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Møller–Plesset perturbation theory (MP) is one of several quantum chemistry post–Hartree–Fock ab initio methods in the field of computational chemistry. It improves on the Hartree–Fock method by adding electron correlation effects by means of Rayleigh–Schrödinger perturbation theory (RS-PT), usually to second (MP2), third (MP3) or fourth (MP4) order. Its main idea was published as early as 1934 by Christian Møller and Milton S | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
The Morse/Long-range potential (MLR potential) is an interatomic interaction model for the potential energy of a diatomic molecule. Due to the simplicity of the regular Morse potential (it only has three adjustable parameters), it is very limited in its applicability in modern spectroscopy. The MLR potential is a modern version of the Morse potential which has the correct theoretical long-range form of the potential naturally built into it | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
ms2 is a non-commercial molecular simulation program. It comprises both molecular dynamics and Monte Carlo simulation algorithms. ms2 is designed for the calculation of thermodynamic properties of fluids | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
In quantum chemistry, n-electron valence state perturbation theory (NEVPT) is a perturbative treatment applicable to multireference CASCI-type wavefunctions. It can be considered as a generalization of the well-known second-order Møller–Plesset perturbation theory to multireference Complete Active Space cases. The theory is directly integrated into many quantum chemistry packages such as MOLCAS, Molpro, DALTON, PySCF and ORCA | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
In computational chemistry, natural resonance theory (NRT) is an iterative, variational functional embedded into the natural bond orbital (NBO) program, commonly run in Gaussian, GAMESS, ORCA, Ampac and other software packages. NRT was developed in 1997 by Frank A. Weinhold and Eric D | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
In atomic physics and quantum chemistry, the electron configuration is the distribution of electrons of an atom or molecule (or other physical structure) in atomic or molecular orbitals. For example, the electron configuration of the neon atom is 1s2 2s2 2p6, meaning that the 1s, 2s and 2p subshells are occupied by 2, 2 and 6 electrons respectively.
Electronic configurations describe each electron as moving independently in an orbital, in an average field created by all other orbitals | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
The OPLS (Optimized Potentials for Liquid Simulations) force field was developed by Prof. William L. Jorgensen at Purdue University and later at Yale University, and is being further developed commercially by Schrödinger, Inc | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
In computational chemistry, orbital-free density functional theory is a quantum mechanical approach to electronic structure determination which is based on functionals of the electronic density. It is most closely related to the Thomas–Fermi model. Orbital-free density functional theory is, at present, less accurate than Kohn–Sham density functional theory models, but has the advantage of being fast, so that it can be applied to large systems | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
In physics, a pair potential is a function that describes the potential energy of two interacting objects solely as a function of the distance between them. Some interactions, like Coulomb's law in electrodynamics or Newton's law of universal gravitation in mechanics naturally have this form for simple spherical objects.
For other types of more complex interactions or objects it is useful and common to approximate the interaction by a pair potential, for example interatomic potentials in physics and computational chemistry that use approximations like the Lennard-Jones and Morse potentials | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
In mathematics and applied mathematics, perturbation theory comprises methods for finding an approximate solution to a problem, by starting from the exact solution of a related, simpler problem. A critical feature of the technique is a middle step that breaks the problem into "solvable" and "perturbative" parts. In perturbation theory, the solution is expressed as a power series in a small parameter
ε
{\displaystyle \varepsilon }
| https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
Pharmacokinetics simulation is a simulation method used in determining the safety levels of a drug during its development.
Purpose
Pharmacokinetics simulation gives an insight to drug efficacy and safety before exposure of individuals to the new drug that might help to improve the design of a clinical trial.
Pharmacokinetics simulations help in addition in therapy planning, to stay within the therapeutic range under various physiological and pathophysiological conditions, e | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
The polarizable continuum model (PCM) is a commonly used method in computational chemistry to model solvation effects. If it is necessary to consider each solvent molecule as a separate molecule, the computational cost of modeling a solvent-mediated chemical reaction would grow prohibitively high. Modeling the solvent as a polarizable continuum, rather than individual molecules, makes ab initio computation feasible | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
A Pople diagram or Pople's Diagram is a diagram which describes the relationship between various calculation methods in computational chemistry. It was initially introduced in January 1965 by Sir John Pople, , during the Symposium of Atomic and Molecular Quantum Theory in Florida. The Pople Diagram can be either 2-dimensional or 3-dimensional, with the axes representing ab initio methods, basis sets and treatment of relativity | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
In computational chemistry, post–Hartree–Fock (post-HF) methods are the set of methods developed to improve on the Hartree–Fock (HF), or self-consistent field (SCF) method. They add electron correlation which is a more accurate way of including the repulsions between electrons than in the Hartree–Fock method where repulsions are only averaged.
