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A molecular cloud, sometimes called a stellar nursery (if star formation is occurring within), is a type of interstellar cloud, the density and size of which permit absorption nebulae, the formation of molecules (most commonly molecular hydrogen, H2), and the formation of H II regions. This is in contrast to other areas of the interstellar medium that contain predominantly ionized gas.
Molecular hydrogen is difficult to detect by infrared and radio observations, so the molecule most often used to determine the presence of H2 is carbon monoxide (CO) | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
Presolar grains are interstellar solid matter in the form of tiny solid grains that originated at a time before the Sun was formed. Presolar stardust grains formed within outflowing and cooling gases from earlier presolar stars.
The stellar nucleosynthesis that took place within each presolar star gives to each granule an isotopic composition unique to that parent star, which differs from the isotopic composition of our solar system's matter as well as from the galactic average | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
Lunarcrete, also known as "mooncrete", an idea first proposed by Larry A. Beyer of the University of Pittsburgh in 1985, is a hypothetical construction aggregate, similar to concrete, formed from lunar regolith, that would reduce the construction costs of building on the Moon. AstroCrete is a more general concept also applicable for Mars | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
An orbital propellant depot is a cache of propellant that is placed in orbit around Earth or another body to allow spacecraft or the transfer stage of the spacecraft to be fueled in space. It is one of the types of space resource depots that have been proposed for enabling infrastructure-based space exploration.
Many different depot concepts exist depending on the type of fuel to be supplied, location, or type of depot which may also include a propellant tanker that delivers a single load to a spacecraft at a specified orbital location and then departs | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
The World Is Not Enough (WINE) is a US project developing a refuelable steam engine system for spacecraft propulsion. WINE developed a method of extracting volatiles from ice, ice-rich regolith, and hydrated soils and uses it as steam propulsion which allows the spacecraft to refuel multiple times and have an extraordinary long service lifetime. This would allow a single spacecraft to visit multiple asteroids, comets or several landing locations at an icy world such as the Moon, Mars, Pluto, Enceladus, Ganymede, Europa, etc | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
Alvar Palmgren (28 April 1880 – 30 November 1960) was a Finnish botanist and plant ecologist.
Palmgren studied botany at the University of Helsinki under professor J. P | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
Arthur Anselm Pearson (12 April 1874 – 13 March 1954) was an English mycologist. He often published under the name A. A | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
Pongidae , or the pongids is an obsolete primate taxon containing chimpanzees, gorillas and orangutans. By this definition pongids were also called "great apes". This taxon is not used today but is of historical significance | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
The progymnosperms are an extinct group of woody, spore-bearing plants that is presumed to have evolved from the trimerophytes, and eventually gave rise to the gymnosperms, ancestral to acrogymnosperms and angiosperms (flowering plants). They have been treated formally at the rank of division Progymnospermophyta or class Progymnospermopsida (as opposite). The stratigraphically oldest known examples belong to the Middle Devonian order the Aneurophytales, with forms such as Protopteridium, in which the vegetative organs consisted of relatively loose clusters of axes | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
Prosimians are a group of primates that includes all living and extinct strepsirrhines (lemurs, lorisoids, and adapiforms), as well as the haplorhine tarsiers and their extinct relatives, the omomyiforms, i. e. all primates excluding the simians | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
Proterosuchia is one of the suborders of the paraphyletic group Thecodontia; containing the most primitive and ancestral forms. These were primitive, vaguely crocodile-like, archosauriforms that mostly lived during the Early Triassic epoch.
The name Proterosuchia was coined by Robert Broom in 1906 | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
A protist ( PROH-tist) or protoctist is any eukaryotic organism that is not an animal, plant, or fungus. Protists do not form a natural group, or clade, but an artificial grouping of several independent clades that evolved from the last eukaryotic common ancestor.
Protists were historically regarded as a separate taxonomic kingdom known as Protista or Protoctista | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
Protocetidae, the protocetids, form a diverse and heterogeneous group of extinct cetaceans known from Asia, Europe, Africa, South America, and North America.
