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HTTP cookie	expires maxage expires attribute defines specific date time browser delete cookie.date time specified form wdy dd mon yyyy hhmmss gmt form wdy dd mon yy hhmmss gmt values yy yy greater equal less equal .alternatively maxage attribute used set cookies expiration interval seconds future relative time browser received cookie.example three setcookie header fields received website user logged inthe first cookie lu set expire sometime january .used client browser time.second cookie madewriteconn expiration date making session cookie.
HTTP cookie	deleted user closes browser.third cookie regfbgate value changed deleted expiration time past.browser delete cookie right away expiration time past.note cookie deleted domain path attributes setcookie field match values used cookie created.as internet explorer support maxage.secure httponly secure httponly attributes associated values.
HTTP cookie	rather presence attribute names indicates behaviors enabled.the secure attribute meant keep cookie communication limited encrypted transmission directing browsers use cookies via secureencrypted connections.however web server sets cookie secure attribute nonsecure connection cookie still intercepted sent user maninthemiddle attacks.therefore maximum security cookies secure attribute set secure connection.the httponly attribute directs browsers expose cookies channels http https requests.means cookie cannot accessed via clientside scripting languages notably javascript therefore cannot stolen easily via crosssite scripting pervasive attack technique.browser settings modern browsers support cookies allow user disable them.
HTTP cookie	following common optionsto enable disable cookies completely always accepted always blocked.to view selectively delete cookies using cookie manager.to fully wipe private data including cookies.addon tools managing cookie permissions also exist.privacy thirdparty cookies cookies important implications privacy anonymity web users.cookies sent server setting server internet domain web page may contain images components stored servers domains.cookies set retrieval components called thirdparty cookies.older standards cookies rfc rfc specify browsers protect user privacy allow sharing cookies servers default.
HTTP cookie	however newer standard rfc explicitly allows user agents implement whichever thirdparty cookie policy wish.browsers mozilla firefox internet explorer opera google chrome allow thirdparty cookies default long thirdparty website compact privacy policy published.newer versions safari block thirdparty cookies planned mozilla firefox well initially planned version postponed indefinitely.advertising companies use thirdparty cookies track user across multiple sites.particular advertising company track user across pages placed advertising images web bugs.knowledge pages visited user allows advertising company target advertisements users presumed preferences.website operators disclose thirdparty cookie use consumers run risk harming consumer trust cookie use discovered.
HTTP cookie	clear disclosure privacy policy tends eliminate negative effects cookie discovery.the possibility building profile users privacy threat especially tracking done across multiple domains using thirdparty cookies.reason countries legislation cookies.the united states government set strict rules setting cookies disclosed white house drug policy office used cookies track computer users viewing online antidrug advertising.privacy activist daniel brandt found cia leaving persistent cookies computers visited website.notified violating policy cia stated cookies intentionally set stopped setting them.december brandt discovered national security agency nsa leaving two persistent cookies visitors computers due software upgrade.
HTTP cookie	informed nsa immediately disabled cookies.eu cookie directive european union launched directive privacy electronic communications eprivacy directive policy requiring end users consent placement cookies similar technologies storing accessing information users equipment.particular article paragraph mandates storing technically unnecessary data users computer done user provided information data used user given possibility denying storage operation.directive require users authorise provided notice cookie usage functionally required delivering service requested example retain settings store login sessions remember users shopping basket.in law amended directive ec included change article paragraph .instead option users opt cookie storage revised directive requires consent obtained cookie storage.
HTTP cookie	definition consent crossreferenced definition european data protection law firstly data protection directive subsequently general data protection regulation gdpr.definition consent strengthened text gdpr effect increasing quality consent required storing accessing information cookies users devices.case decided data protection directive however court justice european union later confirmed however previous law implied strong quality consent current instrument.addition requirement consent stems storing accessing information users terminal device information many cookies considered personal data gdpr alone require legal basis process.case since data protection directive used identical definition personal data although gdpr interpretative recital clarifies cookie identifiers included.
HTTP cookie	data processing gdpr requires consent characteristics behavioural advertising mean difficult impossible justify ground.consent combination gdpr eprivacy directive meet number conditions relation cookies.must freely given unambiguous preticked boxes banned data protection directive gdpr recital .gdpr specific consent must easy withdraw give meaning rejectall button must easy access terms clicks visibility accept button.must specific informed meaning consent relates particular purposes use data organisations seeking use consent must specifically named.court justice european union also ruled consent must efficient timely meaning must gained cookies laid data processing begins instead afterwards.the industrys response largely negative.
HTTP cookie	robert bond law firm speechly bircham describes effects farreaching incredibly onerous uk companies.simon davis privacy international argues proper enforcement would destroy entire industry.however scholars note onerous nature cookie popups stems attempt continue operate business model convoluted requests may incompatible gdpr.academic studies regulators describe widespread noncompliance law.study scraping uk websites found .sites adhered minimal legal requirements .
HTTP cookie	websites studied providing mechanism reject cookies easy use accepting them.study websites found sites breached criterion finding additionally many laid third party cookies notice all.uk regulator information commissioners office stated industrys transparency consent framework advertising technology group interactive advertising bureau insufficient ensure transparency fair processing personal data question therefore also insufficient provide free informed consent attendant implications pecr eprivacy compliance.many companies sell compliance solutions consent management platforms permit configured manifestly illegal ways scholars noted creates questions around appropriate allocation liability.a wc specification called pp proposed servers communicate privacy policy browsers allowing automatic userconfigurable handling.however websites implement specification major browsers support wc discontinued work specification.thirdparty cookies blocked browsers increase privacy reduce tracking advertising tracking companies without negatively affecting users web experience sites.
HTTP cookie	sites operate cookie walls make access site conditional allowing cookies either technically browser pressing accept both.european data protection board composed eu data protection regulators stated cookie walls illegal.in order consent freely given access services functionalities must made conditional consent user storing information gaining access information already stored terminal equipment user called cookie walls.many advertising operators optout option behavioural advertising generic cookie browser stopping behavioural advertising.however often ineffective many forms tracking firstparty tracking growing popularity avoid impact browsers blocking third party cookies.furthermore setting difficult place acceptance tracking remains breach conditions eprivacy directive.cookie theft session hijacking websites use cookies identifiers user sessions methods identifying web users limitations vulnerabilities.
