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In botanical nomenclature, a hybrid may be given a hybrid name, which is a special kind of botanical name, but there is no requirement that a hybrid name should be created for plants that are believed to be of hybrid origin. The International Code of Nomenclature for algae, fungi, and plants (ICNafp) provides the following options in dealing with a hybrid:
A hybrid may get a name if the author considers it really necessary (in practice, authors tend to use this option for naturally occurring hybrids), but it is rather recommended to use parents names as they are more informative (art. H | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
In agriculture and gardening, hybrid seed is produced by deliberately cross-pollinated plants which are genetically diverse. Hybrid seed is common in industrial agriculture and home gardening. It is one of the main contributors to the dramatic rise in agricultural output during the last half of the 20th century | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
Hylotelephium, syn. Sedum, is a genus of flowering plants in the family Crassulaceae. Various species have been hybridized by horticulturalists to create new cultivars | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
Ipomea × multifida is a hybridogenic species. Its ancestors are I. coccinea and I | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
Kalanchoe 'Tarantula', or Kalanchoe katapifa 'Tarantula', is a succulent cultivar in the kalanchoe genus that produces small bouquets of pink flowers.
Description
30cm in height and width, the plant features irregular, spidery leaves (hence its name), and produces long-lasting, vibrant pink flowers in spring and autumn.
Cultivation
It is cultivated as houseplant and as a rock or garden plant | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
Kalanchoe × houghtonii is a hybrid between K. daigremontiana and K. delagoensis named after Arthur Duvernoix Houghton | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
Kalanchoe laetivirens is a species of Kalanchoe (section Bryophyllum). It is most likely a hybrid between K. daigremontiana and K | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
The Leyland cypress, Cupressus × leylandii, X Cuprocyparis leylandii or X Cupressocyparis leylandii, often referred to simply as leylandii, is a fast-growing coniferous evergreen tree much used in horticulture, primarily for hedges and screens. Even on sites of relatively poor culture, plants have been known to grow to heights of 15 metres (49 ft) in 16 years. Their rapid, thick growth means they are sometimes used to achieve privacy, but such use can result in disputes with neighbours whose own property becomes overshadowed | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
Mahonia × media is an interspecific hybrid shrub. Its parents are Mahonia oiwakensis subsp. lomariifolia (previously known as Mahonia lomariifolia) and Mahonia japonica | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
Mangaves are plants formerly given the nothogenus name × Mangave. They are derived from hybridizing species in the genus Agave and the former genus Manfreda. Manfreda is now included in Agave, so the scientific name is obsolete | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
Meadow knapweed is a fertile hybrid between black knapweed (Centaurea nigra) and brown knapweed (Centaurea jacea). It is also known by the common names of hybrid knapweed or protean knapweed. The taxonomic status of the species is uncertain, and meadow knapweed has been variously described as different species | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
Miscanthus × giganteus, also known as the giant miscanthus, is a sterile hybrid of Miscanthus sinensis and Miscanthus sacchariflorus. It is a perennial grass with bamboo-like stems that can grow to heights of 3–4 metres (13 ft) in one season (from the third season onwards). Just like Pennisetum purpureum, Arundo donax and Saccharum ravennae, it is also called elephant grass | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
Osmunda × intermedia is a semifertile hybrid between Osmunda japonica and Osmunda lancea.
References
Yatabe, Yoko; Yamamoto, Kaoru; Tsutsumi, Chie; Shinohara, Wataru; Murakami, Noriaki; Kato, Masahiro (2010). "Fertility and precocity of Osmunda × intermedia offspring in culture" | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
× Pachyveria glauca 'Little Jewel' succulent plants are hybrids in the nothogenus × Pachyveria (Pachyphytum and Echeveria). It is a versatile plant, thriving in the (frost free) garden and in containers.
Description
This plant has cylindrical tapered leaves, shading from powdery blue with a of purple at the bottom of the plant to a light green at the points of the top leaves | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
Pacific Albus is a hybrid poplar grown in the Pacific Northwest, near Boardman, Oregon. Its name is from the Latin word albus meaning white. It has similar characteristics to aspen and cottonwood | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
The garden pansy (Viola × wittrockiana) is a type of large-flowered hybrid plant cultivated as a garden flower. It is derived by hybridization from several species in the section Melanium ("the pansies") of the genus Viola, particularly V. tricolor, a wildflower of Europe and western Asia known as heartsease | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
Passiflora × exoniensis, the Exeter passion flower, is a hybrid of garden origin between two species of flowering plants, Passiflora antioquiensis × Passiflora tripartita var. mollissima in the family Passifloraceae. It was hybridised in the Veitch Nurseries in Exeter, Devon, England, in the 1870s | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
Passiflora × violacea, the violet passion flower, is a hybrid between two species of flowering plants, Passiflora racemosa × Passiflora caerulea, in the family Passifloraceae. The name Passiflora × violacea has yet to be resolved as a correct scientific name; nevertheless it is widely found in the horticultural literature.
