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Backoff is a kind of malware that targets point of sale (POS) systems. It is used to steal credit card data from point of sale machines at retail stores. Cybercriminals use Backoff to gather data from credit cards | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
BadBIOS is alleged malware described by network security researcher Dragos Ruiu in October 2013 with the ability to communicate between instances of itself across air gaps using ultrasonic communication between a computer's speakers and microphone. To date, there have been no proven occurrences of this malware.
Ruiu says that the malware is able to infect the BIOS of computers running Windows, Mac OS X, BSD and Linux as well as spread infection over USB flash drives | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
The compilation of a unified list of computer viruses is made difficult because of naming. To aid the fight against computer viruses and other types of malicious software, many security advisory organizations and developers of anti-virus software compile and publish lists of viruses. When a new virus appears, the rush begins to identify and understand it as well as develop appropriate counter-measures to stop its propagation | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
A compression virus is an example of a benevolent computer virus, invented by Fred Cohen. It searches for an uninfected executable file, compresses the file and prepends itself to it. The virus can be described in pseudo code
program compression-virus:=
{01234567;
subroutine infect-executable:=
{loop:file = get-random-executable-file;
if first-line-of-file = 01234567 then goto loop;
compress file;
prepend compression-virus to file;
}
main-program:=
{if ask-permission then infect-executable;
uncompress the-rest-of-this-file into tmpfile;
run tmpfile;}
}
The 01234567 is the virus signature, and is used to make sure (if first-line-of-file = 01234567) the file is not already infected | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
Creeper was the first computer worm, while Reaper was the first antivirus software, designed to eliminate Creeper.
Creeper
Creeper was an experimental computer program written by Bob Thomas at BBN in 1971. Its original iteration was designed to move between DEC PDP-10 mainframe computers running the TENEX operating system using the ARPANET, with a later version by Ray Tomlinson designed to copy itself between computers rather than simply move | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
Cryptovirology refers to the use of cryptography to devise particularly powerful malware, such as ransomware and asymmetric backdoors. Traditionally, cryptography and its applications are defensive in nature, and provide privacy, authentication, and security to users. Cryptovirology employs a twist on cryptography, showing that it can also be used offensively | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
Drive-by download is of two types, each concerning the unintended download of computer software from the Internet:
Authorized drive-by downloads are downloads which a person has authorized but without understanding the consequences (e. g. downloads which install an unknown or counterfeit executable program, ActiveX component, or Java applet) | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
A hacker is a person skilled in information technology who uses their technical knowledge to achieve a goal or overcome an obstacle, within a computerized system by non-standard means. Though the term hacker has become associated in popular culture with a security hacker – someone who utilizes their technical know-how of bugs or exploits to break into computer systems and access data which would otherwise be inaccessible to them – hacking can also be utilized by legitimate figures in legal situations. For example, law enforcement agencies sometimes use hacking techniques in order to collect evidence on criminals and other malicious actors | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
An Iframe virus is malicious computer code, being considered as form of malware, that infects web pages on websites, most of them using iframe HTML code, to cause damage by injecting <iframe> tags into the website. Code may be injected into HTML, PHP or ASP source files. The virus may make its presence known by scanning for home page files such as index | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
London Action Plan is a scheme to endorse worldwide spam enforcement cooperation and address unnecessary email-related problems, such as online fraud and deception, phishing, and distribution of internet viruses. The members also start the Action Plan for contribution by other interested administration and community agencies, and by proper personal sector council, as a way to develop the network of entities engaged in spam enforcement cooperation.
