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[
"Sidney Topol",
"place of birth",
"Boston"
] |
Early life and education
Topol was born in Boston, Massachusetts, on December 28, 1924, to Polish immigrant parents. He graduated from the Boston Latin School in 1941. In 1943, after two years as a student at the University of Massachusetts, he joined the Army Air Corps, where he was trained as a radar specialist. After the war, Topol completed an undergraduate degree in physics at the University of Massachusetts, trained briefly at the Naval Research Laboratory in Washington, D.C., and then enrolled in a master's program at the University of California, Berkeley.
| 2
|
[
"Sidney Topol",
"educated at",
"University of Massachusetts Amherst"
] |
Early life and education
Topol was born in Boston, Massachusetts, on December 28, 1924, to Polish immigrant parents. He graduated from the Boston Latin School in 1941. In 1943, after two years as a student at the University of Massachusetts, he joined the Army Air Corps, where he was trained as a radar specialist. After the war, Topol completed an undergraduate degree in physics at the University of Massachusetts, trained briefly at the Naval Research Laboratory in Washington, D.C., and then enrolled in a master's program at the University of California, Berkeley.
| 3
|
[
"Sidney Topol",
"archives at",
"University of Massachusetts Amherst"
] |
Legacy
Topol was elected to the Cable Hall of Fame in 2001 for his significant contributions to the cable industry. As a visionary in the field of telecommunications, Topol not only realized that the future of TV was in satellite communications, but also predicted the ultimate merging of cable, Internet and personal computers.
Since retiring from Scientific Atlanta in 1990, Topol has been involved in business projects and community organizations. Topol sat on the boards of WGBH-TV and Americans for Peace Now.
Sidney Topol's professional papers (Sidney Topol Papers) are housed at the W.E.B. Du Bois Library at the University of Massachusetts. They include letters, clippings, photographs, oral histories, and engineering notebooks.He died on March 30, 2022, at the age of 97.
| 4
|
[
"Aldin Grout",
"sex or gender",
"male"
] |
Aldin Grout (September 2, 1803 - February 12, 1894) was an American missionary known for his missionary activities in Zululand. He married Hannah Davis in November 1834 and traveled to the Cape Colony of the American Board of Commissioners for Foreign Missions a month later.
He built his first mission in Zululand, called Ginani, in 1836. This station was destroyed in the battle between the Zulus and the Boers, and he built a new station called Inkanyezi in 1841.
He was born in Pelham, Massachusetts. He died in Springfield. The town of Groutville in South Africa was named after him.
| 3
|
[
"Charles H. Fernald",
"instance of",
"human"
] |
Charles Henry Fernald (March 15, 1838 – February 22, 1921) was an American entomologist, geologist, and zoologist, who is credited as the first college professor of economic entomology. Fernald grew up at Fernald Point in Mount Desert, Maine, and went on to prepare for college at Maine Wesleyan Seminary before joining the navy in 1862. After receiving a master's degree from Bowdoin College he went on to serve as principal of several academies in Maine. Throughout his career he would document and describe several species of microlepidoptera and in 1886 became the first full-time professor and chair of the natural sciences at what is now the University of Massachusetts Amherst. Fernald Hall and the Fernald Entomological Society at the same institution, are named for him and his son, Henry Torsey Fernald, who would later hold the same position as his father. His wife, Maria Elizabeth Fernald, was a noted entomologist in her own right.
| 0
|
[
"Charles H. Fernald",
"occupation",
"zoologist"
] |
Charles Henry Fernald (March 15, 1838 – February 22, 1921) was an American entomologist, geologist, and zoologist, who is credited as the first college professor of economic entomology. Fernald grew up at Fernald Point in Mount Desert, Maine, and went on to prepare for college at Maine Wesleyan Seminary before joining the navy in 1862. After receiving a master's degree from Bowdoin College he went on to serve as principal of several academies in Maine. Throughout his career he would document and describe several species of microlepidoptera and in 1886 became the first full-time professor and chair of the natural sciences at what is now the University of Massachusetts Amherst. Fernald Hall and the Fernald Entomological Society at the same institution, are named for him and his son, Henry Torsey Fernald, who would later hold the same position as his father. His wife, Maria Elizabeth Fernald, was a noted entomologist in her own right.
| 8
|
[
"Charles H. Fernald",
"occupation",
"lepidopterist"
] |
Charles Henry Fernald (March 15, 1838 – February 22, 1921) was an American entomologist, geologist, and zoologist, who is credited as the first college professor of economic entomology. Fernald grew up at Fernald Point in Mount Desert, Maine, and went on to prepare for college at Maine Wesleyan Seminary before joining the navy in 1862. After receiving a master's degree from Bowdoin College he went on to serve as principal of several academies in Maine. Throughout his career he would document and describe several species of microlepidoptera and in 1886 became the first full-time professor and chair of the natural sciences at what is now the University of Massachusetts Amherst. Fernald Hall and the Fernald Entomological Society at the same institution, are named for him and his son, Henry Torsey Fernald, who would later hold the same position as his father. His wife, Maria Elizabeth Fernald, was a noted entomologist in her own right.
| 9
|
[
"Charles H. Fernald",
"educated at",
"Bowdoin College"
] |
Charles Henry Fernald (March 15, 1838 – February 22, 1921) was an American entomologist, geologist, and zoologist, who is credited as the first college professor of economic entomology. Fernald grew up at Fernald Point in Mount Desert, Maine, and went on to prepare for college at Maine Wesleyan Seminary before joining the navy in 1862. After receiving a master's degree from Bowdoin College he went on to serve as principal of several academies in Maine. Throughout his career he would document and describe several species of microlepidoptera and in 1886 became the first full-time professor and chair of the natural sciences at what is now the University of Massachusetts Amherst. Fernald Hall and the Fernald Entomological Society at the same institution, are named for him and his son, Henry Torsey Fernald, who would later hold the same position as his father. His wife, Maria Elizabeth Fernald, was a noted entomologist in her own right.
| 11
|
[
"Charles H. Fernald",
"given name",
"Charles"
] |
Charles Henry Fernald (March 15, 1838 – February 22, 1921) was an American entomologist, geologist, and zoologist, who is credited as the first college professor of economic entomology. Fernald grew up at Fernald Point in Mount Desert, Maine, and went on to prepare for college at Maine Wesleyan Seminary before joining the navy in 1862. After receiving a master's degree from Bowdoin College he went on to serve as principal of several academies in Maine. Throughout his career he would document and describe several species of microlepidoptera and in 1886 became the first full-time professor and chair of the natural sciences at what is now the University of Massachusetts Amherst. Fernald Hall and the Fernald Entomological Society at the same institution, are named for him and his son, Henry Torsey Fernald, who would later hold the same position as his father. His wife, Maria Elizabeth Fernald, was a noted entomologist in her own right.
| 14
|
[
"Charles H. Fernald",
"place of birth",
"Mount Desert"
] |
Charles Henry Fernald (March 15, 1838 – February 22, 1921) was an American entomologist, geologist, and zoologist, who is credited as the first college professor of economic entomology. Fernald grew up at Fernald Point in Mount Desert, Maine, and went on to prepare for college at Maine Wesleyan Seminary before joining the navy in 1862. After receiving a master's degree from Bowdoin College he went on to serve as principal of several academies in Maine. Throughout his career he would document and describe several species of microlepidoptera and in 1886 became the first full-time professor and chair of the natural sciences at what is now the University of Massachusetts Amherst. Fernald Hall and the Fernald Entomological Society at the same institution, are named for him and his son, Henry Torsey Fernald, who would later hold the same position as his father. His wife, Maria Elizabeth Fernald, was a noted entomologist in her own right.
| 15
|
[
"Charles H. Fernald",
"sex or gender",
"male"
] |
Charles Henry Fernald (March 15, 1838 – February 22, 1921) was an American entomologist, geologist, and zoologist, who is credited as the first college professor of economic entomology. Fernald grew up at Fernald Point in Mount Desert, Maine, and went on to prepare for college at Maine Wesleyan Seminary before joining the navy in 1862. After receiving a master's degree from Bowdoin College he went on to serve as principal of several academies in Maine. Throughout his career he would document and describe several species of microlepidoptera and in 1886 became the first full-time professor and chair of the natural sciences at what is now the University of Massachusetts Amherst. Fernald Hall and the Fernald Entomological Society at the same institution, are named for him and his son, Henry Torsey Fernald, who would later hold the same position as his father. His wife, Maria Elizabeth Fernald, was a noted entomologist in her own right.
| 16
|
[
"Charles H. Fernald",
"family name",
"Fernald"
] |
Charles Henry Fernald (March 15, 1838 – February 22, 1921) was an American entomologist, geologist, and zoologist, who is credited as the first college professor of economic entomology. Fernald grew up at Fernald Point in Mount Desert, Maine, and went on to prepare for college at Maine Wesleyan Seminary before joining the navy in 1862. After receiving a master's degree from Bowdoin College he went on to serve as principal of several academies in Maine. Throughout his career he would document and describe several species of microlepidoptera and in 1886 became the first full-time professor and chair of the natural sciences at what is now the University of Massachusetts Amherst. Fernald Hall and the Fernald Entomological Society at the same institution, are named for him and his son, Henry Torsey Fernald, who would later hold the same position as his father. His wife, Maria Elizabeth Fernald, was a noted entomologist in her own right.
| 21
|
[
"Horace Mann Bond",
"place of birth",
"Nashville"
] |
Early life and education
Horace was born November 8, 1904, in Nashville, Tennessee, the grandson of enslaved Africans. Both his parents were college educated. His mother, Jane Alice Browne, was a schoolteacher, and his father, James Bond, was a minister who served at Congregational churches across the South, often associated with historically black colleges. His mother had graduated from Oberlin College in Ohio, and his father graduated from Berea College in Berea, Kentucky, in 1892. James Bond later served as a Berea College Trustee from 1896 to 1914. Both Berea and Oberlin are among the first colleges that were interracial. His parents were among the black elite with their educations and encouraged their children in academic achievement.Horace was the sixth of seven children. One of his brothers, J. Max Bond, Sr., became a prominent educator. During his childhood, Bond had several unpleasant encounters with whites. In one incident a white man shot at their house after having a fight with Horace's older brothers. In another, his father was arrested by a white neighbor, who was a police officer, when the Bond family moved into an all-white street. Bond excelled in school, entering high school at the age of nine and college at fourteen.Bond graduated in 1923 at age 19 with honors from Lincoln University, a historically black college in Pennsylvania. He was a member of Kappa Alpha Psi fraternity. At Penn State, where he went for graduate work, Bond realized that he was able to compete with white classmates, and earned competitive grades above the 90th percentile.Later Bond returned to Lincoln University to work as an instructor. Bond then suffered the only setback to his success; he was dismissed from the college for tolerating a gambling ring in a dormitory which he was supervising. Despite his embarrassment at Lincoln, Bond achieved a reputation as a fine scholar and administrator.
Bond earned the M.A. and Ph.D degrees from the University of Chicago, where his dissertation on black education in Alabama won the Rosenberger Prize in 1936. It was published in 1939. As was customary in those years, Bond taught at a variety of academic institutions before completing his doctorate. He published his first academic book in 1934. His early work was recognized by the Rosenwald Fund, which granted him fellowships in 1931 and 1932 and went on to support most of the rest of his career.
| 3
|
[
"Horace Mann Bond",
"ethnic group",
"African Americans"
] |
Horace Mann Bond (November 8, 1904 – December 21, 1972) was an American historian, college administrator, social science researcher and the father of civil-rights leader Julian Bond. He earned a master's and doctorate from University of Chicago, at a time when only a small percentage of any young adults attended any college. He was an influential leader at several historically black colleges and was appointed the first president of Fort Valley State University in Georgia in 1939, where he managed its growth in programs and revenue. In 1945, he became the first African-American president of Lincoln University in Pennsylvania.
| 4
|
[
"Horace Mann Bond",
"educated at",
"University of Chicago"
] |
Horace Mann Bond (November 8, 1904 – December 21, 1972) was an American historian, college administrator, social science researcher and the father of civil-rights leader Julian Bond. He earned a master's and doctorate from University of Chicago, at a time when only a small percentage of any young adults attended any college. He was an influential leader at several historically black colleges and was appointed the first president of Fort Valley State University in Georgia in 1939, where he managed its growth in programs and revenue. In 1945, he became the first African-American president of Lincoln University in Pennsylvania.
| 5
|
[
"Horace Mann Bond",
"occupation",
"professor"
] |
Horace Mann Bond (November 8, 1904 – December 21, 1972) was an American historian, college administrator, social science researcher and the father of civil-rights leader Julian Bond. He earned a master's and doctorate from University of Chicago, at a time when only a small percentage of any young adults attended any college. He was an influential leader at several historically black colleges and was appointed the first president of Fort Valley State University in Georgia in 1939, where he managed its growth in programs and revenue. In 1945, he became the first African-American president of Lincoln University in Pennsylvania.
| 6
|
[
"Horace Mann Bond",
"sex or gender",
"male"
] |
Horace Mann Bond (November 8, 1904 – December 21, 1972) was an American historian, college administrator, social science researcher and the father of civil-rights leader Julian Bond. He earned a master's and doctorate from University of Chicago, at a time when only a small percentage of any young adults attended any college. He was an influential leader at several historically black colleges and was appointed the first president of Fort Valley State University in Georgia in 1939, where he managed its growth in programs and revenue. In 1945, he became the first African-American president of Lincoln University in Pennsylvania.
| 7
|
[
"Horace Mann Bond",
"employer",
"Dillard University"
] |
Career
Bond taught at several institutions while completing his doctorate, including such historically black universities as Langston University in Langston, Oklahoma; Fisk University in Nashville, Tennessee; and Dillard University in New Orleans, Louisiana.
He worked his way up in academic administration, proving his leadership abilities by becoming dean at Dillard University in 1934, and chairman of the education department at Fisk University later in the 1930s. Bond was the founding president of Fort Valley State College, in Fort Valley, Georgia, where he was appointed in 1939 and served until 1945. During his tenure he managed expansion of the college to a four-year institution. More importantly, he doubled school income and tripled the state's appropriation for the college during lean economic times in the nation, substantial achievements for any college, and especially for a black college during the years of segregation.In 1945 Bond was selected as president of Lincoln University, the first African American to be appointed to that position. He served at his alma mater until 1957. During those years, he started years of research for his history of Lincoln University. In 1953, together with historians John Hope Franklin and C. Vann Woodward, Bond did research that helped support the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP)'s landmark US Supreme Court case of Brown v. Board of Education (1954).
| 9
|
[
"Horace Mann Bond",
"member of",
"Kappa Alpha Psi"
] |
Early life and education
Horace was born November 8, 1904, in Nashville, Tennessee, the grandson of enslaved Africans. Both his parents were college educated. His mother, Jane Alice Browne, was a schoolteacher, and his father, James Bond, was a minister who served at Congregational churches across the South, often associated with historically black colleges. His mother had graduated from Oberlin College in Ohio, and his father graduated from Berea College in Berea, Kentucky, in 1892. James Bond later served as a Berea College Trustee from 1896 to 1914. Both Berea and Oberlin are among the first colleges that were interracial. His parents were among the black elite with their educations and encouraged their children in academic achievement.Horace was the sixth of seven children. One of his brothers, J. Max Bond, Sr., became a prominent educator. During his childhood, Bond had several unpleasant encounters with whites. In one incident a white man shot at their house after having a fight with Horace's older brothers. In another, his father was arrested by a white neighbor, who was a police officer, when the Bond family moved into an all-white street. Bond excelled in school, entering high school at the age of nine and college at fourteen.Bond graduated in 1923 at age 19 with honors from Lincoln University, a historically black college in Pennsylvania. He was a member of Kappa Alpha Psi fraternity. At Penn State, where he went for graduate work, Bond realized that he was able to compete with white classmates, and earned competitive grades above the 90th percentile.Later Bond returned to Lincoln University to work as an instructor. Bond then suffered the only setback to his success; he was dismissed from the college for tolerating a gambling ring in a dormitory which he was supervising. Despite his embarrassment at Lincoln, Bond achieved a reputation as a fine scholar and administrator.
