jap het ▁of ▁Frankfurt . ▁ ▁From ▁this ▁period ▁dates ▁the ▁w ides p read ▁use ▁of ▁cho irs ▁and ▁org ans , ▁though ▁in ▁Orth odox ▁syn agog ues ▁the ▁organ ▁is ▁not ▁played ▁on ▁Sh abb at ▁or ▁festiv als , ▁and ▁its ▁use ▁is ▁often ▁conf ined ▁to ▁celebr ations ▁such ▁as ▁wed d ings . ▁▁ 2 0 th ▁century ▁Ang lo - J ew ish ▁compos ers ▁in ▁the ▁same ▁taste ▁are ▁Samuel ▁Al man , ▁M omb ach ▁and ▁Sa qui . ▁ ▁Contempor ary ▁Jewish ▁religious ▁music ▁ ▁Relig ious ▁Jewish ▁Music ▁in ▁the ▁ 2 0 th ▁century ▁has ▁varied ▁greatly . ▁ ▁Relig ious ▁Jewish ▁Music ▁in ▁the ▁ 2 0 th ▁century ▁has ▁sp anned ▁the ▁gam ut ▁from ▁Sh l omo ▁Car le bach ' s ▁n ig un im ▁to ▁Deb bie ▁Fried man ' s ▁Jewish ▁femin ist ▁folk , ▁to ▁the ▁many ▁sounds ▁of ▁Daniel ▁Ben ▁Sh alom . ▁Vel vel ▁Pas tern ak ▁has ▁spent ▁much ▁of ▁the ▁late ▁ 2 0 th ▁century ▁acting ▁as ▁a ▁pres ervation ist ▁and ▁comm itting ▁what ▁had ▁been ▁a ▁strongly ▁or al ▁tradition ▁to ▁paper . ▁ ▁Period ically ▁Jewish ▁music ▁j umps ▁into ▁main stream ▁conscious ness , ▁with ▁the ▁reg ga e ▁artist ▁Mat isy ahu ▁being ▁the ▁most ▁recent ▁example . ▁ ▁In ▁the ▁ 1 9 7 0 s , ▁Jewish ▁boys ▁cho irs ▁became ▁popular ▁such ▁as |
▁Pir che i ▁( Vol umes ▁ 1 ▁- 6 ), ▁Miami ▁Boys ' ▁Ch oir , ▁Toronto ▁Pir che i , ▁and ▁London ▁School ▁of ▁Jewish ▁Song . ▁ ▁In ▁addition , ▁vocal ▁groups ▁became ▁a ▁f ad ▁with ▁the ▁R abb is ' ▁S ons , ▁R ashi ▁and ▁the ▁R ish on im , ▁Sim chat one , ▁and ▁O hr ▁Ch od osh . ▁ ▁Also , ▁many ▁Orth odox ▁Jews ▁often ▁limit ▁their ▁children ' s ▁expos ure ▁to ▁music ▁produced ▁by ▁those ▁other ▁than ▁Orth odox ▁Jews , ▁so ▁that ▁they ▁will ▁not ▁be ▁influenced ▁by ▁what ▁the ▁parents ▁see ▁as ▁harm ful ▁non - Or th odox ▁ideas ▁and ▁f ash ions . ▁ ▁A ▁large ▁body ▁of ▁music ▁produced ▁by ▁Orth odox ▁Jews ▁for ▁children ▁is ▁ge ared ▁toward ▁teaching ▁religious ▁and ▁eth ical ▁trad itions ▁and ▁laws . ▁The ▁lyr ics ▁of ▁these ▁songs ▁are ▁generally ▁written ▁in ▁English ▁with ▁some ▁Heb rew ▁or ▁Y idd ish ▁phr ases . ▁ ▁Cant ill ation ▁ ▁Probably ▁the ▁oldest ▁surv iving ▁tradition ▁in ▁Jewish ▁music ▁is ▁the ▁mel od ies ▁used ▁in ▁chant ing ▁read ings ▁from ▁the ▁Script ures . ▁ ▁These ▁mel od ies ▁are ▁denoted ▁by ▁special ▁signs ▁printed ▁above ▁or ▁below ▁each ▁word ▁in ▁the ▁Heb rew ▁Bible , ▁and ▁differ ▁greatly ▁between ▁Jewish ▁communities , ▁though ▁some ▁features ▁found ▁in ▁many ▁trad itions ▁suggest ▁a ▁common ▁origin . ▁ ▁They ▁may ▁also ▁differ ▁depending ▁on ▁the ▁book ▁or ▁passage ▁being |
▁read , ▁or ▁the ▁time ▁of ▁year ▁( e . g . ▁there ▁are ▁special ▁mel od ies ▁for ▁the ▁script ural ▁read ings ▁on ▁the ▁High ▁Holy ▁Days , ▁T ish a ▁B ' Av , ▁Pur im , ▁and ▁the ▁three ▁festival ▁hol id ays , ▁Su kk ot , ▁P es ach ▁and ▁Sh av u ' ot , ▁as ▁well ▁as ▁devi ations ▁from ▁the ▁typical ▁mel od ies ▁for ▁the ▁chant ing ▁of ▁the ▁ 1 0 ▁command ments , ▁the ▁song ▁of ▁the ▁sea ▁and ▁some ▁other ▁smaller ▁sections ▁of ▁text .) ▁ ▁P ray er ▁ch ants ▁ ▁Many ▁of ▁the ▁pass ages ▁in ▁the ▁prayer ▁book , ▁such ▁as ▁the ▁Am id ah ▁and ▁the ▁Ps al ms , ▁are ▁ch anted ▁in ▁a ▁rec itative ▁rather ▁than ▁either ▁read ▁in ▁normal ▁speech ▁or ▁s ung ▁to ▁a ▁rh ythm ical ▁t une : ▁the ▁style ▁of ▁chant ▁in ▁a ▁particular ▁community ▁is ▁sometimes ▁known ▁as ▁its ▁n us ach . ▁ ▁The ▁rec it atives ▁follow ▁a ▁system ▁of ▁musical ▁modes , ▁somewhat ▁like ▁the ▁ma q am at ▁of ▁Arab ic ▁music . ▁ ▁For ▁example , ▁Ash ken azi ▁cant orial ▁practice ▁distingu ishes ▁a ▁number ▁of ▁ste iger ▁( scal es ) ▁named ▁after ▁the ▁pray ers ▁in ▁which ▁they ▁are ▁most ▁frequently ▁used , ▁such ▁as ▁the ▁Ad ono i ▁mol och ▁ste iger ▁and ▁the ▁A hav oh ▁ra b bo h ▁ste iger . ▁ ▁M iz ra |
hi ▁communities ▁such ▁as ▁the ▁Sy rian ▁Jews ▁use ▁the ▁full ▁ma q am ▁system . ▁ ▁The ▁scales ▁used ▁may ▁vary ▁both ▁with ▁the ▁particular ▁prayer ▁and ▁with ▁the ▁season . ▁ ▁For ▁examples , ▁there ▁are ▁often ▁special ▁modes ▁for ▁the ▁High ▁Holy ▁Days , ▁and ▁in ▁Sy rian ▁practice ▁the ▁scale ▁used ▁depends ▁on ▁the ▁Tor ah ▁reading ▁for ▁the ▁week ▁( see ▁Week ly ▁Ma q am ). ▁ ▁In ▁some ▁cases ▁the ▁actual ▁mel od ies ▁are ▁fixed , ▁while ▁in ▁others ▁the ▁reader ▁has ▁freedom ▁of ▁impro vis ation . ▁ ▁C ertain ▁pass ages ▁in ▁the ▁pray ers , ▁such ▁as ▁N ish mat , ▁the ▁K add ish ▁preceding ▁B are ch u , ▁and ▁the ▁K ed ush ah , ▁l end ▁themselves ▁to ▁more ▁elaborate ▁individual ▁rend ition ▁or ▁ch oral ▁singing . ▁ ▁In ▁some ▁trad itions ▁the ▁t unes ▁of ▁popular ▁h ym ns ▁are ▁borrow ed ▁for ▁these , ▁while ▁in ▁others ▁there ▁are ▁special ▁ch oral ▁compos itions . ▁ ▁Pi yy ut ▁ ▁A ▁pi yy ut ▁is ▁a ▁Jewish ▁lit urg ical ▁poem , ▁usually ▁designated ▁to ▁be ▁s ung , ▁ch anted , ▁or ▁rec ited ▁during ▁religious ▁services . ▁Pi yy ut im ▁have ▁been ▁written ▁since ▁M ish na ic ▁times . ▁Most ▁pi yy ut im ▁are ▁in ▁Heb rew ▁or ▁Ar ama ic , ▁and ▁most ▁follow ▁some ▁po etic ▁scheme , ▁such ▁as ▁an ▁ac rost ic ▁following ▁the ▁order ▁of |
▁the ▁Heb rew ▁alphabet ▁or ▁sp elling ▁out ▁the ▁name ▁of ▁the ▁author . ▁Many ▁are ▁in ▁the ▁quant itative ▁metres ▁used ▁for ▁Arab ic ▁poetry . ▁ ▁Many ▁pi yy ut im ▁are ▁familiar ▁to ▁regular ▁attend ers ▁of ▁syn agog ue ▁services . ▁For ▁example , ▁the ▁best - known ▁pi yy ut ▁may ▁be ▁Ad on ▁O lam ▁(" Master ▁of ▁the ▁World "), ▁sometimes ▁attributed ▁to ▁Sol omon ▁ibn ▁Gab i rol ▁in ▁ 1 1 th ▁century ▁Spain . ▁Its ▁po etic ▁form ▁consists ▁simply ▁of ▁rh ym ing ▁eight - s yll able ▁couple ts , ▁and ▁it ▁is ▁so ▁bel oved ▁that ▁it ▁is ▁often ▁s ung ▁at ▁the ▁conclusion ▁of ▁many ▁syn agog ue ▁services , ▁after ▁the ▁rit ual ▁night ly ▁saying ▁of ▁the ▁Sh ema , ▁and ▁during ▁the ▁morning ▁rit ual ▁of ▁putting ▁on ▁te fill in . ▁Another ▁well - bel oved ▁pi yy ut ▁is ▁Y ig dal ▁(" May ▁God ▁be ▁Hall owed "), ▁which ▁is ▁based ▁upon ▁the ▁Th ir teen ▁Princi ples ▁of ▁Fa ith ▁developed ▁by ▁Ma imon ides . ▁ ▁Pi yy ut im ▁have ▁traditional ▁t unes , ▁but ▁these ▁vary ▁greatly ▁between ▁communities , ▁and ▁a ▁single ▁community ▁may ▁have ▁up ▁to ▁ten ▁different ▁t unes ▁for ▁well - known ▁pi yy ut im ▁such ▁as ▁Ad on ▁O lam ▁and ▁Y ig dal . ▁ ▁Modern ▁Jewish ▁compos ers ▁such ▁as ▁Philip ▁G lass ▁often ▁compose ▁ch oral ▁settings ▁of ▁pi yy |
ut im . ▁ ▁Z em iro t ▁ ▁Z em iro t ▁are ▁Jewish ▁h ym ns , ▁usually ▁s ung ▁in ▁the ▁Heb rew ▁or ▁Ar ama ic ▁languages , ▁but ▁sometimes ▁also ▁in ▁Y idd ish ▁or ▁Lad ino . ▁ ▁The ▁best ▁known ▁zem iro t ▁are ▁those ▁s ung ▁around ▁the ▁table ▁on ▁Sh abb at ▁and ▁Jewish ▁hol id ays . ▁ ▁Some ▁of ▁the ▁S abb ath ▁zem iro t ▁are ▁specific ▁to ▁certain ▁times ▁of ▁the ▁day , ▁such ▁as ▁those ▁s ung ▁for ▁the ▁Friday ▁evening ▁me al , ▁the ▁Saturday ▁no on ▁me al , ▁and ▁Se ud ah ▁Sh lish it , ▁the ▁third ▁S abb ath ▁me al ▁just ▁before ▁su nd own ▁on ▁Saturday ▁afternoon . ▁ ▁In ▁some ▁ed itions ▁of ▁the ▁Jewish ▁prayer book ▁( s idd ur ), ▁the ▁words ▁to ▁these ▁h ym ns ▁are ▁printed ▁after ▁the ▁opening ▁prayer ▁( k idd ush ) ▁for ▁each ▁me al . ▁ ▁Other ▁zem iro t ▁are ▁more ▁generic ▁and ▁can ▁be ▁s ung ▁at ▁any ▁me al ▁or ▁other ▁sacred ▁occasion . ▁ ▁The ▁words ▁to ▁many ▁zem iro t ▁are ▁taken ▁from ▁po ems ▁written ▁by ▁various ▁rabb is ▁and ▁s ages ▁during ▁the ▁Middle ▁A ges . ▁ ▁O thers ▁are ▁anonymous ▁folk ▁songs ▁that ▁have ▁been ▁passed ▁down ▁from ▁generation ▁to ▁generation . ▁ ▁N ig un ▁ ▁N ig un ▁refers ▁to ▁religious ▁songs ▁and ▁t unes ▁that ▁are ▁s ung ▁by |
▁groups . ▁It ▁is ▁a ▁form ▁of ▁voice ▁instrument al ▁music , ▁often ▁without ▁any ▁lyr ics ▁or ▁words , ▁although ▁sounds ▁like ▁“ b im - b im - b am ” ▁or ▁“ A i - ai - ai !” ▁are ▁often ▁used . ▁ ▁Sometimes , ▁Bible ▁vers es ▁or ▁quotes ▁from ▁other ▁classical ▁Jewish ▁texts ▁are ▁s ung ▁repet it ively ▁in ▁the ▁form ▁of ▁a ▁n ig un . ▁ ▁N ig un im ▁are ▁largely ▁impro vis ations , ▁though ▁they ▁could ▁be ▁based ▁on ▁them atic ▁passage ▁and ▁are ▁st yl ized ▁in ▁form . ▁ ▁A ▁rev ival ▁of ▁interest ▁in ▁N ig un ▁was ▁spark ed ▁as ▁part ▁of ▁Has id ism . ▁D ifferent ▁Has id ic ▁groups ▁have ▁their ▁own ▁n ig un im , ▁often ▁composed ▁by ▁their ▁Reb be ▁or ▁leader . ▁One ▁of ▁the ▁most ▁famous ▁court ▁compos ers ▁was ▁Y ank el ▁Tal m ud , ▁who ▁led ▁the ▁Ger ▁cho ir ▁in ▁the ▁main ▁Ger ▁syn agog ues ▁in ▁Poland ▁and ▁in ▁Jerusalem , ▁and ▁also ▁composed ▁more ▁than ▁ 1 , 5 0 0 0 ▁n ig un im ▁to ▁accomp any ▁the ▁pray ers . ▁Has id im ▁gather ▁around ▁hol id ays ▁to ▁sing ▁in ▁groups . ▁ ▁There ▁are ▁also ▁n ig un im ▁for ▁individual ▁med itation , ▁called ▁de vek us ▁or ▁de vek ut ▁( connect ing ▁with ▁God ) ▁n ig un im . ▁ ▁These ▁are ▁usually ▁much |
▁slower ▁than ▁around - the - table ▁n ig un im , ▁and ▁are ▁almost ▁always ▁s ung ▁without ▁lyr ics . ▁ ▁The ▁Ba al ▁Sh em ▁T ov , ▁founder ▁of ▁Has id ism , ▁spoke ▁of ▁de vek us ▁n ig un im ▁as ▁“ song s ▁that ▁trans c end ▁sy ll ables ▁and ▁sound .” ▁N ig un ▁has ▁also ▁been ▁used ▁by ▁the ▁Mus ar ▁movement , ▁by ▁the ▁Jewish ▁renew al ▁movement , ▁and ▁in ▁other ▁Jewish ▁movements . ▁ ▁P iz mon im ▁ ▁P iz mon im ▁are ▁traditional ▁Jewish ▁songs ▁and ▁mel od ies ▁with ▁the ▁intent ions ▁of ▁pra ising ▁God ▁as ▁well ▁as ▁learning ▁certain ▁aspects ▁of ▁traditional ▁religious ▁teach ings . ▁They ▁are ▁s ung ▁throughout ▁religious ▁rit uals ▁and ▁festiv ities ▁such ▁as ▁pray ers , ▁circum cis ions , ▁bar ▁mit z v ah s , ▁wed d ings ▁and ▁other ▁cer emon ies . ▁ ▁P iz mon im ▁are ▁tradition ally ▁associated ▁with ▁Middle ▁Eastern ▁Se ph ard ic ▁Jews , ▁although ▁they ▁are ▁related ▁to ▁Ash ken azi ▁Jews ' ▁zem iro t . ▁ ▁The ▁best ▁known ▁tradition ▁is ▁associated ▁with ▁Jews ▁desc ended ▁from ▁Ale ppo , ▁though ▁similar ▁trad itions ▁exist ▁among ▁Ira qi ▁Jews ▁( where ▁the ▁songs ▁are ▁known ▁as ▁sh ba ִ h oth , ▁pra ises ) ▁and ▁in ▁North ▁African ▁countries . ▁ ▁Jews ▁of ▁Greek , ▁Turkish ▁and ▁B alk an ▁origin ▁have ▁songs ▁of ▁the |
▁same ▁kind ▁in ▁Lad ino , ▁associated ▁with ▁the ▁festiv als : ▁these ▁are ▁known ▁as ▁cop las . ▁ ▁The ▁texts ▁of ▁many ▁p iz mon im ▁date ▁back ▁to ▁the ▁Middle ▁A ges ▁or ▁earlier , ▁and ▁are ▁often ▁based ▁on ▁vers es ▁in ▁the ▁Bible . ▁Many ▁are ▁taken ▁from ▁the ▁Tan akh , ▁while ▁others ▁were ▁composed ▁by ▁po ets ▁such ▁as ▁Ye h uda ▁H ale vi ▁and ▁Israel ▁Naj ara ▁of ▁Gaz a . ▁Some ▁mel od ies ▁are ▁quite ▁old , ▁while ▁others ▁may ▁be ▁based ▁on ▁popular ▁Middle ▁Eastern ▁music , ▁with ▁the ▁words ▁composed ▁spe cially ▁to ▁fit ▁the ▁t une . ▁ ▁Ba q ash ot ▁ ▁The ▁Ba q ash ot ▁are ▁a ▁collection ▁of ▁supp lications , ▁songs , ▁and ▁pray ers ▁that ▁have ▁been ▁s ung ▁by ▁the ▁Se ph ard ic ▁Ale pp ian ▁Jewish ▁community ▁and ▁other ▁con greg ations ▁for ▁centuries ▁each ▁week ▁on ▁Sh abb at ▁morning ▁from ▁mid night ▁until ▁dawn . ▁Usually ▁they ▁are ▁rec ited ▁during ▁the ▁weeks ▁of ▁winter , ▁when ▁the ▁night s ▁are ▁much ▁longer . ▁ ▁The ▁custom ▁of ▁singing ▁Ba q ash ot ▁origin ated ▁in ▁Spain ▁towards ▁the ▁time ▁of ▁the ▁exp ulsion , ▁but ▁took ▁on ▁increased ▁momentum ▁in ▁the ▁Kab bal istic ▁circle ▁in ▁Saf ed ▁in ▁the ▁ 1 6 th ▁century . ▁Ba q ash ot ▁probably ▁evol ved ▁out ▁of ▁the ▁tradition ▁of ▁saying ▁pet ition ary ▁pray ers ▁before ▁dawn ▁and |
