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Trimethylamine N-oxide reductase (TOR or TMAO reductase, EC 1. 7. 2 | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
The triose phosphate translocator is an integral membrane protein found in the inner membrane of chloroplasts. It exports triose phosphate (Dihydroxyacetone phosphate) in exchange for inorganic phosphate and is therefore classified as an antiporter. The imported phosphate is then used for ATP regeneration via the light-dependent-reaction; the ATP may then for example be used for further reactions in the Calvin-cycle | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
Ubiquinol oxidases (EC 1. 10. 3 | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
Uridine diphosphate N-acetylglucosamine or UDP-GlcNAc is a nucleotide sugar and a coenzyme in metabolism. It is used by glycosyltransferases to transfer N-acetylglucosamine residues to substrates. D-Glucosamine is made naturally in the form of glucosamine-6-phosphate, and is the biochemical precursor of all nitrogen-containing sugars | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
Toxoplasma gondii () is a parasitic protozoan (specifically an apicomplexan) that causes toxoplasmosis. Found worldwide, T. gondii is capable of infecting virtually all warm-blooded animals,: 1 but felids are the only known definitive hosts in which the parasite may undergo sexual reproduction | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
The Men Who Stare at Goats (2004) is a non-fiction book by Jon Ronson concerning the U. S. Army's exploration of New Age concepts and the potential military applications of the paranormal | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
Poisoner in Chief: Sidney Gottlieb and the CIA Search for Mind Control is a 2019 book by The New York Times journalist and historian Stephen Kinzer. The book contains untold stories of a Central Intelligence Agency (CIA) chemist called Sidney Gottlieb, who tried to "find a way to control the human brain". In 1953, CIA director Allen Dulles appointed Gottlieb to "run the covert program" | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
Brainwashing: The Science of Thought Control is a 2004 popular science book explaining mind control, which is also known as brainwashing, thought reform and coercive persuasion, by neuroscientist and physiologist Kathleen Taylor. It explains the neurological basis for reasoning and cognition in the brain, and proposes that the self is changeable, and describes the physiology of neurological pathways. It reviews case studies including Patty Hearst, the Manson Family, and the mass murder/suicide of members of Peoples Temple at Jonestown, and compares the techniques of influence used by cults to those of totalitarian and communist societies | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
Cultish: The Language of Fanaticism is a 2021 nonfiction book by linguist Amanda Montell about the use of language in cults. It was published on June 15, 2021 by Harper Wave.
Content
Montell argues in Cultish that cults and cultists can be identified in particular through their non-standard use of language – as scholar Scott Lowe put it, "the technical terms, the redefined words, the shorthand, the clichés, the euphemisms, logical distortions, and so on […] set members apart from (and above) their pedestrian neighbors, families, and coworkers" | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
Cults in Our Midst: The Hidden Menace in Our Everyday Lives is a study of cults by Margaret Singer and Janja Lalich, Ph. D. , with a foreword by Robert Jay Lifton | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
Cults: Faith, Healing and Coercion is a non-fiction book on cults and coercive persuasion, written by Marc Galanter. The book was published in hardcover format in 1989 by Oxford University Press, and again in hardcover in 1999 in a second-edition work. The second edition was reprinted by Oxford University Press in March 2007 | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
Snapping: America's Epidemic of Sudden Personality Change is a 1978 book written by Flo Conway and Jim Siegelman which describes the authors' theory of religious conversion. They propose that "snapping" is a mental process through which a person is recruited by a cult or new religious movement, or leaves the group through deprogramming or exit counseling. Political ideological conversions are also included, with Patty Hearst given as an example | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
Mind control has proven a popular subject in fiction, featuring in books and films such as The Manchurian Candidate (1959; film adaptation 1962) and The IPCRESS File (1962; film 1965), both stories advancing the premise that controllers could hypnotize a person into murdering on command while retaining no memory of the killing. As a narrative device, mind control serves as a convenient means of introducing changes in the behavior of characters, and is used as a device for raising tension and audience uncertainty in the contexts of the Cold War and terrorism. Mind control has often been an important theme in science fiction and fantasy stories | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
Animorphs is a science fantasy series of children's books written by Katherine Applegate and her husband Michael Grant, writing together under the name K. A. Applegate, and published by Scholastic | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
Arena/Maze of Death, known in Europe as Arena, is an isometric action created by Eden Entertainment Software for the Game Gear. Players have to play the role as a one-person mercenary squad who is trapped in heavily guarded and deadly areas with the primary goal of surviving. This game was released late in the Game Gear's life span | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
"Bad Eggs" is the twelfth episode of the second season of Buffy the Vampire Slayer. It was written by Marti Noxon and originally aired on The WB on January 12, 1998. Buffy must contend with vampire cowboys, the Gorch brothers and the bezoar, a prehistoric parasite | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
