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The history of special relativity consists of many theoretical results and empirical findings obtained by Albert A. Michelson, Hendrik Lorentz, Henri Poincaré and others. It culminated in the theory of special relativity proposed by Albert Einstein and subsequent work of Max Planck, Hermann Minkowski and others | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
In classical theories of gravitation, the changes in a gravitational field propagate. A change in the distribution of energy and momentum of matter results in subsequent alteration, at a distance, of the gravitational field which it produces. In the relativistic sense, the "speed of gravity" refers to the speed of a gravitational wave, which, as predicted by general relativity and confirmed by observation of the GW170817 neutron star merger, is the same speed as the speed of light (c) | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
Spherical wave transformations leave the form of spherical waves as well as the laws of optics and electrodynamics invariant in all inertial frames. They were defined between 1908 and 1909 by Harry Bateman and Ebenezer Cunningham, with Bateman giving the transformation its name. They correspond to the conformal group of "transformations by reciprocal radii" in relation to the framework of Lie sphere geometry, which were already known in the 19th century | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
In general relativity, the sticky bead argument is a simple thought experiment designed to show that gravitational radiation is indeed predicted by general relativity, and can have physical effects. These claims were not widely accepted prior to about 1955, but after the introduction of the bead argument, any remaining doubts soon disappeared from the research literature.
The argument is often credited to Hermann Bondi, who popularized it, but it was originally proposed anonymously by Richard Feynman | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
A strangelet (pronounced ) is a hypothetical particle consisting of a bound state of roughly equal numbers of up, down, and strange quarks. An equivalent description is that a strangelet is a small fragment of strange matter, small enough to be considered a particle. The size of an object composed of strange matter could, theoretically, range from a few femtometers across (with the mass of a light nucleus) to arbitrarily large | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
The idea that matter consists of smaller particles and that there exists a limited number of sorts of primary, smallest particles in nature has existed in natural philosophy at least since the 6th century BC. Such ideas gained physical credibility beginning in the 19th century, but the concept of "elementary particle" underwent some changes in its meaning: notably, modern physics no longer deems elementary particles indestructible. Even elementary particles can decay or collide destructively; they can cease to exist and create (other) particles in result | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
Teleparallelism (also called teleparallel gravity), was an attempt by Albert Einstein to base a unified theory of electromagnetism and gravity on the mathematical structure of distant parallelism, also referred to as absolute or teleparallelism. In this theory, a spacetime is characterized by a curvature-free linear connection in conjunction with a metric tensor field, both defined in terms of a dynamical tetrad field.
Teleparallel spacetimes
The crucial new idea, for Einstein, was the introduction of a tetrad field, i | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
The Instrument Room is a room in Teylers Museum which houses a part of the museum's Cabinet of Physics: a collection of scientific instruments from the 18th and 19th centuries. The instruments in the collection were used for research as well as for educational public demonstrations. Most of them are demonstration models that illustrate various aspects of electricity, acoustics, light, magnetism, thermodynamics, and weights and measures | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
The discovery of the 118 chemical elements known to exist as of 2023 is presented in chronological order. The elements are listed generally in the order in which each was first defined as the pure element, as the exact date of discovery of most elements cannot be accurately determined. There are plans to synthesize more elements, and it is not known how many elements are possible | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
The following timeline starts with the invention of the modern computer in the late interwar period.
1930s
John Vincent Atanasoff and Clifford Berry create the first electronic non-programmable, digital computing device, the Atanasoff–Berry Computer, that lasted from 1937 to 1942.
1940s
Nuclear bomb and ballistics simulations at Los Alamos National Laboratory and Ballistic Research Laboratory (BRL), respectively | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
This timeline describes the major developments, both experimental and theoretical, of condensed matter physics, which includes
theoretical crystallography,
solid-state physics,
soft matter physics,
mesoscopic physics,
material physics,
low-temperature physics,
microscopic theories of magnetism in matter
optical properties of matter and metamaterials. Even if material properties were modeled before 1900, condensed matter topics were considered as part of physics since the development of quantum mechanics and microscopic theories of matter. According to Philip W | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
The timeline of quantum mechanics is a list of key events in the history of quantum mechanics, quantum field theories and quantum chemistry.