HTTP cookie	website uses cookies session identifiers attackers impersonate users requests stealing full set victims cookies.web servers point view request attacker authentication victims requests thus request performed behalf victims session.listed various scenarios cookie theft user session hijacking even without stealing user cookies work websites relying solely http cookies user identification.network eavesdropping traffic network intercepted read computers network sender receiver particularly unencrypted open wifi.traffic includes cookies sent ordinary unencrypted http sessions.network traffic encrypted attackers therefore read communications users network including http cookies well entire contents conversations purpose maninthemiddle attack.an attacker could use intercepted cookies impersonate user perform malicious task transferring money victims bank account.this issue resolved securing communication users computer server employing transport layer security https protocol encrypt connection.
HTTP cookie	server specify secure flag setting cookie cause browser send cookie encrypted channel tls connection.publishing false subdomain dns cache poisoning attacker able cause dns server cache fabricated dns entry called dns cache poisoning could allow attacker gain access users cookies.example attacker could use dns cache poisoning create fabricated dns entry f. points ip address attackers server.attacker post image url server example httpf.victims reading attackers message would download image f. since f. subdomain victims browsers would submit example.comrelated cookies attackers server.if attacker able accomplish usually fault internet service providers properly securing dns servers.
HTTP cookie	however severity attack lessened target website uses secure cookies.case attacker would extra challenge obtaining target websites tls certificate certificate authority since secure cookies transmitted encrypted connection.without matching tls certificate victims browsers would display warning message attackers invalid certificate would help deter users visiting attackers fraudulent website sending attacker cookies.crosssite scripting cookie theft cookies also stolen using technique called crosssite scripting.occurs attacker takes advantage website allows users post unfiltered html javascript content.
HTTP cookie	posting malicious html javascript code attacker cause victims web browser send victims cookies website attacker controls.as example attacker may post message following linkwhen another user clicks link browser executes piece code within onclick attribute thus replacing string document.cookie list cookies accessible current page.result list cookies sent attacker.com server.attackers malicious posting https website https secure cookies also sent attacker.com plain text.it responsibility website developers filter malicious code.such attacks mitigated using httponly cookies.cookies accessible clientside scripting languages like javascript therefore attacker able gather cookies.crosssite scripting proxy request older versions many browsers security holes implementation xmlhttprequest api.
HTTP cookie	api allows pages specify proxy server would get reply proxy server subject sameorigin policy.example victim reading attackers posting attackers script executed victims browser.script generates request proxy server attacker.com.since request example.com cookies sent along request routed attackers proxy server.hence attacker would able harvest victims cookies.this attack would work secure cookies since transmitted https connections https protocol dictates endtoend encryption i.e.
HTTP cookie	information encrypted users browser decrypted destination server.case proxy server would see raw encrypted bytes http request.crosssite request forgery example bob might browsing chat forum another user mallory posted message.suppose mallory crafted html image element references action bobs banks website rather image file e.g.bobs bank keeps authentication information cookie cookie hasnt expired attempt bobs browser load image submit withdrawal form cookie thus authorizing transaction without bobs approval.
HTTP cookie	cookiejacking cookiejacking attack internet explorer allows attacker steal session cookies user tricking user dragging object across screen.microsoft deemed flaw lowrisk level required user interaction necessity user already logged website whose cookie stolen.despite researcher tried attack facebook friends obtained cookies via social engineering.drawbacks cookies besides privacy concerns cookies also technical drawbacks.particular always accurately identify users used security attacks often odds representational state transfer rest software architectural style.
HTTP cookie	inaccurate identification one browser used computer usually separate storage area cookies.hence cookies identify person combination user account computer web browser.thus anyone uses multiple accounts computers browsers multiple sets cookies.likewise cookies differentiate multiple users share user account computer browser.inconsistent state client server use cookies may generate inconsistency state client state stored cookie.user acquires cookie clicks back button browser state browser generally acquisition.
HTTP cookie	example shopping cart online shop built using cookies content cart may change user goes back browsers history user presses button add item shopping cart clicks back button item remains shopping cart.might intention user possibly wanted undo addition item.lead unreliability confusion bugs.web developers therefore aware issue implement measures handle situations.alternatives cookies operations done using cookies also done using mechanisms.
HTTP cookie	json web tokens json web token jwt selfcontained packet information used store user identity authenticity information.allows used place session cookies.unlike cookies automatically attached http request browser jwts must explicitly attached http request web application.http authentication http protocol includes basic access authentication digest access authentication protocols allow access web page user provided correct username password.server requires credentials granting access web page browser requests user obtained browser stores sends every subsequent page request.
HTTP cookie	information used track user.ip address users may tracked based ip address computer requesting page.server knows ip address computer running browser proxy used could theoretically link users session ip address.however ip addresses generally reliable way track session identify user.many computers designed used single user office pcs home pcs behind network address translator nat.means several pcs share public ip address.
HTTP cookie	furthermore systems tor designed retain internet anonymity rendering tracking ip address impractical impossible security risk.url query string precise technique based embedding information urls.query string part url part typically used purpose parts used well.java servlet php session mechanisms use method cookies enabled.this method consists web server appending query strings containing unique session identifier links inside web page.user follows link browser sends query string server allowing server identify user maintain state.these kinds query strings similar cookies contain arbitrary pieces information chosen server sent back server every request.
HTTP cookie	however differences.since query string part url url later reused attached piece information sent server could lead confusion.example preferences user encoded query string url user sends url another user email preferences used user well.moreover user accesses page multiple times different sources guarantee query string used time.example user visits page coming page internal site first time visits page coming external search engine second time query strings would likely different.cookies used situation cookies would same.other drawbacks query strings related security.
HTTP cookie	storing data identifies session query string enables session fixation attacks referer logging attacks security exploits.transferring session identifiers http cookies secure.hidden form fields another form session tracking use web forms hidden fields.technique similar using url query strings hold information many advantages drawbacks.fact form handled http get method technique similar using url query strings since get method adds form fields url query string.