Description
There were many genera, and some of these are very well known (e. g | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
The Protocoleoptera are a paraphyletic group of extinct beetles, containing the earliest and most primitive lineages of beetles. They represented the dominant group of beetles during the Permian, but were largely replaced by modern beetle groups during the following Triassic. Protocoleopterans typically possess prognathous (horizontal) heads, distinctive elytra with regular window punctures, culticles with tubercles or scales, as well as a primitive pattern of ventral sclerites, similar to the modern archostematan families Ommatidae and Cupedidae | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
The Protorthoptera are an extinct order of Palaeozoic insects, and represent a wastebasket taxon and paraphyletic assemblage of basal neoptera. They appear during the Middle Carboniferous (late Serpukhovian or early Bashkirian), making them among the earliest known winged insects in the fossil record. Pronotal lobes may be expanded to form a shield | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
Protosuchia is a group of extinct Mesozoic crocodyliforms. They were small in size (~1 meter in length) and terrestrial. In phylogenetic terms, Protosuchia is considered an informal group because it is a grade of basal crocodyliforms, not a true clade | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
Protozoa (SG: protozoan or protozoon; alternative plural: protozoans) are a polyphyletic group of single-celled eukaryotes, either free-living or parasitic, that feed on organic matter such as other microorganisms or organic debris. Historically, protozoans were regarded as "one-celled animals", because they often possess animal-like behaviours, such as motility and predation, and lack a cell wall, as found in plants and many algae. When first introduced by Georg Goldfuss (originally spelled Goldfuß) in 1818, the taxon Protozoa was erected as a class within the Animalia, with the word 'protozoa' meaning "first animals" | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
Psocoptera () are a paraphyletic group of insects that are commonly known as booklice, barklice or barkflies. The name Psocoptera has been replaced with Psocodea in recent literature, with the inclusion of the former order Phthiraptera into Psocodea (as part of the suborder Troctomorpha). These insects first appeared in the Permian period, 295–248 million years ago | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
The term Pteridospermatophyta (or "seed ferns" or "Pteridospermatopsida") is a polyphyletic wastebasket taxon of extinct seed-bearing plants (spermatophytes). The earliest fossil evidence for plants of this type is the genus Elkinsia and the Lyginopterids of late Devonian age. They flourished particularly during the Carboniferous and Permian periods | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
Rabbits, also known as bunnies or bunny rabbits, are small mammals in the family Leporidae (which also contains the hares) of the order Lagomorpha (which also contains the pikas). Oryctolagus cuniculus includes the European rabbit species and its descendants, the world's 305 breeds of domestic rabbit. Sylvilagus includes 13 wild rabbit species, among them the seven types of cottontail | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
Radiata or Radiates is a historical taxonomic rank that was used to classify animals with radially symmetric body plans. The term Radiata is no longer accepted, as it united several different groupings of animals that do not form a monophyletic group under current views of animal phylogeny. The similarities once offered in justification of the taxon, such as radial symmetry, are now taken to be the result of either incorrect evaluations by early researchers or convergent evolution, rather than an indication of a common ancestor | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
Rats are various medium-sized, long-tailed rodents. Species of rats are found throughout the order Rodentia, but stereotypical rats are found in the genus Rattus. Other rat genera include Neotoma (pack rats), Bandicota (bandicoot rats) and Dipodomys (kangaroo rats) | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
Packeteer, Inc. , founded in 1996 by Robert Packer, Brett Galloway and Bob Luxenberg was an I. T | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
In probability theory, the Palm–Khintchine theorem, the work of Conny Palm and Aleksandr Khinchin, expresses that a large number of renewal processes, not necessarily Poissonian, when combined ("superimposed") will have Poissonian properties. It is used to generalise the behaviour of users or clients in queuing theory. It is also used in dependability and reliability modelling of computing and telecommunications | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
Peak information rate (PIR) is a burstable rate set on routers and/or switches that allows throughput overhead. Related to committed information rate (CIR) which is a committed rate speed guaranteed/capped. For example, a CIR of 10 Mbit/s PIR of 12 Mbit/s allows you access to 10 Mbit/s minimum speed with burst/spike control that allows a throttle of an additional 2 Mbit/s; this allows for data transmission to "settle" into a flow | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
Performance tuning is the improvement of system performance. Typically in computer systems, the motivation for such activity is called a performance problem, which can be either real or anticipated. Most systems will respond to increased load with some degree of decreasing performance | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
Performance-enhancing proxies (PEPs) are network agents designed to improve the end-to-end performance of some communication protocols. PEP standards are defined in RFC 3135 (PEPs intended to mitigate link-related degradations) and RFC 3449 (TCP performance implications of network path asymmetry).