▁was ▁spread ▁from ▁Saf ed ▁by ▁the ▁follow ers ▁of ▁Isaac ▁L uria ▁( 1 6 th ▁century ). ▁ ▁With ▁the ▁spread ▁of ▁Saf ed ▁Kab bal istic ▁doctrine , ▁the ▁singing ▁of ▁Ba q ash ot ▁reached ▁countries ▁all ▁round ▁the ▁Mediter rane an ▁and ▁became ▁custom ary ▁in ▁the ▁communities ▁of ▁Mor oc co , ▁Tun is ia , ▁Al ger ia , ▁Rh odes , ▁Greece , ▁Y ug oslav ia , ▁Egypt , ▁Turkey ▁and ▁Sy ria . ▁ ▁It ▁also ▁influenced ▁the ▁Kab bal ist ically ▁orient ed ▁con fr atern ities ▁in ▁ 1 8 th - century ▁Italy , ▁and ▁even ▁became ▁custom ary ▁for ▁a ▁time ▁in ▁Se ph ard ic ▁communities ▁in ▁western ▁Europe , ▁such ▁as ▁Amsterdam ▁and ▁London , ▁though ▁in ▁these ▁communities ▁it ▁has ▁since ▁been ▁dropped . ▁ ▁By ▁the ▁turn ▁of ▁the ▁ 2 0 th ▁century ▁Ba q ash ot ▁had ▁become ▁a ▁w ides p read ▁religious ▁practice ▁in ▁several ▁communities ▁in ▁Jerusalem ▁as ▁a ▁commun al ▁form ▁of ▁prayer . ▁ ▁Bibli ography ▁Gro ve ' s ▁Dictionary ▁of ▁Music , ▁article ▁on ▁" J ew ish ▁Music " ▁ ▁References ▁ ▁External ▁links ▁ ▁Jewish ▁Music ▁A ▁large ▁database ▁of ▁free ▁religious ▁Jewish ▁sheet ▁music ▁for ▁download . ▁In cluding ▁audio ▁and ▁video ▁present ations . ▁ ▁sh ul music . org ▁A ▁collection ▁representing ▁the ▁Ang lo - G erman ▁ch oral ▁tradition , ▁in ▁sheet ▁music ▁and ▁sound ▁files ▁ ▁Music ▁in |
▁Kab bal ah . ▁ ▁The ▁N ig un ▁from ▁an ▁Eth nom us ic ological ▁Pers pective ▁ ▁Power ▁of ▁the ▁N ig un ▁n ig un . info ▁ ▁Se ph ard ic ▁P iz mon im ▁Project ▁ ▁Category : J ew ish ▁music <0x0A> </s> ▁Fol ly ▁( SP - 1 4 5 3 ) ▁was ▁a ▁sail ing ▁sch oon er ▁that ▁served ▁in ▁the ▁United ▁States ▁Navy ▁as ▁a ▁pat rol ▁vessel ▁during ▁World ▁War ▁I . ▁ ▁Fol ly ▁served ▁on ▁section ▁pat rol ▁duties ▁in ▁the ▁ 5 th ▁Naval ▁District ▁in ▁a ▁non - comm ission ed ▁status ▁during ▁the ▁period ▁the ▁United ▁States ▁participated ▁in ▁the ▁war . ▁ ▁References ▁ ▁SP - 1 4 5 3 ▁Fol ly ▁at ▁Department ▁of ▁the ▁Navy ▁Naval ▁History ▁and ▁Heritage ▁Command ▁Online ▁Library ▁of ▁Selected ▁Im ages : ▁U . S . ▁Navy ▁Sh ips : ▁-- ▁List ed ▁by ▁H ull ▁Number : ▁" SP " ▁# s ▁and ▁" ID " ▁# s ▁-- ▁World ▁War ▁I ▁Era ▁Pat rol ▁V ess els ▁and ▁other ▁Ac quired ▁Sh ips ▁and ▁C raft ▁number ed ▁from ▁SP - 1 4 0 0 ▁through ▁SP - 1 4 9 9 ▁Nav Source ▁Online : ▁Section ▁Pat rol ▁C raft ▁Ph oto ▁Archive ▁Fol ly ▁( SP ▁ 1 4 5 3 ) ▁ ▁Category : Pat rol ▁vessels ▁of ▁the ▁United ▁States ▁Navy ▁Category : World ▁War ▁I ▁pat rol ▁vessels ▁of ▁the ▁United ▁States |
▁Category : S cho on ers ▁of ▁the ▁United ▁States ▁Navy ▁Category : 1 8 8 4 ▁ships <0x0A> </s> ▁The ▁K rum en ▁( also ▁Kr ou men , ▁K ro omen ) ▁is ▁an ▁eth nic ▁group ▁living ▁mostly ▁along ▁the ▁coast ▁of ▁Liber ia ▁and ▁C ô te ▁d ’ I vo ire . ▁ ▁Their ▁numbers ▁were ▁estimated ▁to ▁be ▁ 4 8 , 3 0 0 ▁in ▁ 1 9 9 3 , ▁of ▁which ▁ 2 8 , 3 0 0 ▁were ▁in ▁C ô te ▁d ’ I vo ire . ▁ ▁They ▁are ▁a ▁subgroup ▁of ▁the ▁Gre bo ▁and ▁speak ▁the ▁K rum en ▁language . ▁ ▁They ▁are ▁also ▁called ▁Kru , ▁and ▁are ▁related ▁to ▁( but ▁distinct ▁from ) ▁the ▁Kru ▁people ▁of ▁the ▁Liber ian ▁interior . ▁ ▁Word ▁Origin ▁There ▁has ▁been ▁much ▁scholar ly ▁debate ▁on ▁the ▁origin ▁of ▁the ▁term , ▁since ▁there ▁is ▁little ▁evidence ▁of ▁use ▁of ▁the ▁term ▁outside ▁of ▁the ▁mar itime ▁environment ▁in ▁which ▁the ▁K rum en ▁served ▁as ▁sail ors , ▁and ▁the ▁fact ▁that ▁many ▁Gre bo ▁served ▁in ▁this ▁capacity . ▁ ▁Hence ▁the ▁belief ▁that ▁its ▁root ▁was ▁from ▁" cre w men " ▁in ▁English ▁( a ▁pid gin ▁form ▁of ▁which ▁was ▁a ▁ling ua ▁fran ca ▁among ▁them , ▁thanks ▁to ▁their ▁service ▁as ▁on ▁European ▁vessels ). ▁One ▁theory , ▁advanced ▁in ▁the ▁ 1 9 1 1 ▁Encyclop ædia ▁Britannica ▁was ▁that |
▁it ▁derived ▁from ▁Kra oh , ▁which ▁is ▁the ▁name ▁of ▁one ▁subgroup ▁in ▁their ▁home ▁area . ▁ ▁History ▁ ▁Orig ins ▁The ▁coast ▁of ▁eastern ▁Liber ia ▁and ▁western ▁I v ory ▁Coast ▁were ▁rarely ▁visited ▁by ▁European ▁vessels ▁until ▁the ▁nin ete enth ▁century , ▁and ▁for ▁that ▁reason ▁there ▁are ▁very ▁few ▁written ▁texts ▁that ▁can ▁ill uminate ▁its ▁early ▁history ▁or ▁the ▁origin ▁of ▁the ▁K rum en ▁communities ▁there . ▁ ▁There ▁has ▁also ▁been ▁very ▁little ▁arch ae ological ▁work ▁that ▁might ▁ill uminate ▁events ▁or ▁soci eties ▁of ▁the ▁more ▁distant ▁past . ▁ ▁For ▁that ▁reason , ▁or al ▁tradition ▁remains ▁the ▁most ▁important ▁key ▁to ▁the ▁origin ▁of ▁the ▁K rum en . ▁ ▁Trad itions ▁recorded ▁in ▁the ▁mid ▁nin ete enth ▁century ▁by ▁James ▁Con nel ly ▁relate ▁that ▁the ▁Kru ▁communities ▁that ▁lived ▁along ▁the ▁shore ▁of ▁what ▁is ▁today ▁southern ▁Liber ia ▁and ▁the ▁re put ed ▁core ▁settlement ▁of ▁the ▁K rum en ▁came ▁down ▁to ▁the ▁coast ▁from ▁the ▁interior ▁" some ▁three ▁gener ations ▁back -- say ▁one ▁hundred ▁to ▁one ▁hundred ▁fifty ▁years ..." ▁from ▁an ▁original ▁place ▁he ▁called ▁Cla ho . ▁ ▁Com ing ▁down ▁the ▁Po or ▁River ▁they ▁" lear ned ▁the ▁value ▁of ▁salt " ▁and ▁founded ▁the ▁town ▁of ▁Bass a , ▁the ▁subsequently ▁moved ▁again ▁to ▁Little ▁K ro o , ▁and ▁then ▁were ▁subsequently ▁joined ▁by ▁whole ▁communities ▁from ▁the ▁interior . ▁These ▁events ▁likely ▁occurred ▁in |
▁the ▁ 1 7 7 0 s ▁and ▁are ▁believed ▁to ▁be ▁connected ▁to ▁more ▁int ensive ▁European ▁interest ▁in ▁trade ▁in ▁the ▁region ▁at ▁about ▁this ▁time . ▁ ▁The ▁original ▁sett lers ▁from ▁the ▁interior ▁eventually ▁established ▁five ▁towns , ▁Little ▁K ro o , ▁Set ra ▁K ro o , ▁K ro o - Bar , ▁N ana ▁K ro o ▁and ▁King ▁Will ' s ▁Town , ▁that ▁came ▁to ▁be ▁regarded ▁as ▁their ▁home ▁district , ▁though ▁soon ▁other ▁off sh o ots ▁developed ▁along ▁the ▁coast , ▁and ▁particularly ▁in ▁Fre et own , ▁Sierra ▁Le one . ▁ ▁Se af aring ▁From ▁the ▁late ▁eigh teenth ▁century ▁on ward , ▁K rum en ▁began ▁working ▁on ▁European ▁ships . ▁ ▁By ▁the ▁ 1 7 9 0 s ▁the ▁inhabitants ▁of ▁their ▁original ▁region ▁were ▁being ▁h ired ▁as ▁free ▁sail ors ▁on ▁European ▁ships ▁engaged ▁in ▁the ▁slave ▁trade . ▁ ▁As ▁the ▁so - called ▁" leg it imate ▁trade " ▁replaced ▁the ▁slave ▁trade ▁in ▁the ▁nin ete enth ▁century ▁and ▁as ▁trade ▁along ▁the ▁West ▁Africa ▁coast ▁increased , ▁many ▁K rum en ▁signed ▁on ▁to ▁the ▁new ▁vessels ▁as ▁se amen . ▁ ▁In ▁the ▁process ▁there ▁developed ▁K rum en ▁communities ▁around ▁all ▁the ▁major ▁trad ing ▁fact ories ▁of ▁the ▁coast , ▁from ▁Sierra ▁Le one ▁around ▁to ▁the ▁mouth ▁of ▁the ▁Congo ▁River . ▁ ▁A ▁number ▁of ▁K ro omen ▁( between ▁ 2 0 ▁and ▁ |
3 0 ) ▁are ▁buried ▁in ▁the ▁Sea for th ▁Old ▁Bur ial ▁Gr ound ▁in ▁Simon ' s ▁Town , ▁South ▁Africa , ▁where ▁their ▁gra ves ▁can ▁still ▁be ▁seen , ▁and ▁K ro omen ▁is ▁the ▁name ▁used ▁to ▁describe ▁them ▁on ▁their ▁grav est ones . ▁They ▁were ▁active ▁in ▁the ▁Royal ▁Navy ▁from ▁ 1 8 2 0 ▁to ▁as ▁late ▁as ▁ 1 9 2 4 , ▁e . g . ▁ ▁land ed ▁a ▁camp ▁party ▁with ▁ 1 2 ▁K rum en ▁in ▁Ele ph ant ▁Bay ▁in ▁June ▁of ▁that ▁year . ▁ ▁Many ▁K ro omen ▁joined ▁the ▁dock yard ▁staff , ▁others ▁remained ▁on ▁board ▁R N ▁ships ▁as ▁se amen . ▁They ▁were ▁given ▁Western ▁names ▁by ▁the ▁men ▁on ▁the ▁ships , ▁leading ▁to ▁names ▁that ▁are ▁am using ▁to ▁the ▁Western ▁eye , ▁Tom ▁R op eman ▁and ▁Will ▁C ock ro ach ▁amongst ▁them . ▁They ▁were ▁clearly ▁commonly ▁employed , ▁and ▁the ▁names ▁best owed ▁were ▁not ▁original , ▁since ▁the ▁c emetery ▁contains ▁for ▁example ▁the ▁remains ▁of ▁Tom ▁Smith ▁Number ▁ 1 , ▁to ▁distinguish ▁him ▁from ▁another ▁Tom ▁Smith . ▁ ▁Although ▁the ▁earliest ▁K rum en ▁mar in ers ▁may ▁have ▁come ▁from ▁the ▁five ▁core ▁towns , ▁people ▁from ▁many ▁other ▁places ▁and ▁eth nic ities ▁joined ▁the ▁original ▁K rum en , ▁creating ▁a ▁mixed ▁but ▁strongly ▁held ▁identity , ▁not ▁only ▁in ▁their ▁home ▁district , ▁but ▁in ▁the ▁many |
▁trad ing ▁posts ▁and ▁towns ▁where ▁they ▁came ▁to ▁sett le , ▁and ▁then ▁people ▁from ▁those ▁places ▁also ▁became ▁effectively ▁K rum en ▁by ▁taking ▁on ▁their ▁identity ▁and ▁behavior al ▁characteristics . ▁ ▁Some ▁sch ol ars ▁maintain ▁that ▁in ▁fact ▁the ▁term ▁K rum en ▁and ▁indeed ▁even ▁Kru ▁origin ated ▁in ▁the ▁mar itime ▁branch ▁of ▁the ▁culture ▁alone , ▁being ▁transport ed ▁back ▁to ▁the ▁hom el ands ▁from ▁the ▁dispers ed ▁communities , ▁but ▁others ▁cont end ▁that ▁the ▁process ▁of ▁identity ▁formation ▁was ▁more ▁complex ▁involving ▁both ▁mar itime ▁and ▁shore ▁communities . ▁ ▁K rum en ▁sail ors ▁were ▁organized ▁as ▁small ▁companies ▁under ▁a ▁head man . ▁ ▁They ▁would ▁p addle ▁in ▁small ▁can o es ▁as ▁far ▁as ▁a ▁dozen ▁miles ▁out ▁to ▁see ▁to ▁meet ▁ships ▁as ▁they ▁arrived ▁and ▁negoti ated ▁their ▁employ ment ▁on ▁the ▁spot . ▁ ▁Head men ▁often ▁carried ▁credentials ▁from ▁previous ▁st ints ▁of ▁employ ment ▁in ▁boxes ▁or ▁other ▁containers , ▁and ▁negoti ations ▁were ▁conducted ▁rapidly . ▁During ▁the ▁earlier ▁part ▁of ▁the ▁nin ete enth ▁century ▁foreign ▁obser vers ▁often ▁gave ▁the ▁Kru ▁high ▁pra ise ▁for ▁their ▁hon esty , ▁courage , ▁efficiency ▁and ▁willing ness ▁to ▁do ▁hard ▁work . ▁ ▁Later ▁obser vers , ▁however , ▁had ▁more ▁dispar aging ▁comments ▁to ▁make , ▁though ▁either ▁way , ▁few ▁ships ▁p lied ▁African ▁waters ▁without ▁many ▁Kru ▁sail ors ▁on ▁board . ▁ ▁Although ▁initially ▁K rum en ▁were |
▁interested ▁only ▁in ▁sail or ' s ▁work , ▁in ▁time ▁some ▁took ▁up ▁land ▁based ▁employ ment ▁doing ▁all ▁sorts ▁of ▁work ▁in ▁the ▁many ▁trad ing ▁fact ories ▁that ▁grew ▁up ▁all ▁along ▁the ▁African ▁coast ▁from ▁Sierra ▁Le one ▁to ▁the ▁mouth ▁of ▁the ▁Congo ▁River . ▁ ▁They ▁were ▁also ▁rec ru ited ▁as ▁soldiers ▁and ▁common ▁labor ers , ▁some ▁travel ing ▁as ▁far ▁as ▁India ▁and ▁the ▁Mal ay an ▁pen ins ula ▁to ▁the ▁east . ▁ ▁K rum en ▁workers ▁served ▁French ▁employ ers ▁in ▁the ▁French ▁attempt ▁to ▁dig ▁the ▁Pan ama ▁Canal , ▁others ▁were ▁employed ▁in ▁J ama ica . ▁ ▁Culture ▁In ▁the ▁late ▁nin ete enth ▁century ▁reports ▁described ▁the ▁K rum en ▁are ▁divided ▁into ▁small ▁common wealth s , ▁each ▁with ▁a ▁her edit ary ▁chief ▁whose ▁duty ▁is ▁simply ▁to ▁represent ▁the ▁people ▁in ▁their ▁deal ings ▁with ▁str angers . ▁The ▁real ▁government ▁is ▁v ested ▁in ▁the ▁el ders , ▁who ▁wear ▁as ▁ins ign ia ▁iron ▁rings ▁on ▁their ▁legs . ▁Their ▁president , ▁who ▁holds ▁religious ▁authority ▁as ▁well , ▁gu ards ▁the ▁national ▁symbols , ▁and ▁his ▁house ▁is ▁san ctu ary ▁for ▁off enders ▁until ▁their ▁gu ilt ▁is ▁proved . ▁Personal ▁property ▁is ▁held ▁in ▁common ▁by ▁each ▁family . ▁Land ▁also ▁is ▁commun al , ▁but ▁the ▁rights ▁of ▁the ▁actual ▁cultiv ator ▁ce ase ▁when ▁he ▁fails ▁to ▁farm ▁it . ▁ ▁Religion ▁The ▁first ▁descri ptions ▁of |
▁core ▁group ▁of ▁K rum en ' s ▁religion ▁were ▁done ▁by ▁mission aries ▁not ably ▁James ▁Con n ol ley , ▁But ▁these ▁accounts ▁can ▁also ▁be ▁augment ed ▁by ▁more ▁detailed ▁accounts ▁of ▁the ▁Gre bo ▁of ▁nearby ▁Cape ▁Pal mas ▁who ▁were ▁lingu ist ically ▁and ▁cult ur ally ▁related ▁and ▁were , ▁by ▁ 1 8 5 5 ▁becoming ▁K rum en ▁themselves ▁by ▁going ▁to ▁sea ▁and ▁may ▁have ▁been ▁as ▁important ▁in ▁the ▁overall ▁culture ▁as ▁the ▁core ▁K rum en ▁themselves . ▁ ▁The ▁central ▁elements ▁of ▁the ▁spiritual ▁universe ▁of ▁this ▁region ▁included ▁a ▁figure ▁identified ▁by ▁mission aries ▁as ▁a ▁high , ▁cre ator ▁God , ▁named ▁N yes oa , ▁spirits ▁or ▁de ities ▁associated ▁with ▁territ ories ▁called , ▁famil ial ▁spiritual ▁guard ians ▁called ▁k u ▁and ▁finally ▁k wi ▁or ▁the ▁sou ls ▁of ▁the ▁depart ed ▁who ▁remained ▁near ▁by ▁and ▁could ▁influence ▁events . ▁ ▁These ▁spiritual ▁entities ▁were ▁contact ed ▁through ▁a ▁class ▁of ▁people ▁called ▁de ya , ▁who ▁under w ent ▁long ▁and ▁special ized ▁training ▁and ▁app rent ices hip ▁to ▁take ▁up ▁their ▁office . ▁ ▁They ▁addressed ▁problems ▁both ▁medical ▁and ▁spiritual ▁using ▁ph arma ce ut ical ▁and ▁spiritual ▁rem ed ies . ▁ ▁The ▁Kru ▁languages ▁ ▁Wilhelm ▁Ble ek ▁class ified ▁the ▁Kru ▁language ▁with ▁the ▁Mand ingo ▁family , ▁and ▁in ▁this ▁he ▁was ▁followed ▁by ▁R . ▁G . ▁L ath am ; ▁S . ▁W . |