Background
On October 11, 2004, government and communal agencies from 27 nations accountable for implementing rules in relation to spam met in London to talk about global spam enforcement assistance | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
In computing terminology, a macro virus is a virus that is written in a macro language: a programming language which is embedded inside a software application (e. g. , word processors and spreadsheet applications) | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
Metamorphic code is code that when run outputs a logically equivalent version of its own code under some interpretation. This is similar to a quine, except that a quine's source code is exactly equivalent to its own output. Metamorphic code also usually outputs machine code and not its own source code | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
Oligomorphic code, also known as semi-polymorphic code, is a method used by a computer virus to obfuscate its decryptor by generating different versions of it, in order to evade detection by antivirus software. It is similar to, but less sophisticated than, polymorphic code. Oligomorphic code works by randomly selecting each piece of the decryptor from several predefined alternatives | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
Software forensics is the science of analyzing software source code or binary code to determine whether intellectual property infringement or theft occurred. It is the centerpiece of lawsuits, trials, and settlements when companies are in dispute over issues involving software patents, copyrights, and trade secrets. Software forensics tools can compare code to determine correlation, a measure that can be used to guide a software forensics expert | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
Source code viruses are a subset of computer viruses that make modifications to source code located on an infected machine. A source file can be overwritten such that it includes a call to some malicious code. By targeting a generic programming language, such as C, source code viruses can be very portable | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
Strange Brew was the first computer virus that infects java code—applets and other programs written in java—rather than exploiting the Java virtual machine runtime interpreter. It was written in 1998 by a university student as a demonstration of self-replicating java code as a potential security flaw. Standard security features of the java runtime interpreter prevent its spread in most circumstances | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
In computer security, an attack vector is a specific path, method, or scenario that can be exploited to break into an IT system, thus compromising its security. The term was derived from the corresponding notion of vector in biology. An attack vector may be exploited manually, automatically, or through a combination of manual and automatic activity | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
A computer virus hoax is a message warning the recipients of a non-existent computer virus threat. The message is usually a chain e-mail that tells the recipients to forward it to everyone they know, but it can also be in the form of a pop-up window.
Identification
Most hoaxes are sensational in nature and easily identified by the fact that they indicate that the virus will do nearly impossible things, like blow up the recipient's computer and set it on fire, or less sensationally, delete everything on the user's computer | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
X-Agent or XAgent is a spyware and malware program designed to collect and transmit hacked files from machines running Windows, Linux, iOS, or Android, to servers operated by hackers. It employs phishing attacks and the program is designed to "hop" from device to device. In 2016, CrowdStrike identified an Android variant of the malware for the first time, and claimed that the malware targeted members of the Ukrainian military by distributing an infected version of an app to control D-30 Howitzer artillery | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
Agent. BTZ, also named Autorun, is a computer worm that infects USB flash drives with spyware. A variant of the SillyFDC worm, it was used in a massive 2008 cyberattack on the US military, infecting 300,000 computers | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
W32. Alcra. F is a computer worm that is spread by P2P file sharing networks | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
Backdoor. Win32. IRCBot (also known as W32/Checkout (McAfee), W32 | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
Bad bunny, also known as SB/Bad Bunny-A (Sophos) and StarOffice/Bad Bunny (McAfee), is a multi-platform computer worm written in several scripting languages and distributed as an OpenOffice. org document, commonly named "badbunny. odg", containing a macro written in Star Basic | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
Brambul is an SMB protocol computer worm that decrypts and automatically moves from one computer to its second computer.
It is responsible for the dropping of the Joanap botnet.