HTTP cookie	forms handled http post causes form information including hidden fields sent http request body neither part url cookie.this approach presents two advantages point view tracker.first tracking information placed http request body rather url means noticed average user.second session information copied user copies url bookmark page send via email example.window.name dom property current web browsers store fairly large amount data – mb via javascript using dom property window.name.data used instead session cookies also crossdomain.
HTTP cookie	technique coupled jsonjavascript objects store complex sets session variables client side.the downside every separate window tab initially empty window.name property opened.furthermore property used tracking visitors across different websites making concern internet privacy.in respects secure cookies due fact contents automatically sent server every request like cookies vulnerable network cookie sniffing attacks.however special measures taken protect data vulnerable attacks data available across different websites opened window tab.identifier advertisers apple uses tracking technique called identifier advertisers idfa.technique assigns unique identifier every user buys apple ios device iphone ipad.
HTTP cookie	identifier used apples advertising network iad determine ads individuals viewing responding to.etag etags cached browser returned subsequent requests resource tracking server simply repeat etag received browser ensure assigned etag persists indefinitely similar way persistent cookies.additional caching header fields also enhance preservation etag data.etags flushed browsers clearing browser cache.web storage web browsers support persistence mechanisms allow page store information locally later use.the html standard modern web browsers support extent includes javascript api called web storage allows two types storage local storage session storage.local storage behaves similarly persistent cookies session storage behaves similarly session cookies except session storage tied individual tabwindows lifetime aka page session whole browser session like session cookies.internet explorer supports persistent information browsers history browsers favorites xml store user data directly within web page saved disk.some web browser plugins include persistence mechanisms well.
HTTP cookie	example adobe flash local shared object microsoft silverlight isolated storage.browser cache browser cache also used store information used track individual users.technique takes advantage fact web browser use resources stored within cache instead downloading website determines cache already uptodate version resource.for example website could serve javascript file code sets unique identifier user example var userid .users initial visit every time user accesses page file loaded cache instead downloaded server.thus content never change.
HTTP cookie	browser fingerprint browser fingerprint information collected browsers configuration version number screen resolution operating system purpose identification.fingerprints used fully partially identify individual users devices even cookies turned off.basic web browser configuration information long collected web analytics services effort accurately measure real human web traffic discount various forms click fraud.assistance clientside scripting languages collection much esoteric parameters possible.assimilation information single string constitutes device fingerprint.eff measured least .
HTTP cookie	bits entropy possible browser fingerprinting.canvas fingerprinting recent technique claims add another .bits.see also dynamic htmlenterprise javabeanssession computer sciencesecure cookiehttp strict transport security § privacy issues references sources anonymous .cookiejacking attack steals website access credentials.
Sustainability and environmental management	informationweek online pp.informationweek online may .external links rfc current official specification http cookieshttp cookies mozilla developer networkusing cookies via ecmascript mozilla developer networkhow internet cookies work howstuffworkscookies electronic privacy information center epicmozilla knowledgebase cookiescookie domain explain detail cookie domains handled current major browserscookie stealing michael poundcheck cookies compliance eu cookie directivemanagement earths atmosphere involves assessment aspects carbon cycle identify opportunities address humaninduced climate change become major focus scientific research potential catastrophic effects biodiversity human communities.ocean circulation patterns strong influence climate weather turn food supply humans organisms.atmosphere march meeting copenhagen climate council climate experts countries issued keynote statement excuse failing act global warming without strong carbon reduction targets abrupt irreversible shifts climate may occur difficult contemporary societies cope with.management global atmosphere involves assessment aspects carbon cycle identify opportunities address humaninduced climate change become major focus scientific research potential catastrophic effects biodiversity human communities.other human impacts atmosphere include air pollution cities pollutants including toxic chemicals like nitrogen oxides sulphur oxides volatile organic compounds airborne particulate matter produce photochemical smog acid rain chlorofluorocarbons degrade ozone layer.anthropogenic particulates sulfate aerosols atmosphere reduce direct irradiance reflectance albedo earths surface.
Sustainability and environmental management	known global dimming decrease estimated although trend subsequently reversed.global dimming may disturbed global water cycle reducing evaporation rainfall areas.also creates cooling effect may partially masked effect greenhouse gases global warming.oceans ocean circulation patterns strong influence climate weather turn food supply humans organisms.scientists warned possibility influence climate change sudden alteration circulation patterns ocean currents could drastically alter climate regions globe.
Sustainability and environmental management	major human environmental impacts occur habitable regions ocean fringes – estuaries coastline bays.eight point five worlds population – million people – live lowlying areas vulnerable sea level rise.trends concern require management include overfishing beyond sustainable levels coral bleaching due ocean warming ocean acidification due increasing levels dissolved carbon dioxide sea level rise due climate change.vastness oceans also act convenient dumping ground human waste.remedial strategies include careful waste management statutory control overfishing adoption sustainable fishing practices use environmentally sensitive sustainable aquaculture fish farming reduction fossil fuel emissions restoration coastal marine habitats.
Sustainability and environmental management	freshwater water covers earths surface..salty water oceans .freshwater locked antarctic ice sheet.remaining freshwater found lakes rivers wetlands soil aquifers atmosphere.
Sustainability and environmental management	life depends solarpowered global water cycle evaporation oceans land form water vapour later condenses clouds rain becomes renewable part freshwater supply.awareness global importance preserving water ecosystem services recently emerged th century half worlds wetlands lost along valuable environmental services.biodiversityrich freshwater ecosystems currently declining faster marine land ecosystems making worlds vulnerable habitats.increasing urbanization pollutes clean water supplies much world still access clean safe water.industrial world demand management slowed absolute usage rates increasingly water transported vast distances waterrich natural areas populationdense urban areas energyhungry desalination becoming widely used.
Sustainability and environmental management	greater emphasis placed improved management blue harvestable green soil water available plant use water applies scales water management.land loss biodiversity originates largely habitat loss fragmentation produced artificial land development forestry agriculture natural capital progressively converted manmade capital.landuse change fundamental operations biosphere alterations relative proportions land dedicated urbanisation agriculture forest woodland grassland pasture marked effect global water carbon nitrogen biogeochemical cycles negatively impact natural human systems.local human scale major sustainability benefits accrue pursuit green cities sustainable parks gardens.forests since neolithic revolution human consumption reduced worlds forest cover .