▁Ko elle , ▁who ▁published ▁a ▁Kru ▁grammar ▁( 1 8 5 4 ), ▁disag re ed . ▁ ▁Notes ▁ ▁References ▁Be hr ens , ▁Christ ine ▁( 1 9 7 4 ). ▁ ▁Le ▁Cr ou men ▁de ▁la ▁cô te ▁occident al ▁de ▁l ' A frique ▁Tal ence : ▁Min ist ère ▁de ▁la ▁Education ▁N ationale . ▁Bro oks , ▁George ▁( 1 9 7 2 ). ▁ ▁The ▁Kru ▁Mar iner ▁in ▁the ▁Nin ete enth ▁Century : ▁An ▁Historical ▁Comp end ium , ▁New ark , ▁DE : ▁Liber ian ▁Studies ▁Association ▁of ▁America . ▁Bre it bor de , L . ▁B . ▁ ▁( 1 9 9 1 ). ▁" City , ▁Coun tr ys ide ▁and ▁Kru ▁Eth nic ity ," ▁Africa : ▁Journal ▁of ▁the ▁International ▁African ▁Institute ▁ 6 1 / 2 ▁( 1 9 9 1 ): ▁ 1 8 6 - 2 0 1 . ▁Mc E voy , Fre der ick ▁( 1 9 7 7 ). ▁" Under standing ▁Eth nic ▁Real ities ▁among ▁the ▁Gre bo ▁and ▁Kru ▁Pe op les ▁of ▁Western ▁Africa ," ▁Africa : ▁Journal ▁of ▁the ▁International ▁African ▁Institute ▁ 4 7 / 1 : ▁ 6 2 - 8 0 . ▁ ▁Further ▁reading ▁ ▁Bü tt iko fer , ▁Johann ▁( 1 8 9 0 ), ▁Re is eb ilder ▁aus ▁Liber ia ▁ 2 ▁vol s ., ▁Le iden . ▁B urr ough s , ▁Robert ▁( 2 0 |
0 9 ) ▁"[ T ] r ue ▁S ail ors ▁of ▁Western ▁Africa : ▁ ▁Kur ▁Se af aring ▁Identity ▁in ▁British ▁Tra vel er ' s ▁Account s ▁of ▁the ▁ 1 8 3 0 s ▁and ▁ 4 0 s ," ▁Journal ▁for ▁Mar itime ▁Research ▁ 1 1 : ▁ 5 1 - 6 7 . ▁Harry ▁H . ▁John ston ▁( 1 9 0 6 ), ▁Liber ia ▁London . ▁ ▁Martin , ▁Jane ▁( 1 9 9 5 ). ▁ ▁" K rum en ▁' Down ▁the ▁Coast ': ▁ ▁Liber ian ▁M igr ants ▁on ▁the ▁West ▁African ▁Coast ▁in ▁the ▁ 1 9 th ▁and ▁early ▁ 2 0 th ▁centuries ," ▁International ▁Journal ▁of ▁African ▁Historical ▁Studies ▁ 1 8 : ▁ 4 0 1 - 2 3 . ▁Nicholas ▁( 1 8 7 2 ), ▁in ▁Bul letin ▁de ▁la ▁Société ▁Anth rop ologique ▁A . ▁de ▁Qu at ref ages ▁and ▁E . ▁T . ▁Ham y ▁( 1 8 7 8 – 1 8 7 9 ), ▁C ran ia ▁eth nica , ▁ 9 : ▁ 3 6 3 ▁( a ▁bi ometric ▁study ) ▁Sch lag int weit - S ak un un ski , ▁" Ang aben ▁zur ▁Char atur istik ▁der ▁Kru - N eg er ," ▁Sitz ungs ber ichte ▁Bayer ische ▁Akademie ▁der ▁Wissenschaft en ▁zu ▁München ▁ 5 ( 1 8 7 5 ): ▁ 1 8 3 - 2 0 2 ▁( a |
▁bi ometric ▁study ▁of ▁ 3 ▁Kru ▁sail ors ▁on ▁a ▁ship ▁bound ▁for ▁India ▁in ▁ 1 8 5 7 ). ▁ ▁Category : E th nic ▁groups ▁in ▁Liber ia ▁Category : E th nic ▁groups ▁in ▁I v ory ▁Coast <0x0A> </s> ▁In ▁general ▁relativ ity ▁Kr us kal – S ze ker es ▁coordinates , ▁named ▁after ▁Martin ▁Kr us kal ▁and ▁George ▁S ze ker es , ▁are ▁a ▁coordinate ▁system ▁for ▁the ▁Schwar z sch ild ▁geometry ▁for ▁a ▁black ▁hole . ▁These ▁coordinates ▁have ▁the ▁advantage ▁that ▁they ▁cover ▁the ▁entire ▁spac etime ▁manifold ▁of ▁the ▁maxim ally ▁extended ▁Schwar z sch ild ▁solution ▁and ▁are ▁well - be hav ed ▁everywhere ▁outside ▁the ▁physical ▁singular ity . ▁ ▁Definition ▁ ▁Kr us kal – S ze ker es ▁coordinates ▁on ▁a ▁black ▁hole ▁geometry ▁are ▁defined , ▁from ▁the ▁Schwar z sch ild ▁coordinates ▁, ▁by ▁replacing ▁t ▁and ▁r ▁by ▁a ▁new ▁tim eli ke ▁coordinate ▁T ▁and ▁a ▁new ▁spac eli ke ▁coordinate ▁: ▁ ▁for ▁the ▁exterior ▁region ▁ ▁outside ▁the ▁event ▁horizon ▁and : ▁ ▁for ▁the ▁interior ▁region ▁. ▁Here ▁ ▁is ▁the ▁gravit ational ▁constant ▁multip lied ▁by ▁the ▁Schwar z sch ild ▁mass ▁parameter , ▁and ▁this ▁article ▁is ▁using ▁units ▁where ▁ ▁= ▁ 1 . ▁ ▁It ▁follows ▁that ▁on ▁the ▁union ▁of ▁the ▁exterior ▁region , ▁the ▁event ▁horizon ▁and ▁the ▁interior ▁region ▁the ▁Schwar z sch ild ▁radial ▁coordinate ▁ ▁( not ▁to ▁be |
▁confused ▁with ▁the ▁Schwar z sch ild ▁radius ▁), ▁is ▁determined ▁in ▁terms ▁of ▁Kr us kal – S ze ker es ▁coordinates ▁as ▁the ▁( unique ) ▁solution ▁of ▁the ▁equation : ▁ ▁Using ▁the ▁Lam bert ▁W ▁function ▁the ▁solution ▁is ▁written ▁as : ▁. ▁Moreover ▁one ▁sees ▁immediately ▁that ▁in ▁region ▁external ▁of ▁the ▁black ▁hole ▁▁ ▁whereas ▁in ▁the ▁internal ▁of ▁the ▁black ▁hole ▁▁▁▁ ▁In ▁these ▁new ▁coordinates ▁the ▁metric ▁of ▁the ▁Schwar z sch ild ▁black ▁hole ▁manifold ▁is ▁given ▁by ▁ ▁written ▁using ▁the ▁( − ▁+ ▁+ ▁+ ) ▁metric ▁signature ▁convention ▁and ▁where ▁the ▁angular ▁component ▁of ▁the ▁metric ▁( the ▁Riemann ian ▁metric ▁of ▁the ▁ 2 - s phere ) ▁is : ▁. ▁ ▁Express ing ▁the ▁metric ▁in ▁this ▁form ▁shows ▁clearly ▁that ▁radial ▁null ▁ge odes ics ▁i . e . ▁with ▁constant ▁ ▁are ▁parallel ▁to ▁one ▁of ▁the ▁lines ▁ ▁. ▁In ▁the ▁Schwar z sch ild ▁coordinates , ▁the ▁Schwar z sch ild ▁radius ▁ ▁is ▁the ▁radial ▁coordinate ▁of ▁the ▁event ▁horizon ▁. ▁In ▁the ▁Kr us kal - S ze ker es ▁coordinates ▁the ▁event ▁horizon ▁is ▁given ▁by ▁. ▁Note ▁that ▁the ▁metric ▁is ▁perfectly ▁well ▁defined ▁and ▁non - sing ular ▁at ▁the ▁event ▁horizon . ▁The ▁curv ature ▁singular ity ▁is ▁located ▁at ▁. ▁ ▁The ▁maxim ally ▁extended ▁Schwar z sch ild ▁solution ▁The ▁transformation ▁between ▁Schwar z sch ild ▁coordinates ▁and ▁Kr us kal – S ze ker es ▁coordinates |
▁is ▁defined ▁for ▁r ▁> ▁ 2 GM , ▁and ▁− ∞ ▁< ▁t ▁< ▁ ∞ , ▁which ▁is ▁the ▁range ▁for ▁which ▁the ▁Schwar z sch ild ▁coordinates ▁make ▁sense . ▁However ▁in ▁this ▁region , ▁r ▁is ▁an ▁analyt ic ▁function ▁of ▁T ▁and ▁X ▁and ▁can ▁be ▁extended , ▁as ▁an ▁analyt ic ▁function ▁at ▁least ▁to ▁the ▁first ▁singular ity ▁which ▁occurs ▁at ▁. ▁Thus ▁the ▁above ▁metric ▁is ▁a ▁solution ▁of ▁Ein stein ' s ▁equations ▁throughout ▁this ▁region . ▁ ▁The ▁allowed ▁values ▁are ▁ ▁Note ▁that ▁this ▁extension ▁assumes ▁that ▁the ▁solution ▁is ▁analyt ic ▁everywhere . ▁ ▁In ▁the ▁maxim ally ▁extended ▁solution ▁there ▁are ▁actually ▁two ▁singular ities ▁at ▁r ▁= ▁ 0 , ▁one ▁for ▁positive ▁T ▁and ▁one ▁for ▁negative ▁T . ▁The ▁negative ▁T ▁singular ity ▁is ▁the ▁time - re vers ed ▁black ▁hole , ▁sometimes ▁dub bed ▁a ▁" white ▁hole ". ▁Part icles ▁can ▁escape ▁from ▁a ▁white ▁hole ▁but ▁they ▁can ▁never ▁return . ▁ ▁The ▁maxim ally ▁extended ▁Schwar z sch ild ▁geometry ▁can ▁be ▁divided ▁into ▁ 4 ▁regions ▁each ▁of ▁which ▁can ▁be ▁covered ▁by ▁a ▁suitable ▁set ▁of ▁Schwar z sch ild ▁coordinates . ▁The ▁Kr us kal – S ze ker es ▁coordinates , ▁on ▁the ▁other ▁hand , ▁cover ▁the ▁entire ▁spac etime ▁manifold . ▁The ▁four ▁regions ▁are ▁separated ▁by ▁event ▁hor iz ons . ▁ ▁The ▁transformation ▁given ▁above ▁between ▁Schwar z sch ild ▁and ▁Kr us kal |
– S ze ker es ▁coordinates ▁applies ▁only ▁in ▁regions ▁I ▁and ▁II . ▁A ▁similar ▁transformation ▁can ▁be ▁written ▁down ▁in ▁the ▁other ▁two ▁regions . ▁ ▁The ▁Schwar z sch ild ▁time ▁coordinate ▁t ▁is ▁given ▁by ▁ ▁In ▁each ▁region ▁it ▁runs ▁from ▁− ∞ ▁to ▁+ ∞ ▁with ▁the ▁infin ities ▁at ▁the ▁event ▁hor iz ons . ▁ ▁Based ▁on ▁the ▁requirements ▁that ▁the ▁quantum ▁process ▁of ▁Haw king ▁radiation ▁is ▁unit ary , ▁' t ▁H oo ft ▁proposed ▁that ▁the ▁regions ▁I ▁and ▁III , ▁and ▁II ▁and ▁IV ▁are ▁just ▁mathematical ▁arte fact s ▁coming ▁from ▁choosing ▁branches ▁for ▁roots ▁rather ▁than ▁parallel ▁univers es ▁and ▁that ▁the ▁equivalence ▁relation ▁▁ ▁should ▁be ▁im posed . ▁If ▁we ▁think ▁of ▁regions ▁III ▁and ▁IV ▁as ▁having ▁spher ical ▁coordinates ▁but ▁with ▁a ▁negative ▁choice ▁for ▁the ▁square ▁root ▁to ▁compute ▁, ▁then ▁we ▁just ▁corresponding ly ▁use ▁opposite ▁points ▁on ▁the ▁sphere ▁to ▁denote ▁the ▁same ▁point ▁in ▁space , ▁so ▁e . g . ▁ ▁, ▁and ▁. ▁Since ▁this ▁is ▁a ▁free ▁action ▁by ▁the ▁group ▁ ▁pres erving ▁the ▁metric , ▁this ▁gives ▁a ▁well ▁defined ▁Lor ent z ian ▁manifold . ▁It ▁ident ifies ▁the ▁limit ▁ ▁of ▁the ▁interior ▁region ▁II ▁corresponding ▁to ▁the ▁coordinate ▁line ▁segment ▁ ▁with ▁the ▁limit ▁ ▁of ▁the ▁exterior ▁region ▁I ▁corresponding ▁to ▁. ▁The ▁identification ▁does ▁mean ▁that ▁whereas ▁each ▁pair ▁ ▁correspond ▁to ▁a ▁spatial ▁direction ▁on ▁a ▁sphere , ▁the ▁point |
▁ ▁corresponds ▁to ▁a ▁line ▁i . e . ▁a ▁point ▁on ▁the ▁project ive ▁plane ▁ ▁instead , ▁and ▁the ▁topology ▁of ▁the ▁underlying ▁manifold ▁is ▁no ▁longer ▁. ▁ ▁Qual itative ▁features ▁of ▁the ▁Kr us kal – S ze ker es ▁diagram ▁ ▁Kr us kal – S ze ker es ▁coordinates ▁have ▁a ▁number ▁of ▁useful ▁features ▁which ▁make ▁them ▁helpful ▁for ▁building ▁intu itions ▁about ▁the ▁Schwar z sch ild ▁spac etime . ▁Chief ▁among ▁these ▁is ▁the ▁fact ▁that ▁all ▁radial ▁light - like ▁ge odes ics ▁( the ▁world ▁lines ▁of ▁light ▁ray s ▁moving ▁in ▁a ▁radial ▁direction ) ▁look ▁like ▁straight ▁lines ▁at ▁a ▁ 4 5 - deg ree ▁angle ▁when ▁drawn ▁in ▁a ▁Kr us kal – S ze ker es ▁diagram ▁( this ▁can ▁be ▁derived ▁from ▁the ▁metric ▁equation ▁given ▁above , ▁which ▁guarante es ▁that ▁if ▁ ▁then ▁the ▁proper ▁time ▁). ▁All ▁tim eli ke ▁world ▁lines ▁of ▁slower - than - light ▁objects ▁will ▁at ▁every ▁point ▁have ▁a ▁slope ▁closer ▁to ▁the ▁vertical ▁time ▁axis ▁( the ▁T ▁coordinate ) ▁than ▁ 4 5 ▁degrees . ▁So , ▁a ▁light ▁cone ▁drawn ▁in ▁a ▁Kr us kal – S ze ker es ▁diagram ▁will ▁look ▁just ▁the ▁same ▁as ▁a ▁light ▁cone ▁in ▁a ▁M ink owski ▁diagram ▁in ▁special ▁relativ ity . ▁ ▁The ▁event ▁hor iz ons ▁bound ing ▁the ▁black ▁hole ▁and ▁white ▁hole ▁interior ▁regions ▁are ▁also ▁a ▁pair ▁of ▁straight ▁lines |
▁at ▁ 4 5 ▁degrees , ▁reflect ing ▁the ▁fact ▁that ▁a ▁light ▁ray ▁em itted ▁at ▁the ▁horizon ▁in ▁a ▁radial ▁direction ▁( a im ed ▁out ward ▁in ▁the ▁case ▁of ▁the ▁black ▁hole , ▁in ward ▁in ▁the ▁case ▁of ▁the ▁white ▁hole ) ▁would ▁remain ▁on ▁the ▁horizon ▁forever . ▁Thus ▁the ▁two ▁black ▁hole ▁hor iz ons ▁co inci de ▁with ▁the ▁boundaries ▁of ▁the ▁future ▁light ▁cone ▁of ▁an ▁event ▁at ▁the ▁center ▁of ▁the ▁diagram ▁( at ▁T = X = 0 ), ▁while ▁the ▁two ▁white ▁hole ▁hor iz ons ▁co inci de ▁with ▁the ▁boundaries ▁of ▁the ▁past ▁light ▁cone ▁of ▁this ▁same ▁event . ▁Any ▁event ▁inside ▁the ▁black ▁hole ▁interior ▁region ▁will ▁have ▁a ▁future ▁light ▁cone ▁that ▁remains ▁in ▁this ▁region ▁( such ▁that ▁any ▁world ▁line ▁within ▁the ▁event ' s ▁future ▁light ▁cone ▁will ▁eventually ▁hit ▁the ▁black ▁hole ▁singular ity , ▁which ▁appears ▁as ▁a ▁hyper bol a ▁bounded ▁by ▁the ▁two ▁black ▁hole ▁hor iz ons ), ▁and ▁any ▁event ▁inside ▁the ▁white ▁hole ▁interior ▁region ▁will ▁have ▁a ▁past ▁light ▁cone ▁that ▁remains ▁in ▁this ▁region ▁( such ▁that ▁any ▁world ▁line ▁within ▁this ▁past ▁light ▁cone ▁must ▁have ▁origin ated ▁in ▁the ▁white ▁hole ▁singular ity , ▁a ▁hyper bol a ▁bounded ▁by ▁the ▁two ▁white ▁hole ▁hor iz ons ). ▁ ▁Note ▁that ▁although ▁the ▁horizon ▁looks ▁as ▁though ▁it ▁is ▁an ▁out ward ▁expand ing ▁cone , ▁the ▁area ▁of ▁this ▁surface , |