Brave New World is a dystopian novel by English author Aldous Huxley, written in 1931 and published in 1932. Largely set in a futuristic World State, whose citizens are environmentally engineered into an intelligence-based social hierarchy, the novel anticipates huge scientific advancements in reproductive technology, sleep-learning, psychological manipulation and classical conditioning that are combined to make a dystopian society which is challenged by the story's protagonist. Huxley followed this book with a reassessment in essay form, Brave New World Revisited (1958), and with his final novel, Island (1962), the utopian counterpart | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
A Clockwork Orange is a dystopian satirical black comedy novel by English writer Anthony Burgess, published in 1962. It is set in a near-future society that has a youth subculture of extreme violence. The teenage protagonist, Alex, narrates his violent exploits and his experiences with state authorities intent on reforming him | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
Despero () is a supervillain appearing in comic books published by DC Comics. The character first appeared in Justice League of America #1 (October 1960), and was created by Gardner Fox and Mike Sekowsky. Debuting in the Silver Age of Comic Books, the character is a pink-skinned humanoid extraterrestrial with three eyes and psychic powers | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
The Galactic Milieu Series is a series of science fiction novels by Julian May. It is linked to her previously-published series, the Saga of Pliocene Exile; and through the fantastical device of time-travel, acts as both a prequel and a sequel to this earlier series. The "Galactic Milieu" of the title is an interplanetary federation, and Earth's membership of it is a central plot concern | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
For over a century, hypnosis has been a popular theme in fiction – literature, film, and television. It features in movies almost from their inception and more recently has been depicted in television and online media. As Harvard hypnotherapist Deirdre Barrett points out in 'Hypnosis in Popular Media', the vast majority of these depictions are negative stereotypes of either control for criminal profit and murder or as a method of seduction | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
In astronomy, precovery (short for pre-discovery recovery) is the process of finding the image of an object in images or photographic plates predating its discovery, typically for the purpose of calculating a more accurate orbit. This happens most often with minor planets, but sometimes a comet, a dwarf planet, a natural satellite, or a star is found in old archived images; even exoplanet precovery observations have been obtained. "Precovery" refers to a pre-discovery image; "recovery" refers to imaging of a body which was lost to our view (as behind the Sun), but is now visible again (also see lost minor planet and lost comet) | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
A quake is the result when the surface of a planet, moon or star begins to shake, usually as the consequence of a sudden release of energy transmitted as seismic waves, and potentially with great violence.
The types of quakes include:
Earthquake
An earthquake is a phenomenon that results from the sudden release of stored energy in the Earth's crust that creates seismic waves. At the Earth's surface, earthquakes may manifest themselves by a shaking or displacement of the ground and sometimes cause tsunamis, which may lead to loss of life and destruction of property | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
Radio occultation (RO) is a remote sensing technique used for measuring the physical properties of a planetary atmosphere or ring system. Other satellite carriers onboard GNSS-Radio occultation include CHAMP (satellite), GRACE and GRACE-FO, MetOp and the recently launched COSMIC-2.
Atmospheric radio occultation
Atmospheric radio occultation relies on the detection of a change in a radio signal as it passes through a planet's atmosphere, i | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
The rain-out model is a model of planetary science that describes the first stage of planetary differentiation and core formation. According to this model, a planetary body is assumed to be composed primarily of silicate minerals and NiFe (i. e | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
A reducing atmosphere is an atmospheric condition in which oxidation is prevented by removal of oxygen and other oxidizing gases or vapours, and which may contain actively reducing gases such as hydrogen, carbon monoxide, and gases such as hydrogen sulfide that would be oxidized by any present oxygen. Although early in its history the Earth had a reducing atmosphere, about 2. 5 billion years ago it transitioned to an oxidizing atmosphere with molecular oxygen (dioxygen, O2) as the primary oxidizing agent | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
The Rosgen Stream Classification is a system for natural rivers in which morphological arrangements of stream characteristics are organized into relatively homogeneous stream types. This is a widely used method for classifying streams and rivers based on common patterns of channel morphology. The specific objectives of this stream classification system are as follows: 1) predict a rivers behavior from its appearance; 2) develop specific hydrologic and sediment relationships for a given stream type and its state; 3) provide mechanisms to extrapolate site-specific data to stream reaches having similar characteristics; and 4) provide a consistent frame of reference for communicating stream morphology and condition among a variety of disciplines and interested parties | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
The Rossiter–McLaughlin effect is a spectroscopic phenomenon observed when an object moves across the face of a star.