It is an evergreen climber growing to 6 m (20 ft) with five-lobed leaves, clinging spiral tendrils, large showy purple flowers with maroon and white filaments, and the prominent stigmas and anthers typical of the genus | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
Metabolic network modelling, also known as metabolic network reconstruction or metabolic pathway analysis, allows for an in-depth insight into the molecular mechanisms of a particular organism. In particular, these models correlate the genome with molecular physiology. A reconstruction breaks down metabolic pathways (such as glycolysis and the citric acid cycle) into their respective reactions and enzymes, and analyzes them within the perspective of the entire network | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
Hematopoietic stem cells (HSCs) have high regenerative potentials and are capable of differentiating into all blood and immune system cells. Despite this impressive potential, HSCs have limited potential to produce more multipotent stem cells. This limited self-renewal potential is protected through maintenance of a quiescent state in HSCs | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
Metabolic trapping refers to a localization mechanism of synthesized radiocompounds in the human body. It can be defined as the intracellular accumulation of a radioactive tracer based on the relative metabolic activity of the body's tissues. It is a basic principle of the design of radiopharmaceuticals as metabolic probes for functional studies or tumor location | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
Metabolic wastes or excrements are substances left over from metabolic processes (such as cellular respiration) which cannot be used by the organism (they are surplus or toxic), and must therefore be excreted. This includes nitrogen compounds, water, CO2, phosphates, sulphates, etc. Animals treat these compounds as excretes | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
Metabolic water refers to water created inside a living organism through their metabolism, by oxidizing energy-containing substances in their food. Animal metabolism produces about 107-110 grams of water per 100 grams of fat, 41-42 grams of water per 100 g of protein and 60 grams of water per 100 g of carbohydrate. Some organisms, especially xerocoles, animals living in the desert, rely exclusively on metabolic water | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
Metabolism: Clinical and Experimental is a monthly peer-reviewed medical journal covering all aspects of human metabolism. It was established in 1952 and is published by Elsevier. The editor-in-chief is Christos Socrates Mantzoros (Harvard Medical School) who has reinvigorated the journal during his tenure | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
In biochemistry, a metabolite is an intermediate or end product of metabolism.
The term is usually used for small molecules. Metabolites have various functions, including fuel, structure, signaling, stimulatory and inhibitory effects on enzymes, catalytic activity of their own (usually as a cofactor to an enzyme), defense, and interactions with other organisms (e | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
Metabolite damage can occur through enzyme promiscuity or spontaneous chemical reactions. Many metabolites are chemically reactive and unstable and can react with other cell components or undergo unwanted modifications. Enzymatically or chemically damaged metabolites are always useless and often toxic | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
The metabolome refers to the complete set of small-molecule chemicals found within a biological sample. The biological sample can be a cell, a cellular organelle, an organ, a tissue, a tissue extract, a biofluid or an entire organism. The small molecule chemicals found in a given metabolome may include both endogenous metabolites that are naturally produced by an organism (such as amino acids, organic acids, nucleic acids, fatty acids, amines, sugars, vitamins, co-factors, pigments, antibiotics, etc | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
Metabolomics is the scientific study of chemical processes involving metabolites, the small molecule substrates, intermediates, and products of cell metabolism. Specifically, metabolomics is the "systematic study of the unique chemical fingerprints that specific cellular processes leave behind", the study of their small-molecule metabolite profiles. The metabolome represents the complete set of metabolites in a biological cell, tissue, organ, or organism, which are the end products of cellular processes | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
In biochemistry, a metabolon is a temporary structural-functional complex formed between sequential enzymes of a metabolic pathway, held together both by non-covalent interactions and by structural elements of the cell, such as integral membrane proteins and proteins of the cytoskeleton.