Bond earned the M.A. and Ph.D degrees from the University of Chicago, where his dissertation on black education in Alabama won the Rosenberger Prize in 1936. It was published in 1939. As was customary in those years, Bond taught at a variety of academic institutions before completing his doctorate. He published his first academic book in 1934. His early work was recognized by the Rosenwald Fund, which granted him fellowships in 1931 and 1932 and went on to support most of the rest of his career.
| 10
|
[
"Horace Mann Bond",
"employer",
"Clark Atlanta University"
] |
Critique of intelligence testing
Bond's first publications were in the NAACP magazine The Crisis in 1924. Here, following the publication of Brigham's analysis of Army intelligence tests he critiqued the logic behind Brighams conclusions that the lower African-American test scores indicated an inherent intellectual inferiority of the Negro race. Bond, concluded that "the medial score of White soldiers from the states of Mississippi, Kentucky, Arkansas, and Georgia, averaged ... the mental age of a twelve and a half year old child". And he asked "Are the exponents of intelligence tests as discriminators of racial differences prepared to assert that the white population of Arkansas is inherently and racially inferior to the whites of another section of the country?".: 200 In 1956 a group of White Southern Senators signed the Southern Manifesto in opposition to racial integration and the Brown vs. Board of Education decision. They argued that African Americans were not sufficiently intelligent to participate in the same schools as Whites. Bond published a parody of the arguments of the signing senators using the data he had first collected and published in 1924. He published the results in an essay titled ""Intelligence of Congressmen Who Signed the 'Southern Manifesto' as Measured by IQ Tests". Here he concluded that based on the Army intelligence tests the average of signing senators was in the lowest 20% of American Whites, on average signatories attended a college of the lowest ten percent of median National scores, and had a constituency whose majority was in the intelligence category of "morons". Consequently, Bond concluded, the logical policy recommendation following the reasoning of the senators, would be to segregate the slow-learning signatories into a group together where they could have "remedial attention to make up for their basic deficiencies". The essay was published by the NAACP and attracted widespread hilarity or uproar depending on viewpoint. Bond later referred to the essay as "his little foolishness", but he maintained that he had made a significant point.In 1958 Audrey Shuey's "The Testing of Negro Intelligence" was published, concluding, mostly based on old intelligence studies that Bond and others had refuted in the 1920s, that the intelligence of African Americans was innately inferior to that of Whites. Bond published a scathing review in which he showed that Shuey ignored many contradictory studies, and used biased methods of comparison, for example comparing Southern black test scores with the White national average, instead of the much lower Southern White scores. Bond concluded that all Shuey had proven was that "everywhere in the United States the American negro is a subordinated underprivileged social caste".He then returned with his family to the South, becoming dean of the School of Education at Atlanta University (later Clark Atlanta University). Bond later served as director of the Bureau of Educational and Social Research at the university. He retired in 1971.
| 15
|
[
"Horace Mann Bond",
"sibling",
"J. Max Bond, Sr."
] |
Early life and education
Horace was born November 8, 1904, in Nashville, Tennessee, the grandson of enslaved Africans. Both his parents were college educated. His mother, Jane Alice Browne, was a schoolteacher, and his father, James Bond, was a minister who served at Congregational churches across the South, often associated with historically black colleges. His mother had graduated from Oberlin College in Ohio, and his father graduated from Berea College in Berea, Kentucky, in 1892. James Bond later served as a Berea College Trustee from 1896 to 1914. Both Berea and Oberlin are among the first colleges that were interracial. His parents were among the black elite with their educations and encouraged their children in academic achievement.Horace was the sixth of seven children. One of his brothers, J. Max Bond, Sr., became a prominent educator. During his childhood, Bond had several unpleasant encounters with whites. In one incident a white man shot at their house after having a fight with Horace's older brothers. In another, his father was arrested by a white neighbor, who was a police officer, when the Bond family moved into an all-white street. Bond excelled in school, entering high school at the age of nine and college at fourteen.Bond graduated in 1923 at age 19 with honors from Lincoln University, a historically black college in Pennsylvania. He was a member of Kappa Alpha Psi fraternity. At Penn State, where he went for graduate work, Bond realized that he was able to compete with white classmates, and earned competitive grades above the 90th percentile.Later Bond returned to Lincoln University to work as an instructor. Bond then suffered the only setback to his success; he was dismissed from the college for tolerating a gambling ring in a dormitory which he was supervising. Despite his embarrassment at Lincoln, Bond achieved a reputation as a fine scholar and administrator.
Bond earned the M.A. and Ph.D degrees from the University of Chicago, where his dissertation on black education in Alabama won the Rosenberger Prize in 1936. It was published in 1939. As was customary in those years, Bond taught at a variety of academic institutions before completing his doctorate. He published his first academic book in 1934. His early work was recognized by the Rosenwald Fund, which granted him fellowships in 1931 and 1932 and went on to support most of the rest of his career.
| 16
|
[
"Horace Mann Bond",
"child",
"Julian Bond"
] |
Horace Mann Bond (November 8, 1904 – December 21, 1972) was an American historian, college administrator, social science researcher and the father of civil-rights leader Julian Bond. He earned a master's and doctorate from University of Chicago, at a time when only a small percentage of any young adults attended any college. He was an influential leader at several historically black colleges and was appointed the first president of Fort Valley State University in Georgia in 1939, where he managed its growth in programs and revenue. In 1945, he became the first African-American president of Lincoln University in Pennsylvania.
| 17
|
[
"Alexandra Balashova",
"place of birth",
"Moscow"
] |
Early life
Alexandra Balashova was born in Moscow. She was educated at the Bolshoi Theatre Ballet School.
| 1
|
[
"Alexandra Balashova",
"given name",
"Alexandra"
] |
Alexandra Mikhailovna Balashova (Russian: Александра Михайловна Балашова; 3 May 1887 — 5 January 1979), also seen as Aleksandra Balashova or Alexandra Balachova, was a Russian ballet dancer, and later a dance teacher and choreographer.Early life
Alexandra Balashova was born in Moscow. She was educated at the Bolshoi Theatre Ballet School.
| 10
|
[
"Francis Brinley",
"place of birth",
"England"
] |
Colonel Francis Brinley (1690 – November 27, 1765) was an American landowner, government official, philanthropist and military officer best known for being the subject of a portrait by John Smibert which hangs in the Metropolitan Museum of Art. Brinley, though he was born and died in England, spent most of his life in colonial Massachusetts as a prosperous landholder who was involved with several colonization projects throughout the region.
Born in 1690 in London to American colonists who had moved back to England, Brinley spent the first two decades of his life in Europe before moving back to North America in order to inherit the estate of his grandfather in Massachusetts. In 1719, his grandfather died and left his estate to Brinley, who settled down in Massachusetts and constructed a large colonial mansion for himself known as Datchet House in the Boston neighborhood of Roxbury.
In 1718, Brinley married a wealthy heiress from Boston named Deborah Lyde. Over the following decades, Brinley established himself as a prominent member of the American gentry, acquiring landholdings and slaves and sponsoring charitable organizations. He also served in several offices in the colonial government of Massachusetts, being successively appointed as an assistant-surveyor, deputy surveyor-general and a justice of the peace.
Brinley also became involved in colonization schemes, buying land in Suffield, Connecticut in 1735 and Framingham, Massachusetts in 1742. Upon the outbreak of the French and Indian War in 1754, he was promoted to the rank of colonel in the colonial militia. Brinley served throughout the entire duration of the war, though he personally never saw combat. After the war's end in 1763, Brinley travelled back to England, dying in London in 1765.Early life
Francis Brinley was born in 1690 in London, England. Both of his parents were American colonists who had emigrated to England at some point in time prior to Brinley's birth. Brinley's father was Thomas Brinley, who was born in Newport, Rhode Island; his mother was Catherine Page, who was from Boston, Massachusetts. Growing up, Brinley was sent by his parents to be educated at Eton College, a public school in Eton, Berkshire.In 1710, after living in England for two decades, Brinley returned to British North America in the hopes that he might inherit the vast personal fortune of his grandfather, who lived in Massachusetts and was also named Francis Brinley (and for whom the younger Brinley was named). When the senior Brinley died in 1719, he left his entire estate in his last will and testament to his grandson, which included a large collection of household silverware.Now in possession of a "considerable fortune", Brinley decided to settle down in Massachusetts as a member of the American gentry. He ordered the construction of a lavish colonial mansion known as Datchet House in the Boston neighborhood of Roxbury using his inheritance, which was "one of the most splendid residences in the colony at that time." One of Brinley's descendants claimed in an 1853 book that the mansion was modeled after an English country house near the Berkshire village of Datchet, which the descendant also claimed the mansion was named after.
| 1
|
[
"Francis Brinley",
"spouse",
"Deborah Lyde Brinley"
] |
Colonel Francis Brinley (1690 – November 27, 1765) was an American landowner, government official, philanthropist and military officer best known for being the subject of a portrait by John Smibert which hangs in the Metropolitan Museum of Art. Brinley, though he was born and died in England, spent most of his life in colonial Massachusetts as a prosperous landholder who was involved with several colonization projects throughout the region.
Born in 1690 in London to American colonists who had moved back to England, Brinley spent the first two decades of his life in Europe before moving back to North America in order to inherit the estate of his grandfather in Massachusetts. In 1719, his grandfather died and left his estate to Brinley, who settled down in Massachusetts and constructed a large colonial mansion for himself known as Datchet House in the Boston neighborhood of Roxbury.
In 1718, Brinley married a wealthy heiress from Boston named Deborah Lyde. Over the following decades, Brinley established himself as a prominent member of the American gentry, acquiring landholdings and slaves and sponsoring charitable organizations. He also served in several offices in the colonial government of Massachusetts, being successively appointed as an assistant-surveyor, deputy surveyor-general and a justice of the peace.
Brinley also became involved in colonization schemes, buying land in Suffield, Connecticut in 1735 and Framingham, Massachusetts in 1742. Upon the outbreak of the French and Indian War in 1754, he was promoted to the rank of colonel in the colonial militia. Brinley served throughout the entire duration of the war, though he personally never saw combat. After the war's end in 1763, Brinley travelled back to England, dying in London in 1765.Political career and landholdings
In 1718, Brinley married Deborah Lyde, a wealthy and socially influential heiress who was the daughter of an moneyed couple from Boston, Edward Lyde and his wife Catherine. Over the course of their marriage, the couple went on to have seven children together, one of whom, a son, was named Francis after his father. In addition to owning an equivalent amount of wealth as her husband, Deborah maintained connections with aristocratic circles in England, which allowed her to emulate the most recent cultural trends and fashions in Europe, a comparative rarity in North America.Over the next decades, Brinley established himself as a prominent member of the Massachusetts elite, acquiring extensive landholdings in Suffolk County, including several large hayfields. He also served in several legal and political offices within the colonial government of Massachusetts over the course of his career, serving as an assistant-surveyor and justice of the peace; Brinley was appointed to the latter position by the governor of Massachusetts, William Shirley, on June 27, 1743. Brinley would also go on to serve as a deputy surveyor-general of Massachusetts.Anglo-Irish philosopher and clergyman George Berkeley made a visit to Britain's North American colonies in 1728. Accompanied by his family, he visited Boston, where his entourage was invited by Brinley to stay at Datchet House for the duration of their stay. Berkeley was attempting to promote the spread of Palladian architecture in British North America, an architectural style that Brinley had ordered his to be built in; historian Margaretta M. Lovell suggested that it was this factor which played a major role in Berkeley's decision to live in Datchet House while staying in Boston.The next year, Brinley commissioned Scottish-born painter John Smibert, who had accompanied Berkeley to North America, to paint portraits of both himself and his wife and child. Smibert's portrait of Brinley depicted both Queen Anne style furniture that he owned and Brinley's landholdings; the portrait Smibert made of Deborah and her son Francis depicted a small orange tree she owned, an expensive rarity in North America. Lovell argued that given Brinley's wealth and European connections, "[it was] not surprising... that Brinley was one of Smibert's first customers".Beginning in the 1730s, Brinley started to dabble in colonization projects as well. In 1732, the General Court of Massachusetts issued a land grant consisting of six square miles to a colonist named Christopher Jacob Lawton from Suffield, Connecticut for a sum of money, in line with a boundary agreement negotiated in 1713. Three years later, Lawton divided up the grant and sold a portion of it (consisting of roughly a quarter of what he had purchased in 1732) to Brinley, who subsequently became one of the town proprietors of Suffield alongside Lawton and two other investors.
| 8
|
[
"Amanda E. Peele",
"given name",
"Amanda"
] |
Early life and education
Amanda E. Peele was born on January 10, 1903, in Jackson, North Carolina. A 1923 graduate of Northampton County Training School, Peele earned a Bachelor of Science degree from Hampton Institute in 1930. After winning a fellowship from the General Education Board, she earned a Master of Science degree from Cornell University in 1934. Her thesis, entitled Floral anatomy of Trapa natans, was a study of water caltrops. At Cornell, Peele studied under Arthur Johnson Eames, William J. Hamilton, Jr., and Albert Hazen Wright.
| 3
|
[
"Amanda E. Peele",
"place of birth",
"Jackson"
] |
Early life and education
Amanda E. Peele was born on January 10, 1903, in Jackson, North Carolina. A 1923 graduate of Northampton County Training School, Peele earned a Bachelor of Science degree from Hampton Institute in 1930. After winning a fellowship from the General Education Board, she earned a Master of Science degree from Cornell University in 1934. Her thesis, entitled Floral anatomy of Trapa natans, was a study of water caltrops. At Cornell, Peele studied under Arthur Johnson Eames, William J. Hamilton, Jr., and Albert Hazen Wright.
| 5
|
[
"Gladys Wood",
"instance of",
"human"
] |
Gladys Sara Wood (May 16, 1916 – August 3, 2017) was an American educator and academic administrator. She was the first African-American principal in the Boston Public Schools.Early life and education
Gladys Wood was born on May 16, 1916, in the Roxbury neighborhood of Boston, Massachusetts, to Samuel Clarence Wood Sr. and Gertrude Ella Boyd. Her father worked as a porter, carpenter, and lumber surveyor. Her mother was a schoolteacher in Alabama before she married and moved to Massachusetts. Gladys Wood was the third of 13 children. Her middle name was recorded as "Samuel" in early family Bibles, and her baptism recorded it as "Sammie", but Wood eventually used the middle name "Sara".Wood attended Julia Ward Howe Elementary School, Lewis Jr. High School, and Roxbury Memorial High School. In 1937, she earned a bachelor's degree from the Teachers College of the City of Boston (later the Boston State College). She earned a master's degree in education from the same college in 1951, writing a 141-page master's thesis entitled "Nutrition And Its Relationship To The Noonday Lunch Of The Growing Child".
| 0
|
[
"Gladys Wood",
"place of birth",
"Roxbury"
] |
Early life and education
Gladys Wood was born on May 16, 1916, in the Roxbury neighborhood of Boston, Massachusetts, to Samuel Clarence Wood Sr. and Gertrude Ella Boyd. Her father worked as a porter, carpenter, and lumber surveyor. Her mother was a schoolteacher in Alabama before she married and moved to Massachusetts. Gladys Wood was the third of 13 children. Her middle name was recorded as "Samuel" in early family Bibles, and her baptism recorded it as "Sammie", but Wood eventually used the middle name "Sara".Wood attended Julia Ward Howe Elementary School, Lewis Jr. High School, and Roxbury Memorial High School. In 1937, she earned a bachelor's degree from the Teachers College of the City of Boston (later the Boston State College). She earned a master's degree in education from the same college in 1951, writing a 141-page master's thesis entitled "Nutrition And Its Relationship To The Noonday Lunch Of The Growing Child".
| 3
|
[
"Gladys Wood",
"occupation",
"teacher"
] |
Gladys Sara Wood (May 16, 1916 – August 3, 2017) was an American educator and academic administrator. She was the first African-American principal in the Boston Public Schools.Early life and education
Gladys Wood was born on May 16, 1916, in the Roxbury neighborhood of Boston, Massachusetts, to Samuel Clarence Wood Sr. and Gertrude Ella Boyd. Her father worked as a porter, carpenter, and lumber surveyor. Her mother was a schoolteacher in Alabama before she married and moved to Massachusetts. Gladys Wood was the third of 13 children. Her middle name was recorded as "Samuel" in early family Bibles, and her baptism recorded it as "Sammie", but Wood eventually used the middle name "Sara".Wood attended Julia Ward Howe Elementary School, Lewis Jr. High School, and Roxbury Memorial High School. In 1937, she earned a bachelor's degree from the Teachers College of the City of Boston (later the Boston State College). She earned a master's degree in education from the same college in 1951, writing a 141-page master's thesis entitled "Nutrition And Its Relationship To The Noonday Lunch Of The Growing Child".