Description
The Rossiter–McLaughlin effect is a spectroscopic phenomenon observed when either an eclipsing binary's secondary star or an extrasolar planet is seen to transit across the face of the primary or parent star.
As the main star rotates on its axis, one quadrant of its photosphere will be seen to be coming towards the viewer, and the other visible quadrant to be moving away | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
A satellite system is a set of gravitationally bound objects in orbit around a planetary mass object (incl. sub-brown dwarfs and rogue planets) or minor planet, or its barycenter. Generally speaking, it is a set of natural satellites (moons), although such systems may also consist of bodies such as circumplanetary disks, ring systems, moonlets, minor-planet moons and artificial satellites any of which may themselves have satellite systems of their own (see Subsatellites) | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
The University of Hawaiʻi at Mānoa (University of Hawaii–Mānoa, UH Mānoa, Hawaiʻi, or simply UH) is a public land-grant research university in Mānoa, a neighborhood of Honolulu, Hawaii. It is the flagship campus of the University of Hawaiʻi system and houses the main offices of the system. Most of the campus occupies the eastern half of the mouth of Mānoa Valley, with the John A | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
In astronomy, an extraterrestrial sky is a view of outer space from the surface of an astronomical body other than Earth.
The only extraterrestrial sky that has been directly observed and photographed by astronauts is that of the Moon. The skies of Venus, Mars and Titan have been observed by space probes designed to land on the surface and transmit images back to Earth | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
The small planet radius gap (also called the Fulton gap, photoevaporation valley, or Sub-Neptune Desert) is an observed scarcity of planets with radii between 1. 5 and 2 times Earth's radius, likely due to photoevaporation-driven mass loss. A bimodality in the Kepler exoplanet population was first observed in 2013, and was noted as possibly confirming an emerging hypothesis that photoevaporation could drive atmospheric mass loss on close-in, low-mass planets | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
The Solar System is the gravitationally bound system of the Sun and the objects that orbit it. The largest of such objects are the eight planets, in order from the Sun: four terrestrial planets named Mercury, Venus, Earth and Mars, two gas giants named Jupiter and Saturn, and two ice giants named Uranus and Neptune. The terrestrial planets have a definite surface and are mostly made of rock and metal | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
Space dust measurement refers to the study of small particles of extraterrestrial material, known as micrometeoroids or interplanetary dust particles (IDPs), that are present in the Solar System. These particles are typically of micrometer to sub-millimeter size and are composed of a variety of materials including silicates, metals, and carbon compounds. The study of space dust is important as it provides insight into the composition and evolution of the Solar System, as well as the potential hazards posed by these particles to spacecraft and other space-borne assets | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
Space weather is a branch of space physics and aeronomy, or heliophysics, concerned with the time varying conditions within the Solar System, including the solar wind, emphasizing the space surrounding the Earth, including conditions in the magnetosphere, ionosphere, thermosphere, and exosphere. Space weather is distinct from, but conceptually related to, the terrestrial weather of the atmosphere of Earth (troposphere and stratosphere). The term "space weather" was first used in the 1950s and came into common usage in the 1990s | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
Space weathering is the type of weathering that occurs to any object exposed to the harsh environment of outer space. Bodies without atmospheres (including the Moon, Mercury, the asteroids, comets, and most of the moons of other planets) take on many weathering processes:
collisions of galactic cosmic rays and solar cosmic rays,
irradiation, implantation, and sputtering from solar wind particles, and
bombardment by different sizes of meteorites and micrometeorites. Space weathering is important because these processes affect the physical and optical properties of the surface of many planetary bodies | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
In astrophysics and planetary science, spectral slope, also called spectral gradient, is a measure of dependence of the reflectance on the wavelength.
In digital signal processing, it is a measure of how quickly the spectrum of an audio sound tails off towards the high frequencies, calculated using a linear regression.