Details
In general, the SCF procedure makes several assumptions about the nature of the multi-body Schrödinger equation and its set of solutions:
For molecules, the Born–Oppenheimer approximation is inherently assumed | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
The projector augmented wave method (PAW) is a technique used in ab initio electronic structure calculations. It is a generalization of the pseudopotential and linear augmented-plane-wave methods, and allows for density functional theory calculations to be performed with greater computational efficiency. Valence wavefunctions tend to have rapid oscillations near ion cores due to the requirement that they be orthogonal to core states; this situation is problematic because it requires many Fourier components (or in the case of grid-based methods, a very fine mesh) to describe the wavefunctions accurately | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
The Protein Data Bank (PDB) file format is a textual file format describing the three-dimensional structures of molecules held in the Protein Data Bank, now succeeded by the mmCIF format. The PDB format accordingly provides for description and annotation of protein and nucleic acid structures including atomic coordinates, secondary structure assignments, as well as atomic connectivity. In addition experimental metadata are stored | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
Protein–ligand docking is a molecular modelling technique. The goal of protein–ligand docking is to predict the position and orientation of a ligand (a small molecule) when it is bound to a protein receptor or enzyme. Pharmaceutical research employs docking techniques for a variety of purposes, most notably in the virtual screening of large databases of available chemicals in order to select likely drug candidates | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
The hybrid QM/MM (quantum mechanics/molecular mechanics) approach is a molecular simulation method that combines the strengths of ab initio QM calculations (accuracy) and MM (speed) approaches, thus allowing for the study of chemical processes in solution and in proteins. The QM/MM approach was introduced in the 1976 paper of Warshel and Levitt. They, along with Martin Karplus, won the 2013 Nobel Prize in Chemistry for "the development of multiscale models for complex chemical systems" | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
Quantitative structure–activity relationship models (QSAR models) are regression or classification models used in the chemical and biological sciences and engineering. Like other regression models, QSAR regression models relate a set of "predictor" variables (X) to the potency of the response variable (Y), while classification QSAR models relate the predictor variables to a categorical value of the response variable.
In QSAR modeling, the predictors consist of physico-chemical properties or theoretical molecular descriptors of chemicals; the QSAR response-variable could be a biological activity of the chemicals | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
In chemistry, a reaction coordinate is an abstract one-dimensional coordinate which represents progress along a reaction pathway. It is usually a geometric parameter that changes during the conversion of one or more molecular entities. In molecular dynamics simulations, a reaction coordinate is called collective variable | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
SAMPL (Statistical Assessment of the Modeling of Proteins and Ligands) is a set of community-wide blind challenges aimed to advance computational techniques as standard predictive tools in rational drug design. A broad range of biologically relevant systems with different sizes and levels of complexities including proteins, host–guest complexes, and drug-like small molecules have been selected to test the latest modeling methods and force fields in SAMPL. New experimental data, such as binding affinity and hydration free energy, are withheld from participants until the prediction submission deadline, so that the true predictive power of methods can be revealed | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
Scigress, stylized SCiGRESS, is a software suite for molecular modelling, computational chemistry, drug design, and materials science, a successor to Computer Aided Chemistry (CAChe) software.
