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Military intelligence | knowledge taxonomy army intelligence training assessment military intelligence basic officer leaders course using lundvalls knowledge taxonomy.applied research projects texas state university paper .alfred rolington.strategic intelligence st century mosaic method.oxford university press .creating intelligence neil garra.external links office director national intelligenceintelligence resource program federation american scientists referencejoint publication creating intelligence |
Information security audit | within broad scope auditing information security multiple types audits multiple objectives different audits etc.commonly controls audited categorized technical physical administrative.auditing information security covers topics auditing physical security data centers auditing logical security databases highlights key components look different methods auditing areas.when centered information technology aspects information security seen part information technology audit.often referred information technology security audit computer security audit.however information security encompasses much it. |
Information security audit | audit process audit planning preparation auditor adequately educated company critical business activities conducting data center review.objective data center align data center activities goals business maintaining security integrity critical information processes.adequately determine whether clients goal achieved auditor perform following conducting reviewmeet management determine possible areas concernreview current organization chartreview job descriptions data center employeesresearch operating systems software applications data center equipment operating within data centerreview companys policies proceduresevaluate companys budget systems planning documentationreview data centers disaster recovery plan establishing audit objectives next step conducting review corporate data center takes place auditor outlines data center audit objectives.auditors consider multiple factors relate data center procedures activities potentially identify audit risks operating environment assess controls place mitigate risks.thorough testing analysis auditor able adequately determine data center maintains proper controls operating efficiently effectively.following list objectives auditor reviewpersonnel procedures responsibilities including systems crossfunctional trainingchange management processes place followed management personnelappropriate back procedures place minimize downtime prevent loss important datathe data center adequate physical security controls prevent unauthorized access data centeradequate environmental controls place ensure equipment protected fire flooding performing review next step collecting evidence satisfy data center audit objectives. |
Information security audit | involves travelling data center location observing processes within data center.following review procedures conducted satisfy predetermined audit objectivesdata centre personnel – data center personnel authorized access data center key cards login ids secure passwords etc.. datacenter employees adequately educated data center equipment properly perform jobs.vendor service personnel supervised work data center equipment.auditor observe interview data center employees satisfy objectives.equipment – auditor verify data center equipment working properly effectively.equipment utilization reports equipment inspection damage functionality system downtime records equipment performance measurements help auditor determine state data center equipment. |
Information security audit | additionally auditor interview employees determine preventative maintenance policies place performed.policies procedures – data center policies procedures documented located data center.important documented procedures include data center personnel job responsibilities back policies security policies employee termination policies system operating procedures overview operating systems.physical security environmental controls – auditor assess security clients data center.physical security includes bodyguards locked cages man traps single entrances bolteddown equipment computer monitoring systems.additionally environmental controls place ensure security data center equipment.include air conditioning units raised floors humidifiers uninterruptible power supply.backup procedures – auditor verify client backup procedures place case system failure. |
Information security audit | clients may maintain backup data center separate location allows instantaneously continue operations instance system failure.issuing review report data center review report summarize auditors findings similar format standard review report.review report dated completion auditors inquiry procedures.state review entailed explain review provides limited assurance third parties.performs audits generally computer security audits performed byfederal state regulators certified accountants cisa. |
Information security audit | federal ots occ doj etc.corporate internal auditors certificated accountants cisa certified internet audit professional ciap.external auditors specialized areas related technology auditing.consultants outsourcing technology auditing organization lacks specialized skill set.audited systems network vulnerabilities interception data transmitted network vulnerable intercepted unintended third party could put data harmful use.availability networks become widespanning crossing hundreds thousands miles many rely access company information lost connectivity could cause business interruption.accessentry point networks vulnerable unwanted access.weak point network make information available intruders.also provide entry point viruses trojan horses.controls interception controls interception partially deterred physical access controls data centers offices including communication links terminate network wiring distributions located. |
Information security audit | encryption also helps secure wireless networks.availability controls best control excellent network architecture monitoring.network redundant paths every resource access point automatic routing switch traffic available path without loss data time.accessentry point controls network controls put point network connects external network.controls limit traffic passes network.include firewalls intrusion detection systems antivirus software.the auditor ask certain questions better understand network vulnerabilities.auditor first assess extent network structured. |
Information security audit | network diagram assist auditor process.next question auditor ask critical information network must protect.things enterprise systems mail servers web servers host applications accessed customers typically areas focus.also important know access parts.customers vendors access systems network employees access information home lastly auditor assess network connected external networks protected. |