History
Brambul was first discovered in 2009 and has not had a disclosure prior to its notoriety | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
The BuluBebek virus is a computer worm that was first discovered on October 10, 2008. The virus is not exceptionally widespread, but rather has only infected small groups of computers. Related to the Kenshin, Doraemon, and Naturo viruses, the virus has infected computers in various parts of the world | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
Daprosy worm was a malicious computer program that spreads via local area network (LAN) connections, spammed e-mails and USB mass storage devices. Infection comes from a single read1st. exe file where several dozen clones are created at once bearing the names of compromised folders | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
ADONE (big AdA) was a high-energy (beam energy 1. 5 GeV, center-of-mass energy 3 GeV) particle collider. It collided electrons with their antiparticles, positrons | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
The Antiproton Accumulator (AA) was an infrastructure connected to the Proton–Antiproton Collider (SppS) – a modification of the Super Proton Synchrotron (SPS) – at CERN. The AA was built in 1979 and 1980, for the production and accumulation of antiprotons. In the SppS the antiprotons were made to collide with protons, achieving collisions at a center of mass energy of app | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
Atomic beam is special case of particle beam; it is the collimated flux (beam) of neutral atoms. The imaging systems using the slow atomic beams can use the Fresnel zone plate (Fresnel diffraction lens) of a Fresnel diffraction mirror as focusing element. The imaging system with atomic beam could provide the sub-micrometre resolution | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
The Bevatron was a particle accelerator — specifically, a weak-focusing proton synchrotron — at Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory, U. S. , which began operating in 1954 | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
The Cornell Electron Storage Ring (CESR, pronounced Caesar) is a particle accelerator operated by Cornell University and located 40 feet beneath a football field on their Ithaca campus. The accelerator has contributed to fundamental research in high energy physics and accelerator physics, as well as solid state physics, biology, art history and other fields through its use as a synchrotron light source. For many years, CESR held the world luminosity record for electron-positron collisions | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
A Crookes tube (also Crookes–Hittorf tube) is an early experimental electrical discharge tube, with partial vacuum, invented by English physicist William Crookes and others around 1869-1875, in which cathode rays, streams of electrons, were discovered. Developed from the earlier Geissler tube, the Crookes tube consists of a partially evacuated glass bulb of various shapes, with two metal electrodes, the cathode and the anode, one at either end. When a high voltage is applied between the electrodes, cathode rays (electrons) are projected in straight lines from the cathode | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
A cyclotron is a type of particle accelerator invented by Ernest Lawrence in 1929–1930 at the University of California, Berkeley, and patented in 1932. A cyclotron accelerates charged particles outwards from the center of a flat cylindrical vacuum chamber along a spiral path. The particles are held to a spiral trajectory by a static magnetic field and accelerated by a rapidly varying electric field | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
Electron cyclotron resonance (ECR) is a phenomenon observed in plasma physics, condensed matter physics, and accelerator physics. It happens when the frequency of incident radiation coincides with the natural frequency of rotation of electrons in magnetic fields. A free electron in a static and uniform magnetic field will move in a circle due to the Lorentz force | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
The electron machine with many applications or electron model for many applications (EMMA) is a linear non-scaling FFAG (fixed-field alternating-gradient) particle accelerator at Daresbury Laboratory in the UK that can accelerate electrons from 10 to 20 MeV. A FFAG is a type of accelerator in which the magnetic field in the bending magnets is constant during acceleration. This means the particle beam will move radially outwards as its momentum increases | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
ENGIN-X is the dedicated materials engineering beamline at the ISIS Neutron and Muon Source in the UK.
The beamline uses neutron diffraction to determine the spacing between layers of atoms in order to measure elastic strain, and thus residual stress deep within crystalline materials. In other words, it uses the atomic lattice planes as an 'atomic strain gauge' | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
The Facility for Rare Isotopes Beams (FRIB) is a scientific user facility for nuclear science, funded by the U. S. Department of Energy Office of Science (DOE-SC), Michigan State University (MSU), and the State of Michigan | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
A Fixed-Field alternating gradient Accelerator (FFA; also abbreviated FFAG) is a circular particle accelerator concept that can be characterized by its time-independent magnetic fields (fixed-field, like in a cyclotron) and the use of alternating gradient strong focusing (as in a synchrotron). In all circular accelerators, magnetic fields are used to bend the particle beam. Since the magnetic force required to bend the beam increases with particle energy, as the particles accelerate, either their paths will increase in size, or the magnetic field must be increased over time to hold the particles in a constant size orbit | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
A gyrotron is a class of high-power linear-beam vacuum tubes that generates millimeter-wave electromagnetic waves by the cyclotron resonance of electrons in a strong magnetic field. Output frequencies range from about 20 to 527 GHz, covering wavelengths from microwave to the edge of the terahertz gap. Typical output powers range from tens of kilowatts to 1–2 megawatts | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
The International Muon Ionization Cooling Experiment (or MICE) is a high energy physics experiment at the Rutherford Appleton Laboratory. The experiment is a recognized CERN experiment (RE11).