19th century
1801 – Thomas Young establishes that light made up of waves with his Double-slit experiment.
1859 – Gustav Kirchhoff introduces the concept of a blackbody and proves that its emission spectrum depends only on its temperature | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
In physics, total internal reflection (TIR) is the phenomenon in which waves arriving at the interface (boundary) from one medium to another (e. g. , from water to air) are not refracted into the second ("external") medium, but completely reflected back into the first ("internal") medium | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
In physics, a variational principle is an alternative method for determining the state or dynamics of a physical system, by identifying it as an extremum (minimum, maximum or saddle point) of a function or functional. This article describes the historical development of such principles.
Antiquity
Variational principles are found among earlier ideas in surveying and optics | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
The following outline is provided as an overview of and topical guide to physics:
Physics – natural science that involves the study of matter and its motion through spacetime, along with related concepts such as energy and force. More broadly, it is the general analysis of nature, conducted in order to understand how the universe behaves.
What type of subject is physics?
Physics can be described as all of the following:
An academic discipline – one with academic departments, curricula and degrees; national and international societies; and specialized journals | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
This is a list of contributors to the mathematical background for general relativity. For ease of readability, the contributions (in brackets) are unlinked but can be found in the contributors' article.
B
Luigi Bianchi (Bianchi identities, Bianchi groups, differential geometry)
C
Élie Cartan (curvature computation, early extensions of GTR, Cartan geometries)
Elwin Bruno Christoffel (connections, tensor calculus, Riemannian geometry)
Clarissa-Marie Claudel (Geometry of photon surfaces)
D
Tevian Dray (The Geometry of General Relativity)
E
Luther P | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
Characteristic numbers are a set of dimensionless quantities having an important role in analyzing the behavior of fluids and their flow as well as in other transport phenomena. They include the Reynolds and the Mach numbers, which describe as ratios the relative magnitude of fluid and physical system characteristics, such as density, viscosity, speed of sound, and flow speed.
To compare a real situation (e | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
The refractive index of water at 20 °C for visible light is 1. 33. The refractive index of normal ice is 1 | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
This article will use the Einstein summation convention.
The theory of general relativity required the adaptation of existing theories of physical, electromagnetic, and quantum effects to account for non-Euclidean geometries. These physical theories modified by general relativity are described below | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
The timeline of discovery of Solar System planets and their natural satellites charts the progress of the discovery of new bodies over history. Each object is listed in chronological order of its discovery (multiple dates occur when the moments of imaging, observation, and publication differ), identified through its various designations (including temporary and permanent schemes), and the discoverer(s) listed.
Historically the naming of moons did not always match the times of their discovery | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
The Community of European Solar Radio Astronomers (CESRA) is a non-profit informal organization of European scientists whose aims are to promote studies of solar radio physics and related topics.
Established in 1970, its membership includes scientists from 28 European research institutes.
History
Arnold O | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
The European Solar Physics Division (ESPD) of the European Physical Society (EPS), is an organisation whose purpose is to promote solar physics and represent European scientists interested in the physics of the Sun. The ESPD is known mostly for its organisation of the European Solar Physics Meetings, which bring together European solar physicists and take place every three years.
Since 2017, the ESPD awards four prizes: the Zdeněk Švetka Senior Prize for outstanding contributions over an extended period of time to solar physics, the Giancarlo Noci Early Career Prize for outstanding contributions to solar physics from an Early career researcher, the Patricia Edwin PhD Prize for the best European PhD thesis in solar physics and the Kees Zwaan Inspirational Community Prize for services to the community | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
FAZIA stands for the Four Pi A and Z Identification Array.
This is a project which aims at building a new 4pi particle detector for charged particles. It will operate in the domain of heavy-ion induced reactions around the Fermi energy | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
The Foundational Questions Institute, styled FQxI (formerly FQXi), is an organization that provides grants to "catalyze, support, and disseminate research on questions at the foundations of physics and cosmology. " It was founded in 2005 by cosmologists Max Tegmark and Anthony Aguirre, who hold the positions of Scientific Directors.