▁given ▁by ▁r ▁is ▁just ▁, ▁a ▁constant . ▁I . e ., ▁these ▁coordinates ▁can ▁be ▁de cept ive ▁if ▁care ▁is ▁not ▁exerc ised . ▁ ▁It ▁may ▁be ▁instruct ive ▁to ▁consider ▁what ▁curves ▁of ▁constant ▁Schwar z sch ild ▁coordinate ▁would ▁look ▁like ▁when ▁pl otted ▁on ▁a ▁Kr us kal - S ze ker es ▁diagram . ▁It ▁turns ▁out ▁that ▁curves ▁of ▁constant ▁r - coordinate ▁in ▁Schwar z sch ild ▁coordinates ▁always ▁look ▁like ▁hyper bol as ▁bounded ▁by ▁a ▁pair ▁of ▁event ▁hor iz ons ▁at ▁ 4 5 ▁degrees , ▁while ▁lines ▁of ▁constant ▁t - coordinate ▁in ▁Schwar z sch ild ▁coordinates ▁always ▁look ▁like ▁straight ▁lines ▁at ▁various ▁angles ▁passing ▁through ▁the ▁center ▁of ▁the ▁diagram . ▁The ▁black ▁hole ▁event ▁horizon ▁border ing ▁exterior ▁region ▁I ▁would ▁co inci de ▁with ▁a ▁Schwar z sch ild ▁t - coordinate ▁of ▁+ ∞ ▁while ▁the ▁white ▁hole ▁event ▁horizon ▁border ing ▁this ▁region ▁would ▁co inci de ▁with ▁a ▁Schwar z sch ild ▁t - coordinate ▁of ▁− ∞ , ▁reflect ing ▁the ▁fact ▁that ▁in ▁Schwar z sch ild ▁coordinates ▁an ▁inf alling ▁particle ▁takes ▁an ▁infinite ▁coordinate ▁time ▁to ▁reach ▁the ▁horizon ▁( i . e . ▁the ▁particle ' s ▁distance ▁from ▁the ▁horizon ▁approaches ▁zero ▁as ▁the ▁Schwar z sch ild ▁t - coordinate ▁approaches ▁infinity ), ▁and ▁a ▁particle ▁travel ing ▁up ▁away ▁from ▁the ▁horizon ▁must ▁have ▁crossed ▁it ▁an ▁infinite ▁coordinate ▁time ▁in ▁the ▁past |
. ▁This ▁is ▁just ▁an ▁artifact ▁of ▁how ▁Schwar z sch ild ▁coordinates ▁are ▁defined ; ▁a ▁free - fall ing ▁particle ▁will ▁only ▁take ▁a ▁finite ▁proper ▁time ▁( time ▁as ▁measured ▁by ▁its ▁own ▁clock ) ▁to ▁pass ▁between ▁an ▁outside ▁observer ▁and ▁an ▁event ▁horizon , ▁and ▁if ▁the ▁particle ' s ▁world ▁line ▁is ▁drawn ▁in ▁the ▁Kr us kal - S ze ker es ▁diagram ▁this ▁will ▁also ▁only ▁take ▁a ▁finite ▁coordinate ▁time ▁in ▁Kr us kal – S ze ker es ▁coordinates . ▁ ▁The ▁Schwar z sch ild ▁coordinate ▁system ▁can ▁only ▁cover ▁a ▁single ▁exterior ▁region ▁and ▁a ▁single ▁interior ▁region , ▁such ▁as ▁regions ▁I ▁and ▁II ▁in ▁the ▁Kr us kal - S ze ker es ▁diagram . ▁The ▁Kr us kal - S ze ker es ▁coordinate ▁system , ▁on ▁the ▁other ▁hand , ▁can ▁cover ▁a ▁" maxim ally ▁extended " ▁spac etime ▁which ▁includes ▁the ▁region ▁covered ▁by ▁Schwar z sch ild ▁coordinates . ▁Here , ▁" maxim ally ▁extended " ▁refers ▁to ▁the ▁idea ▁that ▁the ▁spac etime ▁should ▁not ▁have ▁any ▁" ed ges ": ▁any ▁ge odes ic ▁path ▁can ▁be ▁extended ▁arbitr arily ▁far ▁in ▁either ▁direction ▁unless ▁it ▁runs ▁into ▁a ▁gravit ational ▁singular ity . ▁Techn ically , ▁this ▁means ▁that ▁a ▁maxim ally ▁extended ▁spac etime ▁is ▁either ▁" ge odes ically ▁complete " ▁( mean ing ▁any ▁ge odes ic ▁can ▁be ▁extended ▁to ▁arbitr arily ▁large ▁positive ▁or ▁negative ▁values |
▁of ▁its ▁' aff ine ▁parameter ', ▁which ▁in ▁the ▁case ▁of ▁a ▁tim eli ke ▁ge odes ic ▁could ▁just ▁be ▁the ▁proper ▁time ), ▁or ▁if ▁any ▁ge odes ics ▁are ▁incomplete , ▁it ▁can ▁only ▁be ▁because ▁they ▁end ▁at ▁a ▁singular ity . ▁In ▁order ▁to ▁satisfy ▁this ▁requirement , ▁it ▁was ▁found ▁that ▁in ▁addition ▁to ▁the ▁black ▁hole ▁interior ▁region ▁( region ▁II ) ▁which ▁particles ▁enter ▁when ▁they ▁fall ▁through ▁the ▁event ▁horizon ▁from ▁the ▁exterior ▁( region ▁I ), ▁there ▁has ▁to ▁be ▁a ▁separate ▁white ▁hole ▁interior ▁region ▁( region ▁IV ) ▁which ▁allows ▁us ▁to ▁extend ▁the ▁traject ories ▁of ▁particles ▁which ▁an ▁outside ▁observer ▁sees ▁rising ▁up ▁away ▁from ▁the ▁event ▁horizon , ▁along ▁with ▁a ▁separate ▁exterior ▁region ▁( region ▁III ) ▁which ▁allows ▁us ▁to ▁extend ▁some ▁possible ▁particle ▁traject ories ▁in ▁the ▁two ▁interior ▁regions . ▁There ▁are ▁actually ▁multiple ▁possible ▁ways ▁to ▁extend ▁the ▁exterior ▁Schwar z sch ild ▁solution ▁into ▁a ▁maxim ally ▁extended ▁spac etime , ▁but ▁the ▁Kr us kal - S ze ker es ▁extension ▁is ▁unique ▁in ▁that ▁it ▁is ▁a ▁maximal , ▁analyt ic , ▁simply ▁connected ▁vac u um ▁solution ▁in ▁which ▁all ▁maxim ally ▁extended ▁ge odes ics ▁are ▁either ▁complete ▁or ▁else ▁the ▁curv ature ▁scalar ▁diver ges ▁along ▁them ▁in ▁finite ▁aff ine ▁time . ▁ ▁Light con e ▁variant ▁In ▁the ▁literature ▁the ▁Kr us kal – S ze ker es ▁coordinates ▁sometimes ▁also ▁appear ▁in ▁their |
▁light con e ▁variant : ▁▁▁▁ ▁in ▁which ▁the ▁metric ▁is ▁given ▁by ▁ ▁and ▁r ▁is ▁defined ▁implicitly ▁by ▁the ▁equation ▁ ▁These ▁light con e ▁coordinates ▁have ▁the ▁useful ▁feature ▁that ▁out going ▁null ▁ge odes ics ▁are ▁given ▁by ▁, ▁while ▁ing o ing ▁null ▁ge odes ics ▁are ▁given ▁by ▁. ▁Furthermore , ▁the ▁( f uture ▁and ▁past ) ▁event ▁horizon ( s ) ▁are ▁given ▁by ▁the ▁equation ▁, ▁and ▁curv ature ▁singular ity ▁is ▁given ▁by ▁the ▁equation ▁. ▁ ▁The ▁light con e ▁coordinates ▁derive ▁closely ▁from ▁Edd ington – F inkel stein ▁coordinates . ▁ ▁See ▁also ▁Schwar z sch ild ▁coordinates ▁Edd ington – F inkel stein ▁coordinates ▁Is otrop ic ▁coordinates ▁G ull str and – P ain lev é ▁coordinates ▁ ▁Notes ▁ ▁References ▁▁▁ ▁Category : Co ordinate ▁charts ▁in ▁general ▁relativ ity ▁Category : L or ent z ian ▁manif olds <0x0A> </s> ▁Á k os ▁Paul er ▁( 1 8 7 6 – 1 9 3 3 ) ▁was ▁a ▁Hung arian ▁phil os opher . ▁ ▁He ▁def ended ▁met aph ys ics ▁against ▁logical ▁posit iv ism . ▁ ▁As ▁part ▁of ▁this ▁defense , ▁he ▁account ed ▁for ▁a ▁method ▁of ▁determ ining ▁truth s ▁alongside ▁the ▁ded uct ive ▁and ▁induct ive ▁methods , ▁one ▁which ▁he ▁called ▁re duct ive . ▁ ▁According ▁to ▁Paul er , ▁the ▁re duct ive ▁method , ▁unlike ▁induction ▁and ▁dedu ction , ▁does ▁not ▁determine ▁what |
▁entities ▁there ▁are ▁but ▁rather ▁can ▁determine ▁the ▁conditions ▁of ▁possibility ▁of ▁valid ▁thought ▁itself . ▁He ▁also ▁associ ates ▁the ▁re duct ive ▁method ▁with ▁Pl ato ' s ▁dialect ic , ▁even ▁suggesting ▁that ▁reduction ▁can ▁ultimately ▁lead ▁to ▁knowledge ▁of ▁the ▁Form ▁of ▁the ▁Good . ▁ ▁References ▁ ▁Kö ves i , ▁J ., ▁" Pa uler , ▁Á k os " ▁in ▁Bro ch ert , ▁D . ▁M . ▁( ed .), ▁Encyclopedia ▁of ▁Philosoph y , ▁Second ▁Edition , ▁vol . ▁ 2 ▁( Th om son ▁G ale , ▁ 2 0 0 6 ), ▁p . 1 4 5 . ▁ ▁Simon , ▁A . ▁L ., ▁" Ph il osoph y " ▁in ▁Made ▁in ▁Hung ary : ▁Hung arian ▁contributions ▁to ▁universal ▁culture ▁( Sim on ▁Publications , ▁ 1 9 9 9 ), ▁pp . 1 8 0 – 1 8 3 . ▁ ▁Tam as , ▁G . ▁M ., ▁" H ung arian ▁Philosoph y " ▁in ▁Hon der ich , ▁T . ▁( ed .), ▁The ▁Oxford ▁Comp an ion ▁to ▁Philosoph y , ▁New ▁Edition ▁( O x ford ▁University ▁Press , ▁ 2 0 0 5 ), ▁pp . 4 0 7 – 4 0 8 . ▁ ▁Category : 1 8 7 6 ▁birth s ▁Category : 1 9 3 3 ▁death s ▁Category : H ung arian ▁philosoph ers ▁Category : 2 0 th - century ▁Hung arian ▁philosoph ers <0x0A> |
</s> ▁The ▁ 2 0 0 0 ▁Ch el ten ham ▁Gold ▁Cup ▁was ▁a ▁horse ▁race ▁which ▁took ▁place ▁at ▁Ch el ten ham ▁on ▁Th urs day ▁ 1 6 ▁March ▁ 2 0 0 0 . ▁It ▁was ▁the ▁ 7 3 rd ▁running ▁of ▁the ▁Ch el ten ham ▁Gold ▁Cup , ▁and ▁it ▁was ▁won ▁by ▁Looks ▁Like ▁Tr ouble . ▁The ▁winner ▁was ▁r idden ▁by ▁Richard ▁Johnson ▁and ▁trained ▁by ▁No el ▁Ch ance . ▁The ▁pre - race ▁favour ite ▁See ▁More ▁Business ▁finished ▁fourth . ▁ ▁It ▁was ▁the ▁second ▁victory ▁in ▁the ▁Gold ▁Cup ▁for ▁No el ▁Ch ance , ▁who ▁had ▁won ▁the ▁race ▁three ▁years ▁earlier ▁with ▁Mr ▁M ull igan . ▁The ▁winning ▁time ▁of ▁ 6 m 3 0 . 3 s ▁set ▁a ▁new ▁record ▁– ▁the ▁previous ▁best ▁was ▁ 6 m 3 0 . 9 s ▁in ▁ 1 9 9 0 . ▁ ▁Race ▁details ▁ ▁Sp ons or : ▁T ote ▁ ▁W inner ' s ▁prize ▁money : ▁£ 1 6 2 , 4 0 0 . 0 0 ▁ ▁Go ing : ▁Good ▁to ▁F irm ▁ ▁Number ▁of ▁run ners : ▁ 1 2 ▁ ▁W inner ' s ▁time : ▁ 6 m ▁ 3 0 . 3 s ▁( new ▁record ) ▁ ▁Full ▁result ▁ ▁* ▁The ▁distances ▁between ▁the ▁horses ▁are ▁shown ▁in ▁lengths ▁or ▁shorter . ▁n k ▁= ▁neck ; ▁P U ▁= |
▁pulled - up ; ▁U R ▁= ▁un se ated ▁r ider . † ▁Train ers ▁are ▁based ▁in ▁Great ▁Britain ▁unless ▁indicated . ▁ ▁W inner ' s ▁details ▁Further ▁details ▁of ▁the ▁winner , ▁Looks ▁Like ▁Tr ouble : ▁▁ ▁Fo aled : ▁ 7 ▁May ▁ 1 9 9 2 ▁in ▁Ireland ▁ ▁S ire : ▁Z aff aran ; ▁Dam : ▁Lav eng addy ▁( B alg addy ) ▁ ▁O wner : ▁Tim ▁Collins ▁ ▁Bre eder : ▁Stephen ▁Re el ▁ ▁References ▁▁▁ ▁sport ing life . com ▁ ▁b bc . co . uk ▁– ▁" Tr ouble ▁sec ures ▁Ch el ten ham ▁Gold " ▁– ▁March ▁ 1 6 , ▁ 2 0 0 0 . ▁ ▁Ch el ten ham ▁Gold ▁Cup ▁▁ 2 0 0 0 ▁Ch el ten ham ▁Gold ▁Cup ▁Ch el ten ham ▁Gold ▁Cup ▁Category : 2 0 th ▁century ▁in ▁Gl ouc esters hire <0x0A> </s> ▁La ▁Fal da ▁is ▁a ▁town ▁in ▁the ▁province ▁of ▁C ór dob a , ▁Argentina , ▁located ▁ ▁from ▁C ór dob a ▁and ▁ 8 0 0 km ▁from ▁Buenos ▁Aires . ▁It ▁had ▁about ▁ 1 5 , 0 0 0 ▁inhabitants ▁at ▁the ▁. ▁ ▁La ▁Fal da ▁lies ▁at ▁the ▁foot ▁of ▁two ▁small ▁mountains ▁( C er ro ▁El ▁Cu adr ado ▁and ▁Cer ro ▁La ▁B ander ita ), ▁and ▁it ▁is ▁part ▁of ▁an ▁important ▁tour ist ▁circuit ▁of ▁the ▁province ▁( |
the ▁P un illa ▁Valley ). ▁The ▁P un illa ▁Department ▁includes ▁other ▁tour ist ▁sites ▁like ▁Villa ▁Carlos ▁Paz , ▁Los ▁C oc os , ▁La ▁C um bre ▁and ▁Cap illa ▁del ▁Monte . ▁ ▁La ▁Fal da ▁is ▁home ▁to ▁the ▁historic ▁" E den ▁Hotel " ▁( now ▁a ▁public ▁part ▁and ▁historic ▁site / museum ▁that ▁does ▁not ▁host ▁hotel ▁guests ) ▁which ▁was ▁visited ▁by ▁Albert ▁Ein stein . ▁Adolf ▁Hitler ▁was ▁rum ored ▁to ▁have ▁stayed ▁here ▁in ▁ 1 9 4 8 . ▁▁ ▁The ▁main ▁street ▁and ▁hub ▁of ▁activity ▁for ▁the ▁town ▁is ▁" A venue ▁E den ". ▁ ▁Main ▁s ights ▁Att ra ctions ▁in ▁La ▁Fal da ▁include ▁the ▁ 7 ▁C asc ades , ▁a ▁natural ▁park ▁also ▁which ▁hosts ▁a ▁large ▁public ▁sw imming ▁pool . ▁ ▁" El ▁Sil en co " ▁is ▁a ▁colonial ▁castle ▁of ▁the ▁ 1 7 th ▁century ▁featuring ▁ ▁fish ing ▁and ▁observation ▁of ▁tr out ; ▁it ▁is ▁situated ▁some ▁ ▁from ▁La ▁Fal da ▁dow nt own . ▁" T atu ▁Car re ta " ▁is ▁an ▁E colog ical ▁Park ▁and ▁Z oo ▁c . ▁ 8 km ▁from ▁the ▁dow nt own ▁on ▁the ▁route ▁toward ▁C ór dob a . ▁ ▁It ▁is ▁a ▁drive ▁th ru ▁" s af ari " ▁style ▁zo ological ▁experience ▁with ▁ ▁local ▁and ▁ex otic ▁animal ▁species . ▁The ▁area ▁has ▁been ▁used ▁as ▁a ▁special ▁stage ▁for |
▁R ally ▁Argentina . ▁ ▁Gallery ▁ ▁See ▁also ▁ ▁List ▁of ▁world ' s ▁largest ▁c uck oo ▁clock s ▁ ▁External ▁links ▁▁▁▁▁▁▁ ▁All ▁About ▁La ▁Fal da ▁▁ ▁Villa ▁Carlos ▁Paz ▁and ▁Valle ▁de ▁P un illa ▁▁ ▁E colog ical ▁Park ▁& ▁Z oo ▁▁ ▁La ▁Fal da ▁T ango ▁Festival ▁Information ▁▁ ▁Category : Pop ulated ▁places ▁in ▁C ór dob a ▁Province , ▁Argentina ▁Category : T our ism ▁in ▁Argentina ▁Category : R ally ▁Argentina <0x0A> </s> ▁Louise ▁Rev ell ▁is ▁a ▁Roman ▁arch ae ologist , ▁currently ▁Associ ate ▁Professor ▁in ▁Roman ▁Studies ▁at ▁the ▁University ▁of ▁South am pton . ▁Rev ell ' s ▁research ▁focus es ▁on ▁provincial ▁arch ae ology ▁of ▁the ▁western ▁Roman ▁emp ire . ▁ ▁Education ▁ ▁Rev ell ▁obtained ▁a ▁B A ▁in ▁Class ics ▁from ▁the ▁University ▁of ▁Cambridge , ▁and ▁a ▁MA ▁in ▁Roman ▁Arch ae ology ▁from ▁Dur ham ▁University . ▁She ▁completed ▁her ▁Ph D ▁in ▁ 2 0 0 0 ▁at ▁the ▁University ▁of ▁South am pton , ▁entitled ▁Ex pl oring ▁Roman ▁Ident ities ▁: ▁Case - stud ies ▁from ▁Spain ▁and ▁Britain ▁in ▁the ▁Second ▁century ▁AD . ▁ ▁Career ▁ ▁Rev ell ' s ▁research ▁focus es ▁on ▁the ▁ ▁inter ▁link ages ▁between ▁identity , ▁ide ology ▁and ▁imperial ism , ▁and ▁their ▁expression ▁through ▁material ▁culture . ▁ ▁Rec ent ▁research ▁has ▁looked ▁at ▁Roman ▁imperial ism ▁in ▁the ▁Spanish ▁provinces ▁and ▁Britain . ▁Her ▁ 2 0 |
0 9 ▁mon ograph ▁Roman ▁Imperial ism ▁and ▁Local ▁Ident ities ▁was ▁described ▁as ▁" ref res hing ▁and ▁theoret ically ▁informed ▁perspective " ▁and ▁an ▁" important ▁step ▁forward ▁for ▁studies ▁of ▁Roman isation ", ▁and ▁was ▁widely ▁review ed . ▁ ▁Rev ell ' s ▁ 2 0 1 3 ▁mon ograph ▁W ays ▁of ▁Being ▁Roman ▁expl ored ▁the ▁relationship ▁between ▁Roman ▁ident ities ▁and ▁daily ▁practice ▁as ▁they ▁were ▁experienced ▁through ▁public ▁architecture ▁in ▁the ▁provinces , ▁described ▁as ▁" a ▁valuable ▁over view ▁of ▁current ▁identity ▁studies ▁as ▁applied ▁to ▁the ▁western ▁Roman ▁provinces ". ▁ ▁Rev ell ' s ▁research ▁has ▁also ▁expl ored ▁gender , ▁family ▁and ▁the ▁life - course ▁within ▁the ▁western ▁provinces . ▁She ▁co - ed ited ▁the ▁ 2 0 1 6 ▁Oxford ▁Hand book ▁of ▁Roman ▁Britain ▁with ▁Martin ▁M ille tt ▁and ▁Al ison ▁Moore . ▁ ▁Rev ell ▁holds ▁a ▁Get ty ▁Fellow ship ▁as ▁part ▁of ▁the ▁Arts ▁of ▁Rome ' s ▁Provin ces ▁work shop . ▁She ▁is ▁a ▁trust ee ▁of ▁the ▁Roman ▁Research ▁Trust , ▁and ▁a ▁member ▁of ▁the ▁editor ial ▁board ▁of ▁Britann ia . ▁She ▁has ▁appeared ▁on ▁Time ▁Team . ▁ ▁She ▁delivered ▁the ▁ke yn ote ▁lecture ▁at ▁the ▁C ras is ▁Ann ual ▁Me eting ▁at ▁the ▁University ▁of ▁G ron ingen ▁in ▁ 2 0 1 9 . ▁ ▁Selected ▁publications ▁ ▁Books ▁▁▁ ▁Rev ell , ▁L . ▁( 2 0 0 9 ). ▁Roman ▁Imperial |