Sustainability and environmental management	presentday forests occupy quarter worlds icefree land half occurring tropics.temperate boreal regions forest area gradually increasing exception siberia deforestation tropics major concern.forests moderate local climate global water cycle light reflectance albedo evapotranspiration.also conserve biodiversity protect water quality preserve soil soil quality provide fuel pharmaceuticals purify air.free ecosystem services given market value current economic systems forest conservation little appeal compared economic benefits logging clearance soil degradation organic decomposition returns carbon dioxide atmosphere.united nations food agriculture organization fao estimates carbon stored land vegetation locked trees sequester carbon present atmosphere.
Sustainability and environmental management	changes land use currently contribute total global carbon emissions heavily logged indonesia brazil major source emissions.climate change mitigated sequestering carbon reafforestation schemes plantations timber products.also wood biomass utilized renewable carbonneutral fuel.fao suggested period – effective use tree planting could absorb – manmade emissions – monitoring condition worlds forests must part global strategy mitigate emissions protect ecosystem services.however climate change may preempt fao scenario study international union forest research organizations concluded stress .c° .f° temperature rise preindustrial levels could result release vast amounts carbon potential forests act carbon sinks risk lost entirely.
Sustainability and environmental management	cultivated land feeding seven billion human bodies takes heavy toll earths resources.begins appropriation earths land surface net primary productivity.added resourcehungry activities industrial agribusiness – everything crop need irrigation water synthetic fertilizers pesticides resource costs food packaging transport major part global trade retail.food essential life.list environmental costs food production long one topsoil depletion erosion conversion desert constant tillage annual crops overgrazing salinization sodification waterlogging high levels fossil fuel use reliance inorganic fertilisers synthetic organic pesticides reductions genetic diversity mass use monocultures water resource depletion pollution waterbodies runoff groundwater contamination social problems including decline family farms weakening rural communities.all environmental problems associated industrial agriculture agribusiness addressed movements sustainable agriculture organic farming sustainable business practices.
Sustainability and environmental management	extinctions although biodiversity loss monitored simply loss species effective conservation demands protection species within natural habitats ecosystems.following human migration population growth species extinctions progressively increased rate unprecedented since cretaceous–paleogene extinction event.known holocene extinction event current humaninduced extinction species ranks one worlds six mass extinction events.scientific estimates indicate half presently existing species may become extinct .current extinction rates times prehuman levels birds mammals threatened plants fish freshwater species.the iucn red list warns longterm droughts extreme weather put additional stress key habitats example lists bird species threatened extinction one eighth bird species.
Sustainability and environmental management	red list index also identifies tree species central asia threat extinction due overexploitation human development threatening regions forests home wild ancestors modern domesticated fruit nut cultivars.biological invasions many parts industrial world land clearing agriculture diminished greatest threat biodiversity climate change become destructive effect invasive species.increasingly efficient global transport facilitated spread organisms across planet.potential danger aspect globalization starkly illustrated spread human diseases like hiv aids mad cow disease bird flu swine flu invasive plants animals also devastating impact native biodiversity.nonindigenous organisms quickly occupy disturbed land natural areas absence natural predators able thrive.
Sustainability and environmental management	global scale issue addressed global invasive species information network improved international biosecurity legislation minimise transmission pathogens invasive organisms.also cites legislation control trade rare threatened species.increasingly local level public awareness programs alerting communities gardeners nursery industry collectors pet aquarium industries harmful effects potentially invasive species.resistance change environmental sustainability problem proven difficult solve.modern environmental movement attempted solve problem large variety ways.
Sustainability and environmental management	little progress made shown severe ecological footprint overshoot lack sufficient progress climate change problem.something within human system preventing change sustainable mode behavior.system trait systemic change resistance.change resistance also known organizational resistance barriers change policy resistance.see also environmental managementintegrated landscape managementnatural resource managementplanetary management references sources blood k. .
Sustainability and environmental management	environmental weeds.mt waverley victoria c.h.jerram associates.isbn .example local guide invasive plants.clarke r. king j. .
Sustainability and environmental management	atlas water.london earthscan.isbn .groombridge b. jenkins m.d..world atlas biodiversity.
Sustainability and environmental management	berkeley university california press.isbn .krebs c.j..ecology experimental analysis distribution abundance.sydney benjamin cummings.
Sustainability and environmental management	isbn .leakey r. lewin r. .sixth extinction patterns life future humankind.new york bantam dell publishing group.isbn lindenmayer d. burgman m. .practical conservation biology.
Sustainability and environmental management	collingwood victoria csiro publishing.isbn .e huttmanová.possibilities sustainable development evaluation european union area.european journal sustainable development issn .randall r. .global compendium weeds.
Sustainability and environmental management	meredith victoria australia r.g.f.j. richardson.isbn .tudge c. .shall reap.london penguin books.
Sustainability and environmental management	isbn .wilson e.o..future life.new york knopf.isbn .
HelpSystems	external links master education environmental management sustainability science aalborg university denmarkcompany recognized biggest independent ibm software vendor world.the company owned private equity firms hggc ta associates charlesbank capital partners harvest partners.history helpsystems originally known help founded dick jacobson.engineer advanced circuits ac minnetonka mn jacobson written program called robot used provide automation ibm system.program originally designed offset computer costs ac.ibm replaced system company became known helpsystems.
HelpSystems	company spun late ’s ac sold honeywell.in response ibms introduction three years earlier helpsystems introduced robotconsole robotalert robotnetwork suite tools message management escalation as.in helpsystems became first software company united states certified iso standard.in helpsystems bought bostonbased investment firm summit partners.in october helpsystems acquired advanced systems concepts asc developer sequel reporting business intelligence tools ios os platform.helpsystems created sequel software division support product.in august company announced robotsecurity suite products supporting ibms ios systems.september helpsystems acquired bostonbased private equity firm audax group.in january helpsystems expanded international presence europe australia new zealand purchasing one partners product distributors evelogic group england.august helpsystems bought os ibm security compliance software vendor powertech complement robotsecurity products eventually combined powertech name.october followed purchasing bytware provider standguard brand security management antivirus tools ibm devices.in robotschedule enterprise evolved led launch skybot scheduler turned separate division.