| 4
|
[
"Gladys Wood",
"ethnic group",
"African Americans"
] |
Gladys Sara Wood (May 16, 1916 – August 3, 2017) was an American educator and academic administrator. She was the first African-American principal in the Boston Public Schools.
| 5
|
[
"Gladys Wood",
"academic degree",
"bachelor's degree"
] |
Early life and education
Gladys Wood was born on May 16, 1916, in the Roxbury neighborhood of Boston, Massachusetts, to Samuel Clarence Wood Sr. and Gertrude Ella Boyd. Her father worked as a porter, carpenter, and lumber surveyor. Her mother was a schoolteacher in Alabama before she married and moved to Massachusetts. Gladys Wood was the third of 13 children. Her middle name was recorded as "Samuel" in early family Bibles, and her baptism recorded it as "Sammie", but Wood eventually used the middle name "Sara".Wood attended Julia Ward Howe Elementary School, Lewis Jr. High School, and Roxbury Memorial High School. In 1937, she earned a bachelor's degree from the Teachers College of the City of Boston (later the Boston State College). She earned a master's degree in education from the same college in 1951, writing a 141-page master's thesis entitled "Nutrition And Its Relationship To The Noonday Lunch Of The Growing Child".
| 6
|
[
"Gladys Wood",
"given name",
"Sara"
] |
Gladys Sara Wood (May 16, 1916 – August 3, 2017) was an American educator and academic administrator. She was the first African-American principal in the Boston Public Schools.Early life and education
Gladys Wood was born on May 16, 1916, in the Roxbury neighborhood of Boston, Massachusetts, to Samuel Clarence Wood Sr. and Gertrude Ella Boyd. Her father worked as a porter, carpenter, and lumber surveyor. Her mother was a schoolteacher in Alabama before she married and moved to Massachusetts. Gladys Wood was the third of 13 children. Her middle name was recorded as "Samuel" in early family Bibles, and her baptism recorded it as "Sammie", but Wood eventually used the middle name "Sara".Wood attended Julia Ward Howe Elementary School, Lewis Jr. High School, and Roxbury Memorial High School. In 1937, she earned a bachelor's degree from the Teachers College of the City of Boston (later the Boston State College). She earned a master's degree in education from the same college in 1951, writing a 141-page master's thesis entitled "Nutrition And Its Relationship To The Noonday Lunch Of The Growing Child".
| 7
|
[
"Gladys Wood",
"family name",
"Wood"
] |
Gladys Sara Wood (May 16, 1916 – August 3, 2017) was an American educator and academic administrator. She was the first African-American principal in the Boston Public Schools.Early life and education
Gladys Wood was born on May 16, 1916, in the Roxbury neighborhood of Boston, Massachusetts, to Samuel Clarence Wood Sr. and Gertrude Ella Boyd. Her father worked as a porter, carpenter, and lumber surveyor. Her mother was a schoolteacher in Alabama before she married and moved to Massachusetts. Gladys Wood was the third of 13 children. Her middle name was recorded as "Samuel" in early family Bibles, and her baptism recorded it as "Sammie", but Wood eventually used the middle name "Sara".Wood attended Julia Ward Howe Elementary School, Lewis Jr. High School, and Roxbury Memorial High School. In 1937, she earned a bachelor's degree from the Teachers College of the City of Boston (later the Boston State College). She earned a master's degree in education from the same college in 1951, writing a 141-page master's thesis entitled "Nutrition And Its Relationship To The Noonday Lunch Of The Growing Child".
| 9
|
[
"Gladys Wood",
"employer",
"Boston Public Schools"
] |
Gladys Sara Wood (May 16, 1916 – August 3, 2017) was an American educator and academic administrator. She was the first African-American principal in the Boston Public Schools.Career
Wood began teaching junior high school in the Boston Public Schools in 1947. She became a vice principal of the Charles Perkins school in the Back Bay neighborhood of Boston in 1957. In 1963 she became the assistant director of teacher placement for Boston Public Schools.In July 1966, Wood was appointed to be Boston's first Black principal, at the Dearborn Elementary school district in Roxbury. The Dearborn district included the Dearborn, Palmer, and Davis schools, and at the time served a population of approximately 1,500 students. Shortly after a press conference in which her appointment was announced, Wood told the Bay State Banner: "I resented the fact that I was singled out as an oddity. In fact, one reporter suggested that he would be watching the Dearborn district very closely. I think it would be unfair for anyone to hold out a separate standard of efficiency for me." She also described her concerns with the school system, including high teacher turnover, which she attributed to teachers who were "unable to cope with what they meet" in the Black school district due to lack of training in teachers colleges. The Roxbury, Hyde Park, and Mattapan neighborhoods in Boston have large populations of Black residents, as well as those from other racial minorities. Particularly during the decades in which Wood taught and served as principals in these communities, the school systems were poorly funded and were allocated few resources. Wood was known for her advocacy for increased funding and better teachers.Two years after becoming principal at Dearborn Elementary, she was offered a principal position at a junior high school, but chose to stay at Dearborn because she felt there were too many problems yet to fix. Wood later served as principal at the Tileston School in Mattapan and the Chittick School in Hyde Park.In 1966, Wood was awarded for her "outstanding service to the ideals of brotherhood" by the National Conference of Christians and Jews. In 1968, she received a Frederick A. Douglass Achievement Award.
| 10
|
[
"Gladys Wood",
"academic degree",
"Master of Education"
] |
Early life and education
Gladys Wood was born on May 16, 1916, in the Roxbury neighborhood of Boston, Massachusetts, to Samuel Clarence Wood Sr. and Gertrude Ella Boyd. Her father worked as a porter, carpenter, and lumber surveyor. Her mother was a schoolteacher in Alabama before she married and moved to Massachusetts. Gladys Wood was the third of 13 children. Her middle name was recorded as "Samuel" in early family Bibles, and her baptism recorded it as "Sammie", but Wood eventually used the middle name "Sara".Wood attended Julia Ward Howe Elementary School, Lewis Jr. High School, and Roxbury Memorial High School. In 1937, she earned a bachelor's degree from the Teachers College of the City of Boston (later the Boston State College). She earned a master's degree in education from the same college in 1951, writing a 141-page master's thesis entitled "Nutrition And Its Relationship To The Noonday Lunch Of The Growing Child".
| 11
|
[
"Gladys Wood",
"educated at",
"Boston State College"
] |
Early life and education
Gladys Wood was born on May 16, 1916, in the Roxbury neighborhood of Boston, Massachusetts, to Samuel Clarence Wood Sr. and Gertrude Ella Boyd. Her father worked as a porter, carpenter, and lumber surveyor. Her mother was a schoolteacher in Alabama before she married and moved to Massachusetts. Gladys Wood was the third of 13 children. Her middle name was recorded as "Samuel" in early family Bibles, and her baptism recorded it as "Sammie", but Wood eventually used the middle name "Sara".Wood attended Julia Ward Howe Elementary School, Lewis Jr. High School, and Roxbury Memorial High School. In 1937, she earned a bachelor's degree from the Teachers College of the City of Boston (later the Boston State College). She earned a master's degree in education from the same college in 1951, writing a 141-page master's thesis entitled "Nutrition And Its Relationship To The Noonday Lunch Of The Growing Child".
| 12
|
[
"Gladys Wood",
"sex or gender",
"female"
] |
Gladys Sara Wood (May 16, 1916 – August 3, 2017) was an American educator and academic administrator. She was the first African-American principal in the Boston Public Schools.Early life and education
Gladys Wood was born on May 16, 1916, in the Roxbury neighborhood of Boston, Massachusetts, to Samuel Clarence Wood Sr. and Gertrude Ella Boyd. Her father worked as a porter, carpenter, and lumber surveyor. Her mother was a schoolteacher in Alabama before she married and moved to Massachusetts. Gladys Wood was the third of 13 children. Her middle name was recorded as "Samuel" in early family Bibles, and her baptism recorded it as "Sammie", but Wood eventually used the middle name "Sara".Wood attended Julia Ward Howe Elementary School, Lewis Jr. High School, and Roxbury Memorial High School. In 1937, she earned a bachelor's degree from the Teachers College of the City of Boston (later the Boston State College). She earned a master's degree in education from the same college in 1951, writing a 141-page master's thesis entitled "Nutrition And Its Relationship To The Noonday Lunch Of The Growing Child".
| 13
|
[
"Gladys Wood",
"given name",
"Gladys"
] |
Gladys Sara Wood (May 16, 1916 – August 3, 2017) was an American educator and academic administrator. She was the first African-American principal in the Boston Public Schools.Early life and education
Gladys Wood was born on May 16, 1916, in the Roxbury neighborhood of Boston, Massachusetts, to Samuel Clarence Wood Sr. and Gertrude Ella Boyd. Her father worked as a porter, carpenter, and lumber surveyor. Her mother was a schoolteacher in Alabama before she married and moved to Massachusetts. Gladys Wood was the third of 13 children. Her middle name was recorded as "Samuel" in early family Bibles, and her baptism recorded it as "Sammie", but Wood eventually used the middle name "Sara".Wood attended Julia Ward Howe Elementary School, Lewis Jr. High School, and Roxbury Memorial High School. In 1937, she earned a bachelor's degree from the Teachers College of the City of Boston (later the Boston State College). She earned a master's degree in education from the same college in 1951, writing a 141-page master's thesis entitled "Nutrition And Its Relationship To The Noonday Lunch Of The Growing Child".
| 15
|
[
"Gladys Wood",
"occupation",
"academic administrator"
] |
Gladys Sara Wood (May 16, 1916 – August 3, 2017) was an American educator and academic administrator. She was the first African-American principal in the Boston Public Schools.
| 16
|
[
"Demiplane (company)",
"founded by",
"human"
] |
History
In 2019, Demiplane was founded by Peter Romenesko and Travis Frederick with the platform launching officially in 2020. Romenesko and Frederick grew up in the Lake Geneva area playing tabletop games together "and eventually re-united to build Demiplane". Demiplane acts as a platform for various tabletop role-playing game tools such as game hosting and matchmaking, shared game journals, and digital compendiums for licensed games. The company has received funding from TitletownTech and uses TitletownTech's startup incubator office space.In March 2021, Adam Bradford – founder of D&D Beyond – joined the company as the Chief Development Officer. From October to December 2021, Demiplane announced three partnerships for their new Nexus digital toolset: Pathfinder Nexus with Paizo, World of Darkness Nexus (for games such as Vampire: The Masquerade and Werewolf: the Apocalypse) with Paradox Interactive, and Free League Nexus with Free League Publishing. An early access version of Pathfinder Nexus, titled Pathfinder Primer, was launched at the time of the announcement. Nexus has been called the "equivalent to digital toolset D&D Beyond" for other role-playing games.In April 2022, Demiplane announced that they will host the new Marvel tabletop role-playing game titled Marvel Multiverse Role-Playing Game NEXUS with the digital playtest rulebook and early access given to users who pre-order the game. In June 2022, early access for Vampire: The Masquerade Nexus was launched. This is the first Demiplane toolset to include digital/physical bundles for a roleplaying game. Demiplane also announced that they are developing Nexus support for the World of Darkness game Hunter: The Reckoning. In October 2022, Magpie Games announced that early access for Avatar Legends Nexus, Demiplane's digital toolset Avatar Legends: The Roleplaying Game, was launching that month.In February 2023, Demiplane announced the upcoming 5E Nexus which will support third-party Dungeons & Dragons 5th Edition (D&D) publishers who use the D&D 5.1 System Reference Document; this announcement included "pre-launch" tools such as 5E group matchmaking and group creation. A rule compendium, a digital reader, and a character builder are scheduled to be released in waves over 2023. Bradford said the intent at the moment was not to partner with Wizards of the Coast on official D&D products.
| 0
|
[
"Demiplane (company)",
"instance of",
"company"
] |
Demiplane is a company that creates digital toolsets for playing tabletop role-playing games which can be used as an aid to playing in person or remotely online. The Demiplane platform's main services are game matchmaking, game hosting and licensed content via the Nexus digital toolset. Nexus provides access to digital rulebooks, adventures, and other supplements; it also provides digital tools like a character builder and character sheets. The platform was launched in 2020; early access to Nexus launched in 2021.
The company has also produced and broadcast several web series on their official Twitch and YouTube channels. This includes the ongoing actual play web series Children of Éarte created and run by Deborah Ann Woll which launched in March 2022.
| 5
|
[
"Demiplane (company)",
"main subject",
"tabletop role-playing game"
] |
Demiplane is a company that creates digital toolsets for playing tabletop role-playing games which can be used as an aid to playing in person or remotely online. The Demiplane platform's main services are game matchmaking, game hosting and licensed content via the Nexus digital toolset. Nexus provides access to digital rulebooks, adventures, and other supplements; it also provides digital tools like a character builder and character sheets. The platform was launched in 2020; early access to Nexus launched in 2021.
The company has also produced and broadcast several web series on their official Twitch and YouTube channels. This includes the ongoing actual play web series Children of Éarte created and run by Deborah Ann Woll which launched in March 2022.Game matchmaking
Demiplane provides a free matchmaking service for over 180 roleplaying games; it is modeled on the matchmaking services offered in online multiplayer video games. Users can select various attributes such as group size and game style/themes. These user selections go into an algorithm to match groups together which includes the option of chat discussion to review expectations with the Game Master. After games, players and Game Masters can rate each other; other users can see these ratings during future matchmaking.
| 6
|
[
"Zangger Committee",
"has part(s)",
"Austria"
] |
Chairs
The following have served as chairs of the Zangger Committee:
1971–1989: Dr. Claude Zangger (Switzerland)
1989–1993: Ilkka Mäkipentti (Finland)
1993–2005: Fritz Schmidt (Austria)
2006–2010: Pavel Klucký (Czech Republic)
2010–2015: Shawn Caza (Canada)
2015–present: Louise Fluger Callesen (Denmark)The United Kingdom Mission to the United Nations Office at Vienna acts as the committee's secretariat.Members
There are 39 Members States in the Zangger Committee:
| 20
|
[
"Zangger Committee",
"instance of",
"intergovernmental organization"
] |
The Zangger Committee, also known as the Nuclear Exporters Committee, sprang from Article III.2 of the Treaty on the Non-Proliferation of Nuclear Weapons (NPT) which entered into force on March 5, 1970. Under the terms of Article III.2 International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA) safeguards must be applied to nuclear exports.
| 48
|
[
"Zangger Committee",
"instance of",
"political organization"
] |
The Zangger Committee, also known as the Nuclear Exporters Committee, sprang from Article III.2 of the Treaty on the Non-Proliferation of Nuclear Weapons (NPT) which entered into force on March 5, 1970. Under the terms of Article III.2 International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA) safeguards must be applied to nuclear exports.
| 49
|
[
"Zangger Committee",
"instance of",
"international organization"
] |
The Zangger Committee, also known as the Nuclear Exporters Committee, sprang from Article III.2 of the Treaty on the Non-Proliferation of Nuclear Weapons (NPT) which entered into force on March 5, 1970. Under the terms of Article III.2 International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA) safeguards must be applied to nuclear exports.
| 50
|
[
"International Cospas-Sarsat Programme",
"founded by",
"Canada"
] |
The International Cospas-Sarsat Programme is a satellite-aided search and rescue (SAR) initiative. It is organized as a treaty-based, nonprofit, intergovernmental, humanitarian cooperative of 45 nations and agencies (see infobox). It is dedicated to detecting and locating emergency locator radio beacons activated by persons, aircraft or vessels in distress, and forwarding this alert information to authorities that can take action for rescue. Member countries operate a constellation of around 66 satellites orbiting the Earth which carry radio receivers capable of locating an emergency beacon anywhere on Earth transmitting on the Cospas-Sarsat frequency of 406 MHz.
Distress alerts are detected, located and forwarded to over 200 countries and territories at no cost to beacon owners or the receiving government agencies. Cospas-Sarsat was conceived and initiated by Canada, France, the United States, and the former Soviet Union in 1979. The first rescue using the technology of Cospas-Sarsat occurred on 10 September 1982 (1982-09-10). The definitive agreement of the organization was signed by those four States as the "Parties" to the agreement on 1 July 1988.