Classification
Available PEP implementations use different methods to enhance performance | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
PingER, an acronym for Ping End-to-end Reporting, measures round-trip travel time of a packet of data between two nodes on the Internet. The PingER' Project uses a simple tool—the ping command—to get valuable insights into performance of the Internet backbone. High energy particle physicists began the project in 1995, because they needed to access large amounts of data at laboratories sometimes as far away as across an ocean | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
In computer networking, a proxy server is a server application that acts as an intermediary between a client requesting a resource and the server providing that resource. It improves privacy, security, and performance in the process.
Instead of connecting directly to a server that can fulfill a request for a resource, such as a file or web page, the client directs the request to the proxy server, which evaluates the request and performs the required network transactions | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
Quality of service (QoS) is the description or measurement of the overall performance of a service, such as a telephony or computer network, or a cloud computing service, particularly the performance seen by the users of the network. To quantitatively measure quality of service, several related aspects of the network service are often considered, such as packet loss, bit rate, throughput, transmission delay, availability, jitter, etc.
In the field of computer networking and other packet-switched telecommunication networks, quality of service refers to traffic prioritization and resource reservation control mechanisms rather than the achieved service quality | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
Queueing theory is the mathematical study of waiting lines, or queues. A queueing model is constructed so that queue lengths and waiting time can be predicted. Queueing theory is generally considered a branch of operations research because the results are often used when making business decisions about the resources needed to provide a service | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
Random early detection (RED), also known as random early discard or random early drop is a queuing discipline for a network scheduler suited for congestion avoidance. In the conventional tail drop algorithm, a router or other network component buffers as many packets as it can, and simply drops the ones it cannot buffer. If buffers are constantly full, the network is congested | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
Robust random early detection (RRED) is a queueing discipline for a network scheduler. The existing random early detection (RED) algorithm and its variants are found vulnerable to emerging attacks, especially the Low-rate Denial-of-Service attacks (LDoS). Experiments have confirmed that the existing RED-like algorithms are notably vulnerable under LDoS attacks due to the oscillating TCP queue size caused by the attacks | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
In computer networks, rate limiting is used to control the rate of requests sent or received by a network interface controller. It can be used to prevent DoS attacks and limit web scraping. Research indicates flooding rates for one zombie machine are in excess of 20 HTTP GET requests per second, legitimate rates much less | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
Rendezvous delay is a term that pertains to mobile wireless networking, and the hand-off of a mobile device from one base station to a new base station. It is the amount of time elapsed for a mobile networked device to attach to the new base station after it has stopped its link with its old base station. The nature of this delay depends on the type of wireless network and the protocols used | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
The term Science DMZ refers to a computer subnetwork that is structured to be secure, but without the performance limits that would otherwise result from passing data through a stateful firewall. The Science DMZ is designed to handle high volume data transfers, typical with scientific and high-performance computing, by creating a special DMZ to accommodate those transfers. It is typically deployed at or near the local network perimeter, and is optimized for a moderate number of high-speed flows, rather than for general-purpose business systems or enterprise computing | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
Service assurance, in telecommunications, is the application of policies and processes by a Communications Service Provider (CSP) to ensure that services offered over networks meet a pre-defined service quality level for an optimal subscriber experience.
The practice of service assurance enables CSPs to identify faults in the network and resolve these issues in a timely manner so as to minimize service downtime. The practice also includes policies and processes to proactively pinpoint, diagnose and resolve service quality degradations or device malfunctions before subscribers are impacted | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
Spectral efficiency, spectrum efficiency or bandwidth efficiency refers to the information rate that can be transmitted over a given bandwidth in a specific communication system. It is a measure of how efficiently a limited frequency spectrum is utilized by the physical layer protocol, and sometimes by the medium access control (the channel access protocol).