MICE is designed to demonstrate ionization cooling of muons | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
Linear induction accelerators utilize ferrite-loaded, non-resonant magnetic induction cavities. Each cavity can be thought of as two large washer-shaped disks connected by an outer cylindrical tube. Between the disks is a ferrite toroid | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
The Low Energy Anti-Proton Ring (LEAR) was a particle accelerator at CERN which operated from 1982 until 1996. The ring was designed to decelerate and store antiprotons, to study the properties of antimatter and to create atoms of antihydrogen. Antiprotons for the ring were created by the CERN Proton Synchrotron via the Antiproton Collector and the Antiproton Accumulator (AA) | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
The Low Energy Ion Ring (LEIR) is a particle accelerator at CERN used to accelerate ions from the LINAC 3 to the Proton Synchrotron (PS) to provide ions for collisions within the Large Hadron Collider (LHC).
History
LEIR was converted from a previous machine, the Low Energy Antiproton Ring (LEAR), a facility to decelerate and store antiprotons and to deliver them to experiments; the last LEAR antiproton run took place in 1996. LEIR was first proposed in 1993 but it wasn't until 2003 that work to transform the old experiment into the new accelerator was started | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
A multileaf collimator (MLC) is a Collimator or beam-limiting device that is made of individual "leaves" of a high atomic numbered material, usually tungsten, that can move independently in and out of the path of a radiotherapy beam in order to shape it and vary its intensity.
MLCs are used in external beam radiotherapy to provide conformal shaping of beams. Specifically, conformal radiotherapy and Intensity Modulated Radiation Therapy (IMRT) can be delivered using MLCs | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
NINA was a particle accelerator located at Daresbury Laboratory, UK that was used for particle physics and synchrotron radiation.
Introduction
Given government UK approval in 1962, NINA was a 70. 19m, 4 GeV electron Synchrotron built in 1964 at the Daresbury Laboratory site in Cheshire, England to study particle physics | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
A Pelletron is a type of electrostatic generator, structurally similar to a Van de Graaff generator. Pelletrons have been built in many sizes, from small units producing voltages up to 500 kilovolts (kV) and beam energies up to 1 megaelectronvolt (MeV) of kinetic energy, to the largest system, which has reached a DC voltage of over 25 megavolts and produced ion beams with energies over 900 MeV.
According to the review paper of F | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
A photoinjector is a type of source for intense electron beams which relies on the photoelectric effect. A laser pulse incident onto the cathode of a photoinjector drives electrons out of it, and into the accelerating field of the electron gun. In comparison with the widespread thermionic electron gun, photoinjectors produce electron beams of higher brightness, which means more particles packed into smaller volume of phase space (beam emittance) | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
The Relativistic Heavy Ion Collider (RHIC ) is the first and one of only two operating heavy-ion colliders, and the only spin-polarized proton collider ever built. Located at Brookhaven National Laboratory (BNL) in Upton, New York, and used by an international team of researchers, it is the only operating particle collider in the US. By using RHIC to collide ions traveling at relativistic speeds, physicists study the primordial form of matter that existed in the universe shortly after the Big Bang | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
The Roman pot is the name of a technique (and of the relevant device) used in accelerator physics. Named after its implementation by the CERN-Rome collaboration in the early 1970s, it is an important tool to measure the total cross section of two particle beams in a collider. They are called pots because the detectors are housed in cylindrical vessels | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
The Soreq Applied Research Accelerator Facility (SARAF) is a multi-user and versatile particle accelerator facility. It is on a proton/deuteron RF superconducting linear accelerator, with variable energy (around 5-40 MeV) and a continuous wave (CW) high ion current (0. 04-5 mA), and located at the Soreq Nuclear Research Center | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
