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situation in Darfur
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What has been widely debated as a possible act of genocide in Sudan?
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Colin Powell
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In 2003 what well known U.S. Secretary of State declared the situation in Darfur as an act of genocide?
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the Senate Foreign Relations Committee
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In front of which committee did Powell testify?
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an International Commission of Inquiry on Darfur
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What did UN Security Council Resolution 1564 authorize in 2004?
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genocidal policy
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Despite some concessions, what act did the Commission ultimately state that Sudan had not pursued?
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Prosecutor of the International Criminal Court
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To whom did the Security Council officially refer the situation in Darfur?
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the Commission report
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What was taken into account, without mentioning specific crimes?
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the United States
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China and what other permanent member of the Security Council abstained from the vote on the referral resolution?
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his fourth report
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In which number report to the Council did the Prosecutor concede that crimes had been committed but evidence for prosecution was insufficient?
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structural conditions
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In the build-up to genocide, what have other authors focused on?
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psychological and social
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What processes are thought to create an evolution toward genocide?
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Ervin Staub
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Who revealed the starting points of this evolution to be economic deterioration and political confusion?
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devaluation of the group
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A history of what is just one factor that contributes to the probability of violence developing into genocide?
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humanizing a devalued group
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What is one preventive effort in circumventing conditions that lead to genocide?
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resistance of bacteria
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What is a modern common occurence with antibiotics?
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evolution
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What is resistance to antibiotics a cause of?
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1943
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When was the Luria-Delbruck experiment?
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penicillin and erythromycin
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Which two antibiotics that have high efficacy are much less useful now?
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evolutionary processes
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What does emergence of resistance reflect?
|
survive high doses of antibiotics
|
What is the purpose of antibiotic treatment?
|
1943
|
When was antibacterial-resistance demonstrated?
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Luria–Delbrück
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Who made the demonstration in 1943?
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concentration
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What does the potency of antibacterials depend upon?
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bacterial infection
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What does this eliminate?
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bacterial growth phase
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What does the bactericidal activitty of antibacterials depend on what?
|
division of bacterial cells
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What besides ongoing metabolic activity is required in bactericidal activity?
|
concentration
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What does the activity of antibacterials depends on?
|
host defense mechanisms, the location of infection, and the pharmacokinetic and pharmacodynamic properties of the antibacterial
|
What does a successful treatment using antibiotics entail?
|
several pharmacological parameters are used as markers of drug efficacy
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How do you predict the clinical result?
|
bacterial functions or growth processes
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What do anitibiotics mostly target?
|
penicillins and cephalosporins
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Which two types of antibiotics target the cell wall?
|
polymyxins
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Which type of antibiotic goes after the cell membrane?
|
(macrolides, lincosamides and tetracyclines
|
What 3 types go after protein synthesis?
|
mechanism of action
|
Besides sprectrum of activity and chemical structure, how can antibacterial antibiotics classified?
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penicillins and cephalosporins
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What is another name used for bacterial cell wall?
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polymyxins
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whats another word for cell membrane?
|
four
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How many new classes of antibacterial antibiotics was introduced in the late 2000's/
|
mechanism of action, chemical structure, or spectrum of activity
|
What three ways are antibiotics classified?
|
semisynthetic modifications
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What are antibiotics in chemical terms?
|
beta-lactam antibiotics
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What type of antibiotics include penicilin?
|
aminoglycosides
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What are the type of antibiotics which are taken from still living things?
|
synthesis
|
How are the slufonamides,quinolones, and oxazolidinones created?
|
various natural compounds
|
Besides semisytetic modifications, what advances in medicinal chemistry regarding antibacterials?
|
2000 atomic mass units
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What is the molecular weight loss of antibacterial compounds?
|
penicillins
|
What is included in the beta-lactam antibiotics?
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fungi
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What is penicillins produced by?
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tuberculosis
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What is one disease that has been nearly eradicated thanks to vaccines and antibiotics?
|
overuse, especially in livestock raising, prompting bacteria to develop resistance
|
What is one issue that can arise from overuse of antibiotics?
|
World Health Organization
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What organization called antimicrobial resistance a 'serious threat?'
|
20th century
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In which century were antibiotics first introduced?