It has run four worldwide grant competitions (in 2006, 2008, 2010, and 2013), the first of which provided US$2M to 30 projects | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
Harvard biphase is a magnetic run length code for encoding magnetic tape. It is one of the formats employed in forming the digital bits of logic one and logic zero, along with non-return-to-zero (NRZ) and bipolar-return-to-zero (RZ) formats. Each bit in the Harvard biphase format undergoes change at its trailing edge and this transpires either from high to zero or zero to high independently of its value | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
Lehmer sieves are mechanical devices that implement sieves in number theory. Lehmer sieves are named for Derrick Norman Lehmer and his son Derrick Henry Lehmer. The father was a professor of mathematics at the University of California, Berkeley at the time, and his son followed in his footsteps as a number theorist and professor at Berkeley | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
Magnetic-core memory was the predominant form of random-access computer memory for 20 years between about 1955 and 1975. Such memory is often just called core memory, or, informally, core.
Core memory uses toroids (rings) of a hard magnetic material (usually a semi-hard ferrite) as transformer cores, where each wire threaded through the core serves as a transformer winding | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
Moore's law is the observation that the number of transistors in an integrated circuit (IC) doubles about every two years. Moore's law is an observation and projection of a historical trend. Rather than a law of physics, it is an empirical relationship linked to gains from experience in production | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
"The Mother of All Demos" is a name retroactively applied to a landmark computer demonstration, given at the Association for Computing Machinery / Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (ACM/IEEE)—Computer Society's Fall Joint Computer Conference in San Francisco, by Douglas Engelbart, on December 9, 1968. The live demonstration featured the introduction of a complete computer hardware and software system called the oN-Line System or, more commonly, NLS. The 90-minute presentation demonstrated for the first time many of the fundamental elements of modern personal computing: windows, hypertext, graphics, efficient navigation and command input, video conferencing, the computer mouse, word processing, dynamic file linking, revision control, and a collaborative real-time editor | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
Near letter-quality (NLQ) printing is a process where dot matrix printers produce high-quality text by using multiple passes to produce higher dot density. The tradeoff for the improved print quality is reduced printing speed. Software can also be used to produce this effect | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
The current state of quantum computing is referred to as the noisy intermediate-scale quantum (NISQ) era, characterized by quantum processors containing up to 1000 qubits which are not advanced enough yet for fault-tolerance or large enough to achieve quantum supremacy. These processors, which are sensitive to their environment (noisy) and prone to quantum decoherence, are not yet capable of continuous quantum error correction. This intermediate-scale is defined by the quantum volume, which is based on the moderate number of qubits and gate fidelity | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
Optical storage refers to a class of data storage systems that use light to read or write data to an underlying optical media. Although a number of optical formats have been used over time, the most common examples are optical disks like the compact disc (CD) and DVD. Reading and writing methods have also varied over time, but most modern systems as of 2023 use lasers as the light source and use it both for reading and writing to the discs | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
The history of the personal computer as a mass-market consumer electronic device began with the microcomputer revolution of the 1970s. A personal computer is one intended for interactive individual use, as opposed to a mainframe computer where the end user's requests are filtered through operating staff, or a time-sharing system in which one large processor is shared by many individuals. After the development of the microprocessor, individual personal computers were low enough in cost that they eventually became affordable consumer goods | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
Stochastic computing is a collection of techniques that represent continuous values by streams of random bits. Complex computations can then be computed by simple bit-wise operations on the streams. Stochastic computing is distinct from the study of randomized algorithms | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
The SUN workstation was a modular computer system designed at Stanford University in the early 1980s. It became the seed technology for many commercial products, including the original workstations from Sun Microsystems.
History
In 1979 Xerox donated some Alto computers, developed at their Palo Alto Research Center, to Stanford's Computer Science Department, as well as other universities that were developing the early Internet | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
This article presents a detailed timeline of events in the history of computing software and hardware: from prehistory until 1949. For narratives explaining the overall developments, see History of computing.