Spectral slope in astrophysics and planetary science
The visible and infrared spectrum of the reflected sunlight is used to infer physical and chemical properties of the surface of a body | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
A substorm, sometimes referred to as a magnetospheric substorm or an auroral substorm, is a brief disturbance in the Earth's magnetosphere that causes energy to be released from the "tail" of the magnetosphere and injected into the high latitude ionosphere. Visually, a substorm is seen as a sudden brightening and increased movement of auroral arcs. Substorms were first described in qualitative terms by Kristian Birkeland which he called polar elementary storms | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
A sudden ionospheric disturbance (SID) is any one of several ionospheric perturbations, resulting from abnormally high ionization/plasma density in the D region of the ionosphere and caused by a solar flare and/or solar particle event (SPE). The SID results in a sudden increase in radio-wave absorption that is most severe in the upper medium frequency (MF) and lower high frequency (HF) ranges, and as a result often interrupts or interferes with telecommunications systems.
Discovery
The Dellinger effect, or sometimes Mögel–Dellinger effect, is another name for a sudden ionospheric disturbance | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
This article is intended to provide an overview of various aspects of the tectonics on icy moons.
General information
Igneous activity on icy moons can be defined as the melting, ascension, and solidification of liquids, particularly water and its ice polymorphs. Tectonic features on icy lithospheres occur by global and regional stresses acting on the moon's interior | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
In astronomy, a thalassogen denotes a substance capable of forming a planetary ocean. Thalassogens are not necessarily life sustaining, although most interest has been in the context of extraterrestrial life. The term was coined by Isaac Asimov in his essay "The Thalassogens", later published in his 1972 collection The Left Hand of the Electron | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
Theoretical planetology, also known as theoretical planetary science is a branch of planetary sciences that developed in the 20th century. Scientific models supported by laboratory experiments are used to understand the formation, evolution, and internal structure of planets.
Nature of the work
Theoretical planetologists, also known as theoretical planetary scientists, use modelling techniques to develop an understanding of the internal structure of planets by making assumptions about their chemical composition and the state of their materials, then calculating the radial distribution of various properties such as temperature, pressure, or density of material across the planet's internals | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
Tidal heating (also known as tidal working or tidal flexing) occurs through the tidal friction processes: orbital and rotational energy is dissipated as heat in either (or both) the surface ocean or interior of a planet or satellite. When an object is in an elliptical orbit, the tidal forces acting on it are stronger near periapsis than near apoapsis. Thus the deformation of the body due to tidal forces (i | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
Tides in marginal seas are tides affected by their location in semi-enclosed areas along the margins of continents and differ from tides in the open oceans. Tides are water level variations caused by the gravitational interaction between the moon, the sun and the earth. The resulting tidal force is a secondary effect of gravity: it is the difference between the actual gravitational force and the centrifugal force | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
The presence of water on the terrestrial planets of the Solar System (Mercury, Venus, Earth, Mars, and the closely related Earth's Moon) varies with each planetary body, with the exact origins remaining unclear. Additionally, the terrestrial dwarf planet Ceres is known to have water ice on its surface.
Water inventories
Mercury
Due to its proximity to the Sun and lack of visible water on its surface, the planet Mercury had been thought of as a non-volatile planet | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
The Yukon Ice Patches are a series of dozens of ice patches in the southern Yukon discovered in 1997, which have preserved hundreds of archaeological artifacts, with some more than 9,000 years old. The first ice patch was discovered on the mountain Thandlät, west of the Kusawa Lake campground which is 60 km (37 mi) west of Whitehorse, Yukon. The Yukon Ice Patch Project began shortly afterwards with a partnership between archaeologists in partnership with six Yukon First Nations, on whose traditional territory the ice patches were found | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
An accretion disk is a structure (often a circumstellar disk) formed by diffuse material in orbital motion around a massive central body. The central body is most frequently a star. Friction, uneven irradiance, magnetohydrodynamic effects, and other forces induce instabilities causing orbiting material in the disk to spiral inward toward the central body | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
An astrophysical jet is an astronomical phenomenon where outflows of ionised matter are emitted as extended beams along the axis of rotation. When this greatly accelerated matter in the beam approaches the speed of light, astrophysical jets become relativistic jets as they show effects from special relativity.
The formation and powering of astrophysical jets are highly complex phenomena that are associated with many types of high-energy astronomical sources | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
Astrophysical plasma is plasma outside of the Solar System. It is studied as part of astrophysics and is commonly observed in space. The accepted view of scientists is that much of the baryonic matter in the universe exists in this state | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
Astrophysical X-ray sources are astronomical objects with physical properties which result in the emission of X-rays.