HelpSystems	may skybot software expanded customer base acquiring fleet ukbased open systems management creator job scheduling process automation tools windows unix linux platforms.present june helpsystems bought datathread db monitoring product innovatum became part powertech line.in april summit partners bought back majority stake helpsystems.june helpsystems purchased ukbased safestone security compliance software developer ibm i. october helpsystems bought gillingham ukbased ccss developer qsystem monitor qmessage monitor qremote control systems monitoring performance management tools ibm server.in january helpsystems announced acquisition new hampshirebased dartware network management product intermapper one first network mapping tools ever created.april helpsystems acquired ibms showcase business intelligence products added software sequel software division.in april company acquired los angelesbased network automation developer automate line workflow mapping automation software.time company announced robotnetwork web user interface allowed users see ibm server performance information mobile phone device web browser.
HelpSystems	july helpsystems acquired minneapolisbased document management software company rjs software data warehousing product australiabased coglin mill.coglin mills data warehouse product rodin added sequel product line.acquisition company acknowledged new yorkbased publisher jungle biggest independent ibm vendor world.in january helpsystems bought peterborough englandbased halcyon developer software multiplatform systems management announced intention operate halcyon independent company time being.june helpsystems bought ibm security vendor skyview partners deal included skyviews team security experts.team expanded service help customers aix linux platforms too.
HelpSystems	august announced company acquired floridabased private equity firm h.i.g.capital undisclosed amount.in february helpsystems acquired tango computing group software company specialized monitoring hq barcelona spain offices buenos aires argentina.june helpsystems acquired linoma software.linoma software well known products enable organizations transfer files automated secure way.also software secures data rest strong encryption.
HelpSystems	products include goanywhere managed file transfer rpg toolbox free format converter crypto complete surveyor.october helpsystems brought market high availability solution ibm users.december helpsystems acquired teamquest help customers capacity planning.in may helpsystems released new software product called access authenticator – multifactor authentication solution ibm users.july helpsystems released free network monitoring software intermapper.august helpsystems announced stronger partnership ibm.
HelpSystems	involves accelerating enhancements marketing ibm products including backup recovery media services brms powerha systemmirror rational developer i. helpsystems also enhance development rational developer aix linux rdal.december helpsystems acquired fox technologies help organizations tighten security centralizing linux unix identity access management.in april private equity firm hggc became lead investor helpsystems.august helpsystems acquired midrange performance group mpg expand capacity management portfolio ibm i. november helpsystems acquired mvp software systems jams enterprise workload automation solution.in february helpsystems acquired secureauths core security products expand cybersecurity portfolio.october ta associates charlesbank capital partners signed definitive agreement become additional investors.firms joined existing investors hggc.
HelpSystems	december helpsystems acquired ukbased information security company clearswift expand cybersecurity portfolio.in june helpsystems acquired data classification companies canadabased titus ukbased boldon james.december company acquired vera cloud based data protection solution provider strengthen data security portfolio.in january helpsystems acquired filecatalyst provider enterprise file transfer acceleration services expand data security automation portfolio.february company acquired vulnerability management threat assessment provider digital defense expand cybersecurity portfolio.may private equity firm harvest partners scf lp joined existing investors support helpsystems’ ongoing growth.also may company acquired vulnerability assessment management provider beyond security continue expansion cybersecurity portfolio.
HelpSystems	shortly thereafter helpsystems acquired agari provider enterprise solutions protect advanced email threats expand data security portfolio.in october helpsystems acquired phishlabs cyber threat intelligence company continue expansion cybersecurity portfolio.later month helpsystems strengthened security portfolio acquisition digital guardian provider data loss prevention software.products cobalt strike cobalt strike penetration testing tool used simulate network attacks test network defences order detect vulnerabilities.the tool criticised due use cybercriminals tool used deploy ransomware surveil target computers networks download confidential data target systems.cybersecurity firm recorded future identified tool used control .malicious command control servers deployed .
Common Criteria	cobalt strike discovered used cybercrime group wizard spider infect irish health service executive systems download medical data employee records deploy ransomware payload part health service executive cyberattack.offices addition minneapolis headquarters company also us offices chicago il clear lake ia lebanon nh kent wa foster city ca los angeles ca roseville ca raleigh nc atlanta ga unionville ct rochester mn international offices sheffield fleet uk barcelona spain yerevan armenia buenos aires argentina melbourne australia.references external links official websitecurrently version .revision .common criteria framework computer system users specify security functional assurance requirements sfrs sars respectively security target st may taken protection profiles pps.vendors implement make claims security attributes products testing laboratories evaluate products determine actually meet claims.words common criteria provides assurance process specification implementation evaluation computer security product conducted rigorous standard repeatable manner level commensurate target environment use.common criteria maintains list certified products including operating systems access control systems databases key management systems.
Common Criteria	key concepts common criteria evaluations performed computer security products systems.target evaluation toe – product system subject evaluation.evaluation serves validate claims made target.practical use evaluation must verify targets security features.done followingprotection profile pp – document typically created user user community identifies security requirements class security devices example smart cards used provide digital signatures network firewalls relevant user particular purpose.product vendors choose implement products comply one pps products evaluated pps.
Common Criteria	case pp may serve template products st security target defined authors st least ensure requirements relevant pps also appear targets st document.customers looking particular types products focus certified pp meets requirements.security target st – document identifies security properties target evaluation.st may claim conformance one pps.toe evaluated sfrs security functional requirements.see established st less.
Common Criteria	allows vendors tailor evaluation accurately match intended capabilities product.means network firewall meet functional requirements database management system different firewalls may fact evaluated completely different lists requirements.st usually published potential customers may determine specific security features certified evaluation.security functional requirements sfrs – specify individual security functions may provided product.common criteria presents standard catalogue functions.example sfr may state user acting particular role might authenticated.