Prehistory–antiquity
Medieval–1640
1641–1850
1851–1930
1931–1940
1941–1949
Computing timeline
Timeline of computing
1950–1979
1980–1989
1990–1999
2000–2009
2010–2019
2020–present
History of computing hardware
Notes
References
External links
A Brief History of Computing, by Stephen White | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
The traitorous eight was a group of eight employees who left Shockley Semiconductor Laboratory in 1957 to found Fairchild Semiconductor. William Shockley had in 1956 recruited a group of young Ph. D | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
Twistor memory is a form of computer memory formed by wrapping magnetic tape around a current-carrying wire. Operationally, twistor was very similar to core memory. Twistor could also be used to make ROM memories, including a re-programmable form known as piggyback twistor | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
lspci is a command on Unix-like operating systems that prints ("lists") detailed information about all PCI buses and devices in the system. It is based on a common portable library libpci which offers access to the PCI configuration space on a variety of operating systems.
Example usage
Example output on a Linux system:
Using lspci -v, lspci -vv, or lspci -vvv will display increasingly verbose details for all devices | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
Prabhat Mishra is a Professor in the Department of Computer and Information Science and Engineering and a UF Research Foundation Professor at the University of Florida. Prof. Mishra's research interests are in hardware security, quantum computing, embedded systems, system-on-chip validation, formal verification, and machine learning | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
Audio connectors and video connectors are electrical or optical connectors for carrying audio or video signals. Audio interfaces or video interfaces define physical parameters and interpretation of signals. For digital audio and digital video, this can be thought of as defining the physical layer, data link layer, and most or all of the application layer | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
80 Plus (trademarked 80 PLUS) is a voluntary certification program launched in 2004, intended to promote efficient energy use in computer power supply units (PSUs).
Certification is acquirable for products that have more than 80% energy efficiency at 20%, 50% and 100% of rated load, and a power factor of 0. 9 or greater at 100% load | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
Advanced Configuration and Power Interface (ACPI) is an open standard that operating systems can use to discover and configure computer hardware components, to perform power management (e. g. putting unused hardware components to sleep), auto configuration (e | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
Advanced RISC Computing (ARC) is a specification promulgated by a defunct consortium of computer manufacturers (the Advanced Computing Environment project), setting forth a standard MIPS RISC-based computer hardware and firmware environment. The firmware on Alpha machines that are compatible with ARC is known as AlphaBIOS, non-ARC firmware on Alpha is known as SRM.
History
Although ACE went defunct, and no computer was ever manufactured which fully complied with the ARC standard, the ARC system has a widespread legacy in that all operating systems in the Windows NT family use ARC conventions for naming boot devices | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
CEA-936-A (USB Carkit Specification) is a Consumer Electronics Association (CEA) standard to allow the use of a mini or micro USB connector for UART and analog audio signals. It is intended to allow connection of a mobile phone to analog hands-free car kits, chargers, and other RS-232 devices. It does not comply with the USB specification | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
COM Express, a computer-on-module (COM) form factor, is a highly integrated and compact computer that can be used in a design application much like an integrated circuit component. Each module integrates core CPU and memory functionality, the common I/O of a PC/AT, USB, audio, graphics (PEG), and Ethernet. All I/O signals are mapped to two high density, low profile connectors on the bottom side of the module | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
The computer-on-module for high performance compute (COM-HPC) form factor standard targets high I/O and computer performance levels. Each COM-HPC module integrates core CPU and memory functionality and input and output including USB up to Gen 4, audio (MIPI SoundWire, I2S and DMIC), graphics, (PCI Express) up to Gen. 5, and Ethernet up to 25 Gbit/s per lane | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
In computer science, an action language is a language for specifying state transition systems, and is commonly used to create formal models of the effects of actions on the world. Action languages are commonly used in the artificial intelligence and robotics domains, where they describe how actions affect the states of systems over time, and may be used for automated planning.