About
Scigress is a molecular modeling suite for both experimental and computational chemists and biochemists. It enables researchers to study and design wide range of molecular systems:
organic
inorganic
polymers
proteins
metals, oxides, and ceramics
Functions
Intuitive, easy to learn, property driven user interface including molecule editor and batch processing | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
In physics, semiclassical refers to a theory in which one part of a system is described quantum mechanically, whereas the other is treated classically. For example, external fields will be constant, or when changing will be classically described. In general, it incorporates a development in powers of Planck's constant, resulting in the classical physics of power 0, and the first nontrivial approximation to the power of (−1) | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
The sequential structure alignment program (SSAP) in chemistry, physics, and biology is a method that uses double dynamic programming to produce a structural alignment based on atom-to-atom vectors in structure space. Instead of the alpha carbons typically used in structural alignment, SSAP constructs its vectors from the beta carbons for all residues except glycine, a method which thus takes into account the rotameric state of each residue as well as its location along the backbone. SSAP works by first constructing a series of inter-residue distance vectors between each residue and its nearest non-contiguous neighbors on each protein | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
Smash Childhood Cancer is a World Community Grid volunteer computing subproject on the BOINC platform. It is based on World Community Grid's Help Childhood Cancer subproject which was a joint effort of Chiba University and the Chiba Cancer Center. Based on the results of that project, the Smash Childhood Cancer started in January 2017 looking for drug candidates targeting additional childhood cancers | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
In computational chemistry, a solvent model is a computational method that accounts for the behavior of solvated condensed phases. Solvent models enable simulations and thermodynamic calculations applicable to reactions and processes which take place in solution. These include biological, chemical and environmental processes | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
In computational chemistry, spin contamination is the artificial mixing of different electronic spin-states. This can occur when an approximate orbital-based wave function is represented in an unrestricted form – that is, when the spatial parts of α and β spin-orbitals are permitted to differ. Approximate wave functions with a high degree of spin contamination are undesirable | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
Stochastic-process rare event sampling (SPRES) is a rare-event sampling method in computer simulation, designed specifically for non-equilibrium calculations, including those for which the rare-event rates are time-dependent (non-stationary process). To treat systems in which there is time dependence in the dynamics, due either to variation of an external parameter or to evolution of the system itself, the scheme for branching paths must be devised so as to achieve sampling which is distributed evenly in time and which takes account of changing fluxes through different regions of the phase space.
Algorithm summary
The SPRES algorithm branches simulation paths at fixed time intervals | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
In probability theory, tau-leaping, or τ-leaping, is an approximate method for the simulation of a stochastic system. It is based on the Gillespie algorithm, performing all reactions for an interval of length tau before updating the propensity functions. By updating the rates less often this sometimes allows for more efficient simulation and thus the consideration of larger systems | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
In bioinformatics, the template modeling score or TM-score is a measure of similarity between two protein structures. The TM-score is intended as a more accurate measure of the global similarity of full-length protein structures than the often used RMSD measure. The TM-score indicates the similarity between two structures by a score between
(
0
,
1
]
{\displaystyle (0,1]}
, where 1 indicates a perfect match between two structures (thus the higher the better) | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
Theoretical Microscopic Anomalous Titration Curve Shapes (THEMATICS) is a computational method for predicting the biochemically active amino acids in a protein three-dimensional structure. The method was developed by Mary Jo Ondrechen, James Clifton, and Dagmar Ringe. It is based on computed electrostatic and chemical properties of the individual amino acids in a protein structure | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
Thermodynamic integration is a method used to compare the difference in free energy between two given states (e. g. , A and B) whose potential energies
U
A
{\displaystyle U_{A}}
and
U
B
{\displaystyle U_{B}}
have different dependences on the spatial coordinates | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
Time-dependent density-functional theory (TDDFT) is a quantum mechanical theory used in physics and chemistry to investigate the properties and dynamics of many-body systems in the presence of time-dependent potentials, such as electric or magnetic fields. The effect of such fields on molecules and solids can be studied with TDDFT to extract features like excitation energies, frequency-dependent response properties, and photoabsorption spectra.
TDDFT is an extension of density-functional theory (DFT), and the conceptual and computational foundations are analogous – to show that the (time-dependent) wave function is equivalent to the (time-dependent) electronic density, and then to derive the effective potential of a fictitious non-interacting system which returns the same density as any given interacting system | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
Transition path sampling (TPS) is a rare-event sampling method used in computer simulations of rare events: physical or chemical transitions of a system from one stable state to another that occur too rarely to be observed on a computer timescale. Examples include protein folding, chemical reactions and nucleation. Standard simulation tools such as molecular dynamics can generate the dynamical trajectories of all the atoms in the system | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
Umbrella sampling is a technique in computational physics and chemistry, used to improve sampling of a system (or different systems) where ergodicity is hindered by the form of the system's energy landscape. It was first suggested by Torrie and Valleau in 1977. It is a particular physical application of the more general importance sampling in statistics | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
The Unscrambler X is a commercial software product for multivariate data analysis, used for calibration of multivariate data which is often in the application of analytical data such as near infrared spectroscopy and Raman spectroscopy, and development of predictive models for use in real-time spectroscopic analysis of materials. The software was originally developed in 1986 by Harald Martens and later by CAMO Software.