The formation of metabolons allows the intermediate product from one enzyme to be passed (channelling) directly into the active site of the next consecutive enzyme of the metabolic pathway. The citric acid cycle is an example of a metabolon that facilitates substrate channeling | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
The MetaCyc database is one of the largest metabolic pathways and enzymes databases currently available. The data in the database is manually curated from the scientific literature, and covers all domains of life. MetaCyc has extensive information about chemical compounds, reactions, metabolic pathways and enzymes | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
In biochemistry, the metallome is the distribution of metal ions in a cellular compartment. The term was coined in analogy with proteome as metallomics is the study of metallome: the "comprehensive analysis of the entirety of metal and metalloid species within a cell or tissue type". Therefore, metallomics can be considered a branch of metabolomics, even though the metals are not typically considered as metabolites | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
Methanosarcina acetivorans is a versatile methane producing microbe which is found in such diverse environments as oil wells, trash dumps, deep-sea hydrothermal vents, and oxygen-depleted sediments beneath kelp beds. Only M. acetivorans and microbes in the genus Methanosarcina use all three known metabolic pathways for methanogenesis | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
Methylglyoxal (MGO) is the organic compound with the formula CH3C(O)CHO. It is a reduced derivative of pyruvic acid. It is a reactive compound that is implicated in the biology of diabetes | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
The METLIN Metabolite and Chemical Entity Database is the largest repository of experimental tandem mass spectrometry and neutral loss data acquired from standards. The tandem mass spectrometry data on over 870,000 molecular standards (as of August 16, 2022) is provided to facilitate the identification of chemical entities from tandem mass spectrometry experiments. In addition to the identification of known molecules, it is also useful for identifying unknowns using its similarity searching technology | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
Microbial metabolism is the means by which a microbe obtains the energy and nutrients (e. g. carbon) it needs to live and reproduce | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
A negative-calorie food is food that supposedly requires more food energy to be digested than the food provides. Its thermic effect or specific dynamic action—the caloric "cost" of digesting the food—would be greater than its food energy content. Despite its recurring popularity in dieting guides, there is no evidence supporting the idea that any food is calorically negative | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
Neopterin is an organic compound belonging to the pteridine class of heterocyclic compounds.
Neopterin belongs to the chemical group known as pteridines. It is synthesised by human macrophages upon stimulation with the cytokine interferon-gamma and is indicative of a pro-inflammatory immune status | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
Nitrifying bacteria are chemolithotrophic organisms that include species of genera such as Nitrosomonas, Nitrosococcus, Nitrobacter, Nitrospina, Nitrospira and Nitrococcus. These bacteria get their energy from the oxidation of inorganic nitrogen compounds. Types include ammonia-oxidizing bacteria (AOB) and nitrite-oxidizing bacteria (NOB) | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
Nitrogen assimilation is the formation of organic nitrogen compounds like amino acids from inorganic nitrogen compounds present in the environment. Organisms like plants, fungi and certain bacteria that can fix nitrogen gas (N2) depend on the ability to assimilate nitrate or ammonia for their needs. Other organisms, like animals, depend entirely on organic nitrogen from their food | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
The nitrogen cycle is the biogeochemical cycle by which nitrogen is converted into multiple chemical forms as it circulates among atmospheric, terrestrial, and marine ecosystems. The conversion of nitrogen can be carried out through both biological and physical processes. Important processes in the nitrogen cycle include fixation, ammonification, nitrification, and denitrification | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
Nitrogen fixation is a chemical process by which molecular nitrogen (N2), which has a strong triple covalent bond, is converted into ammonia (NH3) or related nitrogenous compounds, typically in soil or aquatic systems but also in industry. The nitrogen in air is molecular dinitrogen, a relatively nonreactive molecule that is metabolically useless to all but a few microorganisms. Biological nitrogen fixation or diazotrophy is an important microbe-mediated process that converts dinitrogen (N2) gas to ammonia (NH3) using the nitrogenase protein complex (Nif) | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
Non-competitive inhibition is a type of enzyme inhibition where the inhibitor reduces the activity of the enzyme and binds equally well to the enzyme whether or not it has already bound the substrate. This is unlike competitive inhibition, where binding affinity for the substrate in the enzyme is decreased in the presence of an inhibitor.