SPEAR (originally Stanford Positron Electron Asymmetric Rings, now simply a name) was a collider at the SLAC National Accelerator Laboratory. It began running in 1972, colliding electrons and positrons with an energy of 3 GeV. During the 1970s, experiments at the accelerator played a key role in particle physics research, including the discovery of the J/ψ meson (awarded the 1976 Nobel Prize in physics), many charmonium states, and the discovery of the tau (awarded the 1995 Nobel Prize in physics) | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
A synchrocyclotron is a special type of cyclotron, patented by Edwin McMillan in 1952, in which the frequency of the driving RF electric field is varied to compensate for relativistic effects as the particles' velocity begins to approach the speed of light. This is in contrast to the classical cyclotron, where this frequency is constant. There are two major differences between the synchrocyclotron and the classical cyclotron | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
A synchrotron is a particular type of cyclic particle accelerator, descended from the cyclotron, in which the accelerating particle beam travels around a fixed closed-loop path. The magnetic field which bends the particle beam into its closed path increases with time during the accelerating process, being synchronized to the increasing kinetic energy of the particles. The synchrotron is one of the first accelerator concepts to enable the construction of large-scale facilities, since bending, beam focusing and acceleration can be separated into different components | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
A synchrotron light source is a source of electromagnetic radiation (EM) usually produced by a storage ring, for scientific and technical purposes. First observed in synchrotrons, synchrotron light is now produced by storage rings and other specialized particle accelerators, typically accelerating electrons. Once the high-energy electron beam has been generated, it is directed into auxiliary components such as bending magnets and insertion devices (undulators or wigglers) in storage rings and free electron lasers | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
The Vienna Environmental Research Accelerator, VERA, is a particle accelerator. It is operated by the University of Vienna and is dedicated to Accelerator Mass Spectrometry (AMS). It started operation in 1995 | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
An X-ray tube is a vacuum tube that converts electrical input power into X-rays. The availability of this controllable source of X-rays created the field of radiography, the imaging of partly opaque objects with penetrating radiation. In contrast to other sources of ionizing radiation, X-rays are only produced as long as the X-ray tube is energized | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
Synchrotron radiation (also known as magnetobremsstrahlung radiation) is the electromagnetic radiation emitted when relativistic charged particles are subject to an acceleration perpendicular to their velocity (a ⊥ v). It is produced artificially in some types of particle accelerators or naturally by fast electrons moving through magnetic fields. The radiation produced in this way has a characteristic polarization, and the frequencies generated can range over a large portion of the electromagnetic spectrum | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
High-energy X-rays or HEX-rays are very hard X-rays, with typical energies of 80–1000 keV (1 MeV), about one order of magnitude higher than conventional X-rays used for X-ray crystallography (and well into gamma-ray energies over 120 keV). They are produced at modern synchrotron radiation sources such as the beamlines ID15 and BM18 at the European Synchrotron Radiation Facility (ESRF). The main benefit is the deep penetration into matter which makes them a probe for thick samples in physics and materials science and permits an in-air sample environment and operation | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
A materials oscilloscope is a time-resolved synchrotron
high-energy X-ray technique to study rapid phase composition and microstructural related changes in a polycrystalline sample. Such device has been developed for in-situ studies of specimens undergoing physical thermo-mechanical simulation.
Principle
Two-dimensional diffraction images of a fine synchrotron beam interacting with the specimen are recorded in time frames, such that reflections stemming from individual crystallites of the polycrystalline material can be distinguished | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
Radiation damping in accelerator physics is a way of reducing the beam emittance of a high-velocity charged particle beam by synchrotron radiation.
The two main ways of using radiation damping to reduce the emittance of a particle beam are the use of undulators and damping rings (often containing undulators), both relying on the same principle of inducing synchrotron radiation to reduce the particles' momentum, then replacing the momentum only in the desired direction of motion.