Common Criteria	list sfrs vary one evaluation next even two targets type product.although common criteria prescribe sfrs included st identifies dependencies correct operation one function ability limit access according roles dependent another ability identify individual roles.the evaluation process also tries establish level confidence may placed products security features quality assurance processessecurity assurance requirements sars – descriptions measures taken development evaluation product assure compliance claimed security functionality.example evaluation may require source code kept change management system full functional testing performed.common criteria provides catalogue requirements may vary one evaluation next.requirements particular targets types products documented st pp respectively.evaluation assurance level eal – numerical rating describing depth rigor evaluation.
Common Criteria	eal corresponds package security assurance requirements sars see covers complete development product given level strictness.common criteria lists seven levels eal basic therefore cheapest implement evaluate eal stringent expensive.normally st pp author select assurance requirements individually choose one packages possibly augmenting requirements areas requirements higher level.higher eals necessarily imply better security mean claimed security assurance toe extensively verified.so far pps evaluated stscertified products components e.g.firewalls operating systems smart cards.common criteria certification sometimes specified procurement.
Common Criteria	standards containing e.g.interoperation system management user training supplement cc product standards.examples include isoiec german baseline protection.details cryptographic implementation within toe outside scope cc.instead national standards like fips give specifications cryptographic modules various standards specify cryptographic algorithms use.more recently pp authors including cryptographic requirements cc evaluations would typically covered fips evaluations broadening bounds cc schemespecific interpretations.some national evaluation schemes phasing ealbased evaluations accept products evaluation claim strict conformance approved pp.united states currently allows ppbased evaluations.
Common Criteria	canada process phasing ealbased evaluations.history cc originated three standardsitsec – european standard developed early france germany netherlands uk.unification earlier work two uk approaches cesg uk evaluation scheme aimed defenceintelligence market dti green book aimed commercial use adopted countries e.g.australia.ctcpec – canadian standard followed us dod standard avoided several problems used jointly evaluators u.s. canada.ctcpec standard first published may .tcsec – united states department defense dod .
Common Criteria	std called orange book parts rainbow series.orange book originated computer security work including anderson report done national security agency national bureau standards nbs eventually became nist late early s. central thesis orange book follows work done dave bell len lapadula set protection mechanisms.cc produced unifying preexisting standards predominantly companies selling computer products government market mainly defence intelligence use would need evaluated one set standards.cc developed governments canada france germany netherlands uk u.s. testing organizations testing laboratories must comply isoiec certification bodies normally approved isoiec .the compliance isoiec typically demonstrated national approval authorityin canada standards council canada scc program accreditation laboratories palcan accredits common criteria evaluation facilities ccefin france comité français daccréditation cofrac accredits common criteria evaluation facilities commonly called centre dévaluation de la sécurité des technologies de linformation cesti.evaluations done according norms standards specified agence nationale de la sécurité des systèmes dinformation anssi.in italy ocsi organismo di certificazione della sicurezza informatica accredits common criteria evaluation laboratoriesin uk united kingdom accreditation service ukas used accredit commercial evaluation facilities clef uk since consumer cc ecosystemin us national institute standards technology nist national voluntary laboratory accreditation program nvlap accredits common criteria testing laboratories cctlin germany bundesamt für sicherheit der informationstechnik bsiin spain national cryptologic center ccn accredits common criteria testing laboratories operating spanish scheme.in netherlands netherlands scheme certification area security nscib accredits security evaluation facilities itsef.in sweden swedish certification body security csec licenses security evaluation facilities itsef.characteristics organizations examined presented iccc .mutual recognition arrangement well common criteria standard also subtreaty level common criteria mra mutual recognition arrangement whereby party thereto recognizes evaluations common criteria standard done parties.
Common Criteria	originally signed canada france germany united kingdom united states australia new zealand joined followed finland greece israel italy netherlands norway spain .arrangement since renamed common criteria recognition arrangement ccra membership continues expand.within ccra evaluations eal mutually recognized including augmentation flaw remediation.european countries within former itsec agreement typically recognize higher eals well.evaluations eal tend involve security requirements host nations government.in september majority members ccra produced vision statement whereby mutual recognition cc evaluated products lowered eal including augmentation flaw remediation.
Common Criteria	vision indicates move away assurance levels altogether evaluations confined conformance protection profiles stated assurance level.achieved technical working groups developing worldwide pps yet transition period fully determined.on july new ccra ratified per goals outlined within vision statement.major changes arrangement includerecognition evaluations collaborative protection profile cpp evaluation assurance levels alcflr.the emergence international technical communities itc groups technical experts charged creation cpps.a transition plan previous ccra including recognition certificates issued previous version arrangement.issues requirements common criteria generic directly provide list product security requirements features specific classes products follows approach taken itsec source debate used prescriptive approach earlier standards tcsec fips .value certification common criteria certification cannot guarantee security ensure claims security attributes evaluated product independently verified.
Common Criteria	words products evaluated common criteria standard exhibit clear chain evidence process specification implementation evaluation conducted rigorous standard manner.various microsoft windows versions including windows server windows xp certified security patches address security vulnerabilities still getting published microsoft windows systems.possible process obtaining common criteria certification allows vendor restrict analysis certain security features make certain assumptions operating environment strength threats faced product environment.additionally cc recognizes need limit scope evaluation order provide costeffective useful security certifications evaluated products examined level detail specified assurance level pp.evaluations activities therefore performed certain depth use time resources offer reasonable assurance intended environment.in microsoft case assumptions include a.peer systems toe communicates assumed management control operate security policy constraints.toe applicable networked distributed environments entire network operates constraints resides within single management domain.
Common Criteria	security requirements address need trust external systems communications links systems.this assumption contained controlled access protection profile capp products adhere.based assumptions may realistic common use generalpurpose operating systems claimed security functions windows products evaluated.thus considered secure assumed specified circumstances also known evaluated configuration.whether run microsoft windows precise evaluated configuration apply microsofts security patches vulnerabilities windows continue appear.security vulnerabilities exploitable products evaluated configuration products common criteria certification voluntarily withdrawn vendor.alternatively vendor reevaluate product include application patches fix security vulnerabilities within evaluated configuration.