The term Cospas-Sarsat derives from COSPAS (КОСПАС), an acronym from the transliterated Russian "Космическая Система Поиска Аварийных Судов" (Latin script: "Cosmicheskaya Sistema Poiska Avariynyh Sudov"), meaning "Space System for the Search of Vessels in Distress", and SARSAT, an acronym for "Search And Rescue Satellite-Aided Tracking".
| 0
|
[
"International Cospas-Sarsat Programme",
"instance of",
"intergovernmental organization"
] |
The International Cospas-Sarsat Programme is a satellite-aided search and rescue (SAR) initiative. It is organized as a treaty-based, nonprofit, intergovernmental, humanitarian cooperative of 45 nations and agencies (see infobox). It is dedicated to detecting and locating emergency locator radio beacons activated by persons, aircraft or vessels in distress, and forwarding this alert information to authorities that can take action for rescue. Member countries operate a constellation of around 66 satellites orbiting the Earth which carry radio receivers capable of locating an emergency beacon anywhere on Earth transmitting on the Cospas-Sarsat frequency of 406 MHz.
Distress alerts are detected, located and forwarded to over 200 countries and territories at no cost to beacon owners or the receiving government agencies. Cospas-Sarsat was conceived and initiated by Canada, France, the United States, and the former Soviet Union in 1979. The first rescue using the technology of Cospas-Sarsat occurred on 10 September 1982 (1982-09-10). The definitive agreement of the organization was signed by those four States as the "Parties" to the agreement on 1 July 1988.
The term Cospas-Sarsat derives from COSPAS (КОСПАС), an acronym from the transliterated Russian "Космическая Система Поиска Аварийных Судов" (Latin script: "Cosmicheskaya Sistema Poiska Avariynyh Sudov"), meaning "Space System for the Search of Vessels in Distress", and SARSAT, an acronym for "Search And Rescue Satellite-Aided Tracking".
| 5
|
[
"Wassenaar Arrangement",
"has part(s)",
"Canada"
] |
Foreign availability outside participating states
Ability to effectively control the export of the goods
Ability to make a clear and objective specification of the item
Controlled by another regime, such as the Australia Group, the Nuclear Suppliers Group, or the Missile Technology Control Regime
| 0
|
[
"Wassenaar Arrangement",
"has part(s)",
"Italy"
] |
Foreign availability outside participating states
Ability to effectively control the export of the goods
Ability to make a clear and objective specification of the item
Controlled by another regime, such as the Australia Group, the Nuclear Suppliers Group, or the Missile Technology Control Regime
| 25
|
[
"Wassenaar Arrangement",
"has part(s)",
"Denmark"
] |
Be a producer or exporter of arms or sensitive industrial equipment
Maintain non-proliferation policies and appropriate national policies, including adherence to:
Non-proliferation policies, such as (where applicable) the Nuclear Suppliers Group, the Missile Technology Control Regime, and the Australia Group
Treaty on the Non-Proliferation of Nuclear Weapons, the Biological Weapons Convention, the Chemical Weapons Convention and, where applicable, START I (including the Lisbon Protocol)
Maintain fully effective export controlsThe Arrangement is open on a global and non-discriminatory basis to prospective adherents that comply with the agreed criteria. Admission of new members requires the consensus of all members.
India joined as the 42nd participating state on 7 December 2017. "Wassenaar Arrangement participating states reviewed the progress of a number of current membership applications and agreed at the plenary meeting to admit India which will become the Arrangement's 42nd participating state as soon as the necessary procedural arrangements for joining the WA are completed", the grouping said in a statement. India's application was supported by Russia, the United States, France and Germany.
| 29
|
[
"Wassenaar Arrangement",
"has part(s)",
"Austria"
] |
Foreign availability outside participating states
Ability to effectively control the export of the goods
Ability to make a clear and objective specification of the item
Controlled by another regime, such as the Australia Group, the Nuclear Suppliers Group, or the Missile Technology Control Regime
| 32
|
[
"Wassenaar Arrangement",
"headquarters location",
"Vienna"
] |
The Wassenaar Arrangement on Export Controls for Conventional Arms and Dual-Use Goods and Technologies is a multilateral export control regime (MECR) with 42 participating states including many former Comecon (Warsaw Pact) countries established in 1996.
The Wassenaar Arrangement was established to contribute to regional and international security and stability by promoting transparency and greater responsibility in transfers of conventional arms and dual-use goods and technologies, thus preventing destabilizing accumulations. Participating states seek, through their national policies, to ensure that transfers of these items do not contribute to the development or enhancement of military capabilities which undermine these goals, and are not diverted to support such capabilities.
It is the successor to the Cold War–era Coordinating Committee for Multilateral Export Controls (CoCom), and was established on 12 July 1996, in Wassenaar, the Netherlands, which is near The Hague. The Wassenaar Arrangement is considerably less strict than CoCom, focusing primarily on the transparency of national export control regimes and not granting veto power to individual members over organizational decisions. A Secretariat for administering the agreement is located in Vienna, Austria. Like CoCom, however, it is not a treaty, and therefore is not legally binding.
Every six months member countries exchange information on deliveries of conventional arms to non-Wassenaar members that fall under eight broad weapons categories: battle tanks, armoured fighting vehicles, large-calibre artillery, military aircraft, military helicopters, warships, missiles or missile systems, and small arms and light weapons.
| 61
|
[
"Wassenaar Arrangement",
"instance of",
"international organization"
] |
The Wassenaar Arrangement on Export Controls for Conventional Arms and Dual-Use Goods and Technologies is a multilateral export control regime (MECR) with 42 participating states including many former Comecon (Warsaw Pact) countries established in 1996.
The Wassenaar Arrangement was established to contribute to regional and international security and stability by promoting transparency and greater responsibility in transfers of conventional arms and dual-use goods and technologies, thus preventing destabilizing accumulations. Participating states seek, through their national policies, to ensure that transfers of these items do not contribute to the development or enhancement of military capabilities which undermine these goals, and are not diverted to support such capabilities.
It is the successor to the Cold War–era Coordinating Committee for Multilateral Export Controls (CoCom), and was established on 12 July 1996, in Wassenaar, the Netherlands, which is near The Hague. The Wassenaar Arrangement is considerably less strict than CoCom, focusing primarily on the transparency of national export control regimes and not granting veto power to individual members over organizational decisions. A Secretariat for administering the agreement is located in Vienna, Austria. Like CoCom, however, it is not a treaty, and therefore is not legally binding.
Every six months member countries exchange information on deliveries of conventional arms to non-Wassenaar members that fall under eight broad weapons categories: battle tanks, armoured fighting vehicles, large-calibre artillery, military aircraft, military helicopters, warships, missiles or missile systems, and small arms and light weapons.
| 66
|
[
"Wassenaar Arrangement",
"has part(s)",
"Australia"
] |
Foreign availability outside participating states
Ability to effectively control the export of the goods
Ability to make a clear and objective specification of the item
Controlled by another regime, such as the Australia Group, the Nuclear Suppliers Group, or the Missile Technology Control Regime
| 72
|
[
"Australia Group",
"founded by",
"Australia"
] |
The Australia Group is a multilateral export control regime (MECR) and an informal group of countries (now joined by the European Commission) established in 1985 (after the use of chemical weapons by Iraq in 1984) to help member countries to identify those exports which need to be controlled so as not to contribute to the spread of chemical and biological weapons.The group, initially consisting of 15 members, held its first meeting in Brussels, Belgium, in June 1985. With the incorporation of India on January 19, 2018, it now has 43 members, including Australia, New Zealand, the European Commission, all 27 member states of the European Union, United Kingdom, the United States, Canada, India, Ukraine, and Argentina. The name comes from Australia's initiative to create the group. Australia manages the secretariat.
The initial members of the group had different assessments of which chemical precursors should be subject to export control. Later adherents initially had no such controls. Today, members of the group maintain export controls on a uniform list of 87 compounds, including several that are not prohibited for export under the Chemical Weapons Convention, but can be used in the manufacture of chemical weapons. Additionally, the Australia Group expanded its standardization of licensing and export controls to cover technology related to the manufacturing of chemical weapons or controlled components.
In 2002, the group took two important steps to strengthen export control. The first was the "no-undercut" requirement, which stated that any member of the group considering making an export to another state that had already been denied an export by any other member of the group must first consult with that member state before approving the export. The second was the "catch-all" provision, which requires member states to halt all exports that could be used by importers in chemical or biological weapons programs, regardless of whether the export is on the group's control lists. Delegations representing the members meet every year in Paris, France.
| 23
|
[
"Australia Group",
"named after",
"Australia"
] |
The Australia Group is a multilateral export control regime (MECR) and an informal group of countries (now joined by the European Commission) established in 1985 (after the use of chemical weapons by Iraq in 1984) to help member countries to identify those exports which need to be controlled so as not to contribute to the spread of chemical and biological weapons.The group, initially consisting of 15 members, held its first meeting in Brussels, Belgium, in June 1985. With the incorporation of India on January 19, 2018, it now has 43 members, including Australia, New Zealand, the European Commission, all 27 member states of the European Union, United Kingdom, the United States, Canada, India, Ukraine, and Argentina. The name comes from Australia's initiative to create the group. Australia manages the secretariat.
The initial members of the group had different assessments of which chemical precursors should be subject to export control. Later adherents initially had no such controls. Today, members of the group maintain export controls on a uniform list of 87 compounds, including several that are not prohibited for export under the Chemical Weapons Convention, but can be used in the manufacture of chemical weapons. Additionally, the Australia Group expanded its standardization of licensing and export controls to cover technology related to the manufacturing of chemical weapons or controlled components.
In 2002, the group took two important steps to strengthen export control. The first was the "no-undercut" requirement, which stated that any member of the group considering making an export to another state that had already been denied an export by any other member of the group must first consult with that member state before approving the export. The second was the "catch-all" provision, which requires member states to halt all exports that could be used by importers in chemical or biological weapons programs, regardless of whether the export is on the group's control lists. Delegations representing the members meet every year in Paris, France.
| 24
|
[
"Australia Group",
"instance of",
"international organization"
] |
The Australia Group is a multilateral export control regime (MECR) and an informal group of countries (now joined by the European Commission) established in 1985 (after the use of chemical weapons by Iraq in 1984) to help member countries to identify those exports which need to be controlled so as not to contribute to the spread of chemical and biological weapons.The group, initially consisting of 15 members, held its first meeting in Brussels, Belgium, in June 1985. With the incorporation of India on January 19, 2018, it now has 43 members, including Australia, New Zealand, the European Commission, all 27 member states of the European Union, United Kingdom, the United States, Canada, India, Ukraine, and Argentina. The name comes from Australia's initiative to create the group. Australia manages the secretariat.
The initial members of the group had different assessments of which chemical precursors should be subject to export control. Later adherents initially had no such controls. Today, members of the group maintain export controls on a uniform list of 87 compounds, including several that are not prohibited for export under the Chemical Weapons Convention, but can be used in the manufacture of chemical weapons. Additionally, the Australia Group expanded its standardization of licensing and export controls to cover technology related to the manufacturing of chemical weapons or controlled components.
In 2002, the group took two important steps to strengthen export control. The first was the "no-undercut" requirement, which stated that any member of the group considering making an export to another state that had already been denied an export by any other member of the group must first consult with that member state before approving the export. The second was the "catch-all" provision, which requires member states to halt all exports that could be used by importers in chemical or biological weapons programs, regardless of whether the export is on the group's control lists. Delegations representing the members meet every year in Paris, France.
| 31
|
[
"Australia Group",
"has part(s)",
"Australia"
] |
The Australia Group is a multilateral export control regime (MECR) and an informal group of countries (now joined by the European Commission) established in 1985 (after the use of chemical weapons by Iraq in 1984) to help member countries to identify those exports which need to be controlled so as not to contribute to the spread of chemical and biological weapons.The group, initially consisting of 15 members, held its first meeting in Brussels, Belgium, in June 1985. With the incorporation of India on January 19, 2018, it now has 43 members, including Australia, New Zealand, the European Commission, all 27 member states of the European Union, United Kingdom, the United States, Canada, India, Ukraine, and Argentina. The name comes from Australia's initiative to create the group. Australia manages the secretariat.
The initial members of the group had different assessments of which chemical precursors should be subject to export control. Later adherents initially had no such controls. Today, members of the group maintain export controls on a uniform list of 87 compounds, including several that are not prohibited for export under the Chemical Weapons Convention, but can be used in the manufacture of chemical weapons. Additionally, the Australia Group expanded its standardization of licensing and export controls to cover technology related to the manufacturing of chemical weapons or controlled components.
In 2002, the group took two important steps to strengthen export control. The first was the "no-undercut" requirement, which stated that any member of the group considering making an export to another state that had already been denied an export by any other member of the group must first consult with that member state before approving the export. The second was the "catch-all" provision, which requires member states to halt all exports that could be used by importers in chemical or biological weapons programs, regardless of whether the export is on the group's control lists. Delegations representing the members meet every year in Paris, France.
| 55
|
[
"Australia Group",
"has part(s)",
"European Commission"
] |
The Australia Group is a multilateral export control regime (MECR) and an informal group of countries (now joined by the European Commission) established in 1985 (after the use of chemical weapons by Iraq in 1984) to help member countries to identify those exports which need to be controlled so as not to contribute to the spread of chemical and biological weapons.The group, initially consisting of 15 members, held its first meeting in Brussels, Belgium, in June 1985. With the incorporation of India on January 19, 2018, it now has 43 members, including Australia, New Zealand, the European Commission, all 27 member states of the European Union, United Kingdom, the United States, Canada, India, Ukraine, and Argentina. The name comes from Australia's initiative to create the group. Australia manages the secretariat.
The initial members of the group had different assessments of which chemical precursors should be subject to export control. Later adherents initially had no such controls. Today, members of the group maintain export controls on a uniform list of 87 compounds, including several that are not prohibited for export under the Chemical Weapons Convention, but can be used in the manufacture of chemical weapons. Additionally, the Australia Group expanded its standardization of licensing and export controls to cover technology related to the manufacturing of chemical weapons or controlled components.
In 2002, the group took two important steps to strengthen export control. The first was the "no-undercut" requirement, which stated that any member of the group considering making an export to another state that had already been denied an export by any other member of the group must first consult with that member state before approving the export. The second was the "catch-all" provision, which requires member states to halt all exports that could be used by importers in chemical or biological weapons programs, regardless of whether the export is on the group's control lists. Delegations representing the members meet every year in Paris, France.
| 60
|
[
"Missile Technology Control Regime",
"founded by",
"United States of America"
] |
History
The Missile Technology Control Regime (MTCR) was established in April 1987 by the G7 countries: Canada, France, Germany, Italy, Japan, the United Kingdom, and the United States. It was created to curb the spread of unmanned delivery systems for nuclear weapons, specifically systems which can carry a payload of 500 kilograms (1,100 lb) for 300 kilometres (190 mi).
The MTCR applies to exports to members and non-members. An aide-mémoire attached to the agreement says that it does not supersede prior agreements, which NATO members say allows the supply of Category 1 systems between NATO members. An example is the export by the United States of Trident missiles to the United Kingdom for nuclear-weapons delivery.At the annual meeting in Oslo from 29 June to 2 July 1992, chaired by Sten Lundbo, it was agreed to expand the MTCR's scope to include nonproliferation of unmanned aerial vehicles (UAVs) for weapons of mass destruction. Prohibited materials are divided into two categories, which are outlined in the MTCR Equipment, Software, and Technology Annex. Thirty-five nations are members, with India joining on 27 June 2016.According to the Arms Control Association, the MTCR has been successful in helping to slow (or stop) several ballistic missile programs: "Argentina, Egypt, and Iraq abandoned their joint Condor II ballistic missile program. Brazil and South Africa also shelved or eliminated missile or space launch vehicle programs. Some former Warsaw Pact countries, such as Poland and the Czech Republic, destroyed their ballistic missiles, in part, to better their chances of joining MTCR." In October 1994, the MTCR member states established a "no undercut" policy: if one member denies the sale of technology to another country, all members must do likewise.China originally viewed the MTCR as a discriminatory measure by Western governments, which sold sophisticated military aircraft while restricting sales of competing ballistic missiles. It verbally agreed that it would adhere to the MTCR in November 1991, and included the assurance in a letter from its foreign minister in February 1992. China reiterated its pledge in the October 1994 US-China joint statement. In their October 1997 joint statement, the United States and China said that they agreed "to build on the 1994 Joint Statement on Missile Nonproliferation." The Missiles and Missile-related Items and Technologies Export Control List, a formal regulation, was issued in August 2002. The following year, the MTCR chair invited China to participate. China requested to join the MTCR in 2004, but membership was not offered because of concerns about the country's export-control standards.