Functionality
The Unscrambler X was an early adaptation of the use of partial least squares (PLS) | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
In quantum mechanics, the variational method is one way of finding approximations to the lowest energy eigenstate or ground state, and some excited states. This allows calculating approximate wavefunctions such as molecular orbitals. The basis for this method is the variational principle | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
In computational chemistry, a water model is used to simulate and thermodynamically calculate water clusters, liquid water, and aqueous solutions with explicit solvent. The models are determined from quantum mechanics, molecular mechanics, experimental results, and these combinations. To imitate a specific nature of molecules, many types of models have been developed | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
In chemistry, the Z-matrix is a way to represent a system built of atoms. A Z-matrix is also known as an internal coordinate representation. It provides a description of each atom in a molecule in terms of its atomic number, bond length, bond angle, and dihedral angle, the so-called internal coordinates, although it is not always the case that a Z-matrix will give information regarding bonding since the matrix itself is based on a series of vectors describing atomic orientations in space | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
Zero differential overlap is an approximation in computational molecular orbital theory that is the central technique of semi-empirical methods in quantum chemistry. When computers were first used to calculate bonding in molecules, it was only possible to calculate diatomic molecules. As computers advanced, it became possible to study larger molecules, but the use of this approximation has always allowed the study of even larger molecules | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
Antiferroelectricity is a physical property of certain materials. It is closely related to ferroelectricity; the relation between antiferroelectricity and ferroelectricity is analogous to the relation between antiferromagnetism and ferromagnetism.
An antiferroelectric material consists of an ordered (crystalline) array of electric dipoles (from the ions and electrons in the material), but with adjacent dipoles oriented in opposite (antiparallel) directions (the dipoles of each orientation form interpenetrating sublattices, loosely analogous to a checkerboard pattern) | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
Bio-electrospraying is a technology that enables the deposition of living cells on various targets with a resolution that depends on cell size and not on the jetting phenomenon. It is envisioned that "unhealthy cells would draw a different charge at the needle from healthy ones, and could be identified by the mass spectrometer", with tremendous implications in the health care industry. The early versions of bio-electrosprays were employed in several areas of research, most notably self-assembly of carbon nanotubes | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
The Brendel–Bormann oscillator model is a mathematical formula for the frequency dependence of the complex-valued relative permittivity, sometimes referred to as the dielectric function. The model has been used to fit to the complex refractive index of materials with absorption lineshapes exhibiting non-Lorentzian broadening, such as metals and amorphous insulators, across broad spectral ranges, typically near-ultraviolet, visible, and infrared frequencies. The dispersion relation bears the names of R | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
In optics, Cauchy's transmission equation is an empirical relationship between the refractive index and wavelength of light for a particular transparent material. It is named for the mathematician Augustin-Louis Cauchy, who defined it in 1837.
The equation
The most general form of Cauchy's equation is
n
(
λ
)
=
A
+
B
λ
2
+
C
λ
4
+
⋯
,
{\displaystyle n(\lambda )=A+{\frac {B}{\lambda ^{2}}}+{\frac {C}{\lambda ^{4}}}+\cdots ,}
where n is the refractive index, λ is the wavelength, A, B, C, etc | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
Charge ordering (CO) is a (first- or second-order) phase transition occurring mostly in strongly correlated materials such as transition metal oxides or organic conductors. Due to the strong interaction between electrons, charges are localized on different sites leading to a disproportionation and an ordered superlattice. It appears in different patterns ranging from vertical to horizontal stripes to a checkerboard–like pattern
, and it is not limited to the two-dimensional case | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
In electromagnetism, the Clausius–Mossotti relation, named for O. F. Mossotti and Rudolf Clausius, expresses the dielectric constant (relative permittivity, εr) of a material in terms of the atomic polarizability, α, of the material's constituent atoms and/or molecules, or a homogeneous mixture thereof | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
In physics and engineering, a constitutive equation or constitutive relation is a relation between two physical quantities (especially kinetic quantities as related to kinematic quantities) that is specific to a material or substance, and approximates the response of that material to external stimuli, usually as applied fields or forces. They are combined with other equations governing physical laws to solve physical problems; for example in fluid mechanics the flow of a fluid in a pipe, in solid state physics the response of a crystal to an electric field, or in structural analysis, the connection between applied stresses or loads to strains or deformations.