ism ▁and ▁Local ▁Ident ities . ▁Cambridge : ▁Cambridge ▁University ▁Press . ▁ ▁Rev ell , ▁L . ▁( 2 0 1 5 ). ▁W ays ▁of ▁Being ▁Roman : ▁Disc ourses ▁of ▁Identity ▁in ▁the ▁Roman ▁West . ▁Oxford : ▁Ox bow ▁Books . ▁ ▁M ille tt , ▁M ., ▁Rev ell , ▁L ., ▁& ▁Moore , ▁A . ▁( eds ) ▁( 2 0 1 6 ). ▁The ▁Oxford ▁Hand book ▁of ▁Roman ▁Britain . ▁Oxford : ▁Oxford ▁University ▁Press . ▁ ▁Articles ▁▁▁ ▁Rev ell , ▁L . ▁( 2 0 0 5 ). ▁The ▁Roman ▁life ▁course : ▁a ▁view ▁from ▁the ▁ins cri ptions . ▁European ▁Journal ▁of ▁Arch ae ology ▁ 8 ( 1 ), ▁ 4 3 - 6 3 . ▁DO I : ▁ 1 0 . 1 1 7 7 / 1 4 6 1 9 5 7 1 0 5 0 5 8 2 0 9 ▁Rev ell , ▁L . ▁( 2 0 0 7 ). ▁Religion ▁and ▁rit ual ▁in ▁the ▁western ▁provinces . ▁Greece ▁and ▁Rome ▁ 5 4 , ▁ 2 1 0 - 2 2 8 . ▁Rev ell , ▁L . ▁( 2 0 1 3 ). ▁Code - switch ing ▁and ▁identity ▁in ▁the ▁western ▁provinces . ▁Her om ▁ 2 ( 1 ), ▁ 1 2 1 - 1 3 9 . ▁ ▁References ▁ ▁External ▁links ▁ ▁Category : A cadem ics ▁of ▁the ▁University ▁of ▁South am pton ▁Category : Class |
ical ▁arch ae olog ists ▁Category : Al umn i ▁of ▁the ▁University ▁of ▁Cambridge ▁Category : L iving ▁people ▁Category : Year ▁of ▁birth ▁missing ▁( l iving ▁people ) ▁Category : Al umn i ▁of ▁Dur ham ▁University <0x0A> </s> ▁Mc X trace ▁is ▁an ▁open ▁source ▁software ▁package ▁for ▁performing ▁Monte ▁Carlo ▁simulations ▁of ▁X - ray ▁scatter ing ▁experiments . ▁While ▁its ▁chief ▁objective ▁is ▁to ▁aid ▁in ▁the ▁optimization ▁of ▁be aml ines ▁at ▁e . g . ▁syn ch ro tr ons , ▁it ▁may ▁also ▁be ▁used ▁for ▁data ▁analysis ▁and ▁at ▁labor atory ▁sources ▁and ▁be aml ines . ▁Mc X trace ▁is ▁free ▁software ▁released ▁under ▁the ▁GNU ▁G PL . ▁ ▁Mc X trace ▁was ▁first ▁sp un ▁off ▁as ▁a ▁sister ▁project ▁to ▁the ▁well ▁known ▁and ▁proven ▁neut ron ▁ray - t rac ing ▁package ▁Mc St as ▁in ▁a ▁project ▁fund ed ▁joint ly ▁by : ▁ ▁D T U ▁Physics ▁at ▁The ▁Techn ical ▁University ▁of ▁Den mark ▁( DT U ) ▁ ▁The ▁European ▁Syn ch ro tr on ▁Rad iation ▁Fac ility ▁( ES R F ) ▁( http :// www . es rf . eu ) ▁ ▁N iels ▁Bo hr ▁Institute ▁at ▁University ▁of ▁C open hagen ▁( K U ) ▁ ▁The ▁Dan ish ▁Str ateg ic ▁Research ▁Council ▁under ▁the ▁Na Bi IT ▁program ▁ ▁S AX SL AB ▁Ap S . ▁a ka . ▁J J - X R ay ▁Systems ▁( |
http :// www . j j x ray . dk ) ▁ ▁Description ▁Mc X trace ▁works ▁in ▁the ▁way ▁that ▁a ▁user ▁describes ▁his / her ▁beam line ▁in ▁a ▁special ▁file . ▁This ▁file ▁is ▁the ▁analyz ed ▁by ▁the ▁system ▁and ▁converted ▁into ▁a ▁c - file ▁which ▁may ▁be ▁compiled ▁on ▁the ▁target ▁computing ▁system ▁where ▁the ▁simulation ▁is ▁to ▁be ▁run . ▁The ▁beam line ▁file ▁generally ▁contains ▁relative ▁coordinates ▁of ▁the ▁devices ▁present ▁in ▁the ▁beam line . ▁ ▁References ▁ ▁External ▁links ▁ ▁Mc X trace ▁website ▁ ▁Sh adow / X OP ▁site ▁at ▁the ▁E SR F ▁ ▁D T U ▁Physics ▁▁ ▁N iels ▁Bo hr ▁Institute ▁ ▁Category : Free ▁simulation ▁software <0x0A> </s> ▁The ▁South ▁F ork ▁W en aha ▁River ▁is ▁a ▁trib ut ary ▁of ▁the ▁W en aha ▁River ▁in ▁the ▁U . S . ▁state ▁of ▁Oregon . ▁The ▁river ▁begins ▁in ▁the ▁Blue ▁Mountains ▁south ▁of ▁ ▁B one ▁Spring ▁in ▁Wall owa ▁County ▁near ▁its ▁border ▁with ▁Union ▁County . ▁From ▁there ▁it ▁flows ▁generally ▁n ortheast ▁through ▁the ▁W en aha – T uc annon ▁W ilder ness ▁of ▁the ▁U mat illa ▁National ▁Forest ▁to ▁meet ▁the ▁North ▁F ork ▁W en aha ▁River . ▁The ▁combined ▁for ks ▁form ▁the ▁main ▁stem ▁W en aha , ▁a ▁trib ut ary ▁of ▁the ▁Grande ▁Ron de ▁River . ▁ ▁N amed ▁trib ut aries ▁of ▁the ▁South ▁F ork ▁W en aha ▁from |
▁source ▁to ▁mouth ▁are ▁Mil k ▁and ▁Tra pper ▁cre eks ▁followed ▁by ▁C oug ar ▁C any on . ▁Then ▁come ▁J auss ard ▁and ▁El k ▁cre eks . ▁ ▁Rec re ation ▁The ▁main ▁path ▁along ▁the ▁South ▁F ork ▁is ▁the ▁W en aha ▁River ▁Tra il , ▁a ▁ ▁route ▁with ▁trail head s ▁at ▁T roy ▁and ▁Tim othy ▁Spr ings . ▁It ▁runs ▁parallel ▁to ▁the ▁main ▁stem ▁between ▁T roy ▁and ▁W en aha ▁F ork s ▁and ▁roughly ▁parallel ▁to ▁the ▁South ▁F ork ▁up stream ▁of ▁the ▁confl u ence . ▁This ▁trail ▁connect s ▁to ▁other ▁w ilder ness ▁paths : ▁El k ▁Fl at , ▁H ood oo , ▁and ▁Cross ▁C any on ▁tra ils . ▁ ▁The ▁trail ▁system ▁is ▁used ▁by ▁h ik ers , ▁back pack ers , ▁and ▁horse ▁rid ers . ▁It ▁offers ▁pan or am ic ▁views , ▁access ▁to ▁fish ing , ▁and ▁suitable ▁sp ots ▁for ▁dispers ed ▁camp ing . ▁It ▁is ▁also ▁remote , ▁involves ▁significant ▁elev ation ▁changes , ▁can ▁be ▁extremely ▁hot ▁in ▁summer , ▁and ▁is ▁frequ ented ▁by ▁r att les n akes . ▁ ▁See ▁also ▁ ▁List ▁of ▁rivers ▁of ▁Oregon ▁ ▁References ▁ ▁Category : R ivers ▁of ▁Wall owa ▁County , ▁Oregon ▁Category : R ivers ▁of ▁Oregon <0x0A> </s> ▁ İ k inci ▁A ğ al ı ▁( also , ▁Ag aly ▁V t ory ye ) ▁is ▁a ▁village ▁in |
▁the ▁Z ang il an ▁Ray on ▁of ▁A zer ba ij an . ▁ ▁References ▁▁ ▁Category : Pop ulated ▁places ▁in ▁Z ang il an ▁District <0x0A> </s> ▁W alth am ▁is ▁a ▁large ▁village ▁and ▁civil ▁parish ▁in ▁North ▁East ▁Lincoln shire , ▁England . ▁It ▁is ▁ ▁south ▁of ▁Gr ims by ▁close ▁to ▁the ▁sub urb ▁of ▁Sc arth o ▁and ▁to ▁the ▁smaller ▁villages ▁of ▁Brig s ley , ▁Bar n old by - le - Be ck , ▁and ▁Hol ton ▁le ▁Clay . ▁Less ▁than ▁ ▁to ▁the ▁east - n orth - east ▁is ▁the ▁village ▁of ▁New ▁W alth am . ▁In ▁the ▁ 2 0 0 1 ▁census , ▁W alth am ▁had ▁a ▁population ▁of ▁ 6 , 4 2 0 , ▁reducing ▁slightly ▁to ▁ 6 , 4 1 3 ▁at ▁the ▁ 2 0 1 1 ▁census . ▁ ▁History ▁ ▁There ▁was ▁a ▁substantial ▁Sax on ▁settlement ▁on ▁the ▁site ▁of ▁the ▁first ▁village , ▁and ▁artifact s ▁show ▁earlier ▁Roman ▁occupation . ▁The ▁W alth am ▁name ▁is ▁of ▁Sax on ▁origin : ▁W alt ▁refers ▁to ▁wood land ▁or ▁an ▁area ▁of ▁high ▁forest ▁and ▁Ham ▁to ▁either ▁an ▁estate ▁or ▁a ▁village . ▁Sax ons ▁may ▁have ▁changed ▁the ▁name ▁from ▁the ▁Old ▁English ▁' We ald h ant ' ▁which ▁had ▁the ▁same ▁meaning ; ▁the ▁first ▁part ▁Ald , ▁prefix ed ▁by ▁We , ▁meant ▁" sett lement ", ▁and ▁H ant ▁a |
▁" wood ed ▁estate ". ▁ ▁Elizabeth ▁Shaw , ▁who ▁is ▁said ▁to ▁have ▁lived ▁to ▁age ▁ 1 1 7 , ▁was ▁born ▁on ▁ 2 2 ▁April ▁ 1 6 8 3 ▁at ▁W alth am . ▁A ▁life ▁portrait ▁of ▁her ▁by ▁R . ▁She ard own ▁was ▁published ▁in ▁ 1 8 0 0 . ▁ ▁Govern ance ▁W alth am ▁is ▁part ▁of ▁the ▁Cle eth or pes ▁parliament ary ▁constitu ency , ▁and ▁has ▁been ▁represented ▁by ▁Martin ▁V ick ers ▁of ▁the ▁Conserv ative ▁Party ▁since ▁ 2 0 1 0 . ▁ ▁W alth am ▁Ward ▁is ▁part ▁of ▁North ▁East ▁Lincoln shire ▁Council , ▁and ▁covers ▁the ▁villages ▁of ▁W alth am , ▁Brig s ley ▁and ▁Ash by - c um - F en by . ▁It ▁is ▁one ▁of ▁the ▁saf est ▁Conserv ative ▁w ards ▁on ▁the ▁council ▁and ▁has ▁been ▁represented ▁by ▁Conserv ative ▁coun c ill ors ▁since ▁the ▁w ard ' s ▁creation ▁in ▁ 2 0 0 3 . ▁ ▁Current ▁elected ▁coun c ill ors : ▁ ▁C ll r ▁Nick ▁P ett ig rew ▁▁ ▁C ll r ▁Philip ▁Jackson ▁ ▁Land marks ▁ ▁W alth am ' s ▁land marks ▁include ▁W alth am ▁Wind mill , ▁which ▁is ▁used ▁as ▁the ▁symbol ▁for ▁the ▁village ' s ▁Inf ant ▁and ▁Junior ▁schools . ▁The ▁wind mill ▁was ▁originally ▁built ▁in ▁ 1 6 6 6 , ▁but ▁was ▁blow n ▁down ▁several ▁times |
. ▁It ▁was ▁last ▁re - built ▁in ▁ 1 8 7 3 . ▁ ▁The ▁village ▁has ▁three ▁public ▁houses , ▁The ▁Kings ▁Head , ▁the ▁T ilt ed ▁Bar rel ▁and ▁the ▁Te a ▁Gard ens . ▁A ▁branch ▁of ▁the ▁Royal ▁British ▁Leg ion ▁is ▁also ▁based ▁in ▁W alth am . ▁ ▁There ▁is ▁a ▁c en ot aph ▁where ▁a ▁rem emb rance ▁service ▁is ▁held ▁each ▁Rem emb rance ▁Sunday . ▁ ▁Near by ▁is ▁the ▁former ▁Second ▁World ▁War ▁bom ber ▁air field ▁R AF ▁Gr ims by , ▁which ▁was ▁originally ▁Gr ims by ▁Municipal ▁Airport . ▁After ▁the ▁start ▁of ▁the ▁Second ▁World ▁War ▁the ▁air port ▁was ▁re - construct ed ▁by ▁the ▁Air ▁Ministry ▁and ▁became ▁home ▁to ▁ 1 4 2 ▁Squadron , ▁and ▁later ▁to ▁ 1 0 0 ▁and ▁ 5 5 0 ▁Squad rons , ▁before ▁closing ▁in ▁ 1 9 4 5 . ▁A ▁museum ▁at ▁the ▁W alth am ▁Wind mill ▁houses ▁a ▁section ▁dedicated ▁to ▁R AF ▁Gr ims by . ▁ ▁There ▁was ▁once ▁a ▁W alth am ▁railway ▁station ▁( act ually ▁in ▁New ▁W alth am ) ▁on ▁the ▁East ▁Lincoln shire ▁Railway ▁line ▁( now ▁closed ) ▁between ▁Gr ims by ▁and ▁L outh . ▁ ▁Notable ▁people ▁ ▁Jo anne ▁Cl if ton , ▁professional ▁dan cer ▁on ▁BBC ▁TV ' s ▁Str ict ly ▁Come ▁Dan cing , ▁and ▁her ▁brother ▁and ▁fellow ▁pro ▁Kevin ▁Cl if ton ▁Paul |
▁Mo or by ▁O . B . E ., ▁( b . ▁ 1 9 6 4 ) ▁was ▁appointed ▁Officer ▁of ▁the ▁Order ▁of ▁the ▁British ▁Empire ▁on ▁ 2 9 ▁December ▁ 2 0 1 8 ▁for ▁services ▁to ▁prom oting ▁the ▁UK ▁Technology ▁S ector ▁Ab road ▁ ▁References ▁ ▁External ▁links ▁ ▁Category : V ill ages ▁in ▁Lincoln shire ▁Category : B or ough ▁of ▁North ▁East ▁Lincoln shire ▁Category : C ivil ▁par ishes ▁in ▁Lincoln shire <0x0A> </s> ▁The ▁Ur ar ▁mouse - like ▁ham ster ▁or ▁A zer ba ij ani ▁mouse - like ▁ham ster ▁( Cal om ys cus ▁ur art ensis ) ▁is ▁a ▁medium - s ized ▁mouse - like ▁ham ster ▁from ▁N akh iche van , ▁A zer ba ij an ▁and ▁north western ▁Az ar ba ij an ▁Province , ▁Iran . ▁ ▁It ▁is ▁among ▁the ▁better ▁studied ▁represent atives ▁of ▁this ▁poor ly ▁known ▁genus . ▁ ▁The ▁initial ▁species ▁description ▁was ▁based ▁on ▁a ▁unique ▁chrom os ome ▁number ▁( 2 n = 3 2 ; ▁F Na = 4 2 ) ▁called ▁a ▁k ary ot ype . ▁ ▁The ▁species ▁status ▁has ▁been ▁confirmed ▁with ▁other ▁chrom os om al ▁studies ▁and ▁morph ometric ▁studies . ▁ ▁The ▁species ▁description ▁by ▁Vor ont so v ▁et ▁al . ▁and ▁subsequent ▁prompt ed ▁elev ation ▁of ▁several ▁sub species ▁of ▁Cal om ys cus ▁b ail ward i ▁to ▁species ▁status . ▁ ▁References |
▁ ▁Category : Mouse - like ▁ham sters ▁Mouse - like ▁Ham ster , ▁Ur ar ▁Mouse - like ▁Ham ster , ▁Ur ar ▁Mouse - like ▁Ham ster , ▁Ur ar ▁Mouse - like ▁Ham ster , ▁Ur ar ▁Category : M amm als ▁described ▁in ▁ 1 9 7 9 <0x0A> </s> ▁Fel ic ja ▁Bl ument al ▁( 2 8 ▁December ▁ 1 9 0 8 ▁– ▁ 3 1 ▁December ▁ 1 9 9 1 ) ▁was ▁a ▁Polish ▁pian ist ▁and ▁composer . ▁ ▁" She ▁was ▁one ▁of ▁the ▁relatively ▁few ▁women ▁born ▁in ▁the ▁first ▁quarter ▁of ▁the ▁tw enti eth ▁century ▁to ▁have ▁achieved ▁an ▁important ▁career ▁as ▁a ▁concert ▁pian ist ." ▁ ▁Early ▁life ▁Fel ic ja ▁Bl ument al ▁was ▁born ▁in ▁Wars aw , ▁Poland , ▁into ▁a ▁Jewish ▁musical ▁family , ▁daughter ▁of ▁a ▁viol in ist . ▁She ▁began ▁piano ▁less ons ▁at ▁the ▁age ▁of ▁five , ▁and ▁made ▁her ▁debut ▁at ▁the ▁age ▁of ▁ten . ▁She ▁studied ▁at ▁the ▁National ▁Conserv atory ▁in ▁Wars aw , ▁taking ▁piano ▁less ons ▁from ▁Z b ign iew ▁Dr zew ieck i ▁( who ▁founded ▁the ▁International ▁Frederick ▁Ch op in ▁P iano ▁Compet ition ) ▁and ▁composition ▁less ons ▁from ▁the ▁composer ▁Kar ol ▁Sz yman owski . ▁She ▁later ▁studied ▁priv ately ▁in ▁Switzerland ▁with ▁Jó zef ▁Tur czy ński , ▁a ▁noted ▁Ch op in ▁interpreter ▁and ▁scholar . ▁ ▁Personal ▁life ▁ ▁In ▁ 1 |