Israel, Romania and Slovakia have agreed to follow MTCR export rules, although they are not yet members.The regime has its limitations; member countries have been known to clandestinely violate the rules. Some of these countries, with varying degrees of foreign assistance, have deployed medium-range ballistic missiles which can travel more than 1,000 kilometres (620 mi) and are researching missiles with greater ranges; Israel and China have deployed strategic nuclear SLCMs, ICBMs and satellite-launch systems. Countries which are not MTCR members buy and sell on the global arms market; North Korea is currently viewed as the primary source of ballistic-missile proliferation in the world, and China has supplied ballistic missiles and technology to Pakistan. China supplied DF-3A IRBMs to Saudi Arabia in 1988 before it informally agreed to follow MTCR guidelines. Israel cannot export its Shavit space-launch system due to its non-member MTCR status, although the Clinton administration allowed an import waiver for US companies to buy the Shavit in 1994.Over 20 countries have ballistic missile systems. The International Code of Conduct against Ballistic Missile Proliferation (ICOC), also known as the Hague Code of Conduct, was established in 2002. The code, which calls for restraint and care in the proliferation of ballistic missile systems capable of delivering weapons of mass destruction, has 119 members. Its mission is similar to the MTCR's, an export group.
India applied for membership in June 2015 with support from Russia, France and the United States, and became a member on 27 June 2016.Pakistan is not a member of the MTCR. Although it has expressed a desire to join the group, it has not submitted an application. The Pakistani government has pledged to adhere to MTCR guidelines, but the words of trust from Pakistan is always doubtful.
In 2020, the U.S. government announced that it would reinterpret its implementation of the MTCR to expedite sales of unmanned aerial vehicles (UAVs) to other countries. The revised U.S. policy will reinterpret how the MTCR applies to drones which travel at speeds under 800 kilometres per hour (500 mph), such as the Predator and Reaper drones (made by General Atomics) and the Global Hawk drone (made by Northrop Grumman).
| 15
|
[
"Missile Technology Control Regime",
"has part(s)",
"India"
] |
History
The Missile Technology Control Regime (MTCR) was established in April 1987 by the G7 countries: Canada, France, Germany, Italy, Japan, the United Kingdom, and the United States. It was created to curb the spread of unmanned delivery systems for nuclear weapons, specifically systems which can carry a payload of 500 kilograms (1,100 lb) for 300 kilometres (190 mi).
The MTCR applies to exports to members and non-members. An aide-mémoire attached to the agreement says that it does not supersede prior agreements, which NATO members say allows the supply of Category 1 systems between NATO members. An example is the export by the United States of Trident missiles to the United Kingdom for nuclear-weapons delivery.At the annual meeting in Oslo from 29 June to 2 July 1992, chaired by Sten Lundbo, it was agreed to expand the MTCR's scope to include nonproliferation of unmanned aerial vehicles (UAVs) for weapons of mass destruction. Prohibited materials are divided into two categories, which are outlined in the MTCR Equipment, Software, and Technology Annex. Thirty-five nations are members, with India joining on 27 June 2016.According to the Arms Control Association, the MTCR has been successful in helping to slow (or stop) several ballistic missile programs: "Argentina, Egypt, and Iraq abandoned their joint Condor II ballistic missile program. Brazil and South Africa also shelved or eliminated missile or space launch vehicle programs. Some former Warsaw Pact countries, such as Poland and the Czech Republic, destroyed their ballistic missiles, in part, to better their chances of joining MTCR." In October 1994, the MTCR member states established a "no undercut" policy: if one member denies the sale of technology to another country, all members must do likewise.China originally viewed the MTCR as a discriminatory measure by Western governments, which sold sophisticated military aircraft while restricting sales of competing ballistic missiles. It verbally agreed that it would adhere to the MTCR in November 1991, and included the assurance in a letter from its foreign minister in February 1992. China reiterated its pledge in the October 1994 US-China joint statement. In their October 1997 joint statement, the United States and China said that they agreed "to build on the 1994 Joint Statement on Missile Nonproliferation." The Missiles and Missile-related Items and Technologies Export Control List, a formal regulation, was issued in August 2002. The following year, the MTCR chair invited China to participate. China requested to join the MTCR in 2004, but membership was not offered because of concerns about the country's export-control standards.
Israel, Romania and Slovakia have agreed to follow MTCR export rules, although they are not yet members.The regime has its limitations; member countries have been known to clandestinely violate the rules. Some of these countries, with varying degrees of foreign assistance, have deployed medium-range ballistic missiles which can travel more than 1,000 kilometres (620 mi) and are researching missiles with greater ranges; Israel and China have deployed strategic nuclear SLCMs, ICBMs and satellite-launch systems. Countries which are not MTCR members buy and sell on the global arms market; North Korea is currently viewed as the primary source of ballistic-missile proliferation in the world, and China has supplied ballistic missiles and technology to Pakistan. China supplied DF-3A IRBMs to Saudi Arabia in 1988 before it informally agreed to follow MTCR guidelines. Israel cannot export its Shavit space-launch system due to its non-member MTCR status, although the Clinton administration allowed an import waiver for US companies to buy the Shavit in 1994.Over 20 countries have ballistic missile systems. The International Code of Conduct against Ballistic Missile Proliferation (ICOC), also known as the Hague Code of Conduct, was established in 2002. The code, which calls for restraint and care in the proliferation of ballistic missile systems capable of delivering weapons of mass destruction, has 119 members. Its mission is similar to the MTCR's, an export group.
India applied for membership in June 2015 with support from Russia, France and the United States, and became a member on 27 June 2016.Pakistan is not a member of the MTCR. Although it has expressed a desire to join the group, it has not submitted an application. The Pakistani government has pledged to adhere to MTCR guidelines, but the words of trust from Pakistan is always doubtful.
In 2020, the U.S. government announced that it would reinterpret its implementation of the MTCR to expedite sales of unmanned aerial vehicles (UAVs) to other countries. The revised U.S. policy will reinterpret how the MTCR applies to drones which travel at speeds under 800 kilometres per hour (500 mph), such as the Predator and Reaper drones (made by General Atomics) and the Global Hawk drone (made by Northrop Grumman).
| 18
|
[
"Missile Technology Control Regime",
"instance of",
"intergovernmental organization"
] |
The Missile Technology Control Regime (MTCR) is a multilateral export control regime. It is an informal political understanding among 35 member states that seek to limit the proliferation of missiles and missile technology. The regime was formed in 1987 by the G-7 industrialized countries. The MTCR seeks to limit the risks of proliferation of weapons of mass destruction (WMD) by controlling exports of goods and technologies that could make a contribution to delivery systems (other than manned aircraft) for such weapons. In this context, the MTCR places particular focus on rockets and unmanned aerial vehicles capable of delivering a payload of at least 500 kilograms (1,100 lb) to a range of at least 300 kilometres (190 mi) and on equipment, software, and technology for such systems.
The MTCR is not a treaty and does not impose any legally binding obligations on Partners (members). Rather, it is an informal political understanding among states that seek to limit the proliferation of missiles and missile technology.History
The Missile Technology Control Regime (MTCR) was established in April 1987 by the G7 countries: Canada, France, Germany, Italy, Japan, the United Kingdom, and the United States. It was created to curb the spread of unmanned delivery systems for nuclear weapons, specifically systems which can carry a payload of 500 kilograms (1,100 lb) for 300 kilometres (190 mi).
The MTCR applies to exports to members and non-members. An aide-mémoire attached to the agreement says that it does not supersede prior agreements, which NATO members say allows the supply of Category 1 systems between NATO members. An example is the export by the United States of Trident missiles to the United Kingdom for nuclear-weapons delivery.At the annual meeting in Oslo from 29 June to 2 July 1992, chaired by Sten Lundbo, it was agreed to expand the MTCR's scope to include nonproliferation of unmanned aerial vehicles (UAVs) for weapons of mass destruction. Prohibited materials are divided into two categories, which are outlined in the MTCR Equipment, Software, and Technology Annex. Thirty-five nations are members, with India joining on 27 June 2016.According to the Arms Control Association, the MTCR has been successful in helping to slow (or stop) several ballistic missile programs: "Argentina, Egypt, and Iraq abandoned their joint Condor II ballistic missile program. Brazil and South Africa also shelved or eliminated missile or space launch vehicle programs. Some former Warsaw Pact countries, such as Poland and the Czech Republic, destroyed their ballistic missiles, in part, to better their chances of joining MTCR." In October 1994, the MTCR member states established a "no undercut" policy: if one member denies the sale of technology to another country, all members must do likewise.China originally viewed the MTCR as a discriminatory measure by Western governments, which sold sophisticated military aircraft while restricting sales of competing ballistic missiles. It verbally agreed that it would adhere to the MTCR in November 1991, and included the assurance in a letter from its foreign minister in February 1992. China reiterated its pledge in the October 1994 US-China joint statement. In their October 1997 joint statement, the United States and China said that they agreed "to build on the 1994 Joint Statement on Missile Nonproliferation." The Missiles and Missile-related Items and Technologies Export Control List, a formal regulation, was issued in August 2002. The following year, the MTCR chair invited China to participate. China requested to join the MTCR in 2004, but membership was not offered because of concerns about the country's export-control standards.
Israel, Romania and Slovakia have agreed to follow MTCR export rules, although they are not yet members.The regime has its limitations; member countries have been known to clandestinely violate the rules. Some of these countries, with varying degrees of foreign assistance, have deployed medium-range ballistic missiles which can travel more than 1,000 kilometres (620 mi) and are researching missiles with greater ranges; Israel and China have deployed strategic nuclear SLCMs, ICBMs and satellite-launch systems. Countries which are not MTCR members buy and sell on the global arms market; North Korea is currently viewed as the primary source of ballistic-missile proliferation in the world, and China has supplied ballistic missiles and technology to Pakistan. China supplied DF-3A IRBMs to Saudi Arabia in 1988 before it informally agreed to follow MTCR guidelines. Israel cannot export its Shavit space-launch system due to its non-member MTCR status, although the Clinton administration allowed an import waiver for US companies to buy the Shavit in 1994.Over 20 countries have ballistic missile systems. The International Code of Conduct against Ballistic Missile Proliferation (ICOC), also known as the Hague Code of Conduct, was established in 2002. The code, which calls for restraint and care in the proliferation of ballistic missile systems capable of delivering weapons of mass destruction, has 119 members. Its mission is similar to the MTCR's, an export group.
India applied for membership in June 2015 with support from Russia, France and the United States, and became a member on 27 June 2016.Pakistan is not a member of the MTCR. Although it has expressed a desire to join the group, it has not submitted an application. The Pakistani government has pledged to adhere to MTCR guidelines, but the words of trust from Pakistan is always doubtful.
In 2020, the U.S. government announced that it would reinterpret its implementation of the MTCR to expedite sales of unmanned aerial vehicles (UAVs) to other countries. The revised U.S. policy will reinterpret how the MTCR applies to drones which travel at speeds under 800 kilometres per hour (500 mph), such as the Predator and Reaper drones (made by General Atomics) and the Global Hawk drone (made by Northrop Grumman).
| 42
|
[
"Missile Technology Control Regime",
"instance of",
"international organization"
] |
The Missile Technology Control Regime (MTCR) is a multilateral export control regime. It is an informal political understanding among 35 member states that seek to limit the proliferation of missiles and missile technology. The regime was formed in 1987 by the G-7 industrialized countries. The MTCR seeks to limit the risks of proliferation of weapons of mass destruction (WMD) by controlling exports of goods and technologies that could make a contribution to delivery systems (other than manned aircraft) for such weapons. In this context, the MTCR places particular focus on rockets and unmanned aerial vehicles capable of delivering a payload of at least 500 kilograms (1,100 lb) to a range of at least 300 kilometres (190 mi) and on equipment, software, and technology for such systems.
The MTCR is not a treaty and does not impose any legally binding obligations on Partners (members). Rather, it is an informal political understanding among states that seek to limit the proliferation of missiles and missile technology.History
The Missile Technology Control Regime (MTCR) was established in April 1987 by the G7 countries: Canada, France, Germany, Italy, Japan, the United Kingdom, and the United States. It was created to curb the spread of unmanned delivery systems for nuclear weapons, specifically systems which can carry a payload of 500 kilograms (1,100 lb) for 300 kilometres (190 mi).
The MTCR applies to exports to members and non-members. An aide-mémoire attached to the agreement says that it does not supersede prior agreements, which NATO members say allows the supply of Category 1 systems between NATO members. An example is the export by the United States of Trident missiles to the United Kingdom for nuclear-weapons delivery.At the annual meeting in Oslo from 29 June to 2 July 1992, chaired by Sten Lundbo, it was agreed to expand the MTCR's scope to include nonproliferation of unmanned aerial vehicles (UAVs) for weapons of mass destruction. Prohibited materials are divided into two categories, which are outlined in the MTCR Equipment, Software, and Technology Annex. Thirty-five nations are members, with India joining on 27 June 2016.According to the Arms Control Association, the MTCR has been successful in helping to slow (or stop) several ballistic missile programs: "Argentina, Egypt, and Iraq abandoned their joint Condor II ballistic missile program. Brazil and South Africa also shelved or eliminated missile or space launch vehicle programs. Some former Warsaw Pact countries, such as Poland and the Czech Republic, destroyed their ballistic missiles, in part, to better their chances of joining MTCR." In October 1994, the MTCR member states established a "no undercut" policy: if one member denies the sale of technology to another country, all members must do likewise.China originally viewed the MTCR as a discriminatory measure by Western governments, which sold sophisticated military aircraft while restricting sales of competing ballistic missiles. It verbally agreed that it would adhere to the MTCR in November 1991, and included the assurance in a letter from its foreign minister in February 1992. China reiterated its pledge in the October 1994 US-China joint statement. In their October 1997 joint statement, the United States and China said that they agreed "to build on the 1994 Joint Statement on Missile Nonproliferation." The Missiles and Missile-related Items and Technologies Export Control List, a formal regulation, was issued in August 2002. The following year, the MTCR chair invited China to participate. China requested to join the MTCR in 2004, but membership was not offered because of concerns about the country's export-control standards.
Israel, Romania and Slovakia have agreed to follow MTCR export rules, although they are not yet members.The regime has its limitations; member countries have been known to clandestinely violate the rules. Some of these countries, with varying degrees of foreign assistance, have deployed medium-range ballistic missiles which can travel more than 1,000 kilometres (620 mi) and are researching missiles with greater ranges; Israel and China have deployed strategic nuclear SLCMs, ICBMs and satellite-launch systems. Countries which are not MTCR members buy and sell on the global arms market; North Korea is currently viewed as the primary source of ballistic-missile proliferation in the world, and China has supplied ballistic missiles and technology to Pakistan. China supplied DF-3A IRBMs to Saudi Arabia in 1988 before it informally agreed to follow MTCR guidelines. Israel cannot export its Shavit space-launch system due to its non-member MTCR status, although the Clinton administration allowed an import waiver for US companies to buy the Shavit in 1994.Over 20 countries have ballistic missile systems. The International Code of Conduct against Ballistic Missile Proliferation (ICOC), also known as the Hague Code of Conduct, was established in 2002. The code, which calls for restraint and care in the proliferation of ballistic missile systems capable of delivering weapons of mass destruction, has 119 members. Its mission is similar to the MTCR's, an export group.
India applied for membership in June 2015 with support from Russia, France and the United States, and became a member on 27 June 2016.Pakistan is not a member of the MTCR. Although it has expressed a desire to join the group, it has not submitted an application. The Pakistani government has pledged to adhere to MTCR guidelines, but the words of trust from Pakistan is always doubtful.
In 2020, the U.S. government announced that it would reinterpret its implementation of the MTCR to expedite sales of unmanned aerial vehicles (UAVs) to other countries. The revised U.S. policy will reinterpret how the MTCR applies to drones which travel at speeds under 800 kilometres per hour (500 mph), such as the Predator and Reaper drones (made by General Atomics) and the Global Hawk drone (made by Northrop Grumman).
| 43
|
[
"Nuclear Suppliers Group",
"instance of",
"intergovernmental organization"
] |
The Nuclear Suppliers Group (NSG) is a multilateral export control regime and a group of nuclear supplier countries that seek to prevent nuclear proliferation by controlling the export of materials, equipment and technology that can be used to manufacture nuclear weapons.History
The NSG was founded in response to the Indian nuclear test in May 1974 and first met in November 1975. The test demonstrated that certain non-weapons specific nuclear technology could be readily turned to weapons development. Nations already signatories of the Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty (NPT) saw the need to further limit the export of nuclear equipment, materials or technology. Another benefit was that non-NPT and non-Zangger Committee nations, then specifically France, could be brought in.