Action languages fall into two classes: action description languages and action query languages | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
leJOS is a firmware replacement for Lego Mindstorms programmable bricks. Different variants of the software support the original Robotics Invention System, the NXT, and the EV3. It includes a Java virtual machine, which allows Lego Mindstorms robots to be programmed in the Java programming language | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
Next Byte Codes (NBC) is a simple language with an assembly language syntax that can be used to program Lego Mindstorms NXT programmable bricks. The command line compiler outputs NXT compatible machine code, and is supported on Windows, Mac OS and Linux. It is maintained by John Hansen, a Mindstorms Developer Program member | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
Not eXactly C, or NXC, is a high-level programming language for Lego Mindstorms NXT designed by John Hansen in 2006. NXC, which is short for Not eXactly C, is based on Next Byte Codes, an assembly language. NXC has a syntax like C | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
Not Quite C (NQC) is a programming language, application programming interface (API), and native bytecode compiler toolkit for the Lego Mindstorms, Cybermaster and LEGO Spybotics systems. It is based primarily on the C language but has specific limitations, such as the maximum number of subroutines and variables allowed, which differ depending on the version of firmware the RCX has. The language was invented by David Baum | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
Planner (often seen in publications as "PLANNER" although it is not an acronym) is a programming language designed by Carl Hewitt at MIT, and first published in 1969. First, subsets such as Micro-Planner and Pico-Planner were implemented, and then essentially the whole language was implemented as Popler by Julian Davies at the University of Edinburgh in the POP-2 programming language. Derivations such as QA4, Conniver, QLISP and Ether (see scientific community metaphor) were important tools in artificial intelligence research in the 1970s, which influenced commercial developments such as Knowledge Engineering Environment (KEE) and Automated Reasoning Tool (ART) | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
RAPID is a high-level programming language used to control ABB industrial robots. RAPID was introduced along with the S4 Control System in 1994 by ABB, superseding the ARLA programming language.
Features in the language include:
Routine parameters:
Procedures - used as a subprogram | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
urbiscript is a programming language for robotics. It features syntactic support for concurrency and event-based programming. It is a prototype-based object-oriented scripting language | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
Variable Assembly Language (VAL) is a computer-based control system and language designed specifically for use with Unimation Inc. industrial robots.
The VAL robot language is permanently stored as a part of the VAL system | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
WSFN (Which Stands for Nothing) is an interpreted programming language for controlling robots created by Li-Chen Wang. It was designed to be as small as possible, a "tiny" language, similar to Wang's earlier effort, Palo Alto Tiny BASIC. WSFN was first published in Dr | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
A robotics simulator is a simulator used to create an application for a physical robot without depending on the physical machine, thus saving cost and time. In some case, such applications can be transferred onto a physical robot (or rebuilt) without modification.
The term robotics simulator can refer to several different robotics simulation applications | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
AVM Navigator is an additional module of the RoboRealm (plugin) that provides object recognition and autonomous robot navigation using a single video camera on the robot as the main sensor for navigation.
Associative Video Memory
It is possible due to using of an "Associative Video Memory" (AVM) algorithm based on multilevel decomposition of recognition matrices. It provides image recognition with low False Acceptance Rate (about 0 | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
DialogOS is a graphical programming environment to design computer system which can converse through voice with the user. Dialogs are clicked together in a Flowchart. DialogOS includes bindings to control Lego Mindstorms robots by voice and has bindings to SQL databases, as well as a generic plugin architecture to integrate with other types of backends | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
Middleware for Robotic Applications (MIRA) is a cross-platform, open-source software framework written in C++ that provides a middleware, several base functionalities and numerous tools for developing and testing distributed software modules. It also focuses on easy creation of complex, dynamic applications, while reusing these modules as plugins. The main purpose of MIRA is the development of robotic applications, but as it is designed to allow type safe data exchange between software modules using intra- and interprocess communication it is not limited to these kinds of applications | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
The Mobile Robot Programming Toolkit (MRPT) is a cross-platform and open source C++ library aimed to help robotics researchers to design and implement algorithms related to Simultaneous Localization and Mapping (SLAM), computer vision and motion planning (obstacle avoidance). Different research groups have employed MRPT to implement projects reported in some of the major robotics journals and conferences. MRPT is open source and distributed under the New BSD License | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
Open Robotics Automation Virtual Environment (OpenRAVE) provides an environment for testing, developing, and deploying motion planning algorithms in real-world robotics applications. The main focus is on simulation and analysis of kinematic and geometric information related to motion planning. OpenRAVE’s stand-alone nature allows it to be easily integrated into existing robotics systems | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
OpenRTM-aist is a software platform developed on the basis of the RT middleware standard. OpenRTM-aist is developed by National Institute of Advanced Industrial Science and Technology which also contributes to definition of the RT-middleware standard.