Information security audit | networks least connected internet could point vulnerability.critical questions protecting networks.encryption audit assessing need client implement encryption policies organization auditor conduct analysis clients risk data value.companies multiple external users ecommerce applications sensitive customeremployee information maintain rigid encryption policies aimed encrypting correct data appropriate stage data collection process.auditors continually evaluate clients encryption policies procedures.companies heavily reliant ecommerce systems wireless networks extremely vulnerable theft loss critical information transmission. |
Information security audit | policies procedures documented carried ensure transmitted data protected.the auditor verify management controls place data encryption management process.access keys require dual control keys composed two separate components maintained computer accessible programmers outside users.furthermore management attest encryption policies ensure data protection desired level verify cost encrypting data exceed value information itself.data required maintained extensive amount time encrypted transported remote location.procedures place guarantee encrypted sensitive information arrives location stored properly. |
Information security audit | finally auditor attain verification management encryption system strong attackable compliant local international laws regulations.logical security audit first step audit system seek understand components structure.auditing logical security auditor investigate security controls place work.particular following areas key points auditing logical securitypasswords every company written policies regarding passwords employees use them.passwords shared employees mandatory scheduled changes. |
Information security audit | employees user rights line job functions.also aware proper log log procedures.also helpful security tokens small devices authorized users computer programs networks carry assist identity confirmation.also store cryptographic keys biometric data.popular type security token rsas securid displays number changes every minute. |
Information security audit | users authenticated entering personal identification number number token.termination procedures proper termination procedures old employees longer access network.done changing passwords codes.also id cards badges circulation documented accounted for.special user accounts special user accounts privileged accounts monitored proper controls place.remote access remote access often point intruders enter system.logical security tools used remote access strict.remote access logged. |
Information security audit | specific tools used network security network security achieved various tools including firewalls proxy servers encryption logical security access controls antivirus software auditing systems log management.firewalls basic part network security.often placed private local network internet.firewalls provide flowthrough traffic authenticated monitored logged reported.different types firewalls include network layer firewalls screened subnet firewalls packet filter firewalls dynamic packet filtering firewalls hybrid firewalls transparent firewalls applicationlevel firewalls.the process encryption involves converting plain text series unreadable characters known ciphertext.encrypted text stolen attained transit content unreadable viewer. |
Information security audit | guarantees secure transmission extremely useful companies sendingreceiving critical information.encrypted information arrives intended recipient decryption process deployed restore ciphertext back plaintext.proxy servers hide true address client workstation also act firewall.proxy server firewalls special software enforce authentication.proxy server firewalls act middle man user requests.antivirus software programs mcafee symantec software locate dispose malicious content.virus protection programs run live updates ensure latest information known computer viruses.logical security includes software safeguards organizations systems including user id password access authentication access rights authority levels. |
Information security audit | measures ensure authorized users able perform actions access information network workstation.auditing systems track record happens organizations network.log management solutions often used centrally collect audit trails heterogeneous systems analysis forensics.log management excellent tracking identifying unauthorized users might trying access network authorized users accessing network changes user authorities.software record index user activities within window sessions observeit provide comprehensive audit trail user activities connected remotely terminal services citrix remote access software.according survey nmap users insecure.org nessus wireshark snort toprated network security tools.according survey backtrack live cd toprated information security auditing penetration testing distribution. |
Information security audit | nessus remote security scanner performs security checks linux bsd solaris.wireshark analyzes network protocol unix windows snort intrusion detection system also supports microsoft windows.nessus wireshark snort free.popular products network security include omniguard guardian languard.omniguard firewall guardian also provides virus protection. |
Information security audit | languard provides network auditing intrusion detection network management.log management solutions vendors sensage others choice government agencies highly regulated industries.behavioural audit vulnerabilities often related technical weakness organizations systems rather related individual behaviour within organization.simple example users leaving computers unlocked vulnerable phishing attacks.result thorough infosec audit frequently include penetration test auditors attempt gain access much system possible perspective typical employee well outsider.system process assurance audits combine elements infrastructure applicationinformation security audits use diverse controls categories completeness accuracy validity v restricted access cavr. |
Information security audit | auditing application security application security application security centers three main functionsprogrammingprocessingaccesswhen comes programming important ensure proper physical password protection exists around servers mainframes development update key systems.physical access security ones data center office electronic badges badge readers security guards choke points security cameras vitally important ensuring security applications data.one needs security around changes system.usually proper security access make changes proper authorization procedures place pulling programming changes development test finally production.with processing important procedures monitoring different aspects input falsified erroneous data incomplete processing duplicate transactions untimely processing place.making sure input randomly reviewed processing proper approval way ensure this. |