Damping rings
As particles are moving in a closed orbit, the lateral acceleration causes them to emit synchrotron radiation, thereby reducing the size of their momentum vectors (relative to the design orbit) without changing their orientation (ignoring quantum effects for the moment) | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
Self-amplified spontaneous emission (SASE) is a process within a free-electron laser (FEL) by which a laser beam is created from a high-energy electron beam. The SASE process starts with an electron bunch being injected into an undulator, with a velocity close to the speed of light and a uniform density distribution within the bunch. In the undulator the electrons are wiggled and emit light characteristic of the undulator strength but within a certain energy bandwidth | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
The Sokolov–Ternov effect is the effect of self-polarization of relativistic electrons or positrons moving at high energy in a magnetic field. The self-polarization occurs through the emission of spin-flip synchrotron radiation. The effect was predicted by Igor Ternov and the prediction rigorously justified by Arseny Sokolov using exact solutions to the Dirac equation | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
The Chasman–Green lattice, also known as a double bend achromat lattice (DBA lattice), is a special periodic arrangement of magnets designed by Renate Chasman and George Kenneth Green of Brookhaven National Laboratory in the mid-1970s for synchrotrons. This lattice provides optimized bending and focusing of electrons in storage rings designed for synchrotron light sources. An electron storage ring constructed with a Chasman–Green lattice has the important property that the circulating electron beams have very low emittance, which results in the emission of synchrotron light of exceptional brightness | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
Charged particle beams in a particle accelerator or a storage ring undergo a variety of different processes. Typically the beam dynamics is broken down into single particle dynamics and collective effects. Sources of collective effects include single or multiple inter-particle scattering and interaction with the vacuum chamber and other surroundings, formalized in terms of impedance | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
The Cosmotron was a particle accelerator, specifically a proton synchrotron, at Brookhaven National Laboratory. Its construction was approved by the U. S | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
A cryomodule is a section of a modern particle accelerator composed of superconducting RF (SRF) acceleration cavities, which need very low operating temperatures, often around 2 Kelvin). The cryomodule is a complex, state-of-the-art supercooled component in which particle beams are accelerated for scientific research. The superconducting cavities are cooled with liquid helium | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
Cyclotron resonance describes the interaction of external forces with charged particles experiencing a magnetic field, thus already moving on a circular path. It is named after the cyclotron, a cyclic particle accelerator that utilizes an oscillating electric field tuned to this resonance to add kinetic energy to charged particles.
Cyclotron resonance frequency
The cyclotron frequency or gyrofrequency is the frequency of a charged particle moving perpendicular to the direction of a uniform magnetic field B (constant magnitude and direction) | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
Diffraction-limited storage rings (DLSR), or ultra-low emittance storage rings, are synchrotron light sources where the emittance of the electron-beam in the storage ring is smaller or comparable to the emittance of the x-ray photon beam they produce at the end of their insertion devices.
These facilities operate in the soft to hard x-ray range (100eV—100keV) with extremely high brilliance (in the order of 1021—1022 photons/s/mm2/mrad2/0. 1%BW)
Together with X-ray free-electron lasers, they constitute the fourth generation of light sources, characterized by a relatively high coherent flux (in the order of 1014—1015photons/s/0 | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
Electron cooling is a method to shrink the emittance (size, divergence, and energy spread) of a charged particle beam without removing particles from the beam. Since the number of particles remains unchanged and the space coordinates and their derivatives (angles) are reduced, this means that the phase space occupied by the stored particles is compressed. It is equivalent to reducing the temperature of the beam | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
Pencil Code is an educational programming language and website. It allows programming using either Scratch-style block coding, or CoffeeScript. Code runs directly in the web browser and can be shared with others | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
Perl is a family of two high-level, general-purpose, interpreted, dynamic programming languages. Perl's first version was released in 1987. "Perl" refers to Perl 5, but from 2000 to 2019 it also referred to its redesigned "sister language", Perl 6, before the latter's name was officially changed to Raku in October 2019 | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
In computing, Pic is a domain-specific programming language by Brian Kernighan for specifying line diagrams.
The language contains predefined basic linear objects: line, move, arrow, and spline, the planar
objects box, circle, ellipse, arc, and definable composite elements.
Objects are placed with respect to other objects or absolute coordinates | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
Pico is a programming language developed at the Software Languages Lab at Vrije Universiteit Brussel. The language was created to introduce the essentials of programming to non-computer science students.