Common Criteria	failure vendor take either steps would result involuntary withdrawal products certification certification body country product evaluated.the certified microsoft windows versions remain eal without including application microsoft security vulnerability patches evaluated configuration.shows limitation strength evaluated configuration.criticisms august government computing news gcn columnist william jackson critically examined common criteria methodology us implementation common criteria evaluation validation scheme ccevs.column executives security industry researchers representatives national information assurance partnership niap interviewed.objections outlined article includeevaluation costly process often measured hundreds thousands us dollars – vendors return investment necessarily secure product.evaluation focuses primarily assessing evaluation documentation actual security technical correctness merits product itself.
Common Criteria	u.s. evaluations eal higher experts national security agency participate analysis eal full source code analysis required.the effort time necessary prepare evaluation evidence evaluationrelated documentation cumbersome time work completed product evaluation generally obsolete.industry input including organizations common criteria vendors forum generally little impact process whole.in research paper computer specialist david a. wheeler suggested common criteria process discriminates free opensource software fosscentric organizations development models.common criteria assurance requirements tend inspired traditional waterfall software development methodology.contrast much foss software produced using modern agile paradigms.although argued paradigms align well others attempted reconcile paradigms.political scientist jan kallberg raised concerns lack control actual production products certified absence permanently staffed organizational body monitors compliance idea trust common criteria itsecurity certifications maintained across geopolitical boundaries.in roca vulnerability found list common criteria certified smart card products.
Common Criteria	vulnerability highlighted several shortcomings common criteria certification schemethe vulnerability resided homegrown rsa key generation algorithm published analyzed cryptanalysis community.however testing labaratory tüv informationstechnik gmbh tüvit germany approved use certification body bsi germany issued common criteria certificates vulnerable products.security target evaluated product claimed rsa keys generated according standard algorithm.response vulnerability bsi plans improve transparency requiring certification report least specifies implemented proprietary cryptography exactly conformant recommended standard.bsi plan requiring proprietary algorithm published way.even though certification bodies aware security claims specified common criteria certificates hold anymore neither anssi bsi revoked corresponding certificates.
Common Criteria	according bsi certificate withdrawn issued misconception e.g.turns wrong evidence submitted.certificate issued must presumed validity certificate decreases time improved new attacks discovered.certification bodies issue maintenance reports even perform recertification product.activities however initiated sponsored vendor.while several common criteria certified products affected roca flaw vendors responses context certification different.
Common Criteria	products maintenance report issued states rsa keys length bits security level least bits products maintenance report mention change toe affects certified cryptographic security functionality concludes change level guidance documentation effect assurance.according bsi users certified end products informed roca vulnerability vendors.information however reach timely manner estonian authorities deployed vulnerable product estonian identity cards.alternative approaches throughout lifetime cc universally adopted even creator nations particular cryptographic approvals handled separately canadian us implementation fips cesg assisted products scheme caps uk.the uk also produced number alternative schemes timescales costs overheads mutual recognition found impeding operation marketthe cesg system evaluation sysn fast track approach fta schemes assurance government systems rather generic products services merged cesg tailored assurance service ctas cesg claims tested mark cct mark aimed handling less exhaustive assurance requirements products services cost time efficient mannerin early nsacss published paper chris salter proposed protection profile oriented approach towards evaluation.approach communities interest form around technology types turn develop protection profiles define evaluation methodology technology type.objective robust evaluation.
Economic impacts of climate change	concern may negative impact mutual recognition.in sept common criteria published vision statement implementing large extent chris salters thoughts previous year.key elements vision includedtechnical communities focused authoring protection profiles pp support goal reasonable comparable reproducible costeffective evaluation resultsevaluations done pps possible mutual recognition security target evaluations would limited eal see also belllapadula modelchina compulsory certificateevaluation assurance levelfips information assuranceiso isoiec usability testingverification validation references external links official website common criteria projectthe common criteria standard documentslist common criteria evaluated productslist licensed common criteria laboratoriestowards agile security assuranceimportant common criteria acronymscommon criteria users forumadditional common criteria information google knolopencc project – free apache license cc docs templates toolscommon criteria quick reference cardcommon criteria process cheatsheetcommon criteria process timelinealthough greenhouse gas emissions per person higher highincome countries relative impacts climate change greater lowincome countries.lowincome countries tend tropical zones closer equator due economic position lowincome less able adapt.economic forecasts effects climate change vary considerably.researchers warned current economic modelling may seriously underestimate impact potentially catastrophic climate change point need new models give accurate picture potential damages.nevertheless one study found potential global economic gains countries implement mitigation strategies comply °c target set paris agreement vicinity us trillion per year compared high emission scenario.global losses reveal rapidly rising costs due extreme weather events since s. socioeconomic factors contributed observed trend global losses population growth increased wealth.
Economic impacts of climate change	part growth also related regional climatic factors e.g.changes precipitation flooding events.difficult quantify relative impact socioeconomic factors climate change observed trend.trend however suggest increasing vulnerability social systems climate change.a modelling study found climate change contributed towards global economic inequality.wealthy countries colder regions either felt little overall economic impact climate change possibly benefited whereas poor hotter countries likely grew less global warming occurred.the total economic impacts climate change difficult estimate increase higher temperature changes.
Economic impacts of climate change	instance total damages estimated less global warming limited .°c compared .°c warming level chosen represent mitigation.one study found .reduction global gdp end century warming limited °c excluding potential effect tipping points.
Economic impacts of climate change	another study noted global economic impact underestimated factor two eight tipping points excluded consideration.oxford economics high emission scenario temperature rise degrees year would reduce global gdp .– .. year case temperature would rise degrees could reduce global gdp worst case.definitions economic impacts climate change also include mitigation example limiting global average temperature °c adaption example building flood defences employed nations groups nations might infer economic consequences.distribution impacts climate change impacts measured economic cost smith et al.
Economic impacts of climate change	.particularly wellsuited market impacts impacts linked market transactions directly affect gdp.monetary measures nonmarket impacts e.g.impacts human health ecosystems difficult calculate.difficulties impact estimates listed belowknowledge gaps calculating distributional impacts requires detailed geographical knowledge major source uncertainty climate models.vulnerability compared developed countries limited understanding potential market sector impacts climate change developing countries.adaptation future level adaptive capacity human natural systems climate change affect society impacted climate change.