The inhibitor may bind to the enzyme whether or not the substrate has already been bound, but if it has a higher affinity for binding the enzyme in one state or the other, it is called a mixed inhibitor | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
Nucleic acid metabolism is a collective term that refers to the variety of chemical reactions by which nucleic acids (DNA and/or RNA) are either synthesized or degraded. Nucleic acids are polymers (so-called "biopolymers") made up of a variety of monomers called nucleotides. Nucleotide synthesis is an anabolic mechanism generally involving the chemical reaction of phosphate, pentose sugar, and a nitrogenous base | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
An Oligopeptidase is an enzyme that cleaves peptides but not proteins. This property is due to its structure: the active site of this enzyme is located at the end of a narrow cavity which can only be reached by peptides.
History
Background
Proteins are essential macromolecules of living organisms | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
Oncometabolism is the field of study that focuses on the metabolic changes that occur in cells that make up the tumor microenvironment (TME) and accompany oncogenesis and tumor progression toward a neoplastic state. Cells with increased growth and survivability differ from non-tumorigenic cells in terms of metabolism. The Warburg Effect, which describes how cancer cells change their metabolism to become more oncogenic in order to proliferate and eventually invade other tissues in a process known as metastasis | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
Overflow metabolism refers to the seemingly wasteful strategy in which cells incompletely oxidize their growth substrate (e. g. glucose) instead of using the respiratory pathway, even in the presence of oxygen | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
Oxidative phosphorylation (UK , US ) or electron transport-linked phosphorylation or terminal oxidation is the metabolic pathway in which cells use enzymes to oxidize nutrients, thereby releasing chemical energy in order to produce adenosine triphosphate (ATP). In eukaryotes, this takes place inside mitochondria. Almost all aerobic organisms carry out oxidative phosphorylation | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
Perilipin, also known as lipid droplet-associated protein, Perilipin 1, or PLIN, is a protein that, in humans, is encoded by the PLIN gene. The perilipins are a family of proteins that associate with the surface of lipid droplets. Phosphorylation of perilipin is essential for the mobilization of fats in adipose tissue | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
A peroxisome (IPA: [pɛɜˈɹɒksɪˌsoʊm]) is a membrane-bound organelle, a type of microbody, found in the cytoplasm of virtually all eukaryotic cells. Peroxisomes are oxidative organelles. Frequently, molecular oxygen serves as a co-substrate, from which hydrogen peroxide (H2O2) is then formed | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
Pharmacometabolomics, also known as pharmacometabonomics, is a field which stems from metabolomics, the quantification and analysis of metabolites produced by the body. It refers to the direct measurement of metabolites in an individual's bodily fluids, in order to predict or evaluate the metabolism of pharmaceutical compounds, and to better understand the pharmacokinetic profile of a drug. Alternatively, pharmacometabolomics can be applied to measure metabolite levels following the administration of a pharmaceutical compound, in order to monitor the effects of the compound on certain metabolic pathways(pharmacodynamics) | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
The enzyme phenylalanine racemase (EC 5. 1. 1 | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
Phosphagens, also known as macroergic compounds, are high energy storage compounds, also known as high-energy phosphate compounds, chiefly found in muscular tissue in animals. They allow a high-energy phosphate pool to be maintained in a concentration range, which, if it all were adenosine triphosphate (ATP), would create problems due to the ATP-consuming reactions in these tissues. As muscle tissues can have sudden demands for much energy, these compounds can maintain a reserve of high-energy phosphates that can be used as needed, to provide the energy that could not be immediately supplied by glycolysis or oxidative phosphorylation | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
Phosphoric monoester hydrolases (or phosphomonoesterases) are enzymes that catalyse the hydrolysis of O-P bonds by nucleophilic attack of phosphorus by cysteine residues or coordinated metal ions.
They are categorized with the EC number 3. 1 | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
In botany, a photoassimilate is one of a number of biological compounds formed by assimilation using light-dependent reactions. This term is most commonly used to refer to the energy-storing monosaccharides produced by photosynthesis in the leaves of plants.