Several types of astrophysical objects emit X-rays. They include galaxy clusters, black holes in active galactic nuclei (AGN), galactic objects such as supernova remnants, stars, and binary stars containing a white dwarf (cataclysmic variable stars and super soft X-ray sources), neutron star or black hole (X-ray binaries) | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
The clumping factor is a measurement of how density varies within a gaseous medium, and is commonly used in astrophysical settings where gas is not distributed uniformly. Gas densities can vary over many orders of magnitude, from the low density plasma in the Intergalactic medium between galaxies, to the neutral and dense molecular regions in the interstellar medium inside of galaxies. Moreover, gas throughout space is turbulent implying it has density structure on all spatial scales | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
In solar physics, a coronal loop is a well-defined arch-like structure in the Sun's atmosphere made up of relatively dense plasma confined and isolated from the surrounding medium by magnetic flux tubes. Coronal loops begin and end at two footpoints on the photosphere and project into the transition region and lower corona. They typically form and dissipate over periods of seconds to days and may span anywhere from 1 to 1,000 megametres (621 to 621,000 mi) in length | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
In astronomy and in astrophysics, for radiative losses of the solar corona, it is meant the energy flux radiated from the external atmosphere of the Sun (traditionally divided into chromosphere, transition region and corona), and, in particular, the processes of production of the radiation coming from the solar corona and transition region, where the plasma is optically-thin. On the contrary, in the chromosphere, where the temperature decreases from the photospheric value of 6000 K to the minimum of 4400 K, the optical depth is about 1, and the radiation is thermal.
The corona extends much further than a solar radius from the photosphere and looks very complex and inhomogeneous in the X-rays images taken by satellites (see the figure on the right taken by the XRT on board Hinode) | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
Coronal seismology is a technique of studying the plasma of the Sun's corona with the use of magnetohydrodynamic (MHD) waves and oscillations. Magnetohydrodynamics studies the dynamics of electrically conducting fluids - in this case the fluid is the coronal plasma. Observed properties of the waves (e | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
A double layer is a structure in a plasma consisting of two parallel layers of opposite electrical charge. The sheets of charge, which are not necessarily planar, produce localised excursions of electric potential, resulting in a relatively strong electric field between the layers and weaker but more extensive compensating fields outside, which restore the global potential. Ions and electrons within the double layer are accelerated, decelerated, or deflected by the electric field, depending on their direction of motion | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
Energetic Neutral Atom (ENA) imaging, often described as "seeing with atoms", is a technology used to create global images of otherwise invisible phenomena in the magnetospheres of planets and throughout the heliosphere. The solar wind is composed of plasma that is emitted from the Sun. The solar wind plasma is mostly composed of hydrogen, bare electrons and protons, along with some other kinds of nuclei, mostly helium | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
A flux transfer event (FTE) occurs when a magnetic portal opens in the Earth's magnetosphere through which high-energy particles flow from the Sun. This connection, while previously thought to be permanent, has been found to be brief and very dynamic. The European Space Agency's four Cluster spacecraft and NASA's five THEMIS probes have flown through and surrounded these FTEs, measuring their dimensions and identifying the particles that are transferred between the magnetic fields | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
The Heliophysics Science Division of the Goddard Space Flight Center (NASA) conducts research on the Sun, its extended Solar System environment (the heliosphere), and interactions of Earth, other planets, small bodies, and interstellar gas with the heliosphere. Division research also encompasses geospace—Earth's uppermost atmosphere, the ionosphere, and the magnetosphere—and the changing environmental conditions throughout the coupled heliosphere (solar system weather).