Link spectral efficiency
The link spectral efficiency of a digital communication system is measured in bit/s/Hz, or, less frequently but unambiguously, in (bit/s)/Hz | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
SpeedOf. Me is an internet speed test service which uses browser capabilities such as HTML5 and JavaScript to test the internet speed of the user. SpeedOf | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
A supernetwork, or supernet, is an Internet Protocol (IP) network that is formed by aggregation of multiple networks (or subnets) into a larger network. The new routing prefix for the aggregate network represents the constituent networks in a single routing table entry. The process of forming a supernet is called supernetting, prefix aggregation, route aggregation, or route summarization | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
A switching loop or bridge loop occurs in computer networks when there is more than one layer 2 path between two endpoints (e. g. multiple connections between two network switches or two ports on the same switch connected to each other) | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
Tacit Networks, Inc. is an I. T | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
Transmission Control Protocol (TCP) uses a congestion control algorithm that includes various aspects of an additive increase/multiplicative decrease (AIMD) scheme, along with other schemes including slow start and congestion window (CWND), to achieve congestion avoidance. The TCP congestion-avoidance algorithm is the primary basis for congestion control in the Internet. Per the end-to-end principle, congestion control is largely a function of internet hosts, not the network itself | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
In the field of computer networking, TCP pacing is the denomination of a set of techniques to make the pattern of packet transmission generated by the Transmission Control Protocol less bursty. It can be conducted by the network scheduler.
Bursty traffic can lead to higher queuing delays, more packet losses and lower throughput | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
TCP tuning techniques adjust the network congestion avoidance parameters of Transmission Control Protocol (TCP) connections over high-bandwidth, high-latency networks. Well-tuned networks can perform up to 10 times faster in some cases. However, blindly following instructions without understanding their real consequences can hurt performance as well | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
Time to first byte (TTFB) is a measurement used as an indication of the responsiveness of a webserver or other network resource.
TTFB measures the duration from the user or client making an HTTP request to the first byte of the page being received by the client's browser. This time is made up of the socket connection time, the time taken to send the HTTP request, and the time taken to get the first byte of the page | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
The token bucket is an algorithm used in packet-switched and telecommunications networks. It can be used to check that data transmissions, in the form of packets, conform to defined limits on bandwidth and burstiness (a measure of the unevenness or variations in the traffic flow). It can also be used as a scheduling algorithm to determine the timing of transmissions that will comply with the limits set for the bandwidth and burstiness: see network scheduler | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
Traffic classification is an automated process which categorises computer network traffic according to various parameters (for example, based on port number or protocol) into a number of traffic classes. Each resulting traffic class can be treated differently in order to differentiate the service implied for the data generator or consumer.
Typical uses
Packets are classified to be differently processed by the network scheduler | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
In communications, traffic policing is the process of monitoring network traffic for compliance with a traffic contract and taking steps to enforce that contract. Traffic sources which are aware of a traffic contract may apply traffic shaping to ensure their output stays within the contract and is thus not discarded. Traffic exceeding a traffic contract may be discarded immediately, marked as non-compliant, or left as-is, depending on administrative policy and the characteristics of the excess traffic | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
Traffic shaping is a bandwidth management technique used on computer networks which delays some or all datagrams to bring them into compliance with a desired traffic profile. Traffic shaping is used to optimize or guarantee performance, improve latency, or increase usable bandwidth for some kinds of packets by delaying other kinds. It is often confused with traffic policing, the distinct but related practice of packet dropping and packet marking | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
WAN optimization is a collection of techniques for improving data transfer across wide area networks (WANs). In 2008, the WAN optimization market was estimated to be $1 billion, and was to grow to $4. 4 billion by 2014 according to Gartner, a technology research firm | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
Weighted random early detection (WRED) is a queueing discipline for a network scheduler suited for congestion avoidance. It is an extension to random early detection (RED) where a single queue may have several different sets of queue thresholds. Each threshold set is associated to a particular traffic class | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
Wire data is the information that passes over computer and telecommunication networks defining communications between client and server devices. It is the result of decoding wire and transport protocols containing the bi-directional data payload. More precisely, wire data is the information that is communicated in each layer of the OSI model (Layer 1 not being included because those protocols are used to establish connections and do not communicate information) | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
Wireless intelligent stream handling (WISH) is a type of software which prioritizes the traffic of different applications over a wireless network.