Only NADPH, ATP and water are made in the "light" reactions | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
Photorespiration (also known as the oxidative photosynthetic carbon cycle or C2 cycle) refers to a process in plant metabolism where the enzyme RuBisCO oxygenates RuBP, wasting some of the energy produced by photosynthesis. The desired reaction is the addition of carbon dioxide to RuBP (carboxylation), a key step in the Calvin–Benson cycle, but approximately 25% of reactions by RuBisCO instead add oxygen to RuBP (oxygenation), creating a product that cannot be used within the Calvin–Benson cycle. This process lowers the efficiency of photosynthesis, potentially lowering photosynthetic output by 25% in C3 plants | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
Photosynthesis ( FOH-tə-SINTH-ə-sis) is a biological process used by many cellular organisms to convert light energy into chemical energy, which is stored in organic compounds that can later be metabolized through cellular respiration to fuel the organism's activities. The term usually refers to oxygenic photosynthesis, where oxygen is produced as a byproduct, and some of the chemical energy produced is stored in carbohydrate molecules such as sugars, starch and cellulose, which are synthesized from endergonic reaction of carbon dioxide with water. Most plants, algae and cyanobacteria perform photosynthesis; such organisms are called photoautotrophs | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
The phytoglobin-nitric oxide cycle is a metabolic pathway induced in plants under hypoxic conditions which involves nitric oxide (NO) and phytoglobin (Pgb). It provides an alternative type of respiration to mitochondrial electron transport under the conditions of limited oxygen supply. Phytoglobin in hypoxic plants acts as part of a soluble terminal nitric oxide dioxygenase system, yielding nitrate ion from the reaction of oxygenated phytoglobin with NO | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
The PI (or photosynthesis-irradiance) curve is a graphical representation of the empirical relationship between solar irradiance and photosynthesis. A derivation of the Michaelis–Menten curve, it shows the generally positive correlation between light intensity and photosynthetic rate. It is a plot of photosynthetic rate as a function of light intensity (irradiance) | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
Pyruvate kinase isozymes M1/M2 (PKM1/M2), also known as pyruvate kinase muscle isozyme (PKM), pyruvate kinase type K, cytosolic thyroid hormone-binding protein (CTHBP), thyroid hormone-binding protein 1 (THBP1), or opa-interacting protein 3 (OIP3), is an enzyme that in humans is encoded by the PKM2 gene. PKM2 is an isoenzyme of the glycolytic enzyme pyruvate kinase. Depending upon the different metabolic functions of the tissues, different isoenzymes of pyruvate kinase are expressed | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
Plastid terminal oxidase or plastoquinol terminal oxidase (PTOX) is an enzyme that resides on the thylakoid membranes of plant and algae chloroplasts and on the membranes of cyanobacteria. The enzyme was hypothesized to exist as a photosynthetic oxidase in 1982 and was verified by sequence similarity to the mitochondrial alternative oxidase (AOX). The two oxidases evolved from a common ancestral protein in prokaryotes, and they are so functionally and structurally similar that a thylakoid-localized AOX can restore the function of a PTOX knockout | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
Porphobilinogen (PBG) is an organic compound that occurs in living organisms as an intermediate in the biosynthesis of porphyrins, which include critical substances like hemoglobin and chlorophyll. The structure of the molecule can be described as molecule of pyrrole with sidechains substituted for hydrogen atoms at positions 2, 3 and 4 in the ring (1 being the nitrogen atom); respectively, an aminomethyl group −CH2−NH2, an acetic acid (carboxymethyl) group −CH2−COOH, and a propionic acid (carboxyethyl) group −CH2−CH2−COOH.
Biosynthesis
In the first step of the porphyrin biosynthesis pathway, porphobilinogen is generated from aminolevulinate (ALA) by the enzyme ALA dehydratase | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
Postprandial somnolence (colloquially known as food coma, after-dinner dip, or the itis) is a normal state of drowsiness or lassitude following a meal. Postprandial somnolence has two components: a general state of low energy related to activation of the parasympathetic nervous system in response to mass in the gastrointestinal tract, and a specific state of sleepiness. While there are numerous theories surrounding this behavior, such as decreased blood flow to the brain, neurohormonal modulation of sleep through digestive coupled signaling, or vagal stimulation, very few have been explicitly tested | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
Potential Renal Acid Load (PRAL) is a measure of the acid that the body produces after ingesting a food. This is different from pH, which is the acidity of a food before being consumed. PRAL is a different acidity measure than the food ash measurement | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
A primary metabolite is a kind of metabolite that is directly involved in normal growth, development, and reproduction. It usually performs a physiological function in the organism (i. e | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
Propionyl-CoA is a coenzyme A derivative of propionic acid. It is composed of a 24 total carbon chain (without the coenzyme, it is a 3 carbon structure) and its production and metabolic fate depend on which organism it is present in. Several different pathways can lead to its production, such as through the catabolism of specific amino acids or the oxidation of odd-chain fatty acids | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
Protein biosynthesis (or protein synthesis) is a core biological process, occurring inside cells, balancing the loss of cellular proteins (via degradation or export) through the production of new proteins. Proteins perform a number of critical functions as enzymes, structural proteins or hormones. Protein synthesis is a very similar process for both prokaryotes and eukaryotes but there are some distinct differences | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
In molecular biology, protein catabolism is the breakdown of proteins into smaller peptides and ultimately into amino acids. Protein catabolism is a key function of digestion process. Protein catabolism often begins with pepsin, which converts proteins into polypeptides | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
Protein metabolism denotes the various biochemical processes responsible for the synthesis of proteins and amino acids (anabolism), and the breakdown of proteins by catabolism.