Economic impacts of climate change	assessments may overestimate adaptive capacity leading overestimates positive negative impacts.socioeconomic trends future predictions development affect estimates future climate change impacts instances different estimates development trends lead reversal predicted positive predicted negative impact vice versa.in literature assessment smith et al.concluded medium confidence thatclimate change would increase income inequalities within countries.a small increase global mean temperature °c measured levels would result net negative market sector many developing countries net positive market sector impacts many developed countries.with high confidence predicted medium °c high level warming greater °c negative impacts would exacerbated net positive impacts would start decline eventually turn negative.green companies europe outperform united states terms green investment digital uptake.comparison united states european businesses less likely adopted digital technology likely invest climate change mitigation adaptation strategies.europe proportion businesses make green investments also digital adopters slightly greater .businesses united states.
Economic impacts of climate change	european investment banks investment survey respondents cited uncertainty severe obstacle investment.nonmarket impacts smith et al.predicted climate change would likely result pronounced nonmarket impacts.impacts predicted negative.literature assessment smith et al.
Economic impacts of climate change	suggested climate change would cause substantial negative health impacts developing countries.smith et al.noted studies reviewed adequately accounted adaptation.literature assessment confalonieri et al.found studies included health impacts impacts contributed substantially total costs climate change.
Economic impacts of climate change	market sector international labour organization published report titled working warmer planet impact heat stress labour productivity decent work claims even rise temperature limited .degree year climate change cause losses productivity reaching .working hours every year.equivalent million full time jobs billion dollars.sector expected affected agriculture projected account loss.
Economic impacts of climate change	construction sector also projected severely impacted accounts projected losses.sectors risk environmental goods services refuse collection emergency repair work transport tourism sports forms industrial work.in mckinsey company issued report current future impacts climate change economy.report says trillions dollars hundreds millions lives risk.climate change strongly influence decisions business governmental leaders.report example found socioeconomic impacts increase times compare today level .climate change driven migration possibly helped trigger brexit exit britain european union.
Economic impacts of climate change	uncertainty brexit shrunk british economy may cause contract future brexit make shrink much more.in european investment banks investment report found climate change related weather events significant influence european companies compared united states.another european companies consider consequences climate change minimal.agriculture depending underlying assumptions studies economic impacts doubling atmospheric carbon dioxide co preindustrial levels conclude would slightly negative moderately positive aggregate effect i.e.total impacts across regions agricultural sector smith et al..
Economic impacts of climate change	aggregate effect hides substantial regional differences benefits mostly predicted developed world strongly negative impacts populations poorly connected regional global trading systems.poorer countries exposed weather important role agriculture water resources economy.sectors number sectors affected climate change including livestock forestry fisheries industries.sectors sensitive climate change include energy insurance tourism recreation industries.aggregate impact climate change sectors highly uncertain schneider et al.
Economic impacts of climate change	.regions africa africa coastal facilities economically significant.literature assessment desanker et al.concluded climate change would result sealevel rise coastal erosion saltwater intrusion flooding.desanker et al.
Economic impacts of climate change	predicted changes would significant impact african communities economies.coasts lowlying areas literature assessment nicholls et al.concluded socioeconomic impacts climate change coastal lowlying areas would overwhelmingly adverse.benefits however noted e.g.opening new ocean routes due reduced sea ice.compared developed countries protection costs associated projected sea level rise found relatively higher developing countries.polar regions anisimov et al.
Economic impacts of climate change	reviewed literature climate change impacts polar regions.high confidence concluded impact climate change infrastructure would increase economic costs.new opportunities trading shipping across arctic ocean lower operational costs oil gas industry lower heating costs easier access shipbased tourism expected bring economic benefits.small islands literature assessment mimura et al.concluded high confidence small islands tourism would part negatively affected climate change.many small islands tourism major contributor gdp employment.
Economic impacts of climate change	systems sectors freshwater resources sector costs benefits climate change may take several forms including monetary costs benefits ecosystem human impacts e.g.loss aquatic species household flooding.literature assessment kundzewicz et al.found costs estimated monetary terms.respect water supply predicted costs would likely exceed benefits.
Economic impacts of climate change	predicted costs included potential need infrastructure investments protect floods droughts.industry settlements societyin literature assessment wilbanks et al.concluded high confidence economic costs extreme weather events large national large regional scale would unlikely exceed percent total economy year event except possible abrupt changes.smaller locations particularly developing countries estimated high confidence year extreme event shortrun damages could amount gdp.infrastructure according tol roads airport runways railway lines pipelines including oil pipelines sewers water mains etc.may require increased maintenance renewal become subject greater temperature variation exposed weather designed for.aggregate impacts aggregating impacts adds total impact climate change across sectors andor regions ipcc a. producing aggregate impacts number difficulties predicting ability societies adapt climate change estimating future economic social development progress smith et al.
Economic impacts of climate change	.also necessary researcher make subjective value judgements importance impacts occurring different economic sectors different regions different times.in world economic forum ranked climate change biggest risk economy society.a united states government report november raised possibility us gdp going result warming climate including huge shifts geography demographics technology.smith et al.assessed literature aggregate impacts climate change.medium confidence concluded small increase global average temperature °c measured levels would result aggregate market sector impact plus minus percent world gdp.smith et al.
Economic impacts of climate change	found small medium °c global average temperature increase studies predicted small net positive market impacts.studies assessed predicted net damages beyond medium temperature increase damages greater °c temperature rises.with low confidence smith et al.concluded nonmarket impacts climate change would negative.smith et al.decided studies might understated true costs climate change e.g.
Economic impacts of climate change	correctly estimating impact extreme weather events.thought possible positive impacts climate change overlooked adaptive capacity possibly underestimated.some studies assessed schneider et al.predicted gross world product could increase °c warming relative temperatures period largely aggregate benefits agricultural sector.view schneider et al.estimates carried low confidence.
Economic impacts of climate change	stern assessed climate change impacts using basic economics risk premiums yohe et al..found unmitigated climate change could result reduction welfare equivalent persistent average fall global percapita consumption least .study stern received criticism support economists see stern review information.ipcc concluded aggregate estimates costs mask significant differences impacts across sectors regions populations likely underestimate damage costs cannot include many nonquantifiable impacts.richard tol twice revised figure incorporated fig ipcc reports economic effects climate change.

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