Some constitutive equations are simply phenomenological; others are derived from first principles | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
Prystrunky is a term used for the additional unfretted strings strung across the body of Ukrainian folk instruments such as the kobza, bandura, and torban. Prystrunky means "near the strings". These additional strings are thought to have appeared on these instruments as early as the 17th century | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
Purfling is a narrow decorative edge inlaid into the top plate and often the back plate of a stringed instrument. It was originally made of laminated strips of wood, and later nacre and other hard inlay materials. Plastic is commonly used in modern mass-produced instruments | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
Relief, or profile, refers to the amount of curvature in the fingerboard of a guitar or other similar stringed instrument. When the strings of a guitar vibrate, they vibrate in an elliptical shape. Thus, providing the best possible action requires that the guitar fingerboard have a slight curve to allow the strings to vibrate freely | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
The scale length of a string instrument is the maximum vibrating length of the strings that produce sound, and determines the range of tones that string can produce at a given tension. It is also called string length. On instruments in which strings are not "stopped" (typically by frets or the player's fingers) or divided in length (such as in the piano), it is the actual length of string between the nut and the bridge | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
A scroll is the decoratively carved beginning of the neck of certain stringed instruments, mainly members of the violin family. The scroll is typically carved in the shape of a volute (a rolled-up spiral) according to a canonical pattern, although some violins are adorned with carved heads, human and animal. The quality of a scroll is one of the things used to judge the luthier's skill | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
A semi-acoustic guitar, also known as a hollow-body electric guitar, is a type of electric guitar designed to be played with a guitar amplifier featuring a fully or partly hollow body and at least one electromagnetic pickup. First created in the 1930s, they became popular in jazz and blues, where they remain widely used, and the early period of rock & roll, though they were later largely supplanted by solid-body electric guitars in rock.
They differ from an acoustic-electric guitar, which is an acoustic guitar that has been fitted with some means of amplification to increase volume without changing the instrument's tone | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
The shoulder rest is an accessory that can be found on violins and violas. The shoulder rest appeared around the middle part of the 20th century. It may be made of wood, aluminium, carbon fiber or plastic | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
A solid-body musical instrument is a string instrument such as a guitar, bass or violin built without its normal sound box and relying on an electromagnetic pickup system to directly detect the vibrations of the strings; these instruments are usually plugged into an instrument amplifier and loudspeaker to be heard. Solid-body instruments are preferred in situations where acoustic feedback may otherwise be a problem and are inherently both less expensive to build and more rugged than acoustic electric instruments.
Recognisable solid body instruments are the electric guitar and electric bass, developed in the 1930s | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
A sound board, or soundboard, is the surface of a string instrument that the strings vibrate against, usually via some sort of bridge. Pianos, guitars, banjos, and many other stringed instruments incorporate soundboards. The resonant properties of the sound board and the interior of the instrument greatly increase the loudness of the vibrating strings | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
A sound box or sounding box (sometimes written soundbox) is an open chamber in the body of a musical instrument which modifies the sound of the instrument, and helps transfer that sound to the surrounding air. Objects respond more strongly to vibrations at certain frequencies, known as resonances. The frequency and strength of the resonances of the body of a musical instrument have a significant impact on the tone quality it produces | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
A sound hole is an opening in the body of a stringed musical instrument, usually the upper sound board.
Sound holes have different shapes:
round in flat-top guitars and traditional bowl-back mandolins;
F-holes in instruments from the violin family, archtop mandolins and in archtop guitars;
C-holes in viola da gambas and occasionally double-basses and guitars
rosettes in lutes and sometimes harpsichords;
D-holes in bowed lyras. Some instruments come in more than one style (mandolins may have F-holes, round or oval holes) | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
A vibration in a string is a wave. Resonance causes a vibrating string to produce a sound with constant frequency, i. e | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
A tailpiece is a component on many stringed musical instruments that anchors one end of the strings, usually opposite the end with the tuning mechanism (the scroll, headstock, peghead, etc. ).
Function and construction
The tailpiece anchors the strings, so it must be strong enough to withstand their combined tension | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
Tonewood refers to specific wood varieties used for woodwind or acoustic stringed instruments. The word implies that certain species exhibit qualities that enhance acoustic properties of the instruments, but other properties of the wood such as esthetics and availability have always been considered in the selection of wood for musical instruments. According to Mottola's Cyclopedic Dictionary of Lutherie Terms, tonewood is:"Wood that is used to make stringed musical instruments | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
A variety of methods are used to tune different stringed instruments. Most change the pitch produced when the string is played by adjusting the tension of the strings.