Abstract
In RT middleware, all robotic technological elements, such as actuators and sensors, are regarded as RT-components (RTC) | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
Robot Operating System (ROS or ros) is an open-source robotics middleware suite. Although ROS is not an operating system (OS) but a set of software frameworks for robot software development, it provides services designed for a heterogeneous computer cluster such as hardware abstraction, low-level device control, implementation of commonly used functionality, message-passing between processes, and package management. Running sets of ROS-based processes are represented in a graph architecture where processing takes place in nodes that may receive, post, and multiplex sensor data, control, state, planning, actuator, and other messages | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
Robotics middleware is middleware to be used in complex robot control software systems.
". | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
A robotics suite is a visual environment for robot control and simulation. They are typically an end-to-end platform for robotics development and include tools for visual programming and creating and debugging robot applications. Developers can often interact with robots through web-based or visual interfaces | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
The Robotics Toolbox is MATLAB toolbox software that supports research and teaching into arm-type and mobile robotics. While the Robotics Toolbox is free software, it requires the proprietary MATLAB environment in order to execute. The Toolbox forms the basis of the exercises in several textbooks | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
RT-middleware (Robotics Technology Middleware) is a common computing platform technical standard for robots based on distributed object technology. RT-middleware supports the construction of various networked robotic systems by integrating various network-enabled robotic elements named RT-Components, which specification standard is discussed and defined by the Object Management Group (OMG).
Properties
In the RT-middleware, robotics elements, such as actuators, are regarded as RT-components, and the whole robotic system is constructed by connecting such components | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
Urbi is an open-source cross-platform software computing platform written in C++ used to develop applications for robotics and complex systems. Urbi is based on the UObject distributed C++ component architecture. It also includes the urbiscript orchestration language which is a parallel and event-driven script language | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
YARP (Yet Another Robot Platform) is an open-source software package, written in C++ for interconnecting sensors, processors, and actuators in robots.
See also
Kismet (robot)
iCub
Robot Operating System (ROS)
List of free and open source software packages
Yet Another
References
"YARP documentation introduction". Retrieved 2016-11-28 | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
Anno 2205 is a city-building and economic simulation game, with real-time strategy elements, developed by Blue Byte and published by Ubisoft. Anno 2205 is the sixth game of the Anno series, and was released worldwide on 3 November 2015. As with Anno 2070, the game is set in the future, with players having the opportunity to set up colonies on the Moon | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
Assault City is a rail shooter released for the Master System in 1990. Two versions were released: the original, which only supports the directional pad, and a second edition which supports the Light Phaser gun. The two versions are distinguished by a large red light phaser on the cover of the second edition | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
BoomBots is a fighting game released in 1999 for PlayStation. It was created by Doug TenNapel, developed by The Neverhood, Inc. , and published by SouthPeak Interactive | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
Color Robot Battle is a programming game developed by Glenn Sogge and Del Ogren for the TRS-80 Color Computer and published by Radio Shack in 1981.
Robot Programming
The aim of the game is to write a computer program that controls a (simulated) robot. Two programs are selected to do battle in an arena with the last robot standing being the winner | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
Cyber Shadow is a side-scrolling action-platform game developed by Finnish indie studio Mechanical Head Studios and published by Yacht Club Games. Using an 8-bit aesthetic, the game follows a cybernetic ninja named Shadow who sets out to rescue his clan in a world overrun by machines.
The game is mostly developed by Aarne Hunziker, who is the sole member of Mechanical Head Studios | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
The global distance test (GDT), also written as GDT_TS to represent "total score", is a measure of similarity between two protein structures with known amino acid correspondences (e. g. identical amino acid sequences) but different tertiary structures | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
Graphical models have become powerful frameworks for protein structure prediction, protein–protein interaction, and free energy calculations for protein structures. Using a graphical model to represent the protein structure allows the solution of many problems including secondary structure prediction, protein-protein interactions, protein-drug interaction, and free energy calculations.