A series of meetings in London from 1975 to 1978 resulted in agreements on the guidelines for export; these were published as INFCIRC/254 (essentially the Zangger "Trigger List") by the International Atomic Energy Agency. Listed items could only be exported to non-nuclear states if certain International Atomic Energy Agency safeguards were agreed to or if exceptional circumstances relating to safety existed.
The name of the "London Club" was due to the series of meetings in London. It has also been referred to as the London Group, or the London Suppliers Group.
The NSG did not meet again until 1991. The "Trigger List" remained unchanged until 1991, although the Zangger list was regularly updated. The revelations about the Iraqi weapons program following the first Gulf War led to a tightening of the export of so-called dual-use equipment. At the first meeting since 1978, held at the Hague in March 1991, the twenty-six participating governments agreed to the changes, which were published as the "Dual-use List" in 1992, and also to the extension of the original list to more closely match the up-to-date Zangger list.
| 37
|
[
"Nuclear Suppliers Group",
"instance of",
"international organization"
] |
The Nuclear Suppliers Group (NSG) is a multilateral export control regime and a group of nuclear supplier countries that seek to prevent nuclear proliferation by controlling the export of materials, equipment and technology that can be used to manufacture nuclear weapons.History
The NSG was founded in response to the Indian nuclear test in May 1974 and first met in November 1975. The test demonstrated that certain non-weapons specific nuclear technology could be readily turned to weapons development. Nations already signatories of the Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty (NPT) saw the need to further limit the export of nuclear equipment, materials or technology. Another benefit was that non-NPT and non-Zangger Committee nations, then specifically France, could be brought in.
A series of meetings in London from 1975 to 1978 resulted in agreements on the guidelines for export; these were published as INFCIRC/254 (essentially the Zangger "Trigger List") by the International Atomic Energy Agency. Listed items could only be exported to non-nuclear states if certain International Atomic Energy Agency safeguards were agreed to or if exceptional circumstances relating to safety existed.
The name of the "London Club" was due to the series of meetings in London. It has also been referred to as the London Group, or the London Suppliers Group.
The NSG did not meet again until 1991. The "Trigger List" remained unchanged until 1991, although the Zangger list was regularly updated. The revelations about the Iraqi weapons program following the first Gulf War led to a tightening of the export of so-called dual-use equipment. At the first meeting since 1978, held at the Hague in March 1991, the twenty-six participating governments agreed to the changes, which were published as the "Dual-use List" in 1992, and also to the extension of the original list to more closely match the up-to-date Zangger list.
| 41
|
[
"Inter-Agency Space Debris Coordination Committee",
"has part(s)",
"European Space Agency"
] |
Members
Members of the IADC include:
Agenzia Spaziale Italiana (ASI)
Centre National d'Etudes Spatiales (CNES)
China National Space Administration (CNSA)
Canadian Space Agency (CSA)
German Aerospace Center (DLR)
European Space Agency (ESA)
Indian Space Research Organisation (ISRO)
Japan Aerospace Exploration Agency (JAXA)
Korea Aerospace Research Institute (KARI)
National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA)
Russian Federal Space Agency (ROSCOSMOS)
State Space Agency of Ukraine (SSAU)
United Kingdom Space Agency (UKSA)
| 5
|
[
"Inter-Agency Space Debris Coordination Committee",
"has part(s)",
"Roscosmos State Corporation"
] |
The Inter-Agency Space Debris Coordination Committee (IADC) is an inter-governmental forum whose aim is to co-ordinate efforts to deal with debris in orbit around the Earth founded in 1993. The primary purposes of the IADC is information exchange on space debris research activities, facilitating opportunities for joint research, and reviewing progress of ongoing activities. All of these are designed to support identification of space debris mitigation options.Members
Members of the IADC include:
Agenzia Spaziale Italiana (ASI)
Centre National d'Etudes Spatiales (CNES)
China National Space Administration (CNSA)
Canadian Space Agency (CSA)
German Aerospace Center (DLR)
European Space Agency (ESA)
Indian Space Research Organisation (ISRO)
Japan Aerospace Exploration Agency (JAXA)
Korea Aerospace Research Institute (KARI)
National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA)
Russian Federal Space Agency (ROSCOSMOS)
State Space Agency of Ukraine (SSAU)
United Kingdom Space Agency (UKSA)
| 7
|
[
"Inter-Agency Space Debris Coordination Committee",
"has part(s)",
"CNES"
] |
Members
Members of the IADC include:
Agenzia Spaziale Italiana (ASI)
Centre National d'Etudes Spatiales (CNES)
China National Space Administration (CNSA)
Canadian Space Agency (CSA)
German Aerospace Center (DLR)
European Space Agency (ESA)
Indian Space Research Organisation (ISRO)
Japan Aerospace Exploration Agency (JAXA)
Korea Aerospace Research Institute (KARI)
National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA)
Russian Federal Space Agency (ROSCOSMOS)
State Space Agency of Ukraine (SSAU)
United Kingdom Space Agency (UKSA)
| 8
|
[
"Inter-Agency Space Debris Coordination Committee",
"has part(s)",
"Canadian Space Agency"
] |
Members
Members of the IADC include:
Agenzia Spaziale Italiana (ASI)
Centre National d'Etudes Spatiales (CNES)
China National Space Administration (CNSA)
Canadian Space Agency (CSA)
German Aerospace Center (DLR)
European Space Agency (ESA)
Indian Space Research Organisation (ISRO)
Japan Aerospace Exploration Agency (JAXA)
Korea Aerospace Research Institute (KARI)
National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA)
Russian Federal Space Agency (ROSCOSMOS)
State Space Agency of Ukraine (SSAU)
United Kingdom Space Agency (UKSA)
| 11
|
[
"Inter-Agency Space Debris Coordination Committee",
"has part(s)",
"Italian Space Agency"
] |
Members
Members of the IADC include:
Agenzia Spaziale Italiana (ASI)
Centre National d'Etudes Spatiales (CNES)
China National Space Administration (CNSA)
Canadian Space Agency (CSA)
German Aerospace Center (DLR)
European Space Agency (ESA)
Indian Space Research Organisation (ISRO)
Japan Aerospace Exploration Agency (JAXA)
Korea Aerospace Research Institute (KARI)
National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA)
Russian Federal Space Agency (ROSCOSMOS)
State Space Agency of Ukraine (SSAU)
United Kingdom Space Agency (UKSA)
| 14
|
[
"Inter-Agency Space Debris Coordination Committee",
"has part(s)",
"Korea Aerospace Research Institute"
] |
The Inter-Agency Space Debris Coordination Committee (IADC) is an inter-governmental forum whose aim is to co-ordinate efforts to deal with debris in orbit around the Earth founded in 1993. The primary purposes of the IADC is information exchange on space debris research activities, facilitating opportunities for joint research, and reviewing progress of ongoing activities. All of these are designed to support identification of space debris mitigation options.
| 15
|
[
"Inter-Agency Space Debris Coordination Committee",
"instance of",
"intergovernmental organization"
] |
The Inter-Agency Space Debris Coordination Committee (IADC) is an inter-governmental forum whose aim is to co-ordinate efforts to deal with debris in orbit around the Earth founded in 1993. The primary purposes of the IADC is information exchange on space debris research activities, facilitating opportunities for joint research, and reviewing progress of ongoing activities. All of these are designed to support identification of space debris mitigation options.
| 16
|
[
"Inter-Agency Space Debris Coordination Committee",
"has part(s)",
"China National Space Administration"
] |
Members
Members of the IADC include:
Agenzia Spaziale Italiana (ASI)
Centre National d'Etudes Spatiales (CNES)
China National Space Administration (CNSA)
Canadian Space Agency (CSA)
German Aerospace Center (DLR)
European Space Agency (ESA)
Indian Space Research Organisation (ISRO)
Japan Aerospace Exploration Agency (JAXA)
Korea Aerospace Research Institute (KARI)
National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA)
Russian Federal Space Agency (ROSCOSMOS)
State Space Agency of Ukraine (SSAU)
United Kingdom Space Agency (UKSA)
| 17
|
[
"Inter-Agency Space Debris Coordination Committee",
"has part(s)",
"Deutsche Agentur für Raumfahrtangelegenheiten"
] |
The Inter-Agency Space Debris Coordination Committee (IADC) is an inter-governmental forum whose aim is to co-ordinate efforts to deal with debris in orbit around the Earth founded in 1993. The primary purposes of the IADC is information exchange on space debris research activities, facilitating opportunities for joint research, and reviewing progress of ongoing activities. All of these are designed to support identification of space debris mitigation options.
| 19
|
[
"Inter-Agency Space Debris Coordination Committee",
"has part(s)",
"State Space Agency of Ukraine"
] |
Members
Members of the IADC include:
Agenzia Spaziale Italiana (ASI)
Centre National d'Etudes Spatiales (CNES)
China National Space Administration (CNSA)
Canadian Space Agency (CSA)
German Aerospace Center (DLR)
European Space Agency (ESA)
Indian Space Research Organisation (ISRO)
Japan Aerospace Exploration Agency (JAXA)
Korea Aerospace Research Institute (KARI)
National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA)
Russian Federal Space Agency (ROSCOSMOS)
State Space Agency of Ukraine (SSAU)
United Kingdom Space Agency (UKSA)
| 20
|
[
"Lunghua Civilian Assembly Centre",
"located in the administrative territorial entity",
"Shanghai"
] |
Description
Lunghua Civil Assembly Centre was originally the Jiangsu Shanghai High School. It was located on Minghong Road about three miles (5 km) from Shanghai Longhua Airport. (Pre-WWII documents use the alternate spellings of Lunghua and Lunghwa; the modern anglicized spelling of the town is Longhua.) The school was damaged in the Second Sino-Japanese War and was empty until it was designated as a Civil Assembly Centre. It was then used from 1943 to intern 1,988 people."The camp was large, containing seven concrete buildings, five large wooden barracks (originally built as stables by the Japanese), and numerous outbuildings. There were fifty nine dorms and 127 rooms for families."
The buildings on the site were built orthogonal to each other on a 42-acre site. The overall site was aligned slightly east of north. Therefore, in the description below, when a building is described as being built east–west it is more accurately described as ENE–WSW, and when a building is described as being built north–south, it is more accurately described as SSW–NNE.
The Assembly Hall was the central building. North of it were the single storey wooden buildings A, B and C. These were built parallel to each other, with each having been built east–west and with Building A as the furthest north. South of the Assembly Hall, also built east–west, was the three storey Building F, which was the administration block. South of Building F was the entrance and southeast was the three storey Building E built north–south. East of the Assembly Hall was the three storey Building D which was an accommodation block for families, built north–south.
West of the Assembly Hall and the wooden buildings were two ruined buildings built north–south and further west of the ruined buildings was the two storey Building G built east–west. Northwest of Building G, in the northwest corner of the site, was the single storey Hospital which was built east–west. The hospital dealt with malaria sufferers. Women who became pregnant were sent to a hospital in Shanghai then moved on to another camp for women and babies. Between Building G and the Hospital were the five Commandant's Staff Residences arranged around a square with three on the northern edge and two on the western edge. Building G was on the southern edge.
North of the wooden buildings were the two single-storey dining rooms (built east–west), and north of each of those was a single-storey kitchen. In the northeast corner of the site, north of Building D, were two parallel, single-storey buildings built north–south. These were Building H, which was used to accommodate single people, and Building I (or J, the documents differ as to the name of this building). North of these were the single-storey shower block (built east–west) and east of the shower block was another single-storey building built north–south, Building J (or K, the documents differ as to the name of this building).
The recreation ground contained a football pitch and was in the area of ground between the Assembly Hall and Building D.There were persistent issues with water supply and drainage. The presence of malaria and typhoid were also a threat to public health.Although the camp's commandant was Japanese, the guards were Korean.Children interned in the camp attended classes at a school on the site which was called Lunhgwa Academy. The adults had jobs and a self-elected council. There were also various social activities such as parties and lectures.Current site
The site of the camp is southwest of the Shanghai Botanical Garden. It is on the corner of Baise Road (百色路) and North Longchuan Road (龙川北路), currently the site of Shanghai High School and its international division. The Botanical Garden is southwest of Longhua Airport; both of these are clearly identified on satellite images. Satellite images show that there are buildings on the site in the "same" location as the Civil Assembly Centre buildings. The site of the camp is now enclosed by housing, but can be identified by the rectangular area (once Buildings A, B and C) and trees. The turning circle in the drive which is south of Building F, can also be seen.
Buildings A, B and C are no longer there, one of the Staff Residences has been demolished and one of the kitchens no longer exists. The ruined building adjacent to the Assembly Hall appears to have been rebuilt the same shape and there are several new buildings built on the site of the other ruined building. There are several new buildings between Building G and the Staff Residences. In addition, there is a road now between Building H and the rest of the site.
G Block was demolished in 2009.
| 3
|
[
"Lunghua Civilian Assembly Centre",
"instance of",
"internment camp"
] |
Current site
The site of the camp is southwest of the Shanghai Botanical Garden. It is on the corner of Baise Road (百色路) and North Longchuan Road (龙川北路), currently the site of Shanghai High School and its international division. The Botanical Garden is southwest of Longhua Airport; both of these are clearly identified on satellite images. Satellite images show that there are buildings on the site in the "same" location as the Civil Assembly Centre buildings. The site of the camp is now enclosed by housing, but can be identified by the rectangular area (once Buildings A, B and C) and trees. The turning circle in the drive which is south of Building F, can also be seen.
Buildings A, B and C are no longer there, one of the Staff Residences has been demolished and one of the kitchens no longer exists. The ruined building adjacent to the Assembly Hall appears to have been rebuilt the same shape and there are several new buildings built on the site of the other ruined building. There are several new buildings between Building G and the Staff Residences. In addition, there is a road now between Building H and the rest of the site.