WISH makes use of three different priority classifiers which enables a user to choose what kind of traffic should be preferred.
HTTPWith this option enabled video and audio streams that use HTTP (so basically all videos played in the browser) are preferred over other kinds of traffic | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
The Bacon–Shor code is a subsystem error correcting code. In a subsystem code, information is encoded in a subsystem of a Hilbert space. Subsystem codes lend to simplified error correcting procedures unlike codes which encode information in the subspace of a Hilbert space | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
In computational complexity theory, bounded-error quantum polynomial time (BQP) is the class of decision problems solvable by a quantum computer in polynomial time, with an error probability of at most 1/3 for all instances. It is the quantum analogue to the complexity class BPP.
A decision problem is a member of BQP if there exists a quantum algorithm (an algorithm that runs on a quantum computer) that solves the decision problem with high probability and is guaranteed to run in polynomial time | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
A chemical computer, also called a reaction-diffusion computer, Belousov–Zhabotinsky (BZ) computer, or gooware computer, is an unconventional computer based on a semi-solid chemical "soup" where data are represented by varying concentrations of chemicals. The computations are performed by naturally occurring chemical reactions.
Background
Originally chemical reactions were seen as a simple move towards a stable equilibrium which was not very promising for computation | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
Cloud-based quantum computing is the invocation of quantum emulators, simulators or processors through the cloud. Increasingly, cloud services are being looked on as the method for providing access to quantum processing. Quantum computers achieve their massive computing power by initiating quantum physics into processing power and when users are allowed access to these quantum-powered computers through the internet it is known as quantum computing within the cloud | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
The Eastin–Knill theorem is a no-go theorem that states: "No quantum error correcting code can have a continuous symmetry which acts transversely on physical qubits". In other words, no quantum error correcting code can transversely implement a universal gate set. Since quantum computers are inherently noisy, quantum error correcting codes are used to correct errors that affect information due to decoherence | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
An electron-on-helium qubit is a quantum bit for which the orthonormal basis states |0⟩ and |1⟩ are defined by quantized motional states or alternatively the spin states of an electron trapped above the surface of liquid helium. The electron-on-helium qubit was proposed as the basic element for building quantum computers with electrons on helium by Platzman and Dykman in 1999.
History of electrons on helium
The electrostrictive binding of electrons to the surface of liquid helium was first demonstrated experimentally by Bruschi and co-workers in 1966 | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
The five-qubit error correcting code is the smallest quantum error correcting code that can protect a logical qubit from any arbitrary single qubit error. In this code, 5 physical qubits are used to encode the logical qubit. With
X
{\displaystyle X}
and
Z
{\displaystyle Z}
being Pauli matrices and
I
{\displaystyle I}
the Identity matrix, this code's generators are
⟨
X
Z
Z
X
I
,
I
X
Z
Z
X
,
X
I
X
Z
Z
,
Z
X
I
X
Z
⟩
{\displaystyle \langle XZZXI,IXZZX,XIXZZ,ZXIXZ\rangle }
| https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
The hidden subgroup problem (HSP) is a topic of research in mathematics and theoretical computer science. The framework captures problems such as factoring, discrete logarithm, graph isomorphism, and the shortest vector problem. This makes it especially important in the theory of quantum computing because Shor's quantum algorithm for factoring is an instance of the hidden subgroup problem for finite Abelian groups, while the other problems correspond to finite groups that are not Abelian | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
Magic state distillation is a method for creating more accurate quantum states from multiple noisy ones, which is important for building fault tolerant quantum computers. It has also been linked to quantum contextuality, a concept thought to contribute to quantum computers' power. The technique was first proposed by Emanuel Knill in 2004,
and further analyzed by Sergey Bravyi and Alexei Kitaev the same year | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
The nitrogen-vacancy center (N-V center or NV center) is one of numerous point defects in diamond. Its most explored and useful property is its photoluminescence, which allows observers to read out its spin-state. The NV center's electron spin, localized at atomic scales, can be manipulated at room temperature by external factors such as magnetic, or electric fields, microwave radiation, or optical light, resulting in sharp resonances in the intensity of the photoluminescence | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