There are two main approaches to using graphical models in protein structure modeling | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
In quantum mechanics, the Hamiltonian of a system is an operator corresponding to the total energy of that system, including both kinetic energy and potential energy. Its spectrum, the system's energy spectrum or its set of energy eigenvalues, is the set of possible outcomes obtainable from a measurement of the system's total energy. Due to its close relation to the energy spectrum and time-evolution of a system, it is of fundamental importance in most formulations of quantum theory | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
In 1927, a year after the publication of the Schrödinger equation, Hartree formulated what are now known as
the Hartree equations for atoms, using the concept of self-consistency that Lindsay had introduced in his study of many electron systems in the context of Bohr theory. Hartree assumed that the nucleus together with the electrons formed a spherically symmetric field. The charge distribution of each electron was the solution of the Schrödinger equation for an electron in a potential
v
(
r
)
{\displaystyle v(r)}
, derived from the field | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
In computational physics and chemistry, the Hartree–Fock (HF) method is a method of approximation for the determination of the wave function and the energy of a quantum many-body system in a stationary state.
The Hartree–Fock method often assumes that the exact N-body wave function of the system can be approximated by a single Slater determinant (in the case where the particles are fermions) or by a single permanent (in the case of bosons) of N spin-orbitals. By invoking the variational method, one can derive a set of N-coupled equations for the N spin orbitals | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
Implicit solvation (sometimes termed continuum solvation) is a method to represent solvent as a continuous medium instead of individual “explicit” solvent molecules, most often used in molecular dynamics simulations and in other applications of molecular mechanics. The method is often applied to estimate free energy of solute-solvent interactions in structural and chemical processes, such as folding or conformational transitions of proteins, DNA, RNA, and polysaccharides, association of biological macromolecules with ligands, or transport of drugs across biological membranes.
The implicit solvation model is justified in liquids, where the potential of mean force can be applied to approximate the averaged behavior of many highly dynamic solvent molecules | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
The International Journal of Quantum Chemistry is a peer-reviewed scientific journal publishing original, primary research and review articles on all aspects of quantum chemistry, including an expanded scope focusing on aspects of materials science, biochemistry, biophysics, quantum physics, quantum information theory, etc. According to the Journal Citation Reports, the journal has a 2020 impact factor of 2. 444 | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
An intracule is a quantum mechanical mathematical function for the two electron density which depends not upon the absolute values of position or momentum but rather upon their relative values. Its use is leading to new methods in physics and computational chemistry to investigate the electronic structure of molecules and solids. These methods are a development of Density functional theory (DFT), but with the two electron density replacing the one electron density | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
An isodesmic reaction is a chemical reaction in which the type of chemical bonds broken in the reactant are the same as the type of bonds formed in the reaction product. This type of reaction is often used as a hypothetical reaction in thermochemistry.