Information security audit | important able identify incomplete processing ensure proper procedures place either completing deleting system error.also procedures identify correct duplicate entries.finally comes processing done timely basis one backtrack associated data see delay coming identify whether delay creates control concerns.finally access important realize maintaining network security unauthorized access one major focuses companies threats come sources.first one internal unauthorized access.important system access passwords must changed regularly way track access changes one able identify made changes. |
Information security audit | activity logged.second arena concerned remote access people accessing ones system outside internet.setting firewalls password protection online data changes key protecting unauthorized remote access.one way identify weaknesses access controls bring hacker try crack ones system either gaining entry building using internal terminal hacking outside remote access.segregation duties function deals money either incoming outgoing important make sure duties segregated minimize hopefully prevent fraud. |
Information security audit | one key ways ensure proper segregation duties sod systems perspective review individuals’ access authorizations.certain systems sap claim come capability perform sod tests functionality provided elementary requiring timeconsuming queries built limited transaction level little use object field values assigned user transaction often produces misleading results.complex systems sap often preferred use tools developed specifically assess analyze sod conflicts types system activity.systems multiple system formats monitor users may superuser access system giving unlimited access aspects system.also developing matrix functions highlighting points proper segregation duties breached help identify potential material weaknesses crosschecking employees available accesses. |
Information security audit | important development function production.ensuring people develop programs ones authorized pull production key preventing unauthorized programs production environment used perpetrate fraud.summary large two concepts application security segregation duties many ways connected goal protect integrity companies’ data prevent fraud.application security preventing unauthorized access hardware software proper security measures physical electronic place.segregation duties primarily physical review individuals’ access systems processing ensuring overlaps could lead fraud. |
Information security audit | information security officer iso information security officer iso relatively new position emerged organizations deal aftermath chaotic growth information technology network communication.role iso nebulous since problem created address defined clearly.role iso become one following dynamics security environment keeping risk posture balanced organization.see also computer securitydefensive computingdirective ec protection personal data european unionethical hackinformation securitypenetration testsecurity breach references bibliography gallegos frederick senft sandra manson daniel p. gonzales carol .technology control audit nd ed.. auerbach publications. |
Payment Card Industry Data Security Standard | isbn .external links examining data centersnetwork auditingthe openxdas projectinformation systems audit control association isacathe institute internal auditorsstandard created increase controls around cardholder data reduce credit card fraud.validation compliance performed annually quarterly method suited volume transactions handledselfassessment questionnaire saq — smaller volumesexternal qualified security assessor qsa — moderate volumes involves attestation compliance aocfirmspecific internal security assessor isa — larger volumes involves issuing report compliance roc history five different programs started card companiesvisas cardholder information security programmastercards site data protectionamerican expresss data security operating policydiscovers information security compliancethe jcbs data security programthe intentions roughly similar create additional level protection card issuers ensuring merchants meet minimum levels security store process transmit cardholder data.cater interoperability problems among existing standards combined effort made principal credit card organizations resulted release version .pci dss december .pci dss implemented followed across globe.the payment card industry security standards council pci ssc formed companies aligned individual policies create pci dss.mastercard american express visa jcb international discover financial services established pci ssc september administrationgoverning entity mandates evolution development pci dss. |
Payment Card Industry Data Security Standard | independentprivate organizations participate pci development proper registration.participating organization joins particular sig special interest group contributes activities mandated sig.the following versions pci dss made available requirements pci data security standard specifies twelve requirements compliance organized six logically related groups called control objectives.six groups arebuild maintain secure network systemsprotect cardholder datamaintain vulnerability management programimplement strong access control measuresregularly monitor test networksmaintain information security policyeach version pci dss payment card industry data security standard divided six requirements number subrequirements differently twelve highlevel requirements changed since inception standard.requirementsubrequirement additionally elaborated three sections.requirement declaration defines main description requirement.endorsement pci dss done proper implementation requirements.testing processes processes methodologies carried assessor confirmation proper implementation.guidance explains core purpose requirement corresponding content assist proper definition requirement.the twelve requirements building maintaining secure network systems summarized followsinstalling maintaining firewall configuration protect cardholder data. |