Scientists in the Heliophysics Science Division develop models, spacecraft missions and instruments, and systems to manage and disseminate heliophysical data | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
The heliosphere is the magnetosphere, astrosphere, and outermost atmospheric layer of the Sun. It takes the shape of a vast, bubble-like region of space. In plasma physics terms, it is the cavity formed by the Sun in the surrounding interstellar medium | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
The heliospheric current sheet, or interplanetary current sheet, is a surface separating regions of the heliosphere where the interplanetary magnetic field points toward and away from the Sun. A small electrical current with a current density of about 10−10 A/m2 flows within this surface, forming a current sheet confined to this surface. The shape of the current sheet results from the influence of the Sun's rotating magnetic field on the plasma in the interplanetary medium | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
The history of X-ray astronomy begins in the 1920s, with interest in short wave communications for the U. S. Navy | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
The interplanetary medium (IPM) or interplanetary space consists of the mass and energy which fills the Solar System, and through which all the larger Solar System bodies, such as planets, dwarf planets, asteroids, and comets, move. The IPM stops at the heliopause, outside of which the interstellar medium begins. Before 1950, interplanetary space was widely considered to either be an empty vacuum, or consisting of "aether" | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
In astronomy, the interstellar medium (ISM) is the matter and radiation that exist in the space between the star systems in a galaxy. This matter includes gas in ionic, atomic, and molecular form, as well as dust and cosmic rays. It fills interstellar space and blends smoothly into the surrounding intergalactic space | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
In astronomy, the intracluster medium (ICM) is the superheated plasma that permeates a galaxy cluster. The gas consists mainly of ionized hydrogen and helium and accounts for most of the baryonic material in galaxy clusters. The ICM is heated to temperatures on the order of 10 to 100 megakelvins, emitting strong X-ray radiation | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
Lightning is a natural phenomenon formed by electrostatic discharges through the atmosphere between two electrically charged regions, either both in the atmosphere or with one in the atmosphere and on the ground, temporarily neutralizing these in a near-instantaneous release of an average of one gigajoule of energy. This discharge may produce a wide range of electromagnetic radiation, from heat created by the rapid movement of electrons, to brilliant flashes of visible light in the form of black-body radiation. Lightning causes thunder, a sound from the shock wave which develops as gases in the vicinity of the discharge experience a sudden increase in pressure | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
The magnetopause is the abrupt boundary between a magnetosphere and the surrounding plasma. For planetary science, the magnetopause is the boundary between the planet's magnetic field and the solar wind. The location of the magnetopause is determined by the balance between the pressure of the dynamic planetary magnetic field and the dynamic pressure of the solar wind | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
The magnetosheath is the region of space between the magnetopause and the bow shock of a planet's magnetosphere. The regularly organized magnetic field generated by the planet becomes weak and irregular in the magnetosheath due to interaction with the incoming solar wind, and is incapable of fully deflecting the highly charged particles. The density of the particles in this region is considerably lower than what is found beyond the bow shock, but greater than within the magnetopause, and can be considered a transitory state | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
In astronomy and planetary science, a magnetosphere is a region of space surrounding an astronomical object in which charged particles are affected by that object's magnetic field. It is created by a celestial body with an active interior dynamo.
In the space environment close to a planetary body, the magnetic field resembles a magnetic dipole | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
The following is a chronology of discoveries concerning the magnetosphere.
1600 - William Gilbert in London suggests the Earth is a giant magnet.
1741 - Hiorter and Anders Celsius note that the polar aurora is accompanied by a disturbance of the magnetic needle | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
The ions and electrons of a plasma interacting with the Earth's magnetic field generally follow its magnetic field lines. These represent the force that a north magnetic pole would experience at any given point. (Denser lines indicate a stronger force | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
NASA Heliophysics is an aspect of NASA science that enables understanding the Sun, heliosphere, and planetary environments as a single connected system. In addition to solar processes, this domain of study includes the interaction of solar plasma and solar radiation with Earth, the other planets, and the galaxy. By analyzing the connections between the Sun, solar wind, and planetary space environments, the fundamental physical processes that occur throughout the universe are uncovered | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
Outer space, commonly referred to simply as space, is the expanse that exists beyond Earth and its atmosphere and between celestial bodies. Outer space is not completely empty; it is a near-perfect vacuum containing a low density of particles, predominantly a plasma of hydrogen and helium as well as electromagnetic radiation, magnetic fields, neutrinos, dust, and cosmic rays. The baseline temperature of outer space, as set by the background radiation from the Big Bang, is 2 | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
In solar physics, heliospheric pickup ions are created when neutral particles inside the heliosphere are ionized by either solar ultraviolet radiation, charge exchange with solar wind protons or electron impact ionization. Pickup ions are generally characterized by their single charge state, a typical velocity that ranges between 0 km/s and twice the solar wind velocity (~800 km/s), a composition that reflects their neutral seed population and their spatial distribution in the heliosphere. The neutral seed population of these ions can either be of interstellar origin or of lunar-, cometary, or inner-source origin | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
Plasma cosmology is a non-standard cosmology whose central postulate is that the dynamics of ionized gases and plasmas play important, if not dominant, roles in the physics of the universe at interstellar and intergalactic scales. In contrast, the current observations and models of cosmologists and astrophysicists explain the formation, development, and evolution of large-scale structures as dominated by gravity (including its formulation in Albert Einstein's general theory of relativity).