NQIT (Networked Quantum Information Technologies) is a quantum computing research hub established in 2014 as part of the UK National Quantum Technologies Programme. NQIT is a consortium of 9 UK universities and 30 partners, which received funding of £38m over a 5-year period. By the end of the 5-year programme NQIT aims to produce the Q20:20 engine, a demonstration of a scalable quantum computer demonstrator comprising an optically-linked network of 20 cells, each cell being a quantum processor with 20 matter qubits | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
The One Clean Qubit model of computation is performed an
n
{\displaystyle n}
qubit system with one pure state and
n
−
1
{\displaystyle n-1}
maximally mixed states. This model was motivated by highly mixed states that are prevalent in Nuclear magnetic resonance quantum computers. It's described by the density matrix
ρ
=
|
0
⟩
⟨
0
|
⊗
I
2
{\displaystyle \rho =\left|0\right\rangle \langle 0|\otimes {\frac {I}{2}}}
, where I is the identity matrix | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
Open Quantum Assembly Language (OpenQASM; pronounced open kazm) is a programming language designed for describing quantum circuits and algorithms for execution on quantum computers. It is designed to be an intermediate representation that can be used by higher-level compilers to communicate with quantum hardware, and allows for the description of a wide range of quantum operations, as well as classical feed-forward flow control based on measurement outcomes.
The language includes a mechanism for describing explicit timing of instructions, and allows for the attachment of low-level definitions to gates for tasks such as calibration | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
Parity measurement (also referred to as Operator measurement) is a procedure in Quantum information science used for error detection in quantum qubits. A parity measurement checks the equality of two qubits to return a true or false answer, which can be used to determine whether a correction needs to occur. Additional measurements can be made for a system greater than two qubits | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
In quantum computing, a qubit is a unit of information analogous to a bit (binary digit) in classical computing, but it is affected by quantum mechanical properties such as superposition and entanglement which allow qubits to be in some ways more powerful than classical bits for some tasks. Qubits are used in quantum circuits and quantum algorithms composed of quantum logic gates to solve computational problems, where they are used for input/output and intermediate computations.
A physical qubit is a physical device that behaves as a two-state quantum system, used as a component of a computer system | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
In quantum computing, a quantum algorithm is an algorithm which runs on a realistic model of quantum computation, the most commonly used model being the quantum circuit model of computation. A classical (or non-quantum) algorithm is a finite sequence of instructions, or a step-by-step procedure for solving a problem, where each step or instruction can be performed on a classical computer. Similarly, a quantum algorithm is a step-by-step procedure, where each of the steps can be performed on a quantum computer | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
Quantum Computation and Quantum Information is a textbook about quantum information science written by Michael Nielsen and Isaac Chuang, regarded as a standard text on the subject. It is informally known as "Mike and Ike", after the candies of that name. The book assumes minimal prior experience with quantum mechanics and with computer science, aiming instead to be a self-contained introduction to the relevant features of both | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
A quantum computer is a computer that exploits quantum mechanical phenomena.
At small scales, physical matter exhibits properties of both particles and waves, and quantum computing leverages this behavior, specifically quantum superposition and entanglement, using specialized hardware that supports the preparation and manipulation of quantum states.
Classical physics cannot explain the operation of these quantum devices, and a scalable quantum computer could perform some calculations exponentially faster than any modern "classical" computer | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
Quantum Computing: A Gentle Introduction is a textbook on quantum computing. It was written by Eleanor Rieffel and Wolfgang Polak, and published in 2011 by the MIT Press.
Topics
Although the book approaches quantum computing through the model of quantum circuits, it is focused more on quantum algorithms than on the construction of quantum computers | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
Quantum computation, which exploits quantum parallelism, is in principle faster than a classical computer for certain problems. Quantum image is encoding the image information in quantum-mechanical systems instead of classical ones and replacing classical with quantum information processing may alleviate some of these challenges. Humans obtain most of their information through their eyes | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
Quantum image processing (QIMP) is using quantum computing or quantum information processing to create and work with quantum images. Due to some of the properties inherent to quantum computation, notably entanglement and parallelism, it is hoped that QIMP technologies will offer capabilities and performances that surpass their traditional equivalents, in terms of computing speed, security, and minimum storage requirements.