G Block was demolished in 2009.
| 4
|
[
"Ash Civilian Assembly Center",
"location",
"Shanghai"
] |
Ash Civilian Assembly Center or Ash Camp, was a Japanese internment camp for civilian detainees in Shanghai, China during World War II. Created from a former British Army barracks, it was located at 65 Great Western Road (now Yan'an Xi Lu). The Camp was named for the large amount of ash used to back fill the low-lying areas and prevent flooding. Prior to occupation, the facility housed the Second Battalion of the Argyll and Sutherland Highlanders. (For additional camps, see List of Japanese-run internment camps during World War II.)
| 2
|
[
"Ash Civilian Assembly Center",
"instance of",
"internment camp"
] |
Ash Civilian Assembly Center or Ash Camp, was a Japanese internment camp for civilian detainees in Shanghai, China during World War II. Created from a former British Army barracks, it was located at 65 Great Western Road (now Yan'an Xi Lu). The Camp was named for the large amount of ash used to back fill the low-lying areas and prevent flooding. Prior to occupation, the facility housed the Second Battalion of the Argyll and Sutherland Highlanders. (For additional camps, see List of Japanese-run internment camps during World War II.)
| 3
|
[
"Coalition for Epidemic Preparedness Innovations",
"country",
"Norway"
] |
The Coalition for Epidemic Preparedness Innovations (CEPI) is a foundation that takes donations from public, private, philanthropic, and civil society organisations, to finance research projects which are not longer independent to develop vaccines against emerging infectious diseases (EID).CEPI is focused on the World Health Organization's (WHO) "blueprint priority diseases", which include: the Middle East respiratory syndrome-related coronavirus (MERS-CoV), the Severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2), the Nipah virus, the Lassa fever virus, and the Rift Valley fever virus, as well as the Chikungunya virus and the hypothetical, unknown pathogen "Disease X". CEPI investment also requires "equitable access" to the vaccines during outbreaks, although subsequent CEPI policy changes may have compromised this criterion.CEPI was conceived in 2015 and formally launched in 2017 at the World Economic Forum (WEF) in Davos, Switzerland. It was co-founded and co-funded with US$460 million from the Bill and Melinda Gates Foundation, the Wellcome Trust, and the governments of India and Norway, and was later joined by the European Union (2019) and the United Kingdom (2020). CEPI is headquartered in Oslo, Norway.
| 1
|
[
"Coalition for Epidemic Preparedness Innovations",
"instance of",
"organization"
] |
The Coalition for Epidemic Preparedness Innovations (CEPI) is a foundation that takes donations from public, private, philanthropic, and civil society organisations, to finance research projects which are not longer independent to develop vaccines against emerging infectious diseases (EID).CEPI is focused on the World Health Organization's (WHO) "blueprint priority diseases", which include: the Middle East respiratory syndrome-related coronavirus (MERS-CoV), the Severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2), the Nipah virus, the Lassa fever virus, and the Rift Valley fever virus, as well as the Chikungunya virus and the hypothetical, unknown pathogen "Disease X". CEPI investment also requires "equitable access" to the vaccines during outbreaks, although subsequent CEPI policy changes may have compromised this criterion.CEPI was conceived in 2015 and formally launched in 2017 at the World Economic Forum (WEF) in Davos, Switzerland. It was co-founded and co-funded with US$460 million from the Bill and Melinda Gates Foundation, the Wellcome Trust, and the governments of India and Norway, and was later joined by the European Union (2019) and the United Kingdom (2020). CEPI is headquartered in Oslo, Norway.
| 6
|
[
"Coalition for Epidemic Preparedness Innovations",
"headquarters location",
"Oslo"
] |
The Coalition for Epidemic Preparedness Innovations (CEPI) is a foundation that takes donations from public, private, philanthropic, and civil society organisations, to finance research projects which are not longer independent to develop vaccines against emerging infectious diseases (EID).CEPI is focused on the World Health Organization's (WHO) "blueprint priority diseases", which include: the Middle East respiratory syndrome-related coronavirus (MERS-CoV), the Severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2), the Nipah virus, the Lassa fever virus, and the Rift Valley fever virus, as well as the Chikungunya virus and the hypothetical, unknown pathogen "Disease X". CEPI investment also requires "equitable access" to the vaccines during outbreaks, although subsequent CEPI policy changes may have compromised this criterion.CEPI was conceived in 2015 and formally launched in 2017 at the World Economic Forum (WEF) in Davos, Switzerland. It was co-founded and co-funded with US$460 million from the Bill and Melinda Gates Foundation, the Wellcome Trust, and the governments of India and Norway, and was later joined by the European Union (2019) and the United Kingdom (2020). CEPI is headquartered in Oslo, Norway.History
Founding
The concept for CEPI was outlined in a July 2015 paper in The New England Journal of Medicine, titled "Establishing a Global Vaccine-Development Fund", co-authored by British medical researcher Jeremy Farrar (a director of Wellcome Trust), American physician Stanley A. Plotkin (co-discoverer of the Rubella vaccine), and American expert in infectious diseases Adel Mahmoud (developer of the HPV vaccine and rotavirus vaccine).Their concept was further expanded at the 2016 WEF in Davos, where it was discussed as a solution to the problems encountered in developing and distributing a vaccine for the Western African Ebola virus epidemic. Co-founder and funder, Bill Gates said: "The market is not going to solve this problem because epidemics do not come along very often — and when they do you are not allowed to charge some huge premium price for the tools involved". CEPI's creation was also supported and co-funded by the pharmaceutical industry including GlaxoSmithKline (GSK), with CEO Sir Andrew Witty explaining at the WEF, "It is super-disruptive when the red phone rings in our vaccine division because of a health emergency. People do not realise that there's no spare capacity in the world's vaccine production system today".CEPI was formally launched at the 2017 WEF in Davos, with an initial investment of US$460 million by a consortium that included the governments of Norway, Japan, and Germany, The Wellcome Trust, and the Gates Foundation; India joined a short time afterwards. In a launch interview with the Financial Times (FT), Gates said that a key goal was to reduce the time to develop vaccines from 10 years to less than 12 months.The initial targets were the six EID viruses with known potential to cause major epidemics, being: MERS, Lassa fever, Nipah virus, Ebola, Marburg fever and Zika. The FT reported CEPI would "build the scientific and technological infrastructure for developing vaccines quickly against pathogens that emerge from nowhere to cause a global health crisis, such as Sars in 2002/03 and Zika in 2015/16", and fund research papers on the costs and process of vaccine development. Town & Country listed it as one of the top-10 newsworthy moments from the 2017 Davos. At launch, Norwegian physician John-Arne Røttingen, who led the steering committee for Ebola vaccine trials, served as interim CEO, and CEPI was based at the Norwegian Institute of Public Health in Oslo.In April 2017, Richard J. Hatchett, former director of the U.S. government's Biomedical Advanced Research and Development Authority (BARDA), became the full-time CEO. Hatchett was also a member of the United States Homeland Security Council under George W. Bush, and the United States National Security Council, under Barack Obama. Also in April 2017, CEPI opened an additional office in London, and in October 2017, a further office was opened in Washington, D.C. Nature later stated, "It is by far the largest vaccine development initiative ever against viruses that are potential epidemic threats".In 2020, CEPI was identified by several media outlets as a "key player in the race to develop a vaccine" for coronavirus disease 2019.
| 7
|
[
"Coalition for Epidemic Preparedness Innovations",
"field of work",
"epidemic"
] |
The Coalition for Epidemic Preparedness Innovations (CEPI) is a foundation that takes donations from public, private, philanthropic, and civil society organisations, to finance research projects which are not longer independent to develop vaccines against emerging infectious diseases (EID).CEPI is focused on the World Health Organization's (WHO) "blueprint priority diseases", which include: the Middle East respiratory syndrome-related coronavirus (MERS-CoV), the Severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2), the Nipah virus, the Lassa fever virus, and the Rift Valley fever virus, as well as the Chikungunya virus and the hypothetical, unknown pathogen "Disease X". CEPI investment also requires "equitable access" to the vaccines during outbreaks, although subsequent CEPI policy changes may have compromised this criterion.CEPI was conceived in 2015 and formally launched in 2017 at the World Economic Forum (WEF) in Davos, Switzerland. It was co-founded and co-funded with US$460 million from the Bill and Melinda Gates Foundation, the Wellcome Trust, and the governments of India and Norway, and was later joined by the European Union (2019) and the United Kingdom (2020). CEPI is headquartered in Oslo, Norway.Mission
The founding mission of CEPI was "equitable access" in pandemics: selling vaccines to developing nations at affordable prices. Affordable access to existing patented vaccines had long been a concern for the medical community, and concern mounted in the wake of the struggle to get access to vaccine in the 2013–2016 Ebola epidemic. Averting a repetition of this crisis was the motivating factor behind founding CEPI.
| 9
|
[
"Coalition for Epidemic Preparedness Innovations",
"founded by",
"Wellcome Trust"
] |
The Coalition for Epidemic Preparedness Innovations (CEPI) is a foundation that takes donations from public, private, philanthropic, and civil society organisations, to finance research projects which are not longer independent to develop vaccines against emerging infectious diseases (EID).CEPI is focused on the World Health Organization's (WHO) "blueprint priority diseases", which include: the Middle East respiratory syndrome-related coronavirus (MERS-CoV), the Severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2), the Nipah virus, the Lassa fever virus, and the Rift Valley fever virus, as well as the Chikungunya virus and the hypothetical, unknown pathogen "Disease X". CEPI investment also requires "equitable access" to the vaccines during outbreaks, although subsequent CEPI policy changes may have compromised this criterion.CEPI was conceived in 2015 and formally launched in 2017 at the World Economic Forum (WEF) in Davos, Switzerland. It was co-founded and co-funded with US$460 million from the Bill and Melinda Gates Foundation, the Wellcome Trust, and the governments of India and Norway, and was later joined by the European Union (2019) and the United Kingdom (2020). CEPI is headquartered in Oslo, Norway.
| 12
|
[
"Coalition for Epidemic Preparedness Innovations",
"founded by",
"Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation"
] |
The Coalition for Epidemic Preparedness Innovations (CEPI) is a foundation that takes donations from public, private, philanthropic, and civil society organisations, to finance research projects which are not longer independent to develop vaccines against emerging infectious diseases (EID).CEPI is focused on the World Health Organization's (WHO) "blueprint priority diseases", which include: the Middle East respiratory syndrome-related coronavirus (MERS-CoV), the Severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2), the Nipah virus, the Lassa fever virus, and the Rift Valley fever virus, as well as the Chikungunya virus and the hypothetical, unknown pathogen "Disease X". CEPI investment also requires "equitable access" to the vaccines during outbreaks, although subsequent CEPI policy changes may have compromised this criterion.CEPI was conceived in 2015 and formally launched in 2017 at the World Economic Forum (WEF) in Davos, Switzerland. It was co-founded and co-funded with US$460 million from the Bill and Melinda Gates Foundation, the Wellcome Trust, and the governments of India and Norway, and was later joined by the European Union (2019) and the United Kingdom (2020). CEPI is headquartered in Oslo, Norway.
| 13
|
[
"Coalition for Epidemic Preparedness Innovations",
"field of work",
"vaccine development"
] |
The Coalition for Epidemic Preparedness Innovations (CEPI) is a foundation that takes donations from public, private, philanthropic, and civil society organisations, to finance research projects which are not longer independent to develop vaccines against emerging infectious diseases (EID).CEPI is focused on the World Health Organization's (WHO) "blueprint priority diseases", which include: the Middle East respiratory syndrome-related coronavirus (MERS-CoV), the Severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2), the Nipah virus, the Lassa fever virus, and the Rift Valley fever virus, as well as the Chikungunya virus and the hypothetical, unknown pathogen "Disease X". CEPI investment also requires "equitable access" to the vaccines during outbreaks, although subsequent CEPI policy changes may have compromised this criterion.CEPI was conceived in 2015 and formally launched in 2017 at the World Economic Forum (WEF) in Davos, Switzerland. It was co-founded and co-funded with US$460 million from the Bill and Melinda Gates Foundation, the Wellcome Trust, and the governments of India and Norway, and was later joined by the European Union (2019) and the United Kingdom (2020). CEPI is headquartered in Oslo, Norway.SARS-CoV-2
In January 2020, CEPI funded three teams working on a vaccine for SARS-CoV-2, being: Moderna, Inovio Pharmaceuticals, and the University of Queensland (UQ). By February 2020, Inovio announced that it had produced a pre-clinical DNA-based vaccination to fight COVID-19 at its lab in San Diego. Inovio collaborated with a Chinese firm to speed its acceptance by regulatory authorities in China for human trialing. The strategy of the UQ team is to develop a molecular clamp vaccine that genetically modifies viral proteins to make them mimic the coronavirus and stimulate an immune reaction.
In January 2020, CEPI announced a fourth SARS-CoV-2 project in a collaboration with their existing partner CureVac, to develop and manufacture a vaccine. CEPI's CEO, Richard J. Hachett said in an interview with the FT that CEPI expected to have human trials within 16 weeks, but cautioned "All these timelines are aggressive and aspirational. As circumstances unfold there may be opportunities to reduce the timing but it is critically important that any new vaccine is safe and effective".
In February 2020, Bloomberg News, citing virologists, identified CEPI as a "key player in the race to develop a vaccine"; a status other media outlets have attributed. In reviewing vaccine development on the virus Vox said: "CEPI is a large part of why there are already dozens of Covid-19 vaccine candidates making their way through animal and human trials, as well as platforms to develop more", while The Guardian said CEPI was "leading efforts to finance and coordinate Covid-19 vaccine development".
In March 2020, Hatchett gave an interview to Channel 4 News saying that "war is an appropriate analogy", for the steps needed to counter the virus, and that "this is the most frightening disease that I have ever encountered in my career, and that includes Ebola, it includes MERS, it includes SARS. And it's frightening because of the combination of infectiousness and a lethality that appears to be many-fold higher than flu". Hatchett told The Daily Telegraph that coronaviruses are the most serious threat to public health since the Spanish flu, and that a vaccine will take up to 18 months to deliver at a cost of £1.5 billion. CEPI said that its funds for fighting the virus would be fully allocated by the end of March and that it was launching a new funding call for US$2 billion to support fighting the virus.
In March 2020, CEPI invested US$4.4 million in two more projects with Swedish vaccine laboratory Novavax, and with Oxford University, bringing its total investment in SARS-CoV-2 vaccine work to US$23.7 million, and announcing that it would invest up to US$100 million in further COVID-19 projects.
In February 2021, CEPI launched the CIHR-CEPI Leadership Award for Excellence in Vaccine Research for Infectious Diseases of Epidemic Potential, co-administered with the Canadian Institutes of Health Research (CIHR).
| 16
|
[
"Research and Documentation Center in Sarajevo",
"headquarters location",
"Sarajevo"
] |
The Research and Documentation Center Sarajevo (RDC), (Bosnian: Istraživačko dokumentacioni centar Sarajevo (IDC)) was an institution based in Sarajevo, Bosnia and Herzegovina, partly funded by the Norwegian government that aimed to gather facts, documents, and data on genocide, war crimes, and human rights violations in Bosnia and Herzegovina. It described itself as an independent, non-governmental, non-profit, professional and nonpartisan institution. RDC investigated issues regardless of the ethnic, political, religious, social, or racial affiliation of the victims.
The Center was made up of independent members, intellectuals and professionals from different academic disciplines. All of RDC's documents (witness statements, photo and video material, etc.) have been made available to the International Criminal Tribunal for the former Yugoslavia (ICTY) in The Hague, as well as to the Bosnian courts, non-governmental organizations (NGOs), scientific institutions and the media.
| 1
|
[
"Research and Documentation Center in Sarajevo",
"instance of",
"organization"
] |
The Research and Documentation Center Sarajevo (RDC), (Bosnian: Istraživačko dokumentacioni centar Sarajevo (IDC)) was an institution based in Sarajevo, Bosnia and Herzegovina, partly funded by the Norwegian government that aimed to gather facts, documents, and data on genocide, war crimes, and human rights violations in Bosnia and Herzegovina. It described itself as an independent, non-governmental, non-profit, professional and nonpartisan institution. RDC investigated issues regardless of the ethnic, political, religious, social, or racial affiliation of the victims.
The Center was made up of independent members, intellectuals and professionals from different academic disciplines. All of RDC's documents (witness statements, photo and video material, etc.) have been made available to the International Criminal Tribunal for the former Yugoslavia (ICTY) in The Hague, as well as to the Bosnian courts, non-governmental organizations (NGOs), scientific institutions and the media.
| 2
|
[
"Pittsburgh",
"capital of",
"Allegheny County"
] |
Pittsburgh ( PITS-burg) is a city in the Commonwealth of Pennsylvania and the county seat of Allegheny County. It is the most populous city in both Allegheny County and Western Pennsylvania, the second-most populous city in Pennsylvania after Philadelphia, and the 68th-most populous city in the U.S. with a population of 302,971 as of the 2020 census. The city anchors the Greater Pittsburgh metropolitan area of Western Pennsylvania; its population of 2.37 million is the largest in both the Ohio Valley and Appalachia, the second-largest in Pennsylvania, and the 27th-largest in the U.S. It is the principal city of the greater Pittsburgh–New Castle–Weirton combined statistical area that extends into Ohio and West Virginia.
Pittsburgh is located in southwest Pennsylvania at the confluence of the Allegheny River and the Monongahela River, which combine to form the Ohio River. Pittsburgh is known both as "the Steel City" for its dominant role in the history of the U.S. steel industry, and as the "City of Bridges" for its 446 bridges. The city features 30 skyscrapers, two inclined railways, a pre-revolutionary fortification and the Point State Park at the confluence of the rivers. The city developed as a vital link of the Atlantic coast and Midwest, as the mineral-rich Allegheny Mountains led to the region being contested by the French and British empires, Virginians, Whiskey Rebels, and Civil War raiders.Aside from steel, Pittsburgh has led in the manufacturing of other important materials—aluminum and glass—and in the petroleum industry. Additionally, it is a leader in computing, electronics, and the automotive industry. For part of the 20th century, Pittsburgh was behind only New York City and Chicago in corporate headquarters employment; it had the most U.S. stockholders per capita. Deindustrialization in the 1970s and 1980s laid off area blue-collar workers as steel and other heavy industries declined, and thousands of downtown white-collar workers also lost jobs when several Pittsburgh-based companies moved out. The population dropped from a peak of 675,000 in 1950 to 370,000 in 1990. However, this rich industrial history left the area with renowned museums, medical centers, parks, research centers, and a diverse cultural district.After 1990, Pittsburgh transformed into a hub for the health care, education, and technology industries. Pittsburgh is home to large medical providers, including the University of Pittsburgh Medical Center, Allegheny Health Network, and 68 colleges and universities, including research and development leaders Carnegie Mellon University and the University of Pittsburgh. Google, Apple, Bosch, Meta, Nokia, Autodesk, Amazon, Microsoft, and IBM are among some 1,600 technology firms with a presence in the city, generating $20.7 billion in annual Pittsburgh payrolls.