A tuning peg in a pegbox is perhaps the most common system | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
A bocal is a curved, tapered tube, which is an integral part of certain woodwind instruments, including double reed instruments such as the bassoon, contrabassoon, English horn, and oboe d'amore, as well as the larger recorders. In the double reed instruments, the bocal connects the reed to the rest of the instrument; in the case of larger recorders, the bocal directs air from the player's mouth to the fipple. Bocals can be made from a variety of metals, including nickel silver, brass, sterling silver, or even gold, and are covered at the lower end with a cork sleeve, allowing the bocal to fit tightly in the socket at the top of the instrument | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
The gizmo key is a key commonly found on the B foot joint of certain models of flute. It closes the low B tone hole without closing the low C tone hole or the low C♯ tone hole, which is intended to facilitate the performance of the fourth octave C.
The gizmo key was introduced by Verne Q | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
A ligature is a device which holds a reed onto the mouthpiece of a single-reed instrument such as a saxophone or clarinet. The ligature must secure the reed firmly against the table of the mouthpiece while allowing it to vibrate freely. The earliest ligatures were lengths of string wrapped over the reed and tied | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
The mouthpiece of a woodwind instrument is that part of the instrument which is placed partly in the player's mouth. Single-reed instruments, capped double-reed instruments, and fipple flutes have mouthpieces while exposed double-reed instruments (apart from those using pirouettes) and open flutes do not. The characteristics of a mouthpiece and reed can play a significant role on the sound of the instrument | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
A reed (or lamella) is a thin strip of material that vibrates to produce a sound on a musical instrument. Most woodwind instrument reeds are made from Arundo donax ("Giant cane") or synthetic material. Tuned reeds (as in harmonicas and accordions) are made of metal or synthetics | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
A reed clipper (also known as a reed trimmer or reed cutter) is a small tool used by clarinet or saxophone players to adjust the single reeds used on those instruments. The clipper is used to trim off a portion from the tip of the reed, similarly to a nail clipper. This can make a soft reed harder or more resistant, remove imperfections on the tip, or extend its life | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
The register key is a key on the clarinet that is used to play in the second register; that is, it raises the pitch of most first-register notes by a twelfth (19 semitones) when pressed. It is positioned above the left thumb hole and is operated by the left thumb. The same key used in combination with the left first finger key which produces the written note A4 (in scientific pitch notation) is used to play B♭4 | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
Saxophone tone holes are tone holes that exist in the body and bell of a saxophone. They are strategically placed in order to achieve a variety of notes while holding the best possible intonation.
Varieties
There are two varieties of tone holes, straight and rolled | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
A tone hole is an opening in the body of a wind instrument which, when alternately closed and opened, changes the pitch of the sound produced. Tone holes may serve specific purposes, such as a trill hole or register hole. A tone hole is, "in wind instruments[,] a hole that may be stopped by the finger, or a key, to change the pitch of the tone produced | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
In fiction, continuity is the consistency of the characteristics of people, plot, objects, and places seen by the audience over some period of time. It is relevant to many genres and forms of storytelling, especially if it is long-running.
Continuity is particularly a concern in the process of film and television production due to the difficulty of rectifying errors after filming ends | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
Amalgam Comics was a collaborative publishing imprint shared by DC Comics and Marvel Comics, in which the two comic book publishers merged their characters into new ones (e. g. , the DC Comics character Batman and the Marvel Comics character Wolverine became the Amalgam Comics character the Dark Claw) | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
This is a list of various alternate universes featuring characters from Archie Comics. Most Archie stories take place within a setting that is gradually updated over the years, and events in one stories are not commonly referenced in others, but those stories remain largely in continuity with each other. However, there have been several series of stories that take place outside of this continuity, featuring alternate versions of the characters in different settings | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
A backstory, background story, back-story, or background is a set of events invented for a plot, presented as preceding and leading up to that plot. It is a literary device of a narrative history all chronologically earlier than the narrative of primary interest.
In acting, it is the history of the character before the drama begins, and is created during the actor's preparation | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
A bible, also known as a show bible or pitch bible, is a reference document used by screenwriters for information on characters, settings, and other elements of a television or film project.