An example of an isodesmic reaction is
CH3− + CH3X → CH4 + CH2X− (1)X = F, Cl, Br, IEquation 1 describes the deprotonation of a methyl halide by a methyl anion | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
In computational chemistry, the Lennard-Jones potential (also termed the LJ potential or 12-6 potential; named for John Lennard-Jones) is an intermolecular pair potential. Out of all the intermolecular potentials, the Lennard-Jones potential is probably the one that has been the most extensively studied. It is considered an archetype model for simple yet realistic intermolecular interactions | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
The linearized augmented-plane-wave method (LAPW) is an implementation of Kohn-Sham density functional theory (DFT) adapted to periodic materials. It typically goes along with the treatment of both valence and core electrons on the same footing in the context of DFT and the treatment of the full potential and charge density without any shape approximation. This is often referred to as the all-electron full-potential linearized augmented-plane-wave method (FLAPW) | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
Local elevation is a technique used in computational chemistry or physics, mainly in the field of molecular simulation (including molecular dynamics (MD) and Monte Carlo (MC) simulations). It was developed in 1994 by Huber, Torda and van Gunsteren
to enhance the searching of conformational space in molecular dynamics simulations and is available in the GROMOS software for molecular dynamics simulation (since GROMOS96). The method was, together with the conformational flooding method,
the first to introduce memory dependence into molecular simulations | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
Localized molecular orbitals are molecular orbitals which are concentrated in a limited spatial region of a molecule, such as a specific bond or lone pair on a specific atom. They can be used to relate molecular orbital calculations to simple bonding theories, and also to speed up post-Hartree–Fock electronic structure calculations by taking advantage of the local nature of electron correlation. Localized orbitals in systems with periodic boundary conditions are known as Wannier functions | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
MBN Explorer (MesoBioNano Explorer) is a software package for molecular dynamics simulations, structure optimization and kinetic Monte Carlo simulations. It is designed for multiscale computational analysis of structure and dynamics of atomic clusters and nanoparticles, biomolecules and nanosystems, nanostructured materials, different states of matter and various interfaces. The software has been developed by MBN Research Center | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
Metadynamics (MTD; also abbreviated as METAD or MetaD) is a computer simulation method in computational physics, chemistry and biology. It is used to estimate the free energy and other state functions of a system, where ergodicity is hindered by the form of the system's energy landscape. It was first suggested by Alessandro Laio and Michele Parrinello in 2002 and is usually applied within molecular dynamics simulations | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
The Mie potential is an intermolecular pair potential, i. e. it describes the interactions between particles at the atomic level | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
Mixed quantum-classical (MQC) dynamics is a class of computational theoretical chemistry methods tailored to simulate non-adiabatic (NA) processes in molecular and supramolecular chemistry. Such methods are characterized by:
Propagation of nuclear dynamics through classical trajectories;
Propagation of the electrons (or fast particles) through quantum methods;
A feedback algorithm between the electronic and nuclear subsystems to recover nonadiabatic information.
Use of NA-MQC dynamics
In the Born-Oppenheimer approximation, the ensemble of electrons of a molecule or supramolecular system can have several discrete states | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
Modern valence bond theory is the application of valence bond theory (VBT) with computer programs that are competitive in accuracy and economy with programs for the Hartree–Fock or post-Hartree-Fock methods. The latter methods dominated quantum chemistry from the advent of digital computers because they were easier to program. The early popularity of valence bond methods thus declined | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
Molecular dynamics (MD) is a computer simulation method for analyzing the physical movements of atoms and molecules. The atoms and molecules are allowed to interact for a fixed period of time, giving a view of the dynamic "evolution" of the system. In the most common version, the trajectories of atoms and molecules are determined by numerically solving Newton's equations of motion for a system of interacting particles, where forces between the particles and their potential energies are often calculated using interatomic potentials or molecular mechanical force fields | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
Molecular mechanics uses classical mechanics to model molecular systems. The Born–Oppenheimer approximation is assumed valid and the potential energy of all systems is calculated as a function of the nuclear coordinates using force fields. Molecular mechanics can be used to study molecule systems ranging in size and complexity from small to large biological systems or material assemblies with many thousands to millions of atoms | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
Molecular modelling encompasses all methods, theoretical and computational, used to model or mimic the behaviour of molecules. The methods are used in the fields of computational chemistry, drug design, computational biology and materials science to study molecular systems ranging from small chemical systems to large biological molecules and material assemblies. The simplest calculations can be performed by hand, but inevitably computers are required to perform molecular modelling of any reasonably sized system | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
In chemistry, a molecular orbital () is a mathematical function describing the location and wave-like behavior of an electron in a molecule. This function can be used to calculate chemical and physical properties such as the probability of finding an electron in any specific region. The terms atomic orbital and molecular orbital were introduced by Robert S | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
A molecule editor is a computer program for creating and modifying representations of chemical structures.
Molecule editors can manipulate chemical structure representations in either a simulated two-dimensional space or three-dimensional space, via 2D computer graphics or 3D computer graphics, respectively. Two-dimensional output is used as illustrations or to query chemical databases | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
This page describes mining for molecules. Since molecules may be represented by molecular graphs this is strongly related to graph mining and structured data mining. The main problem is how to represent molecules while discriminating the data instances | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
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