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anyone, of any age, in any country
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What can be affected by issues resulting from overuse of antibiotics?
|
develop resistance
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What does there medicines do for livestock?
|
World Health Organization
|
What organization classifies this as a current serious threat in the whole world??
|
20th
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In what century did antibiotics revolutionized medicine?
|
antibiotic resistance
|
Besides antimicrobial, what did the overused medicine cause?
|
vaccination
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What other medicine worked along antibiotics to eradicate diseases like tuberculosis?
|
20th century
|
When did antibiotics revolutinzed medicine?
|
develop resistance
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What happened when antibiotics was over used in livestock?
|
World Health Organization
|
What organization stated that the world has this serious problem?
|
every region of the world
|
What regions in the world does this apply in?
|
20th century
|
When were antibiotics created?
|
antimicrobial and antibiotic resistance
|
What is a common problem in antibiotic use?
|
livestock raising
|
Who else uses antibiotics besides the medical industry?
|
tuberculosis
|
What disease did antibiotics help eliminate?
|
empirical therapy
|
What is one kind of therapy that may be used when a patience has an infection, but it has not been identified?
|
laboratory
|
Where do doctors perform microorganism identification testing?
|
broad spectrum antibiotic
|
What kinds of antibiotics are most commonly used for empirical therapy?
|
While the microorgainsim is being identified
|
At what stage does a doctor begin empirical therapy?
|
several days
|
How long does the identification process take?
|
broad spectrum antibiotic
|
What happens when a doctor doesn't know the microorganism yet?
|
a patient has proven or suspected infection, but the responsible microorganism is not yet unidentified
|
What happens in empirical therapy?
|
before the doctor knows the exact identification of microorgansim
|
When is empirical started?
|
fever and nausea
|
What are two examples of minor side effects caused by some antibiotics?
|
disruption of the species composition in the intestinal flora
|
What causes diarrhea?
|
yeast
|
What negative effects can antibiotics have on the vaginal area?
|
a quinolone antibiotic with a systemic corticosteroid
|
What is one example of antibiotics that may have a possible side effect of tendon damage?
|
alter the host microbiota
|
What is one possible serious side effect of over-using antibiotics?
|
negative effects
|
What are antibiotics screened for on mammals and humans?
|
clinical use
|
What do antibiotics need approval for?
|
microbial organisms
|
What besides the individual patient is targeted when antibiotics is being used?
|
Adverse effects
|
Photodermatitis, nausea, allergic reactions and anaphylaxis are all what type of side effect?
|
host microbiota
|
What was altered during the hypothesis of indiscriminate use of antibiotics?
|
negative effects on humans or other mammals
|
Why are antibiotics checked before use?
|
fever and nausea to major allergic reactions, including photodermatitis and anaphylaxis
|
Name some adverse effects?
|
diarrhea
|
Name some side-effects?
|
overgrowth of yeast
|
What can happen to vaginal flora?
|
Additional side-effects
|
What can happen when antibiotics are used with other drugs?
|
increased body mass
|
What is one common result of using antibiotics from a young age?
|
subtherapeutic antibiotic treatment
|
What does STAT stand for?
|
penicillin, vancomycin, penicillin and vancomycin, or chlortetracycline
|
What are some antibiotics can be used for STAT?
|
unclear
|
Do antibiotics cause obesity in humans?
|
weighed against the beneficial effects
|
Why do physicians use antibiotics on infants when the relationship has been proven?
|
increased body mass
|
What can happen if people are exposed to antibiotics at a young age?
|
Early life
|
When do intestinal microbiota develop?
|
unclear
|
Do antibiotics increase the chance of getting fat for humans?
|
The majority of studies indicate antibiotics do interfere with contraceptive pills
|
Do antibiotics interact with birth control pills?
|
about 1%
|
What percentage of birth control pill failure is attributed to antibiotics?
|
reduced absorption of estrogens in the colon
|
What are the potential effects on intestinal flora?
|
inconclusive and controversial
|
Have these potential effects been proven through testing?
|
extra contraceptive measures
|
What do physicians recommend to counteract this potential issue?
|
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