The steps of protein synthesis include transcription, translation, and post translational modifications. During transcription, RNA polymerase transcribes a coding region of the DNA in a cell producing a sequence of RNA, specifically messenger RNA (mRNA) | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
Proteolysis is the breakdown of proteins into smaller polypeptides or amino acids. Uncatalysed, the hydrolysis of peptide bonds is extremely slow, taking hundreds of years. Proteolysis is typically catalysed by cellular enzymes called proteases, but may also occur by intra-molecular digestion | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
Pyrimidine biosynthesis occurs both in the body and through organic synthesis.
De novo biosynthesis of pyrimidine
De Novo biosynthesis of a pyrimidine is catalyzed by three gene products CAD, DHODH and UMPS. The first three enzymes of the process are all coded by the same gene in CAD which consists of carbamoyl phosphate synthetase II, aspartate carbamoyltransferase and dihydroorotase | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
Pyruvate cycling commonly refers to an intracellular loop of spatial movements and chemical transformations involving pyruvate. Spatial movements occur between mitochondria and cytosol and chemical transformations create various Krebs cycle intermediates. In all variants, pyruvate is imported into the mitochondrion for processing through part of the Krebs cycle | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
Pyruvic acid (IUPAC name: 2-oxopropanoic acid, also called acetoic acid) (CH3COCOOH) is the simplest of the alpha-keto acids, with a carboxylic acid and a ketone functional group. Pyruvate, the conjugate base, CH3COCOO−, is an intermediate in several metabolic pathways throughout the cell.
Pyruvic acid can be made from glucose through glycolysis, converted back to carbohydrates (such as glucose) via gluconeogenesis, or converted to fatty acids through a reaction with acetyl-CoA | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
The Q cycle (named for quinol) describes a series of reactions that describe how the sequential oxidation and reduction of the lipophilic electron carrier Coenzyme Q (CoQ) between the ubiquinol and ubiquinone forms, can result in the net movement of protons across a lipid bilayer (in the case of the mitochondria, the inner mitochondrial membrane).
The Q cycle was first proposed by Peter D. Mitchell, though a modified version of Mitchell's original scheme is now accepted as the mechanism by which Complex III moves protons (i | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
The Randle cycle, also known as the glucose fatty-acid cycle, is a metabolic process involving the competition of glucose and fatty acids for substrates. It is theorized to play a role in explaining type 2 diabetes and insulin resistance. It was named for Philip Randle, who described it in 1963 | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
The rate of living theory postulates that the faster an organism’s metabolism, the shorter its lifespan. First proposed by Max Rubner in 1908, the theory was based on his observation that smaller animals had faster metabolisms and shorter lifespans compared to larger animals with slower metabolisms. The theory gained further credibility through the work of Raymond Pearl, who conducted experiments on drosophila and cantaloupe seeds, which supported Rubner's initial observation | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
Reactive nitrogen ("Nr"), also known as fixed nitrogen, refers to all forms of nitrogen present in the environment except for molecular nitrogen (N2). While nitrogen is an essential element for life on Earth, molecular nitrogen is comparatively unreactive, and must be converted to other chemical forms via nitrogen fixation before it can be used for growth. Common Nr species include nitrogen oxides (NOx), ammonia (NH3), nitrous oxide (N2O), as well as the anion nitrate (NO−3) | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
A reductone is a special class of organic compounds. They are enediols with a carbonyl group adjacent to the enediol group, i. e | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
The respiratory quotient (RQ or respiratory coefficient) is a dimensionless number used in calculations of basal metabolic rate (BMR) when estimated from carbon dioxide production. It is calculated from the ratio of carbon dioxide produced by the body to oxygen consumed by the body. Such measurements, like measurements of oxygen uptake, are forms of indirect calorimetry | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
Respirometry is a general term that encompasses a number of techniques for obtaining estimates of the rates of metabolism of vertebrates, invertebrates, plants, tissues, cells, or microorganisms via an indirect measure of heat production (calorimetry).