Federal money has supported the research agenda. The area has served as the federal agency headquarters for cyber defense, software engineering, robotics, energy research and the nuclear navy. The nation's fifth-largest bank, eight Fortune 500 companies, and six of the top 300 U.S. law firms make their global headquarters in the area, while RAND Corporation, BNY Mellon, Nova, FedEx, Bayer, and the National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health have regional bases that helped Pittsburgh become the sixth-best area for U.S. job growth.In 2015, Pittsburgh was listed among the "eleven most livable cities in the world" by Metropolis magazine. The Economist's Global Liveability Ranking placed Pittsburgh as the most or second-most livable city in the United States in 2005, 2009, 2011, 2012, 2014, and 2018. The region is a hub for Leadership in Energy and Environmental Design and energy extraction.
| 4
|
[
"Pittsburgh",
"located in/on physical feature",
"Allegheny Plateau"
] |
Geography
Pittsburgh has an area of 58.3 square miles (151 km2), of which 55.6 square miles (144 km2) is land and 2.8 square miles (7.3 km2), or 4.75%, is water. The 80th meridian west passes directly through the city's downtown.
The city is on the Allegheny Plateau, within the ecoregion of the Western Allegheny Plateau. The Downtown area (also known as the Golden Triangle) sits where the Allegheny River flows from the northeast and the Monongahela River from the southeast to form the Ohio River. The convergence is at Point State Park and is referred to as "the Point." The city extends east to include the Oakland and Shadyside sections, which are home to the University of Pittsburgh, Carnegie Mellon University, Chatham University, Carnegie Museum and Library, and many other educational, medical, and cultural institutions. The southern, western, and northern areas of the city are primarily residential.
Many Pittsburgh neighborhoods are steeply sloped with two-lane roads. More than a quarter of neighborhood names make reference to "hills," "heights," or similar features.The steps of Pittsburgh consist of 800 sets of outdoor public stairways with 44,645 treads and 24,090 vertical feet. They include hundreds of streets composed entirely of stairs, and many other steep streets with stairs for sidewalks. Many provide vistas of the Pittsburgh area while attracting hikers and fitness walkers.Bike and walking trails have been built to border many of the city's rivers and hollows. The Great Allegheny Passage and Chesapeake and Ohio Canal Towpath connect the city directly to downtown Washington, D.C. (some 335 miles [539 km] away) with a continuous bike/running trail.
| 6
|
[
"Pittsburgh",
"continent",
"North America"
] |
Pittsburgh ( PITS-burg) is a city in the Commonwealth of Pennsylvania and the county seat of Allegheny County. It is the most populous city in both Allegheny County and Western Pennsylvania, the second-most populous city in Pennsylvania after Philadelphia, and the 68th-most populous city in the U.S. with a population of 302,971 as of the 2020 census. The city anchors the Greater Pittsburgh metropolitan area of Western Pennsylvania; its population of 2.37 million is the largest in both the Ohio Valley and Appalachia, the second-largest in Pennsylvania, and the 27th-largest in the U.S. It is the principal city of the greater Pittsburgh–New Castle–Weirton combined statistical area that extends into Ohio and West Virginia.
Pittsburgh is located in southwest Pennsylvania at the confluence of the Allegheny River and the Monongahela River, which combine to form the Ohio River. Pittsburgh is known both as "the Steel City" for its dominant role in the history of the U.S. steel industry, and as the "City of Bridges" for its 446 bridges. The city features 30 skyscrapers, two inclined railways, a pre-revolutionary fortification and the Point State Park at the confluence of the rivers. The city developed as a vital link of the Atlantic coast and Midwest, as the mineral-rich Allegheny Mountains led to the region being contested by the French and British empires, Virginians, Whiskey Rebels, and Civil War raiders.Aside from steel, Pittsburgh has led in the manufacturing of other important materials—aluminum and glass—and in the petroleum industry. Additionally, it is a leader in computing, electronics, and the automotive industry. For part of the 20th century, Pittsburgh was behind only New York City and Chicago in corporate headquarters employment; it had the most U.S. stockholders per capita. Deindustrialization in the 1970s and 1980s laid off area blue-collar workers as steel and other heavy industries declined, and thousands of downtown white-collar workers also lost jobs when several Pittsburgh-based companies moved out. The population dropped from a peak of 675,000 in 1950 to 370,000 in 1990. However, this rich industrial history left the area with renowned museums, medical centers, parks, research centers, and a diverse cultural district.After 1990, Pittsburgh transformed into a hub for the health care, education, and technology industries. Pittsburgh is home to large medical providers, including the University of Pittsburgh Medical Center, Allegheny Health Network, and 68 colleges and universities, including research and development leaders Carnegie Mellon University and the University of Pittsburgh. Google, Apple, Bosch, Meta, Nokia, Autodesk, Amazon, Microsoft, and IBM are among some 1,600 technology firms with a presence in the city, generating $20.7 billion in annual Pittsburgh payrolls.
Federal money has supported the research agenda. The area has served as the federal agency headquarters for cyber defense, software engineering, robotics, energy research and the nuclear navy. The nation's fifth-largest bank, eight Fortune 500 companies, and six of the top 300 U.S. law firms make their global headquarters in the area, while RAND Corporation, BNY Mellon, Nova, FedEx, Bayer, and the National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health have regional bases that helped Pittsburgh become the sixth-best area for U.S. job growth.In 2015, Pittsburgh was listed among the "eleven most livable cities in the world" by Metropolis magazine. The Economist's Global Liveability Ranking placed Pittsburgh as the most or second-most livable city in the United States in 2005, 2009, 2011, 2012, 2014, and 2018. The region is a hub for Leadership in Energy and Environmental Design and energy extraction.
| 8
|
[
"Pittsburgh",
"located in the administrative territorial entity",
"Allegheny County"
] |
Pittsburgh ( PITS-burg) is a city in the Commonwealth of Pennsylvania and the county seat of Allegheny County. It is the most populous city in both Allegheny County and Western Pennsylvania, the second-most populous city in Pennsylvania after Philadelphia, and the 68th-most populous city in the U.S. with a population of 302,971 as of the 2020 census. The city anchors the Greater Pittsburgh metropolitan area of Western Pennsylvania; its population of 2.37 million is the largest in both the Ohio Valley and Appalachia, the second-largest in Pennsylvania, and the 27th-largest in the U.S. It is the principal city of the greater Pittsburgh–New Castle–Weirton combined statistical area that extends into Ohio and West Virginia.
Pittsburgh is located in southwest Pennsylvania at the confluence of the Allegheny River and the Monongahela River, which combine to form the Ohio River. Pittsburgh is known both as "the Steel City" for its dominant role in the history of the U.S. steel industry, and as the "City of Bridges" for its 446 bridges. The city features 30 skyscrapers, two inclined railways, a pre-revolutionary fortification and the Point State Park at the confluence of the rivers. The city developed as a vital link of the Atlantic coast and Midwest, as the mineral-rich Allegheny Mountains led to the region being contested by the French and British empires, Virginians, Whiskey Rebels, and Civil War raiders.Aside from steel, Pittsburgh has led in the manufacturing of other important materials—aluminum and glass—and in the petroleum industry. Additionally, it is a leader in computing, electronics, and the automotive industry. For part of the 20th century, Pittsburgh was behind only New York City and Chicago in corporate headquarters employment; it had the most U.S. stockholders per capita. Deindustrialization in the 1970s and 1980s laid off area blue-collar workers as steel and other heavy industries declined, and thousands of downtown white-collar workers also lost jobs when several Pittsburgh-based companies moved out. The population dropped from a peak of 675,000 in 1950 to 370,000 in 1990. However, this rich industrial history left the area with renowned museums, medical centers, parks, research centers, and a diverse cultural district.After 1990, Pittsburgh transformed into a hub for the health care, education, and technology industries. Pittsburgh is home to large medical providers, including the University of Pittsburgh Medical Center, Allegheny Health Network, and 68 colleges and universities, including research and development leaders Carnegie Mellon University and the University of Pittsburgh. Google, Apple, Bosch, Meta, Nokia, Autodesk, Amazon, Microsoft, and IBM are among some 1,600 technology firms with a presence in the city, generating $20.7 billion in annual Pittsburgh payrolls.
Federal money has supported the research agenda. The area has served as the federal agency headquarters for cyber defense, software engineering, robotics, energy research and the nuclear navy. The nation's fifth-largest bank, eight Fortune 500 companies, and six of the top 300 U.S. law firms make their global headquarters in the area, while RAND Corporation, BNY Mellon, Nova, FedEx, Bayer, and the National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health have regional bases that helped Pittsburgh become the sixth-best area for U.S. job growth.In 2015, Pittsburgh was listed among the "eleven most livable cities in the world" by Metropolis magazine. The Economist's Global Liveability Ranking placed Pittsburgh as the most or second-most livable city in the United States in 2005, 2009, 2011, 2012, 2014, and 2018. The region is a hub for Leadership in Energy and Environmental Design and energy extraction.
| 53
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[
"Pittsburgh",
"instance of",
"big city"
] |
Cityscape
Areas
The city consists of the Downtown area, called the Golden Triangle, and four main areas surrounding it. These surrounding areas are subdivided into distinct neighborhoods (Pittsburgh has 90 neighborhoods). Relative to downtown, these areas are known as the Central, North Side/North Hills, South Side/South Hills, East End, and West End.
| 76
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[
"Pittsburgh",
"head of government",
"Ed Gainey"
] |
Politics
In 2006, Council President Luke Ravenstahl was sworn in as mayor at age 26, becoming the youngest mayor in the history of any major American city. His successor, Bill Peduto, was sworn in on January 6, 2014. In November 2021, Pittsburgh elected its first African-American mayor, Ed Gainey.
Prior to the American Civil War, Pittsburgh was strongly abolitionist. It is considered the birthplace of the national Republican Party, as the party held its first convention here in February 1856. From the Civil War to the 1930s, Pittsburgh was a Republican stronghold. The effects of the Great Depression, combined with entrenched local GOP scandals, resulted in a shift among voters to the Democratic Party. With the exceptions of the 1973 and 1977 elections (where lifelong Democrats ran off the party ticket), Democrats have been elected consecutively to the mayor's office since the 1933 election. The city's ratio of party registration is 5 to 1 Democrat.Pittsburgh is represented in the Pennsylvania General Assembly by three Senate Districts (Lindsey Williams (D)-38, Wayne D. Fontana (D)-42, and Jay Costa (D)-43) and nine House Districts (Aerion Abney-19, Adam Ravenstahl-20, Sara Innamorato-21, Dan Frankel-23, Martell Covington-24, Dan Deasy-27, Summer Lee-34, and Harry Readshaw-36, Dan Miller-42).
Federally, Pittsburgh is part of Pennsylvania's 12th congressional district, represented by Democrat Summer Lee since 2023 and also by Democrat Chris Deluzio.
| 88
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[
"Pittsburgh",
"instance of",
"city of Pennsylvania"
] |
Pittsburgh ( PITS-burg) is a city in the Commonwealth of Pennsylvania and the county seat of Allegheny County. It is the most populous city in both Allegheny County and Western Pennsylvania, the second-most populous city in Pennsylvania after Philadelphia, and the 68th-most populous city in the U.S. with a population of 302,971 as of the 2020 census. The city anchors the Greater Pittsburgh metropolitan area of Western Pennsylvania; its population of 2.37 million is the largest in both the Ohio Valley and Appalachia, the second-largest in Pennsylvania, and the 27th-largest in the U.S. It is the principal city of the greater Pittsburgh–New Castle–Weirton combined statistical area that extends into Ohio and West Virginia.
Pittsburgh is located in southwest Pennsylvania at the confluence of the Allegheny River and the Monongahela River, which combine to form the Ohio River. Pittsburgh is known both as "the Steel City" for its dominant role in the history of the U.S. steel industry, and as the "City of Bridges" for its 446 bridges. The city features 30 skyscrapers, two inclined railways, a pre-revolutionary fortification and the Point State Park at the confluence of the rivers. The city developed as a vital link of the Atlantic coast and Midwest, as the mineral-rich Allegheny Mountains led to the region being contested by the French and British empires, Virginians, Whiskey Rebels, and Civil War raiders.Aside from steel, Pittsburgh has led in the manufacturing of other important materials—aluminum and glass—and in the petroleum industry. Additionally, it is a leader in computing, electronics, and the automotive industry. For part of the 20th century, Pittsburgh was behind only New York City and Chicago in corporate headquarters employment; it had the most U.S. stockholders per capita. Deindustrialization in the 1970s and 1980s laid off area blue-collar workers as steel and other heavy industries declined, and thousands of downtown white-collar workers also lost jobs when several Pittsburgh-based companies moved out. The population dropped from a peak of 675,000 in 1950 to 370,000 in 1990. However, this rich industrial history left the area with renowned museums, medical centers, parks, research centers, and a diverse cultural district.After 1990, Pittsburgh transformed into a hub for the health care, education, and technology industries. Pittsburgh is home to large medical providers, including the University of Pittsburgh Medical Center, Allegheny Health Network, and 68 colleges and universities, including research and development leaders Carnegie Mellon University and the University of Pittsburgh. Google, Apple, Bosch, Meta, Nokia, Autodesk, Amazon, Microsoft, and IBM are among some 1,600 technology firms with a presence in the city, generating $20.7 billion in annual Pittsburgh payrolls.
Federal money has supported the research agenda. The area has served as the federal agency headquarters for cyber defense, software engineering, robotics, energy research and the nuclear navy. The nation's fifth-largest bank, eight Fortune 500 companies, and six of the top 300 U.S. law firms make their global headquarters in the area, while RAND Corporation, BNY Mellon, Nova, FedEx, Bayer, and the National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health have regional bases that helped Pittsburgh become the sixth-best area for U.S. job growth.In 2015, Pittsburgh was listed among the "eleven most livable cities in the world" by Metropolis magazine. The Economist's Global Liveability Ranking placed Pittsburgh as the most or second-most livable city in the United States in 2005, 2009, 2011, 2012, 2014, and 2018. The region is a hub for Leadership in Energy and Environmental Design and energy extraction.
| 89
|
[
"Continental Army",
"founded by",
"George Washington"
] |
The Continental Army was the army of the United Colonies representing the Thirteen Colonies and later the United States during the American Revolutionary War. It was formed on June 14, 1775 by a resolution passed by the Second Continental Congress, meeting in Philadelphia after the war's outbreak. The Continental Army was created to coordinate military efforts of the colonies in the war against the British, who sought to maintain control over the American colonies. General George Washington was appointed commander-in-chief of the Continental Army and maintained this position throughout the war.
The Continental Army was supplemented by local militias and volunteer troops that were either loyal to individual states or otherwise independent. Most of the Continental Army was disbanded in 1783 after the Treaty of Paris formally ended the war. The Continental Army's 1st and 2nd Regiments went on to form what was to become the Legion of the United States in 1792, which ultimately served as the foundation for the creation of the U.S. Army.
| 0
|
[
"Continental Army",
"country",
"United States of America"
] |
The Continental Army was the army of the United Colonies representing the Thirteen Colonies and later the United States during the American Revolutionary War. It was formed on June 14, 1775 by a resolution passed by the Second Continental Congress, meeting in Philadelphia after the war's outbreak. The Continental Army was created to coordinate military efforts of the colonies in the war against the British, who sought to maintain control over the American colonies. General George Washington was appointed commander-in-chief of the Continental Army and maintained this position throughout the war.
The Continental Army was supplemented by local militias and volunteer troops that were either loyal to individual states or otherwise independent. Most of the Continental Army was disbanded in 1783 after the Treaty of Paris formally ended the war. The Continental Army's 1st and 2nd Regiments went on to form what was to become the Legion of the United States in 1792, which ultimately served as the foundation for the creation of the U.S. Army.
| 5
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