9 3 8 , ▁she ▁and ▁her ▁husband ▁Mark us ▁M iz ne ▁moved ▁first ▁to ▁Nice , ▁then ▁to ▁Brazil ▁to ▁escape ▁the ▁growing ▁anti - sem it ism ▁in ▁Europe . ▁She ▁became ▁a ▁Brazil ian ▁citiz en , ▁and ▁for ▁the ▁rest ▁of ▁her ▁life ▁champion ed ▁the ▁music ▁and ▁compos ers ▁of ▁her ▁adopted ▁country . ▁Her ▁subsequent ▁career ▁saw ▁her ▁sett ling ▁in ▁Milan ▁in ▁ 1 9 6 2 , ▁then ▁in ▁ 1 9 7 3 ▁in ▁London . ▁ ▁Musical ▁career ▁Bl ument al ' s ▁re per toire ▁was ▁wide ▁and ▁advent ur ous , ▁r anging ▁from ▁the ▁Portuguese ▁bar o que ▁to ▁South ▁American ▁contemporary ▁works . ▁Her ▁numerous ▁record ings ▁also ▁included ▁many ▁forgotten ▁concert os ▁by ▁compos ers ▁such ▁as ▁Carl ▁Cz ern y ▁( P iano ▁Con cer to ▁in ▁A ▁minor , ▁Op . 2 1 4 ), ▁Ferdinand ▁R ies ▁( P iano ▁Con cer to ▁in ▁C - sharp ▁minor , ▁Op . 5 5 ) ▁and ▁John ▁Field . ▁ ▁He itor ▁Villa - L ob os ▁wrote ▁his ▁P iano ▁Con cer to ▁No . ▁ 5 ▁for ▁her ; ▁she ▁was ▁solo ist ▁at ▁the ▁world ▁premi ere ▁on ▁ 8 ▁May ▁ 1 9 5 5 , ▁at ▁the ▁Royal ▁Festival ▁Hall , ▁London , ▁with ▁the ▁London ▁Phil harm onic ▁Orchestra ▁under ▁Jean ▁Martin on , ▁and ▁she ▁also ▁recorded ▁the ▁con cer to ▁in ▁Paris , ▁under ▁the ▁b aton |
▁of ▁the ▁composer . ▁Kr z ysz to f ▁P end ere cki ▁dedicated ▁his ▁Part ita ▁for ▁har ps ich ord ▁and ▁or chestra ▁to ▁her . ▁Her ▁recording ▁of ▁this ▁work ▁won ▁a ▁Grand ▁Prix ▁du ▁Dis que ▁of ▁the ▁Charles ▁C ros ▁Academy ▁of ▁France ▁in ▁ 1 9 7 5 . ▁ ▁Among ▁her ▁record ings ▁was ▁a ▁box ed ▁set ▁of ▁Be eth oven ' s ▁complete ▁works ▁for ▁solo ▁piano ▁and ▁or chestra , ▁including ▁two ▁early ▁works ▁without ▁op us ▁number , ▁as ▁well ▁as ▁Be eth oven ' s ▁own ▁arrangement ▁for ▁piano ▁of ▁his ▁viol in ▁con cer to . ▁ ▁It ▁is , ▁however , ▁her ▁Ch op in ▁playing ▁for ▁which ▁she ▁will ▁be ▁most ▁remembered . ▁A ▁pian ist ▁of ▁considerable ▁power , ▁despite ▁her ▁dimin utive ▁size , ▁her ▁record ings ▁of ▁the ▁Ch op in ▁ma z urk as , ▁in ▁particular , ▁are ▁considered ▁land mark ▁interpret ations . ▁ ▁She ▁died ▁in ▁ 1 9 9 1 ▁in ▁Israel , ▁on ▁one ▁of ▁her ▁many ▁concert ▁t ours ▁of ▁the ▁country . ▁She ▁is ▁buried ▁in ▁Tel ▁Av iv ' s ▁Kir y at ▁Sh a ul ▁C emetery . ▁Her ▁daughter , ▁the ▁singer ▁An net te ▁C é line , ▁was ▁one ▁of ▁the ▁organiz ers ▁of ▁the ▁annual ▁Fel ic ja ▁Bl ument al ▁International ▁Music ▁festival ▁until ▁her ▁death ▁on ▁ 3 ▁June ▁ 2 0 1 7 . ▁ ▁Many ▁of ▁Bl |
ument al ' s ▁record ings ▁have ▁been ▁restored ▁on ▁Bran a ▁Records , ▁and ▁all ▁CD ▁covers ▁feature ▁the ▁art ▁prints ▁of ▁her ▁husband ▁Mark us ▁M iz ne . ▁ ▁References ▁ ▁External ▁links ▁Portuguese ▁P iano ▁Music ▁- ▁Cla udio ▁Records ▁Review / Information ▁Bran a ▁Records ▁ ▁Category : B raz ilian ▁classical ▁pian ists ▁Category : B raz ilian ▁female ▁pian ists ▁Category : Pol ish ▁classical ▁pian ists ▁Category : Pol ish ▁women ▁pian ists ▁Category : J ew ish ▁classical ▁pian ists ▁Category : B raz ilian ▁Jews ▁Category : N atural ized ▁citizens ▁of ▁Brazil ▁Category : J ew s ▁who ▁em igr ated ▁to ▁escape ▁Naz ism ▁Category : 1 9 0 8 ▁birth s ▁Category : 1 9 9 1 ▁death s ▁Category : Pol ish ▁em igr ants ▁to ▁Brazil ▁Category : 2 0 th - century ▁classical ▁pian ists ▁Category : 2 0 th - century ▁women ▁mus icians ▁Category : W omen ▁classical ▁pian ists <0x0A> </s> ▁Hol ly ▁Walker ▁is ▁an ▁American ▁com ed ian , ▁actress , ▁and ▁writer ▁known ▁for ▁her ▁role ▁as ▁a ▁correspond ent ▁and ▁staff ▁writer ▁on ▁The ▁Night ly ▁Show ▁with ▁Larry ▁Wil more . ▁Prior ▁to ▁working ▁on ▁The ▁Night ly ▁Show , ▁she ▁tou red ▁with ▁The ▁Second ▁City ▁comedy ▁group , ▁performing ▁in ▁Los ▁Angeles , ▁Chicago , ▁and ▁Las ▁Veg as . ▁ ▁Walker ▁got ▁her ▁first ▁taste ▁of ▁performing ▁when ▁she ▁was ▁eight ▁years ▁old ▁and ▁was ▁cast |
▁in ▁a ▁production ▁called ▁" For ▁Spring ▁is ▁the ▁Season ▁of ▁H app iness ," ▁playing ▁Mother ▁Nature . ▁As ▁an ▁adult , ▁she ▁performed ▁with ▁Bo om ▁Chicago ▁in ▁Amsterdam ▁and ▁The ▁Second ▁City ▁across ▁the ▁United ▁States . ▁ ▁Film ography ▁ ▁References ▁ ▁Category : A fr ican - American ▁com ed ians ▁Category : 2 1 st - century ▁American ▁com ed ians ▁Category : American ▁women ▁com ed ians ▁Category : Year ▁of ▁birth ▁missing ▁( l iving ▁people ) ▁Category : L iving ▁people <0x0A> </s> ▁V la ic u ▁is ▁a ▁Roman ian ▁surname . ▁Notable ▁people ▁with ▁the ▁surname ▁include : ▁ ▁A ure l ▁V la ic u ▁( 1 8 8 2 – 1 9 1 3 ), ▁Roman ian ▁engineer , ▁invent or ▁and ▁av i ator ▁Flor in ▁V la ic u ▁( born ▁ 1 9 8 6 ), ▁Roman ian ▁rugby ▁union ▁player ▁Sor in ▁V la ic u ▁( born ▁ 1 9 6 5 ), ▁Roman ian ▁footballer ▁ ▁as ▁a ▁given ▁name , ▁it ▁may ▁refer ▁to : ▁ ▁V la ic u ▁B âr na ▁( 1 9 1 3 - 1 9 9 9 ), ▁poet ▁ ▁Category : R oman ian - language ▁s urn ames <0x0A> </s> ▁Brian ▁S my th ▁( 2 4 ▁March ▁ 1 9 2 4 ▁– ▁ 1 6 ▁March ▁ 2 0 1 6 ) ▁was ▁an ▁Irish ▁G ael ic ▁footballer ▁and ▁hur ler ▁who |
▁played ▁as ▁a ▁centre - forward ▁for ▁the ▁Me ath ▁senior ▁team . ▁ ▁Born ▁in ▁B atter st own , ▁County ▁Me ath , ▁S my th ▁had ▁his ▁first ▁invol vement ▁with ▁G ael ic ▁football ▁and ▁hur ling ▁against ▁Boy ▁Sc outs ▁from ▁Dublin , ▁who ▁used ▁to ▁come ▁to ▁the ▁local ▁area ▁on ▁week end ▁cam ps . ▁He ▁field ed ▁with ▁local ▁club ▁B atter st own ▁in ▁both ▁codes ▁but ▁when ▁the ▁club ▁was ▁unable ▁to ▁must er ▁enough ▁players , ▁he ▁l ined ▁out ▁with ▁Fl ath ouse ▁with ▁whom ▁he ▁won ▁a ▁junior ▁championship ▁medal ▁in ▁hur ling . ▁He ▁also ▁played ▁both ▁codes ▁with ▁R ato ath ▁before ▁l ining ▁out ▁with ▁Ober st own ▁in ▁hur ling ▁and ▁Sk ry ne ▁in ▁G ael ic ▁football , ▁helping ▁the ▁latter ▁to ▁five ▁championship ▁vict ories . ▁He ▁finished ▁his ▁hur ling ▁career ▁with ▁Dun boy ne . ▁ ▁S my th ▁made ▁his ▁debut ▁on ▁the ▁inter - count y ▁scene ▁when ▁he ▁first ▁linked ▁up ▁with ▁the ▁Me ath ▁junior ▁hur ling ▁team ▁in ▁ 1 9 4 4 . ▁An ▁All - I reland ▁medal ▁winner ▁in ▁this ▁code , ▁he ▁joined ▁the ▁Me ath ▁senior ▁football ▁team ▁for ▁the ▁ 1 9 4 6 ▁championship . ▁S my th ▁went ▁on ▁to ▁play ▁a ▁key ▁role ▁during ▁a ▁h ug ely ▁successful ▁era , ▁and ▁won ▁two ▁All - I reland ▁med als , ▁four ▁Le in ster ▁med als |
▁and ▁one ▁National ▁League ▁medal . ▁The ▁All - I reland - win ning ▁captain ▁of ▁ 1 9 4 9 , ▁S my th ▁was ▁also ▁an ▁All - I reland ▁runner - up ▁on ▁two ▁occasions . ▁ ▁S my th ▁was ▁a ▁member ▁of ▁the ▁Le in ster ▁inter - pro vin cial ▁team ▁on ▁a ▁number ▁of ▁occasions , ▁however , ▁he ▁never ▁won ▁a ▁Railway ▁Cup ▁medal . ▁He ▁retired ▁from ▁inter - count y ▁football ▁following ▁the ▁conclusion ▁of ▁the ▁ 1 9 5 7 ▁championship . ▁ ▁In ▁ret irement ▁from ▁playing , ▁S my th ▁became ▁involved ▁in ▁team ▁management ▁and ▁administration . ▁His ▁invol vement ▁as ▁a ▁tra iner ▁was ▁short - l ived , ▁however , ▁he ▁gu ided ▁Dr um ree ▁to ▁championship ▁success ▁in ▁the ▁junior ▁grade ▁in ▁ 1 9 5 9 . ▁S my th ▁became ▁involved ▁in ▁administrative ▁affairs ▁as ▁a ▁te en ager ▁when ▁he ▁took ▁over ▁as ▁secretary ▁of ▁the ▁B atter st own ▁club . ▁He ▁was ▁secretary ▁of ▁the ▁Me ath ▁Hur ling ▁Board ▁on ▁two ▁occasions , ▁before ▁serving ▁as ▁chairman ▁of ▁the ▁Me ath ▁County ▁Board ▁between ▁ 1 9 7 9 ▁and ▁ 1 9 8 5 . ▁ ▁Hon ours ▁ ▁Sk ry ne ▁Me ath ▁Senior ▁Football ▁Championship ▁( 5 ): ▁ 1 9 4 4 , ▁ 1 9 4 5 , ▁ 1 9 4 7 , ▁ 1 9 4 8 , ▁ 1 9 5 |
4 ▁ ▁Me ath ▁All - I reland ▁Senior ▁Football ▁Championship ▁( 2 ): ▁ 1 9 4 9 ▁( c ), ▁ 1 9 5 4 ▁Con n acht ▁Senior ▁Football ▁Championship ▁( 4 ): ▁ 1 9 4 9 ▁( c ), ▁ 1 9 5 1 , ▁ 1 9 5 2 , ▁ 1 9 5 4 ▁National ▁Football ▁League ▁( 1 ): ▁ 1 9 5 0 - 5 1 ▁ ▁References ▁ ▁Category : 1 9 2 4 ▁birth s ▁Category : 2 0 1 6 ▁death s ▁Category : Sk ry ne ▁G ael ic ▁football ers ▁Category : Me ath ▁inter - count y ▁G ael ic ▁football ers ▁Category : Le in ster ▁inter - pro vin cial ▁G ael ic ▁football ers ▁Category : Pe ople ▁by ▁city ▁or ▁town ▁in ▁County ▁Me ath ▁Category : W inners ▁of ▁two ▁All - I reland ▁med als ▁( G ael ic ▁football ) <0x0A> </s> ▁Samuel ▁Hein ic ke ▁( 1 0 ▁April ▁ 1 7 2 7 ▁– ▁ 3 0 ▁April ▁ 1 7 9 0 ), ▁the ▁origin ator ▁in ▁Germany ▁of ▁system atic ▁education ▁for ▁the ▁de af , ▁was ▁born ▁in ▁N aut schutz , ▁Germany . ▁ ▁Enter ing ▁the ▁elect oral ▁body guard ▁at ▁Dresden , ▁he ▁subsequently ▁supported ▁himself ▁by ▁teaching . ▁Ar ound ▁ 1 7 5 4 , ▁he ▁took ▁his ▁first ▁de af ▁pup il . ▁His ▁success ▁in ▁teaching ▁this ▁pup il |
▁was ▁so ▁great ▁that ▁he ▁determined ▁to ▁dev ote ▁himself ▁entirely ▁to ▁this ▁work . ▁Hein ic ke ▁promoted ▁a ▁chief ly ▁or al / a ural ▁method ▁of ▁instruction , ▁though ▁he ▁did ▁use ▁some ▁form ▁of ▁a ▁manual ▁alphabet . ▁He ▁believed ▁a ▁spoken ▁language ▁to ▁be ▁ind isp ens able ▁to ▁a ▁proper ▁education , ▁and ▁that ▁it ▁formed ▁the ▁basis ▁for ▁reasoning ▁and ▁intellectual ▁thought . ▁He ▁died ▁before ▁his ▁contributions ▁to ▁De af ▁education ▁became ▁w ides p read , ▁but ▁John ▁Bapt ist ▁Gr aser ▁( 1 7 6 6 - 1 8 4 1 ) ▁and ▁Frederick ▁Mar itz ▁Hill ▁( 1 8 0 5 - 1 8 7 4 ) ▁continued ▁to ▁esp ouse ▁the ▁or al ▁method . ▁ ▁The ▁out break ▁of ▁the ▁Seven ▁Years ' ▁War ▁ups et ▁his ▁plans ▁for ▁a ▁time . ▁T aken ▁prisoner ▁at ▁Pir na , ▁he ▁was ▁brought ▁to ▁Dresden , ▁but ▁soon ▁made ▁his ▁escape . ▁In ▁ 1 7 6 8 , ▁when ▁living ▁in ▁Hamburg , ▁he ▁successfully ▁taught ▁a ▁de af ▁boy ▁to ▁talk , ▁following ▁the ▁methods ▁pres cribed ▁by ▁Am man ▁in ▁his ▁book ▁Sur d us ▁lo qu ens , ▁but ▁impro ving ▁on ▁them . ▁ ▁Rec alled ▁to ▁his ▁own ▁country ▁by ▁the ▁elect or ▁of ▁Sax ony , ▁he ▁opened ▁the ▁first ▁de af ▁institution ▁in ▁Leipzig , ▁Germany , ▁in ▁▁ 1 7 7 8 . ▁He ▁directed ▁this ▁school ▁until ▁his ▁death . ▁He |
▁was ▁the ▁author ▁of ▁various ▁books ▁on ▁the ▁instruction ▁of ▁the ▁de af . ▁ ▁References ▁ ▁Category : G erman ▁educational ▁the or ists ▁Category : 1 8 th - century ▁German ▁educ ators ▁Category : 1 7 2 7 ▁birth s ▁Category : 1 7 9 0 ▁death s <0x0A> </s> ▁Her iot ▁is ▁a ▁small ▁settlement ▁in ▁West ▁O tag o , ▁in ▁the ▁South ▁Island ▁of ▁New ▁Zealand . ▁It ▁is ▁located ▁ 2 0 ▁kilometres ▁south west ▁of ▁Ra es ▁J unction ▁and ▁ 1 5 ▁kilometres ▁north ▁of ▁T apan ui . ▁ ▁The ▁town ship ▁is ▁likely ▁not ▁to ▁have ▁been ▁named ▁after ▁the ▁Scottish ▁border ▁town ▁of ▁Her iot ▁( un like ▁other ▁local ▁towns ▁named ▁after ▁B orders ▁places , ▁such ▁as ▁Kel so ▁and ▁Ro x burgh ), ▁but ▁may ▁have ▁been ▁named ▁for ▁from ▁the ▁ma iden ▁name ▁of ▁the ▁wife ▁of ▁early ▁sett ler ▁William ▁P ink erton . ▁ ▁The ▁main ▁economic ▁activities ▁in ▁Her iot ▁are ▁related ▁to ▁liv est ock ▁and ▁forest ry . ▁ ▁References ▁ ▁Category : Pop ulated ▁places ▁in ▁O tag o <0x0A> </s> ▁David ▁Duc our ti oux ▁( born ▁ 1 1 ▁April ▁ 1 9 7 8 ) ▁is ▁a ▁French ▁former ▁professional ▁footballer ▁who ▁played ▁as ▁a ▁def ender . ▁ ▁References ▁ ▁External ▁links ▁ ▁Category : 1 9 7 8 ▁birth s ▁Category : L iving ▁people ▁Category : Associ ation ▁football ▁def enders ▁Category : F rench |