The original form of the theory, Alfvén–Klein cosmology, was developed by Hannes Alfvén and Oskar Klein in the 1960s and 1970s, and holds that matter and antimatter exist in equal quantities at very large scales, that the universe is eternal rather than bounded in time by the Big Bang, and that the expansion of the observable universe is caused by annihilation between matter and antimatter rather than dark energy | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
The polar wind or plasma fountain is a permanent outflow of plasma from the polar regions of Earth's magnetosphere, caused by the interaction between the solar wind and the Earth's atmosphere. The solar wind ionizes gas molecules in the upper atmosphere to such high energy that some of them reach escape velocity and pour into space. A considerable percentage of these ions remain bound inside Earth's magnetic field, where they form part of the radiation belts | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
In the magnetosphere, the plasma sheet is a sheet-like region of denser (0. 3-0. 5 ions/cm3 versus 0 | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
The plasmasphere, or inner magnetosphere, is a region of the Earth's magnetosphere consisting of low-energy (cool) plasma. It is located above the ionosphere. The outer boundary of the plasmasphere is known as the plasmapause, which is defined by an order of magnitude drop in plasma density | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
A plasmoid is a coherent structure of plasma and magnetic fields. Plasmoids have been proposed to explain natural phenomena such as ball lightning, magnetic bubbles in the magnetosphere, and objects in cometary tails, in the solar wind, in the solar atmosphere, and in the heliospheric current sheet. Plasmoids produced in the laboratory include field-reversed configurations, spheromaks, and in dense plasma focuses | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
A radio atmospheric signal or sferic (sometimes also spelled "spheric") is a broadband electromagnetic impulse that occurs as a result of natural atmospheric lightning discharges. Sferics may propagate from their lightning source without major attenuation in the Earth–ionosphere waveguide, and can be received thousands of kilometres from their source. On a time-domain plot, a sferic may appear as a single high-amplitude spike in the time-domain data | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
In the fields of Big Bang theory and cosmology, reionization is the process that caused electrically neutral atoms in the universe to reionize after the lapse of the "dark ages".
Reionization is the second of two major phase transitions of gas in the universe (the first is recombination). While the majority of baryonic matter in the universe is in the form of hydrogen and helium, reionization usually refers strictly to the reionization of hydrogen, the element | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
A ring current is an electric current carried by charged particles trapped in a planet's magnetosphere. It is caused by the longitudinal drift of energetic (10–200 keV) particles.
Earth's ring current
Earth's ring current is responsible for shielding the lower latitudes of the Earth from magnetospheric electric fields | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
The Schamel equation (S-equation) is a nonlinear partial differential equation of first order in time and third order in space. Similar to a Korteweg de Vries equation (KdV), it describes the development of a localized, coherent wave structure that propagates in a nonlinear dispersive medium. It was first derived in 1973 by Hans Schamel to describe the effects of electron trapping in the trough of the potential of a solitary electrostatic wave structure travelling with ion acoustic speed in a two-component plasma | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
In magnetohydrodynamics (MHD), shocks and discontinuities are transition layers where properties of a plasma change from one equilibrium state to another. The relation between the plasma properties on both sides of a shock or a discontinuity can be obtained from the conservative form of the MHD equations, assuming conservation of mass, momentum, energy and of
∇
⋅
B
{\displaystyle \nabla \cdot \mathbf {B} }
.
Rankine–Hugoniot jump conditions for MHD
The jump conditions across a time-independent MHD shock or discontinuity are referred as the Rankine–Hugoniot equations for MHD | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
Sky brightness refers to the visual perception of the sky and how it scatters and diffuses light. The fact that the sky is not completely dark at night is easily visible. If light sources (e | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
A solar flare is an intense localized eruption of electromagnetic radiation in the Sun's atmosphere. Flares occur in active regions and are often, but not always, accompanied by coronal mass ejections, solar particle events, and other solar phenomena. The occurrence of solar flares varies with the 11-year solar cycle | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
The solar transition region is a region of the Sun's atmosphere between the upper chromosphere and corona. It is important because it is the site of several unrelated but important transitions in the physics of the solar atmosphere:
Below, gravity tends to dominate the shape of most features, so that the Sun may often be described in terms of layers and horizontal features (like sunspots); above, dynamic forces dominate the shape of most features, so that the transition region itself is not a well-defined layer at a particular altitude.
Below, most of the helium is not fully ionized, so that it radiates energy very effectively; above, it becomes fully ionized | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
The solar wind is a stream of charged particles released from the upper atmosphere of the Sun, called the corona. This plasma mostly consists of electrons, protons and alpha particles with kinetic energy between 0. 5 and 10 keV | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
The South Atlantic Anomaly (SAA) is an area where Earth's inner Van Allen radiation belt comes closest to Earth's surface, dipping down to an altitude of 200 kilometres (120 mi). This leads to an increased flux of energetic particles in this region and exposes orbiting satellites (including the ISS) to higher-than-usual levels of ionizing radiation.