Types
Bibles are updated with information on the characters after the information has been established on screen. For example, the Frasier show bible was "scrupulously maintained", and anything established on air — "the name of Frasier's mother, Niles' favorite professor, Martin's favorite bar | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
In the comic book fan community, the apparent death and subsequent return of a long-running character is often called a comic book death. A comic book death is generally not taken seriously by readers and is rarely permanent or meaningful other than for story or thematic purposes. The term is usually not applied to characters who have the ability to return from the dead as an established power or ability, such as Solomon Grundy or Ra's al Ghul | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
This article covers some of the major Conan chronologies that have been advanced over the years. From the 1930s onward a number of fans and scholars have analyzed the numerous Conan the Barbarian stories by Robert E. Howard and later writers, and attempted to organize them into a chronological timeline | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
A continuation novel is a canonical sequel novel with continuity in the style of an established series, produced by a new author after the original author's death. Continuation novels may be official, produced with the permission of the late author's literary executors, or unofficial where the original author's works are now out of copyright.
Official continuations
Where official continuations are produced, the novel will normally try to keep closely to the style of the original author in order to preserve the integrity and value of the literary franchise and the author may be legally required to do so | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
In the course of the fictional story presented in the DC Comics event Infinite Crisis (the seven-issue limited series, its lead-in stories, and various tie-ins), several events in the fictional DC Universe's past were retroactively altered by either Superboy-Prime or the separation and re-merging of alternate Earths. Where not otherwise stated, this article deals only with changes known by the end of Infinite Crisis #7.
Superboy-Prime's changes
Superboy-Prime's attempts to punch his way out of the extradimensional space in which he had been trapped since the Crisis on Infinite Earths mini-series, along with Kal-L, Lois Lane (both of Earth-Two), and Alexander Luthor, Jr | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
A fictional universe is the internally consistent fictional setting used in a narrative work or work of art, most commonly associated with works of fantasy and science fiction. Fictional universes appear in novels, comics, films, television shows, video games, art, and other creative works. A fictional universe may be an alternative version of the real world, differing only in the particulars of the story | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
A floating timeline (also known as a sliding timescale) is a device used in fiction, particularly in long-running serials in comics and animation as well as other media, to explain why characters age little or not at all over a period of time—despite real-world markers like notable events, people and technology appearing in the works and correlating with the real world. The term "floating timeline" is used in the comics community to refer to series that take place in a "continuous present". This timeline is due to the fact that the authors have no need to accommodate the aging of their characters, which is also typical of most animated television shows | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
Hypertime is a fictional concept in DC Comics which first appeared in the 1999 The Kingdom limited series. It is a variation of the Multiverse concept that existed in DC Comics before 1985's Crisis on Infinite Earths limited series and was created by Mark Waid and Grant Morrison. Hypertime, described in The Kingdom #2 as "the vast interconnected web of parallel time-lines which comprise all reality", was an attempt by Waid to resolve the various tangled continuity issues that were supposed to have been solved by Crisis on Infinite Earths | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
The Image Universe (IU) is a fictional universe in which some of the stories published by Image Comics take place. It was introduced in the early years of the publisher, shared by the various creators who formed the Image partnership. The independent, creator-owned nature of their work led to limited interaction between their characters, and little coordination of the Image Universe as a shared setting, with the primary versions populated by a number of superheroes/villains, including Supreme, Invincible, Omni-Man, Spawn, Angela, the Dragon, Gert, Bomb Queen, and Witchblade, as well as incarnations of the Teenage Mutant Ninja Turtles | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
In DC Comics, the Multiverse is a "cosmic construct" composed of the many fictional universes the stories of DC take place in. The worlds in this multiverse share a space and fate in common, and its structure has changed several times in the history of DC Comics.
History
Golden Age
The concept of a universe and a multiverse in which the fictional stories take place was loosely established during the Golden Age of Comic Books | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
The Multiverse is the shared fictional universe depicted on Magic: The Gathering cards, novels, comics, and other supplemental products. Though Magic is a strategy game, an intricate storyline underlies the cards released in each expansion. On the cards, elements of this multiverse are shown in the card art and through quotations and descriptions on the bottom of most cards (called flavor text) | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
In serial fiction, the term "reboot" signifies a new start to an established fictional universe, work, or series. A reboot discards continuity to re-create its characters, plotlines and backstory from the beginning. It has been described as a way to "rebrand" or "restart an entertainment universe that has already been established" | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
The reset button technique (based on the idea of status quo ante) is a plot device that interrupts continuity in works of fiction. Simply put, the reset button device returns all characters and situations to the status quo they held before a major change was introduced. It is typically used in the middle of a program to "negate” some portion of what came before | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
Retroactive continuity, or retcon for short, is a literary device in which facts in the world of a fictional work which have been established through the narrative itself are adjusted, ignored, supplemented, or contradicted by a subsequently published work which recontextualizes or breaks continuity with the former. There are various motivations for applying retroactive continuity, including:
To accommodate desired aspects of sequels or derivative works which would otherwise be ruled out.