▁football ers ▁Category : L igue ▁ 1 ▁players ▁Category : L igue ▁ 2 ▁players ▁Category : T oul ouse ▁FC ▁players ▁Category : SC ▁Bast ia ▁players ▁Category : St ade ▁de ▁Re ims ▁players ▁Category : CS ▁Sed an ▁Ar den nes ▁players ▁Category : Val enci ennes ▁FC ▁players ▁Category : G az é le c ▁A j ac cio ▁players <0x0A> </s> ▁Cy an ogen Mod ▁( ▁; ▁C M ) ▁is ▁a ▁dis cont in ued ▁open - source ▁operating ▁system ▁for ▁mobile ▁devices , ▁based ▁on ▁the ▁Android ▁mobile ▁platform . ▁It ▁was ▁developed ▁as ▁free ▁and ▁open - source ▁software ▁based ▁on ▁the ▁official ▁releases ▁of ▁Android ▁by ▁Google , ▁with ▁added ▁original ▁and ▁third - party ▁code , ▁and ▁based ▁on ▁a ▁rolling ▁release ▁development ▁model . ▁Although ▁only ▁a ▁subset ▁of ▁total ▁Cy an ogen Mod ▁users ▁elected ▁to ▁report ▁their ▁use ▁of ▁the ▁firm ware , ▁on ▁ 2 3 ▁March ▁ 2 0 1 5 , ▁some ▁reports ▁indicated ▁that ▁over ▁ 5 0 ▁million ▁people ▁ran ▁Cy an ogen Mod ▁on ▁their ▁ph ones . ▁It ▁was ▁also ▁frequently ▁used ▁as ▁a ▁starting ▁point ▁by ▁developers ▁of ▁other ▁R OM s . ▁ ▁In ▁ 2 0 1 3 , ▁the ▁founder , ▁Steve ▁K ond ik ▁( now ▁Stef anie ▁K ond ik ), ▁obtained ▁vent ure ▁fund ing ▁under ▁the ▁name ▁Cy an ogen ▁Inc . ▁to ▁allow ▁commercial ization ▁of ▁the ▁project . ▁However , ▁the ▁company |
▁did ▁not , ▁in ▁his ▁view , ▁capital ize ▁on ▁the ▁project ' s ▁success , ▁and ▁in ▁ 2 0 1 6 ▁he ▁left ▁or ▁was ▁forced ▁out ▁as ▁part ▁of ▁a ▁corpor ate ▁rest ruct ure , ▁which ▁involved ▁a ▁change ▁of ▁CE O , ▁closure ▁of ▁offices ▁and ▁projects , ▁and ▁c ess ation ▁of ▁services , ▁and ▁therefore ▁left ▁uncertainty ▁over ▁the ▁future ▁of ▁the ▁company . ▁The ▁code ▁itself , ▁being ▁open ▁source , ▁was ▁later ▁for ked , ▁and ▁its ▁development ▁continues ▁as ▁a ▁community ▁project ▁under ▁the ▁Line age OS ▁name . ▁ ▁Cy an ogen Mod ▁offered ▁features ▁and ▁options ▁not ▁found ▁in ▁the ▁official ▁firm ware ▁distributed ▁by ▁mobile ▁device ▁vend ors . ▁Fe atures ▁supported ▁by ▁Cy an ogen Mod ▁included ▁native ▁theme ▁support , ▁F L AC ▁audio ▁code c ▁support , ▁a ▁large ▁Access ▁Point ▁Name ▁list , ▁Priv acy ▁Guard ▁( per - application ▁permission ▁management ▁application ), ▁support ▁for ▁t ether ing ▁over ▁common ▁interfaces , ▁CPU ▁over clock ing ▁and ▁other ▁performance ▁enh anc ements , ▁un lock able ▁boot loader ▁and ▁root ▁access , ▁soft ▁buttons , ▁status ▁bar ▁custom isation ▁and ▁other ▁" table t ▁twe aks ", ▁togg les ▁in ▁the ▁notification ▁pull - down ▁( such ▁as ▁Wi - Fi , ▁Bl uetooth ▁and ▁G PS ), ▁and ▁other ▁interface ▁enh anc ements . ▁ ▁Cy an ogen Mod ▁did ▁not ▁contain ▁sp y ware ▁or ▁b loat ware , ▁according ▁to ▁its ▁developers |
. ▁Cy an ogen Mod ▁was ▁also ▁said ▁to ▁increase ▁performance ▁and ▁reli ability ▁compared ▁with ▁official ▁firm ware ▁releases . ▁ ▁The ▁name ▁Cy an ogen Mod ▁derived ▁from ▁cy an ogen ▁( the ▁name ▁of ▁a ▁chemical ▁comp ound ▁adopted ▁as ▁a ▁nick name ▁by ▁K ond ik ) ▁+ ▁Mod ▁( a ▁term ▁for ▁user - develop ed ▁modifications , ▁known ▁as ▁mod ding ). ▁ ▁History ▁and ▁development ▁ ▁So on ▁after ▁the ▁introduction ▁of ▁HT C ▁Dream ▁( named ▁the ▁" T - Mobile ▁G 1 " ▁in ▁the ▁United ▁States ) ▁mobile ▁phone ▁in ▁September ▁ 2 0 0 8 , ▁a ▁method ▁was ▁discovered ▁to ▁att ain ▁privile ged ▁control ▁( ter med ▁" root ▁access ") ▁within ▁Android ' s ▁Linux - based ▁sub system . ▁Having ▁root ▁access , ▁combined ▁with ▁the ▁open - source ▁nature ▁of ▁the ▁Android ▁operating ▁system , ▁allowed ▁the ▁phone ' s ▁stock ▁firm ware ▁to ▁be ▁modified ▁and ▁re - installed ▁onto ▁the ▁phone . ▁ ▁In ▁the ▁following ▁year , ▁modified ▁firm ware ▁for ▁the ▁Dream ▁was ▁developed ▁and ▁distributed ▁by ▁Android ▁enthus iast s . ▁One , ▁maintained ▁by ▁a ▁developer ▁named ▁Jesus Fre ke , ▁became ▁popular ▁among ▁Dream ▁own ers . ▁After ▁Google ▁issued ▁its ▁Android ▁RC 3 0 ▁over - the - air ▁update ▁in ▁November ▁ 2 0 0 8 ▁that ▁fixed ▁the ▁bug ▁that ▁had ▁previously ▁been ▁used ▁for ▁root ▁access , ▁he ▁began ▁offering ▁modified ▁versions ▁that ▁restored ▁root ▁access |
▁and ▁gradually ▁expanded ▁them . ▁In ▁August ▁ 2 0 0 9 , ▁Jesus Fre ke ▁stopped ▁work ▁on ▁his ▁firm ware ▁and ▁suggested ▁users ▁to ▁switch ▁to ▁a ▁version ▁of ▁his ▁R OM ▁that ▁had ▁been ▁further ▁en hanced ▁by ▁developer ▁Cy an ogen ▁( the ▁online ▁name ▁used ▁by ▁Stef anie ▁K ond ik , ▁a ▁S amsung ▁software ▁engineer ) ▁called ▁" C yan ogen Mod " ▁( user ▁adapt ations ▁being ▁often ▁known ▁as ▁mod ding ). ▁ ▁Cy an ogen Mod ▁grew ▁in ▁popular ity , ▁and ▁a ▁community ▁of ▁developers , ▁called ▁the ▁Cy an ogen Mod ▁Team ▁( and ▁inform ally ▁" Team ▁Dou che ") ▁made ▁contributions . ▁Within ▁a ▁few ▁months , ▁the ▁number ▁of ▁devices ▁and ▁features ▁supported ▁by ▁Cy an ogen Mod ▁bl oss omed , ▁and ▁Cy an ogen Mod ▁became ▁one ▁of ▁the ▁popular ▁Android ▁firm ware ▁distributions . ▁ ▁Similar ▁to ▁many ▁open - source ▁projects , ▁Cy an ogen Mod ▁was ▁developed ▁using ▁a ▁distributed ▁revision ▁control ▁system ▁with ▁the ▁official ▁repositories ▁being ▁hosted ▁on ▁GitHub . ▁Cont rib utors ▁submit ▁new ▁features ▁or ▁bug fix ▁changes ▁using ▁Ger rit . ▁Cont ribution s ▁may ▁be ▁tested ▁by ▁anyone , ▁voted ▁up ▁or ▁down ▁by ▁registered ▁users , ▁and ▁ultimately ▁accepted ▁into ▁the ▁code ▁by ▁one ▁of ▁a ▁hand ful ▁of ▁Cy an ogen Mod ▁developers . ▁ ▁A ▁version ▁of ▁AD W . Launch er , ▁an ▁alternative ▁launch er ▁( home ▁screen ) ▁for ▁the ▁Android |
▁operating ▁system , ▁became ▁the ▁default ▁launch er ▁on ▁Cy an ogen Mod ▁ 5 . 0 . 8 . ▁The ▁launch er ▁provides ▁additional ▁features ▁not ▁provided ▁by ▁the ▁default ▁Android ▁launch er , ▁including ▁more ▁custom ization ▁ab ilities ▁( including ▁icon ▁them es , ▁effects , ▁and ▁behavior ), ▁the ▁ability ▁to ▁backup ▁and ▁restore ▁configuration ▁settings , ▁and ▁other ▁features . ▁As ▁of ▁version ▁ 9 , ▁Cy an ogen Mod ' s ▁own ▁launch er , ▁Tre buch et , ▁is ▁included ▁with ▁the ▁firm ware . ▁ ▁Initial ly , ▁Cy an ogen Mod ▁releases ▁were ▁provided ▁on ▁a ▁night ly , ▁mil estone , ▁and ▁" stable ▁version " ▁schedule ; ▁as ▁of ▁Cy an ogen Mod ▁ 1 1 ▁M 6 , ▁the ▁" stable " ▁label ▁will ▁no ▁longer ▁be ▁used , ▁having ▁been ▁supp l anted ▁by ▁" mil estone " ▁M - build s ▁that ▁are ▁part ▁of ▁the ▁Cy an ogen Mod ' s ▁rolling ▁release ▁development ▁model . ▁ ▁Current ▁Cy an ogen Mod ▁version ▁list : ▁ ▁Cy an ogen Mod ▁ 7 ▁ ▁Cy an ogen Mod ▁ 7 ▁firm ware ▁is ▁based ▁on ▁Android ▁ 2 . 3 ▁G inger b read ▁with ▁additional ▁custom ▁code ▁contributed ▁by ▁the ▁Cy an ogen Mod ▁Team . ▁The ▁custom ▁port ions ▁of ▁Cy an ogen Mod ▁are ▁primarily ▁written ▁by ▁Cy an ogen ▁( Ste f anie ▁K ond ik ) ▁but ▁include ▁contributions ▁from ▁the ▁x da - |
developers ▁community ▁( such ▁as ▁an ▁improved ▁launch er ▁t ray , ▁d ial er , ▁and ▁browser ) ▁and ▁code ▁from ▁established ▁open - source ▁projects ▁( such ▁as ▁Bus y Box ▁in ▁the ▁shell ). ▁ ▁Cy an ogen Mod ▁ 7 ▁development ▁began ▁when ▁Google ▁released ▁Android ▁ 2 . 3 ' s ▁source ▁code . ▁On ▁ 1 5 ▁February ▁ 2 0 1 1 , ▁the ▁first ▁release ▁candidates ▁of ▁Cy an ogen Mod ▁ 7 ▁were ▁rolled ▁out ▁on ▁several ▁of ▁the ▁supported ▁devices . ▁The ▁fourth ▁release ▁candidate ▁was ▁released ▁on ▁ 3 0 ▁March ▁ 2 0 1 1 ▁and ▁brought ▁increased ▁support ▁for ▁the ▁No ok ▁Color ▁and ▁similar ▁devices , ▁as ▁well ▁as ▁many ▁bug ▁fixes . ▁On ▁ 1 1 ▁April ▁ 2 0 1 1 , ▁the ▁public ▁version ▁of ▁Cy an ogen Mod ▁ 7 . 0 ▁was ▁released , ▁based ▁on ▁Android ▁ 2 . 3 . 3 . ▁Cy an ogen Mod ▁ 7 . 1 ▁was ▁released ▁on ▁ 1 0 ▁October ▁ 2 0 1 1 , ▁based ▁on ▁Android ▁ 2 . 3 . 4 . ▁The ▁latest ▁stable ▁version , ▁Cy an ogen Mod ▁ 7 . 2 ▁was ▁released ▁on ▁ 1 6 ▁June ▁ 2 0 1 2 , ▁based ▁on ▁Android ▁ 2 . 3 . 7 , ▁bringing ▁a ▁predict ive ▁phone ▁d ial er , ▁lock - screen ▁updates , ▁I CS ▁animation ▁back ports ▁and ▁many ▁bug ▁fixes |
. ▁ ▁Cy an ogen Mod ▁ 8 ▁ ▁Cy an ogen Mod ▁version ▁ 8 ▁was ▁planned ▁to ▁be ▁based ▁on ▁Android ▁ 3 . x ▁H oney comb . ▁However , ▁as ▁the ▁source ▁code ▁for ▁H oney comb ▁wasn ' t ▁provided ▁by ▁Google ▁until ▁it ▁appeared ▁in ▁the ▁source ▁tree ▁history ▁of ▁its ▁successor , ▁Android ▁ 4 . 0 ▁Ice ▁C ream ▁Sand wich , ▁the ▁release ▁schedule ▁advanced ▁from ▁Cy an ogen Mod ▁ 7 ▁( G inger b read ) ▁directly ▁to ▁Cy an ogen Mod ▁ 9 ▁( I ce ▁C ream ▁Sand wich ). ▁ ▁Cy an ogen Mod ▁ 9 ▁ ▁Cy an ogen Mod ▁ 9 ▁is ▁based ▁on ▁Google ' s ▁Android ▁ 4 . 0 ▁Ice ▁C ream ▁Sand wich ▁and ▁is ▁the ▁first ▁version ▁of ▁Cy an ogen Mod ▁to ▁use ▁the ▁Tre buch et ▁launch er . ▁Stef anie ▁K ond ik ▁and ▁his ▁team ▁have ▁announced ▁that ▁they ▁had ▁begun ▁work ▁on ▁the ▁new ▁release ▁after ▁Google ▁released ▁the ▁source ▁code ▁of ▁Android ▁ 4 . 0 . 1 . ▁Development ▁on ▁this ▁release ▁took ▁longer ▁than ▁with ▁previous ▁releases ▁due ▁to ▁the ▁significance ▁of ▁the ▁changes ▁between ▁Android ▁ 2 . 3 ▁" G inger b read " ▁and ▁ 4 . 0 ▁" I ce ▁C ream ▁Sand wich ", ▁and ▁the ▁team ▁took ▁this ▁opportunity ▁to ▁clarify ▁their ▁vision ▁for ▁the ▁R OM ▁and ▁re th ink ▁any ▁modifications ▁which ▁were ▁no ▁longer ▁necessary |
▁due ▁to ▁improvements ▁within ▁Android . ▁ ▁By ▁the ▁last ▁days ▁of ▁November ▁ 2 0 1 1 , ▁some ▁alpha ▁versions ▁had ▁been ▁distributed , ▁in ▁particular ▁for ▁the ▁S amsung ▁mobile ▁ph ones ▁N ex us ▁S ▁and ▁Gal axy ▁S . ▁On ▁ 9 ▁August ▁ 2 0 1 2 , ▁after ▁various ▁bet as ▁and ▁release ▁candidates , ▁Cy an ogen Mod ▁released ▁the ▁finished ▁version ▁of ▁Cy an ogen Mod ▁ 9 . ▁Given ▁that ▁the ▁next ▁version ▁of ▁Android , ▁ 4 . 1 ▁" J elly ▁Be an ", ▁had ▁already ▁been ▁released ▁by ▁that ▁point , ▁development ▁moved ▁swift ly ▁on ▁to ▁Cy an ogen Mod ▁ 1 0 . ▁On ▁ 2 9 ▁August ▁ 2 0 1 2 , ▁Cy an ogen Mod ▁released ▁a ▁minor ▁update , ▁version ▁ 9 . 1 . 0 , ▁bringing ▁bug fix es ▁and ▁an ▁app ▁called ▁Sim ply T app ▁for ▁N FC ▁pay ments . ▁ ▁On ▁ 4 ▁April ▁ 2 0 1 2 , ▁during ▁development , ▁Cy an ogen Mod ▁un ve iled ▁" C id " ▁( pr on ounced ▁), ▁the ▁new ▁Cy an ogen Mod ▁mas cot , ▁which ▁replaced ▁the ▁previous ▁mas cot , ▁Andy ▁the ▁sk ate board ing ▁" bug d roid ". ▁Design ed ▁by ▁user ▁C iao , ▁C id ▁( C . I . D .) ▁is ▁an ▁abbre viation ▁of ▁" C yan ogen mod ▁ID ". ▁ ▁Cy an ogen |
Mod ▁ 1 0 ▁▁ ▁Cy an ogen Mod ▁ 1 0 . 0 ▁ ▁In ▁early ▁July ▁ 2 0 1 2 , ▁the ▁Cy an ogen Mod ▁team ▁announced , ▁via ▁its ▁Google + ▁account , ▁that ▁Cy an ogen Mod ▁ 1 0 ▁would ▁be ▁based ▁on ▁Android ▁ 4 . 1 ▁J elly ▁Be an . ▁Night ly ▁builds ▁of ▁Cy an ogen Mod ▁ 1 0 ▁were ▁made ▁available ▁for ▁many ▁devices ▁supported ▁by ▁Cy an ogen Mod ▁ 9 . ▁Starting ▁with ▁the ▁September ▁ 2 0 1 2 ▁M 1 ▁build , ▁the ▁Cy an ogen Mod ▁team ▁began ▁month ly ▁" M - series " ▁releases . ▁At ▁the ▁beginning ▁of ▁each ▁month , ▁a ▁soft ▁free ze ▁of ▁the ▁Cy an ogen Mod ▁code base ▁is ▁put ▁into ▁effect ; ▁once ▁the ▁team ▁de ems ▁a ▁build ▁stable ▁enough ▁for ▁daily ▁use , ▁it ▁is ▁released ▁under ▁the ▁mil estone ▁or ▁" M " ▁series . ▁ ▁On ▁ 1 3 ▁November ▁ 2 0 1 2 , ▁final ▁stable ▁builds ▁were ▁released ▁for ▁several ▁devices . ▁▁ ▁Cy an ogen Mod ▁ 1 0 . 1 ▁ ▁Cy an ogen Mod ▁ 1 0 . 1 ▁is ▁based ▁on ▁Android ▁ 4 . 2 ▁J elly ▁Be an . ▁Night ly ▁versions ▁are ▁currently ▁being ▁released ▁for ▁an ▁array ▁of ▁devices , ▁along ▁with ▁M ▁S nap sh ots ▁( Month ly ▁S nap sh ots ) ▁which ▁are ▁being ▁released ▁for ▁select |