The effect is caused by the non-concentricity of Earth and its magnetic dipole and has been observed to be increasing in intensity recently | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
A corona (PL coronas or coronae) is the outermost layer of a star's atmosphere. It consists of plasma.
The Sun's corona lies above the chromosphere and extends millions of kilometres into outer space | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
The Sun is the star at the center of the Solar System. It is a nearly perfect ball of hot plasma, heated to incandescence by nuclear fusion reactions in its core. The Sun radiates this energy mainly as light, ultraviolet, and infrared radiation, and is the most important source of energy for life on Earth | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
Upper-atmospheric lightning and ionospheric lightning are terms sometimes used by researchers to refer to a family of short-lived electrical-breakdown phenomena that occur well above the altitudes of normal lightning and storm clouds. Upper-atmospheric lightning is believed to be electrically induced forms of luminous plasma. The preferred usage is transient luminous event (TLE), because the various types of electrical-discharge phenomena in the upper atmosphere lack several characteristics of the more familiar tropospheric lightning | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
Wouthuysen–Field coupling, or the Wouthuysen–Field effect, is a mechanism that couples the excitation temperature, also called the spin temperature, of neutral hydrogen to Lyman-alpha radiation. This coupling plays a role in producing a difference in the temperature of neutral hydrogen and the cosmic microwave background at the end of the Dark Ages and the beginning of the epoch of reionization. It is named for Siegfried Adolf Wouthuysen and George B | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
X-ray astronomy is an observational branch of astronomy which deals with the study of X-ray observation and detection from astronomical objects. X-radiation is absorbed by the Earth's atmosphere, so instruments to detect X-rays must be taken to high altitude by balloons, sounding rockets, and satellites. X-ray astronomy uses a type of space telescope that can see x-ray radiation which standard optical telescopes, such as the Mauna Kea Observatories, cannot | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
The ALSE (Apollo Lunar Sounder Experiment) (also known as Scientific Experiment S-209, according to NASA designations) was a ground-penetrating radar (subsurface sounder) experiment that flew on the Apollo 17 mission.
Mission and Science
This experiment used radar to study the Moon's surface and interior. Radar waves with wavelengths between 2 and 60 meters (frequencies of 5, 15, and 150 MHz) were transmitted through a series of antennas near the back of the Apollo Service Module | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
Beam park is a radar mode used for space surveillance, particularly tracking space debris. In beam-park mode, a radar beam is kept in a fixed direction with respect to the Earth, while objects passing through the beam are tracked. In 24 hours, as a result of the Earth’s rotation, the radar effectively scans a narrow strip through 360° of the celestial sphere | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
The Goldstone Deep Space Communications Complex (GDSCC), commonly called the Goldstone Observatory, is a satellite ground station located in Fort Irwin in the U. S. state of California | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
The Goldstone Solar System Radar (GSSR) is a large radar system used for investigating objects in the Solar System. Located in the desert near Barstow, California, it comprises a 500-kW X-band (8500 MHz) transmitter and a low-noise receiver on the 70-m DSS 14 antenna at the Goldstone Deep Space Communications Complex. It has been used to investigate Mercury, Venus, Mars, the asteroids, and moons of Jupiter and Saturn | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
A Book of Shadows is a book containing religious text and instructions for magical rituals found within the Neopagan religion of Wicca. Since its conception in the 1970s, it has made its way into many pagan practices and paths. The most famous Book of Shadows was created by the pioneering Wiccan Gerald Gardner sometime in the late 1940s or early 1950s, and which he utilised first in his Bricket Wood coven and then in other covens which he founded in following decades | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
The Boy Who Saw True (originally published by Neville Spearman, 1953, with an introduction, afterword and notes by Cyril Scott) is the allegedly true diary of a young Victorian boy with clairvoyant gifts. Born with unusual talents, the anonymous author could apparently see auras and spirits, yet failed to realise that other people were not similarly gifted. "In consequence he was misunderstood, and had to suffer many indignities | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
A bullet journal (sometimes known as a BuJo) is a method of personal organization developed by designer Ryder Carroll. The system organizes scheduling, reminders, to-do lists, brainstorming, and other organizational tasks into a single notebook. The name "bullet journal" comes from the use of abbreviated bullet points to log information, but it also partially comes from the use of dot journals, which are gridded using dots rather than lines | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
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