Pico can be seen as an effort to generate a palatable and enjoyable language for people who do not want to study hard for the elegance and power of a language | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
POP-2 (also referred to as POP2) is a programming language developed around 1970 from the earlier language POP-1 (developed by Robin Popplestone in 1968, originally named COWSEL) by Robin Popplestone and Rod Burstall at the University of Edinburgh. It drew roots from many sources: the languages LISP and ALGOL 60, and theoretical ideas from Peter J. Landin | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
Programming Languages: Application and Interpretation (PLAI) is a free programming language textbook by Shriram Krishnamurthi. It is in use at over 30 universities, in several high-schools. The book differs from most other programming language texts in its attempt to wed two different styles of programming language education: one based on language surveys and another based on interpreters | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
Python is a high-level, general-purpose programming language. Its design philosophy emphasizes code readability with the use of significant indentation. Python is dynamically typed and garbage-collected | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
Qore is an interpreted, high-level, general-purpose, garbage collected dynamic programming language, featuring support for code embedding and sandboxing with optional strong typing and a focus on fundamental support for multithreading and SMP scalability.
Qore is unique because it is an interpreted scripting language with fundamental support for multithreading (meaning more than one part of the same code can run at the same time), and additionally because it features automatic memory management (meaning programmers do not have to allocate and free memory explicitly) while also supporting the RAII idiom with destructors for scope-based resource management and exception-safe programming. This is due to Qore's unique prompt collection implementation for garbage collection | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
Quantum Computation Language (QCL) is one of the first implemented quantum programming languages. The most important feature of QCL is the support for user-defined operators and functions. Its syntax resembles the syntax of the C programming language and its classical data types are similar to primitive data types in C | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
Raku is a member of the Perl family of programming languages. Formerly known as Perl 6, it was renamed in October 2019. Raku introduces elements of many modern and historical languages | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
Red is a programming language designed to overcome the limitations of the programming language Rebol. Red was introduced in 2011 by Nenad Rakočević, and is both an imperative and functional programming language. Its syntax and general usage overlaps that of the interpreted Rebol language | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
S-PLUS is a commercial implementation of the S programming language sold by TIBCO Software Inc.
It features object-oriented programming capabilities and advanced analytical algorithms.
Due to the increasing popularity of the open source S successor R, TIBCO Software released the TIBCO Enterprise Runtime for R (TERR) as an alternative R interpreter | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
SVL or Scientific Vector Language is a programming language created by Chemical Computing Group. It was first released in 1994. SVL is the built-in command, scripting and application development language of MOE | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
Self is an object-oriented programming language based on the concept of prototypes. Self began as a dialect of Smalltalk, being dynamically typed and using just-in-time compilation (JIT) as well as the prototype-based approach to objects: it was first used as an experimental test system for language design in the 1980s and 1990s. In 2006, Self was still being developed as part of the Klein project, which was a Self virtual machine written fully in Self | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
SenseTalk is a high-level English-like scripting language in the XTalk family, that supports both procedural and object-oriented paradigms. SenseTalk scripts are intended to be largely readable by ordinary people, including those with little to no training in programming.
To this end, SenseTalk includes a number of language elements that provide functionality oriented towards human tasks rather than the underlying machine behavior | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
Sibernetic is a fluid mechanics simulator developed for simulations of C. elegans in the OpenWorm project developed for the OpenWorm project by Andrey Palyanov, Sergey Khayrulin and Mike Vella as part of the OpenWorm team. Sibernetic provides an implementation of the PCISPH contractile matter algorithm for simulating muscle tissue and is applied to C | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
SLIP is a list processing computer programming language, invented by Joseph Weizenbaum in the 1960s. The name SLIP stands for Symmetric LIst Processor. It was first implemented as an extension to the Fortran programming language, and later embedded into MAD and ALGOL | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
Smalltalk is a purely object oriented programming language (OOP), created in the 1970s for educational use, specifically for constructionist learning, at Xerox PARC by Learning Research Group (LRG) scientists, including Alan Kay, Dan Ingalls, Adele Goldberg, Ted Kaehler, Diana Merry, and Scott Wallace.