Background
A | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
Quantum natural language processing (QNLP) is the application of quantum computing to natural language processing (NLP). It computes word embeddings as parameterised quantum circuits that can solve NLP tasks faster than any classical computer. It is inspired by categorical quantum mechanics and the DisCoCat framework, making use of string diagrams to translate from grammatical structure to quantum processes | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
Quantum programming is the process of designing or assembling sequences of instructions, called quantum circuits, using gates, switches, and operators to manipulate a quantum system for a desired outcome or results of a given experiment. Quantum circuit algorithms can be implemented on integrated circuits, conducted with instrumentation, or written in a programming language for use with a quantum computer or a quantum processor.
With quantum processor based systems, quantum programming languages help express quantum algorithms using high-level constructs | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
Quantum simulators permit the study of a quantum system in a programmable fashion. In this instance, simulators are special purpose devices designed to provide insight about specific physics problems. Quantum simulators may be contrasted with generally programmable "digital" quantum computers, which would be capable of solving a wider class of quantum problems | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
The term quantum state discrimination collectively refers to quantum-informatics techniques, with the help of which, by performing a small number of measurements on a physical system , its specific quantum state can be identified . And this is provided that the set of states in which the system can be is known in advance, and we only need to determine which one it is. This assumption distinguishes such techniques from quantum tomography, which does not impose additional requirements on the state of the system, but requires many times more measurements | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
In quantum computing, quantum supremacy, quantum primacy or quantum advantage is the goal of demonstrating that a programmable quantum computer can solve a problem that no classical computer can solve in any feasible amount of time, irrespective of the usefulness of the problem. The term was coined by John Preskill in 2012, but the concept dates back to Yuri Manin's 1980 and Richard Feynman's 1981 proposals of quantum computing.
Conceptually, quantum supremacy involves both the engineering task of building a powerful quantum computer and the computational-complexity-theoretic task of finding a problem that can be solved by that quantum computer and has a superpolynomial speedup over the best known or possible classical algorithm for that task | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
Quantum teleportation is a technique for transferring quantum information from a sender at one location to a receiver some distance away. While teleportation is commonly portrayed in science fiction as a means to transfer physical objects from one location to the next, quantum teleportation only transfers quantum information. The sender does not have to know the particular quantum state being transferred | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
In quantum computing, a qubit () or quantum bit is a basic unit of quantum information—the quantum version of the classic binary bit physically realized with a two-state device. A qubit is a two-state (or two-level) quantum-mechanical system, one of the simplest quantum systems displaying the peculiarity of quantum mechanics. Examples include the spin of the electron in which the two levels can be taken as spin up and spin down; or the polarization of a single photon in which the two states can be taken to be the vertical polarization and the horizontal polarization | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
A qutrit (or quantum trit) is a unit of quantum information that is realized by a 3-level quantum system, that may be in a superposition of three mutually orthogonal quantum states. The qutrit is analogous to the classical radix-3 trit, just as the qubit, a quantum system described by a superposition of two orthogonal states, is analogous to the classical radix-2 bit.
There is ongoing work to develop quantum computers using qutrits and qubits with multiple states | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
In quantum information and computation, the Solovay–Kitaev theorem says, roughly, that if a set of single-qubit quantum gates generates a dense subset of SU(2), then that set can be used to approximate any desired quantum gate with a relatively short sequence of gates. This theorem is considered one of the most significant results in the field of quantum computation and was first announced by Robert M. Solovay in 1995 and independently proven by Alexei Kitaev in 1997 | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
The theory of quantum error correction plays a prominent role in the practical realization and engineering of
quantum computing and quantum communication devices. The first quantum
error-correcting codes are strikingly similar to classical block codes in their
operation and performance. Quantum error-correcting codes restore a noisy,
decohered quantum state to a pure quantum state | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
The Mevade Botnet, also known as Sefnit or SBC, is a massive botnet. Its operators are unknown and its motives seems to be multi-purpose. In late 2013 the Tor anonymity network saw a very sudden and significant increase in users, from 800,000 daily to more than 5,000,000 | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
An RDP shop is a website where access to hacked computers is sold to cybercriminals.