▁devices . ▁ ▁On ▁ 2 4 ▁June ▁ 2 0 1 3 , ▁the ▁Cy an ogen Mod ▁ 1 0 . 1 . 0 ▁code base ▁( based ▁on ▁Android ▁version ▁ 4 . 2 . 2 ) ▁was ▁moved ▁to ▁" stable " ▁status , ▁with ▁a ▁majority ▁of ▁currently - supported ▁devices ▁receiving ▁stable ▁builds ▁on ▁the ▁same ▁day . ▁Cy an ogen Mod ' s ▁developers ▁have ▁indicated ▁that ▁they ▁will ▁continue ▁the ▁Month ly ▁S napshot ▁schedule ▁to ▁incorpor ate ▁new ▁features ▁until ▁the ▁next ▁Cy an ogen mod ▁release . ▁Unfortunately , ▁many ▁devices ▁util izing ▁S amsung ▁Ex yn os ▁and ▁N vidia ▁T eg ra ▁ 2 ▁So C ' s ▁were ▁not ▁part ▁of ▁the ▁initial ▁release . ▁▁ ▁Cy an ogen Mod ▁ 1 0 . 2 ▁ ▁The ▁first ▁night ly ▁release ▁of ▁Cy an ogen Mod ▁ 1 0 . 2 , ▁which ▁is ▁based ▁on ▁Android ▁ 4 . 3 ▁J elly ▁Be an , ▁began ▁rolling ▁out ▁for ▁a ▁selected ▁number ▁of ▁devices ▁on ▁ 1 4 ▁August ▁ 2 0 1 3 . ▁It ▁brings ▁in ▁some ▁new ▁enh anc ements ▁to ▁the ▁system , ▁such ▁as ▁Bl uetooth ▁Low ▁Energy ▁and ▁OpenGL ES 3 . 0 ▁support , ▁a ▁renew ed ▁Phone ▁app , ▁ 4 K ▁resolution ▁support , ▁as ▁well ▁as ▁many ▁security ▁and ▁stability ▁improvements . ▁ ▁Cy an ogen Mod ▁ 1 1 ▁▁ ▁On ▁ 6 ▁November ▁ 2 |
0 1 3 ▁the ▁Cy an ogen Mod ▁team ▁started ▁pushing ▁the ▁code ▁of ▁Cy an ogen Mod ▁ 1 1 , ▁based ▁on ▁Android ▁ 4 . 4 ▁Kit K at , ▁to ▁GitHub . ▁The ▁first ▁night ly ▁release ▁of ▁Cy an ogen Mod ▁ 1 1 . 0 ▁began ▁rolling ▁out ▁for ▁a ▁selected ▁number ▁of ▁devices ▁on ▁ 5 ▁December ▁ 2 0 1 3 . ▁Since ▁then , ▁M - build s ▁have ▁been ▁released ▁every ▁month ▁for ▁supported ▁devices , ▁offering ▁a ▁more ▁stable ▁experience ▁than ▁night lies . ▁With ▁build ▁M 6 ▁it ▁was ▁clar ified ▁that ▁Cy an ogen Mod ▁would ▁no ▁longer ▁be ▁re le asing ▁final ▁builds ▁spe cially ▁tag ged ▁" stable ", ▁but ▁instead ▁would ▁util ize ▁the ▁rolling ▁release ▁model ▁with ▁M - build s ▁representing ▁a ▁stable ▁channel . ▁ ▁The ▁global ▁One Plus ▁One ▁is ▁sh ipped ▁with ▁a ▁variant ▁of ▁Cy an ogen Mod ▁ 1 1 ▁M 9 ▁known ▁as ▁" C yan ogen Mod ▁ 1 1 S ". ▁The ▁latest ▁version ▁of ▁Cy an ogen Mod ▁ 1 1 S ▁for ▁the ▁One ▁is ▁ 1 1 . 0 - X N PH 0 5 Q , ▁based ▁on ▁Cy an ogen Mod ▁ 1 1 ▁M 1 1 ▁and ▁Android ▁ 4 . 4 . 4 ▁" Kit K at ", ▁and ▁was ▁released ▁as ▁an ▁over - the - air ▁( OT A ) ▁update ▁in ▁February ▁ 2 0 1 5 |
. ▁ ▁Cy an ogen Mod ▁ 1 2 ▁ ▁The ▁first ▁night ly ▁release ▁of ▁Cy an ogen Mod ▁ 1 2 , ▁based ▁on ▁Android ▁ 5 . 0 ▁L ol lip op , ▁began ▁rolling ▁out ▁for ▁a ▁selected ▁number ▁of ▁devices ▁on ▁ 6 ▁January ▁ 2 0 1 5 . ▁A ▁stable ▁snapshot ▁was ▁released ▁on ▁ 2 5 ▁June ▁ 2 0 1 5 , ▁and ▁a ▁security ▁patch ▁snapshot ▁was ▁released ▁on ▁ 1 ▁September ▁ 2 0 1 5 . ▁ ▁Cy an ogen ▁OS ▁ 1 2 , ▁a ▁variant ▁of ▁Cy an ogen Mod ▁ 1 2 ▁for ▁the ▁One Plus ▁One ▁and ▁Yu ▁Y ure ka ▁was ▁released ▁in ▁April ▁ 2 0 1 5 . ▁Yu ▁Yu ph oria ▁got ▁Cy an ogen ▁OS ▁ 1 2 ▁out - of - the - box ▁when ▁it ▁was ▁launched ▁in ▁May ▁ 2 0 1 5 . ▁Cy an ogen Mod ▁ 1 2 . 1 ▁The ▁first ▁night ly ▁release ▁of ▁Cy an ogen Mod ▁ 1 2 . 1 , ▁based ▁on ▁Android ▁ 5 . 1 , ▁was ▁announced ▁on ▁. ▁A ▁stable ▁snapshot ▁build ▁was ▁released ▁on ▁ 1 ▁September ▁ 2 0 1 5 , ▁but ▁night ly ▁builds ▁continue ▁to ▁roll ▁out ▁every ▁day . ▁ ▁Len ovo ▁Z UK ▁Z 1 , ▁W iley fox ▁Swift ▁and ▁Storm ▁got ▁Cy an ogen ▁OS ▁ 1 2 . 1 ▁out - of - the - box |
▁when ▁it ▁was ▁launched ▁in ▁September ▁ 2 0 1 5 . ▁Y U ' s ▁Y ure ka , ▁Y ure ka ▁Plus , ▁and ▁Yu ph oria ▁got ▁a ▁Cy an ogen ▁OS ▁ 1 2 . 1 ▁O TA ▁update . ▁ ▁Cy an ogen Mod ▁ 1 3 ▁ ▁The ▁first ▁night ly ▁release ▁of ▁Cy an ogen Mod ▁ 1 3 . 0 , ▁based ▁on ▁Android ▁ 6 . 0 , ▁was ▁released ▁on ▁ ▁for ▁a ▁small ▁number ▁of ▁devices , ▁but ▁was ▁gradually ▁developed ▁for ▁other ▁devices . ▁A ▁few ▁weeks ▁after ▁the ▁first ▁night ly ▁release ▁of ▁Cy an ogen Mod ▁ 1 3 . 0 ▁for ▁Android ▁ 6 . 0 , ▁Cy an ogen Mod ▁was ▁given ▁a ▁minor ▁update ▁and ▁was ▁based ▁on ▁Android ▁ 6 . 0 . 1 . ▁ ▁First ▁stable ▁builds ▁were ▁released ▁on ▁ 2 0 1 6 - 0 3 - 1 5 . ▁ ▁Cy an ogen Mod ▁ 1 4 . 0 ▁▁ ▁Due ▁to ▁the ▁early ▁release ▁of ▁Android ▁ 7 . 1 , ▁Cy an ogen Mod ▁ski pped ▁producing ▁night ly ▁builds ▁for ▁Cy an ogen Mod ▁ 1 4 . 0 . ▁Code ▁initially ▁written ▁for ▁Cy an ogen Mod ▁ 1 4 ▁was ▁cher ry - p icked ▁into ▁the ▁cm - 1 4 . 1 ▁branch . ▁ ▁Cy an ogen Mod ▁ 1 4 . 1 ▁▁ ▁The ▁first ▁experimental ▁build ▁of ▁Cy an ogen mod |
▁ 1 4 . 1 ▁based ▁on ▁Android ▁ 7 . 1 ▁was ▁released ▁for ▁One plus ▁ 3 ▁devices ▁on ▁ 4 ▁November ▁ 2 0 1 6 . ▁On ▁ 8 ▁November ▁ 2 0 1 6 , ▁official ▁night lies ▁began ▁for ▁ang ler ▁( H ua wei ▁N ex us ▁ 6 P ), ▁b ull head ▁( L G ▁N ex us ▁ 5 X ), ▁can cro ▁( X ia omi ▁Mi 3 w / M i 4 ), ▁d 8 5 5 ▁( L G ▁G 3 ), ▁fal con / per egr ine / the a / t itan / os pre y ▁( M oto ▁G ▁variants ), ▁h 8 1 1 / h 8 1 5 ▁( L G ▁G 4 ), ▁kl te / k lt ed v / k lt es pr / kl te usc / kl te v zw ▁( S amsung ▁Gal axy ▁S 5 ), ▁one plus 3 ▁( One Plus ▁ 3 ), ▁Z 0 0 L / Z 0 0 T ▁( Z en F one ▁ 2 ). ▁It ▁is ▁missing ▁some ▁of ▁the ▁signature ▁features ▁of ▁Cy an ogen Mod , ▁however , ▁and ▁was ▁considered ▁a ▁" work ▁in ▁progress ". ▁This ▁version ▁will ▁add ▁multi - window ▁support . ▁ ▁This ▁was ▁the ▁final ▁release ▁to ▁use ▁the ▁name ▁" C yan ogen Mod ". ▁ ▁F ork ▁to ▁Line age OS ▁ ▁In ▁December ▁ 2 0 1 6 ▁the |
▁Cy an ogen Mod ▁developer ▁group ▁for ked ▁and ▁re - brand ed ▁the ▁Cy an ogen Mod ▁code ▁into ▁a ▁new ▁project ▁named ▁Line age OS , ▁which ▁is ▁built ▁on ▁top ▁of ▁Cy an ogen Mod ▁versions ▁ 1 3 ▁and ▁ 1 4 . 1 ▁and ▁uses ▁the ▁name ▁Line age OS ▁for ▁subsequent ▁releases . ▁This ▁project ▁is ▁supported ▁by ▁the ▁community - oper ated ▁Line age OS ▁Project . ▁Line age OS ▁version ▁ 1 5 . 1 ▁is ▁the ▁first ▁release ▁fully ▁controlled ▁by ▁the ▁new ▁Line age OS ▁team , ▁although ▁it ▁will ▁continue ▁to ▁include ▁many ▁of ▁the ▁common ▁features ▁previously ▁provided ▁in ▁Cy an ogen Mod . ▁ ▁Cy an ogen ▁Inc . ▁▁ ▁Cy an ogen ▁Inc . ▁was ▁a ▁vent ure - fund ed ▁company ▁with ▁offices ▁in ▁Seattle ▁and ▁Pal o ▁Al to , ▁California , ▁announced ▁officially ▁in ▁September ▁ 2 0 1 3 , ▁which ▁aim ed ▁to ▁commercial ize ▁Cy an ogen Mod . ▁The ▁fund ing ▁was ▁led ▁by ▁Mitch ▁L ask y ▁of ▁Ben chmark ▁and ▁raised ▁$ 7 ▁million . ▁It ▁began ▁when ▁K irt ▁Mc Master ▁approached ▁Stef anie ▁K ond ik ▁on ▁Linked In ▁in ▁ 2 0 1 3 , ▁to ▁discuss ▁possible ▁commercial ization ▁of ▁the ▁project . ▁ ▁Com mer cial ization ▁controvers y ▁ ▁Rum ors ▁of ▁plans ▁to ▁commercial ize ▁Cy an ogen Mod , ▁as ▁well ▁as ▁the ▁subsequent ▁announ cement ▁of ▁Cy an ogen ▁Inc ., |
▁led ▁to ▁a ▁certain ▁level ▁of ▁disc ord ▁within ▁the ▁Cy an ogen Mod ▁community . ▁Several ▁Cy an ogen Mod ▁developers ▁raised ▁concerns ▁that ▁developers ▁who ▁had ▁provided ▁their ▁work ▁in ▁the ▁past ▁were ▁not ▁being ▁appropri ately ▁acknowled ged ▁or ▁compens ated ▁for ▁their ▁free ▁work ▁on ▁what ▁was ▁now ▁a ▁commercial ▁project , ▁further ▁that ▁the ▁original ▁eth os ▁of ▁the ▁community ▁project ▁was ▁being ▁und erm ined ▁and ▁that ▁these ▁concerns ▁were ▁not ▁being ▁ade qu ately ▁addressed ▁by ▁Cy an ogen ▁Inc . ▁Ex amples ▁include ▁the ▁" F ocal " ▁camera ▁app ▁developer ▁Guillaume ▁Les nia k ▁(" x pl od w ild ") ▁whose ▁app ▁was ▁with dra wn ▁from ▁Cy an ogen Mod ▁alleg edly ▁following ▁dem ands ▁by ▁the ▁new ▁company ▁to ▁adopt ▁closed - source ▁modifications ▁and ▁lic ens ing . ▁ ▁In ▁response , ▁Stef anie ▁K ond ik ▁aff ir med ▁commit ment ▁to ▁the ▁community , ▁stating ▁that ▁the ▁majority ▁of ▁Cy an ogen Mod ▁histor ically ▁did ▁not ▁use ▁G PL ▁but ▁the ▁Apache ▁lic ence ▁( the ▁same ▁license ▁used ▁by ▁Google ▁for ▁Android ), ▁and ▁dual ▁lic ens ing ▁was ▁being ▁proposed ▁in ▁order ▁to ▁offer ▁" a ▁stronger ▁degree ▁of ▁protection ▁for ▁contrib utors ... ▁while ▁still ▁offering ▁C M ▁some ▁of ▁the ▁fre ed oms ▁that ▁the ▁Apache ▁license ▁offers ": ▁ ▁Develop er ▁Ent ropy 5 1 2 ▁also ▁observed ▁that ▁Cy an ogen Mod ▁was ▁leg ally ▁bound ▁by ▁its ▁position ▁to ▁make |
▁some ▁of ▁the ▁firm ware ▁changes , ▁because ▁of ▁the ▁Android ▁license ▁and ▁market ing ▁conditions ▁(" CT S ▁terms "), ▁which ▁specify ▁what ▁apps ▁may ▁and ▁may ▁not ▁do , ▁and ▁these ▁were ▁raised ▁in ▁part ▁by ▁Android ▁developers ▁at ▁Google ▁inform ally ▁spec ul atively ▁as ▁a ▁result ▁of ▁per ception s ▁of ▁Cy an ogen Mod ' s ▁high ▁profile ▁in ▁the ▁market . ▁ ▁In ▁his ▁ 2 0 1 3 ▁blog ▁post ▁on ▁Cy an ogen ' s ▁fund ing , ▁vent ure ▁f under ▁Mitch ▁L ask y ▁stated : ▁ ▁In ▁January ▁ 2 0 1 5 , ▁it ▁was ▁reported ▁that ▁Microsoft ▁had ▁inv ested ▁in ▁Cy an ogen , ▁and ▁that ▁this ▁might ▁be ▁part ▁of ▁a ▁strategy ▁to ▁create ▁an ▁Android ▁version ▁that ▁worked ▁well ▁with ▁Microsoft ▁platforms . ▁In ▁April ▁ 2 0 1 5 , ▁Cy an ogen ▁announced ▁a ▁strateg ic ▁partners hip ▁with ▁Microsoft , ▁to ▁integrate ▁Microsoft ▁apps ▁and ▁services ▁into ▁Cy an ogen ▁OS . ▁In ▁January ▁ 2 0 1 6 , ▁Cy an ogen ▁rolled ▁out ▁an ▁update ▁that ▁started ▁present ing ▁Microsoft ▁applications ▁when ▁a ▁user ▁attempts ▁to ▁open ▁certain ▁file ▁types ▁on ▁Cy an ogen ▁OS ▁ph ones . ▁ ▁Rest ruct ure ▁and ▁c ess ation ▁of ▁services ▁▁ ▁Despite ▁the ▁popular ity ▁of ▁Cy an ogen Mod ▁as ▁a ▁custom ▁R OM , ▁Cy an ogen ▁Inc . ▁failed ▁to ▁persu ade ▁phone ▁companies ▁to ▁use ▁its ▁version ▁of ▁Android . |
▁In ▁July ▁ 2 0 1 6 ▁it ▁fired ▁around ▁ 3 0 ▁of ▁its ▁ 1 3 6 ▁staff ▁and ▁management , ▁including ▁its ▁product ▁head , ▁and ▁closed ▁its ▁Seattle ▁office ▁( other ▁offices ▁were ▁described ▁as ▁" g utt ed "), ▁as ▁part ▁of ▁a ▁strateg ic ▁change ▁by ▁the ▁newly ▁employed ▁Chief ▁Oper ating ▁Officer ▁L ior ▁Tal . ▁CE O ▁K irt ▁Mc Master ▁also ▁stepped ▁down ▁from ▁his ▁role ▁in ▁October ▁ 2 0 1 6 ▁with ▁Tal ▁becoming ▁CE O ▁at ▁that ▁point , ▁and ▁Cy an ogen Mod ▁founder ▁Stef anie ▁K ond ik ▁was ▁believed ▁to ▁have ▁been ▁removed ▁from ▁the ▁board ▁and ▁left ▁a ▁month ▁later ▁in ▁November ▁ 2 0 1 6 . ▁ ▁Media ▁analysis ▁focused ▁on ▁dub ious ▁management ▁dec isions ▁at ▁Cy an ogen ▁Inc . ▁as ▁part ▁of ▁the ▁reason ▁for ▁the ▁failure . ▁In ▁ 2 0 1 4 ▁the ▁company ▁ab rupt ly ▁not ified ▁its ▁existing ▁partner ▁One Plus ▁– ▁who ▁used ▁Cy an ogen Mod ▁for ▁its ▁ph ones ▁and ▁had ▁just ▁launched ▁models ▁in ▁India ▁– ▁that ▁it ▁had ▁reached ▁an ▁exclusive ▁agreement ▁covering ▁India ▁with ▁another ▁supp lier , ▁leading ▁to ▁an ▁ac rim on ious ▁break up ▁of ▁their ▁relationship , ▁which ▁was ▁described ▁in ▁the ▁media ▁as ▁" p ract ically ▁sc rew ing ▁over " ▁and ▁" bet ray ing " ▁One Plus ▁and ▁a ▁" sur pr ising ly ▁child ish " ▁move ; ▁One Plus ▁was ▁b |
anned ▁from ▁s elling ▁in ▁India ▁as ▁a ▁result . ▁Sub sequently , ▁Cy an ogen ' s ▁CE O ▁bo asted ▁of ▁their ▁intention ▁to ▁dis place ▁Google ▁in ▁cont rolling ▁the ▁Android ▁operating ▁system . ▁Unable ▁to ▁gain ▁sufficient ▁u pt ake ▁of ▁its ▁operating ▁system , ▁it ▁then ▁shift ed ▁focus ▁and ▁fired ▁its ▁core ▁team ▁and ▁replaced ▁its ▁CE O , ▁before ▁shut ting ▁down ▁its ▁core ▁operating ▁system ▁development ▁operations . ▁ ▁A ▁day ▁after ▁leaving , ▁Stef anie ▁K ond ik ▁wrote ▁a ▁blog ▁post ▁in ▁which ▁he ▁stated ▁that ▁in ▁h inds ight , ▁he ▁had ▁trust ed ▁and ▁h ired ▁" the ▁wrong ▁people ", ▁who ▁had ▁not ▁shared ▁a ▁common ▁vision , ▁and ▁that ▁he ▁had ▁ended ▁up ▁unable ▁to ▁prevent ▁the ▁failure ▁of ▁the ▁company ▁and ▁the ▁forming ▁of ▁a ▁" new ▁team " ▁in ▁its ▁place . ▁He ▁drew ▁attention ▁to ▁his ▁own ▁part ▁in ▁the ▁failure , ▁the ▁loss ▁of ▁rights ▁to ▁the ▁" C yan ogen Mod " ▁name ▁by ▁the ▁community , ▁and ▁to ▁the ▁r ift ▁in ▁per ception ▁among ▁Android ▁developers ▁(" The ▁rest ▁of ▁the ▁R OM ▁community ▁seems ▁to ▁be ▁highly ▁dependent ▁on ▁us , ▁but ▁simultaneously ▁wants ▁us ▁dead . ▁How ▁on ▁earth ▁do ▁you ▁fix ▁this ? "). ▁He ▁asked ▁the ▁community ▁to ▁consider ▁for king ▁and ▁re brand ing ▁the ▁source ▁code , ▁possibly ▁with ▁some ▁form ▁of ▁crow df und ing ▁based ▁on ▁the ▁project ' s ▁underlying ▁popular ity . |