Whole-animal metabolic rates
The metabolism of an animal is estimated by determining rates of carbon dioxide production (VCO2) and oxygen consumption (VO2) of individual animals, either in a closed or an open-circuit respirometry system. Two measures are typically obtained: standard (SMR) or basal metabolic rate (BMR) and maximal rate (VO2max) | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
Control coefficients measure the response of a biochemical pathway to changes in enzyme activity. The response coefficient, as originally defined by Kacser and Burns, is a measure of how external factors such as inhibitors, pharmaceutical drugs, or boundary species affect the steady-state fluxes and species concentrations. The flux response coefficient is defined by:
R
x
J
=
d
J
d
x
x
J
{\displaystyle R_{x}^{J}={\frac {dJ}{dx}}{\frac {x}{J}}}
where
J
{\displaystyle J}
is the steady-state pathway flux | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
Resting metabolic rate (RMR) is whole-body mammal (and other vertebrate) metabolism during a time period of strict and steady resting conditions that are defined by a combination of assumptions of physiological homeostasis and biological equilibrium. RMR differs from basal metabolic rate (BMR) because BMR measurements must meet total physiological equilibrium whereas RMR conditions of measurement can be altered and defined by the contextual limitations. Therefore, BMR is measured in the elusive "perfect" steady state, whereas RMR measurement is more accessible and thus, represents most, if not all measurements or estimates of daily energy expenditure | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
Reverse cholesterol transport is a multi-step process resulting in the net movement of cholesterol from peripheral tissues back to the liver first via entering the lymphatic system, then the bloodstream. Cholesterol from non-hepatic peripheral tissues is transferred to HDL by the ABCA1 (ATP-binding cassette transporter). Apolipoprotein A1 (ApoA-1), the major protein component of HDL, acts as an acceptor, and the phospholipid component of HDL acts as a sink for the mobilised cholesterol | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
Reverse electron flow (also known as reverse electron transport) is a mechanism in microbial metabolism. Chemolithotrophs using an electron donor with a higher redox potential than NAD(P)+/NAD(P)H, such as nitrite or sulfur compounds, must use energy to reduce NAD(P)+. This energy is supplied by consuming proton motive force to drive electrons in a reverse direction through an electron transport chain and is thus the reverse process as forward electron transport | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
Ribozymes (ribonucleic acid enzymes) are RNA molecules that have the ability to catalyze specific biochemical reactions, including RNA splicing in gene expression, similar to the action of protein enzymes. The 1982 discovery of ribozymes demonstrated that RNA can be both genetic material (like DNA) and a biological catalyst (like protein enzymes), and contributed to the RNA world hypothesis, which suggests that RNA may have been important in the evolution of prebiotic self-replicating systems. The most common activities of natural or in vitro evolved ribozymes are the cleavage (or ligation) of RNA and DNA and peptide bond formation | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
S-Adenosylmethionine synthetase (EC 2. 5. 1 | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
Snf3 is a protein which regulates glucose uptake in yeast. It senses glucose in the environment with high affinity.
Introduction
Glucose sensing and signaling in budding yeast is similar to the mammalian system in many ways | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
Specific dynamic action (SDA), also known as thermic effect of food (TEF) or dietary induced thermogenesis (DIT), is the amount of energy expenditure above the basal metabolic rate due to the cost of processing food for use and storage. Heat production by brown adipose tissue which is activated after consumption of a meal is an additional component of dietary induced thermogenesis. The thermic effect of food is one of the components of metabolism along with resting metabolic rate and the exercise component | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
Starvation response in animals (including humans) is a set of adaptive biochemical and physiological changes, triggered by lack of food or extreme weight loss, in which the body seeks to conserve energy by reducing the amount of calories it burns. Equivalent or closely related terms include famine response, starvation mode, famine mode, starvation resistance, starvation tolerance, adapted starvation, adaptive thermogenesis, fat adaptation, and metabolic adaptation.