The computers may be acquired via scanning the web for open Remote Desktop Protocol connections and brute-forcing passwords. High-value ransomware targets are sometimes available such as airports | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
Srizbi BotNet is considered one of the world's largest botnets, and responsible for sending out more than half of all the spam being sent by all the major botnets combined. The botnets consist of computers infected by the Srizbi trojan, which sent spam on command. Srizbi suffered a massive setback in November 2008 when hosting provider Janka Cartel was taken down; global spam volumes reduced up to 93% as a result of this action | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
The trinoo or trin00 is a set of computer programs to conduct a DDoS attack. It is believed that trinoo networks have been set up on thousands of systems on the Internet that have been compromised by remote buffer overrun exploits. The first suspected trinoo attacks are described in CERT Incident Note 99–04 | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
Zemra is a DDoS Bot which was first discovered in underground forums in May 2012. Zemra is capable of HTTP and SYN Flood flooding and also has a simple Command & Control panel that is protected with 256-bit DES encryption for communicating with its command and control (C&C) server. Zemra also sends information such as Computer name, Language settings, and Windows version | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
Computer and network surveillance is the monitoring of computer activity and data stored locally on a computer or data being transferred over computer networks such as the Internet. This monitoring is often carried out covertly and may be completed by governments, corporations, criminal organizations, or individuals. It may or may not be legal and may or may not require authorization from a court or other independent government agencies | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
Computer surveillance in the workplace is the use of computers to monitor activity in a workplace. Computer monitoring is a method of collecting performance data which employers obtain through digitalised employee monitoring. Computer surveillance may nowadays be used alongside traditional security applications, such as closed-circuit television | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
Cyber Insider Threat, or CINDER, is a digital threat method. In 2010, DARPA initiated a program under the same name (Cyber Insider Threat (CINDER) Program) to develop novel approaches to the detection of activities within military-interest networks that are consistent with the activities of cyber espionage. The CINDER threat is unlike other vulnerability based attacks in that the action taken by the initiator is not based on unauthorized access by unauthorized objects or authorized objects, it is based on the concept that authorized access by authorized objects will normally occur (along with their subsequent actions) within the security boundary | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
This list of Internet censorship and surveillance by country provides information on the types and levels of Internet censorship and surveillance that is occurring in countries around the world.
Classifications
Detailed country by country information on Internet censorship and surveillance is provided in the Freedom on the Net reports from Freedom House, by the OpenNet Initiative, by Reporters Without Borders, and in the Country Reports on Human Rights Practices from the U. S | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
KidGuard is a parental monitoring application for iOS and Android mobile phones. The application uses proprietary software to help parents monitor their children’s text messages, browser history, social media activity, stored videos or photos, emails, and phone GPS location.
History
KidGuard was developed by a Los Angeles-based team and officially released in 2016 | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
The Law Enforcement Information Exchange is a database which is maintained by the Naval Criminal Investigative Service. Eugene R. Fidell described the database as constituting domestic spying | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
The Operations Support Branch (O. S. B | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
PROMIS (Prosecutors Management Information System) was a case management software developed by Inslaw (formerly the Institute for Law and Social Research), a non-profit organization established in 1973 by Bill and Nancy Hamilton. The software program was developed with aid from the Law Enforcement Assistance Administration to aid prosecutors' offices in tracking; in 1982 (by which time Inslaw became a for-profit entity) Inslaw received a $10 million contract by the Justice Department to develop an improved PROMIS application for U. S | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
A computer virus is a type of malware that, when executed, replicates itself by modifying other computer programs and inserting its own code into those programs. If this replication succeeds, the affected areas are then said to be "infected" with a computer virus, a metaphor derived from biological viruses. Computer viruses generally require a host program | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
FluBot is a sophisticated SMS computer virus –specifically a banking Trojan– of global reach which aims to steal private data from Android smart phones. Unlike much malware, FluBot has proven exceptionally durable, coming in waves or "campaigns" with each redesign. It masquerades as innocuous messages such as missed calls and deliveries, asking the receiver to click links that download spyware | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
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