In Smalltalk, executing programs are built of opaque, atomic, so-called objects, which are instances of template code stored in classes. These objects intercommunicate by passing of messages, via an intermediary virtual machine environment (VM) | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
Smart Pascal is a dialect of the Object Pascal computer language that is derived from Delphi Web Script, but is enhanced and adapted for Smart Mobile Studio, a commercial development suite that generates JavaScript rather than machine code.
Smart Pascal is a RAD (rapid application development) language, and ships with a substantial library of classes and pre-made components. The Smart Pascal compiler is an advanced source-to-source compiler generating rich, HTML5 compliant, server independent applications | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
SNOBOL ("StriNg Oriented and symBOlic Language") is a series of programming languages developed between 1962 and 1967 at AT&T Bell Laboratories by David J. Farber, Ralph E. Griswold and Ivan P | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
Source is a family of sublanguages of JavaScript, developed for the textbook Structure and Interpretation of Computer Programs, JavaScript Edition (SICP JS). The JavaScript sublanguages Source §1, Source §2, Source §3 and Source §4 are designed to be just expressive enough to support all examples of the respective chapter of the textbook.
Purpose and design principle
During the development of SICP JS, starting in 2008, it became clear that purpose-designed sublanguages of JavaScript would contribute to the learning experience | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
StaDyn is an object-oriented general-purpose programming language for the . NET platform that supports both static and dynamic typing in the same programming language.
The StaDyn compiler gathers type information for the dynamically typed code | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
Swift is an implicitly parallel programming language that allows writing scripts that distribute program execution across distributed computing resources, including clusters, clouds, grids, and supercomputers. Swift implementations are open-source software under the Apache License, version 2. 0 | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
Synergy DBL (Data Business Language) is a compiled, imperative programming language designed for business use. The language was originally called DBL; later it was referred to as Synergy Language; as of 2012 the official name is Synergy DBL. It is based on Digital Equipment Corporation’s DIBOL programming language | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
Tea is a high-level scripting language for the Java environment. It combines features of Scheme, Tcl, and Java.
Features
Integrated support for all major programming paradigms | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
thinBasic is a BASIC-like computer programming language interpreter with a central core engine architecture surrounded by many specialized modules. Although originally designed mainly for computer automation, thanks to its modular structure it can be used for wide range of tasks.
Main features
Syntax
As the name suggests, the biggest influence on the syntax of this language was the BASIC language | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
TI-BASIC 83,TI-BASIC Z80 or simply TI-BASIC, is the built-in programming language for the Texas Instruments programmable calculators in the TI-83 series. Calculators that implement TI-BASIC have a built in editor for writing programs. While the considerably faster Z80 assembly language: 120 is supported for the calculators, TI-BASIC's in-calculator editor and more user friendly syntax make it easier to use | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
Tree Description Language (TreeDL) is a computer language for description of strictly-typed tree data structures and operations on them. The main use of TreeDL is in the development of language-oriented tools (compilers, translators, etc. ) for the description of a structure of abstract syntax trees | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
Tritium is a simple scripting language for efficiently transforming structured data like HTML, XML, and JSON. It is similar in purpose to XSLT but has a syntax influenced by jQuery, Sass, and CSS versus XSLT's XML based syntax.
History
Tritium was designed by Hampton Catlin, the creator of languages Sass and Haml and is currently bundled with the Moovweb mobile platform | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
XPL is a programming language based on PL/I, a portable one-pass compiler written in its own language, and a parser generator tool for easily implementing similar compilers for other languages. XPL was designed in 1967 as a way to teach compiler design principles and as starting point for students to build compilers for their own languages.
XPL was designed and implemented by William M | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
XSLT (Extensible Stylesheet Language Transformations) is a language originally designed for transforming XML documents into other XML documents, or other formats such as HTML for web pages, plain text or XSL Formatting Objects, which may subsequently be converted to other formats, such as PDF, PostScript and PNG. Support for JSON and plain-text transformation was added in later updates to the XSLT 1. 0 specification | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
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