In humans
Ordinarily, the body responds to reduced energy intake by burning fat reserves and consuming muscle and other tissues | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
Stearoyl-CoA is a coenzyme involved in the metabolism of fatty acids. Stearoyl-CoA is an 18-carbon long fatty acyl-CoA chain that participates in an unsaturation reaction. The reaction is catalyzed by the enzyme stearoyl-CoA desaturase, which is located in the endoplasmic reticulum | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
Stercobilin is a tetrapyrrolic bile pigment and is one end-product of heme catabolism. It is the chemical responsible for the brown color of human feces and was originally isolated from feces in 1932. Stercobilin (and related urobilin) can be used as a marker for biochemical identification of fecal pollution levels in rivers | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
Steroid 11β-hydroxylase, also known as steroid 11β-monooxygenase, is a steroid hydroxylase found in the zona glomerulosa and zona fasciculata of the adrenal cortex. Named officially the cytochrome P450 11B1, mitochondrial, it is a protein that in humans is encoded by the CYP11B1 gene. The enzyme is involved in the biosynthesis of adrenal corticosteroids by catalyzing the addition of hydroxyl groups during oxidation reactions | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
Stream metabolism, often referred to as aquatic ecosystem metabolism in both freshwater (lakes, rivers, wetlands, streams, reservoirs) and marine ecosystems, includes gross primary productivity (GPP) and ecosystem respiration (ER) and can be expressed as net ecosystem production (NEP = GPP - ER). Analogous to metabolism within an individual organism, stream metabolism represents how energy is created (primary production) and used (respiration) within an aquatic ecosystem. In heterotrophic ecosystems, GPP:ER is <1 (ecosystem using more energy than it is creating); in autotrophic ecosystems it is >1 (ecosystem creating more energy than it is using) | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
Substrate-level phosphorylation is a metabolism reaction that results in the production of ATP or GTP supported by the energy released from another high-energy bond that leads to phosphorylation of ADP or GDP to ATP or GTP (note that the reaction catalyzed by creatine kinase is not considered as "substrate-level phosphorylation"). This process uses some of the released chemical energy, the Gibbs free energy, to transfer a phosphoryl (PO3) group to ADP or GDP. Occurs in glycolysis and in the citric acid cycle | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
Succinyl coenzyme A synthetase (SCS, also known as succinyl-CoA synthetase or succinate thiokinase or succinate-CoA ligase) is an enzyme that catalyzes the reversible reaction of succinyl-CoA to succinate. The enzyme facilitates the coupling of this reaction to the formation of a nucleoside triphosphate molecule (either GTP or ATP) from an inorganic phosphate molecule and a nucleoside diphosphate molecule (either GDP or ADP). It plays a key role as one of the catalysts involved in the citric acid cycle, a central pathway in cellular metabolism, and it is located within the mitochondrial matrix of a cell | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
Sulfoglycolysis is a catabolic process in primary metabolism in which sulfoquinovose (6-deoxy-6-sulfonato-glucose) is metabolized to produce energy and carbon-building blocks. Sulfoglycolysis pathways occur in a wide variety of organisms, and enable key steps in the degradation of sulfoquinovosyl diacylglycerol (SQDG), a sulfolipid found in plants and cyanobacteria into sulfite and sulfate. Sulfoglycolysis converts sulfoquinovose (C6H12O8S−) into various smaller metabolizable carbon fragments such as pyruvate and dihydroxyacetone phosphate that enter central metabolism | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
Sulfur assimilation is the process by which living organisms incorporate sulfur into their biological molecules. In plants, sulfate is absorbed by the roots and then be transported to the chloroplasts by the transipration stream where the sulfur are reduced to sulfide with the help of a series of enzymatic reactions. Furthermore, the reduced sulfur is incorporated into cysteine, an amino acid that is a precursor to many other sulfur-containing compounds | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
The sulfur cycle is a biogeochemical cycle in which the sulfur moves between rocks, waterways and living systems. It is important in geology as it affects many minerals and in life because sulfur is an essential element (CHNOPS), being a constituent of many proteins and cofactors, and sulfur compounds can be used as oxidants or reductants in microbial respiration. The global sulfur cycle involves the transformations of sulfur species through different oxidation states, which play an important role in both geological and biological processes | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
SUMO enzymatic cascade catalyzes the dynamic posttranslational modification process of sumoylation (i. e. transfer of SUMO protein to other proteins) | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
Thermosynthesis is a theoretical mechanism proposed by Anthonie Muller for biological use of the free energy in a temperature gradient to drive energetically uphill anabolic reactions. It makes use of this thermal gradient, or the dissipative structure of convection in this gradient, to drive a microscopic heat engine that performs condensation reactions. Thus negative entropy is generated | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
ThYme (Thioester-active enzYme) is database of enzymes constituting the fatty acid synthesis and polyketide synthesis cycles.
See also
Thioester
References
External links
http://www. enzyme | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
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