To respond to negative fan reception of previous stories | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
A shared universe or shared world is a fictional universe from a set of creative works where more than one writer (or other artist) independently contributes a work that can stand alone but fits into the joint development of the storyline, characters, or world of the overall project. It is common in genres like science fiction. It differs from collaborative writing in which multiple artists are working together on the same work and from crossovers where the works and characters are independent except for a single meeting | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
The SM Culture Universe (SMCU) is a shared universe produced by SM Entertainment.
Development
By 2004, SM Entertainment had been working to produce their own culture universe. During the planning stage, Lee Soo-man thought of creating a worldview with "innovative and powerful" storytelling | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
Worldbuilding is the process of constructing a world, originally an imaginary one, sometimes associated with a fictional universe. Developing an imaginary setting with coherent qualities such as a history, geography, and ecology is a key task for many science fiction or fantasy writers. Worldbuilding often involves the creation of geography, a backstory, flora, fauna, inhabitants, technology and often if writing speculative fiction, different races | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
Dramatis personae (Latin: 'persons of the drama') are the main characters in a dramatic work written in a list. Such lists are commonly employed in various forms of theatre, and also on screen. Typically, off-stage characters are not considered part of the dramatis personae | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
Comic relief is the inclusion of a humorous character, scene, or witty dialogue in an otherwise serious or dramatic work, often to relieve tension.
Definition
Comic relief usually means a releasing of emotional or other tension resulting from a comic episode interposed in the midst of serious or tragic elements in a drama. Comic relief often takes the form of, but is not limited to, a bumbling, wisecracking sidekick of the hero or villain in a work of fiction | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
In a work of media adapted from a real or fictional narrative, a composite character is a character based on more than one individual from the story.
Examples
Film
Several characters in the movie 21.
Buffalo Bill in the film The Silence of the Lambs (based on the Thomas Harris novel of same name) is a composite based on the serial killers Jerry Brudos, Ed Gein, Ted Bundy, Gary M | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
A gag character is usually a character that is rarely used, and typically exhibits little or no personality except to serve as the conduit for a joke in comic strips and TV shows.
Narrative function
Gag characters usually appear in single panel cartoons that do not follow any main or centralized character (although they might follow similar types of jokes). Some examples include The Far Side, Bizarro, and Speed Bump | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
In a literary work, film, or other narrative, the plot is the sequence of events in which each event affects the next one through the principle of cause-and-effect. The causal events of a plot can be thought of as a series of events linked by the connector "and so". Plots can vary from the simple—such as in a traditional ballad—to forming complex interwoven structures, with each part sometimes referred to as a subplot or imbroglio | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
A cliffhanger or cliffhanger ending is a plot device in fiction which features a main character in a precarious or difficult dilemma or confronted with a shocking revelation at the end of an episode or a film of serialized fiction. A cliffhanger is hoped to incentivize the audience to return to see how the characters resolve the dilemma.
Some serials end with the caveat, "To Be Continued" or "The End?" | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
A deathtrap is a literary and dramatic plot device in which a villain who has captured the hero or another sympathetic character attempts to use an elaborate, improbable, and usually sadistic method of murdering them.
It is often used as a means to create dramatic tension in the story and to have the villain reveal important information to the hero, confident that the hero will shortly not be able to use it. It may also be a means to show the hero's resourcefulness in escaping, or the writer's ingenuity at devising a last-minute rescue or deus ex machina | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
Deus ex machina ( DAY-əs ex-MA(H)K-in-ə, Latin: [ˈdɛ. ʊs ɛks ˈmaːkʰɪnaː]; plural: dei ex machina; English "god from the machine") is a plot device whereby a seemingly unsolvable problem in a story is suddenly or abruptly resolved by an unexpected and unlikely occurrence. Its function is generally to resolve an otherwise irresolvable plot situation, to surprise the audience, to bring the tale to a happy ending or act as a comedic device | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
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