Payment Card Industry Data Security Standard | purpose firewall scan network traffic block untrusted networks accessing system.changing vendorsupplied defaults system passwords security parameters.passwords easily discovered public information used malicious individuals gain unauthorized access systems.protecting stored cardholder data.encryption hashing masking truncation methods used protect cardholder data.encrypting transmission cardholder data open public networks.strong encryption including using trusted keys certifications reduces risk targeted malicious individuals hacking.protecting systems malware performing regular updates antivirus software.malware enter network numerous ways including internet use employee email mobile devices storage devices. |
Payment Card Industry Data Security Standard | uptodate antivirus software supplemental antimalware software reduce risk exploitation via malware.developing maintaining secure systems applications.vulnerabilities systems applications allow unscrupulous individuals gain privileged access.security patches immediately installed fix vulnerabilities prevent exploitation compromise cardholder data.restricting access cardholder data authorized personnel.systems processes must used restrict access cardholder data “need know” basis.identifying authenticating access system components.person access system components assigned unique identification id allows accountability access critical data systems.restricting physical access cardholder data. |
Payment Card Industry Data Security Standard | physical access cardholder data systems hold data must secure prevent unauthorized access removal data.tracking monitoring access cardholder data network resources.logging mechanisms place track user activities critical prevent detect minimize impact data compromises.testing security systems processes regularly.new vulnerabilities continuously discovered.systems processes software need tested frequently uncover vulnerabilities could used malicious individuals.maintaining information security policy personnel.strong security policy includes making personnel understand sensitivity data responsibility protect it. |
Payment Card Industry Data Security Standard | updates supplemental information pci ssc payment card industry security standards council released several supplemental pieces information clarify various requirements.documents include following information supplement requirement .penetration testinginformation supplement requirement .code reviews application firewalls clarifiednavigating pci dss understanding intent requirementsinformation supplement pci dss wireless guidelines pdf.august .pci dss applicability emv environmentprioritized approach pci dssprioritized approach toolpci dss quick reference guidepci dss virtualization guidelinespci dss tokenization guidelinespci dss . |
Payment Card Industry Data Security Standard | risk assessment guidelinesthe lifecycle changes pci dss padssguidance pci dss scoping segmentationpci dss v. expected published q reporting levels companies subject pci dss standards must pci compliant.however prove report compliance based many transactions process per year process transactions.acquirer payment brands may also choose manually place organization reporting level discretion.at high level merchant levels followslevel – million transactions annuallylevel – million transactions annuallylevel – million transactions annually ecommerce merchantlevel – less transactions annuallyeach card issuer maintains table compliance levels well separate table service providers.validation compliance compliance validation involves evaluation confirmation security controls procedures properly implemented per policies recommended pci dss.short pci dss security validationtesting procedures mutually compliance validation tool. |
Payment Card Industry Data Security Standard | pci dss assessment following entities.qualified security assessor qsa qualified security assessor individual bearing certificate provided pci security standards council.certified person audit merchants payment card industry data security standard pci dss compliance.qsas independent groupsentities certified pci ssc compliance confirmation organization procedures.confirmation assigns qsa tended separate prerequisites mandatory pci dss appraisals. |
Payment Card Industry Data Security Standard | internal security assessor isa internal security assessor individual earned certificate pci security standards company sponsoring organization.certified person ability perform pci selfassessments organization.isa program designed help level merchants meet new mastercard compliance validation requirements.isa certification empowers worker inward appraisal hisher association propose security solutions controls pci dss compliance.isas upheld organization pci ssc affirmation charge cooperation participation qsas. |
Payment Card Industry Data Security Standard | report compliance roc report compliance form filled level merchants visa merchants undergoing pci dss payment card industry data security standard audit.roc form used verify merchant audited compliant pci dss standard.roc confirms policies strategies approaches workflows appropriately implementeddeveloped organization protection cardholders scamsfrauds cardbased business transactions.template “roc reporting template” available pci ssc site contains detailed guidelines roc.selfassessment questionnaire saq pci dss selfassessment questionnaires saqs validation tools intended assist merchants service providers report results pci dss selfassessment. |
Payment Card Industry Data Security Standard | eight different types saqs different level complexity.basic saqa consisting questions complex saqd consisting questions.selfassessment questionnaire set questionnaires documents merchants required complete every year submit transaction bank.another component saq attestation compliance aoc saq question replied based internal pci dss selfevaluation.saq question must replied yes alternative. |
Payment Card Industry Data Security Standard | event question appropriate response point association must highlight future implementation aspects.compliance versus validation compliance although pci dss must implemented entities process store transmit cardholder data formal validation pci dss compliance mandatory entities.currently visa mastercard require merchants service providers validated according pci dss.visa also offers alternative program called technology innovation program tip allows qualified merchants discontinue annual pci dss validation assessment.merchants eligible taking alternative precautions counterfeit fraud use emv point point encryption.issuing banks required go pci dss validation although still secure sensitive data pci dss compliant manner. |
Payment Card Industry Data Security Standard | acquiring banks required comply pci dss well compliance validated means audit.in event security breach compromised entity pci dss compliant time breach subject additional card scheme penalties fines.legislation compliance pci dss required federal law united states.however laws u.s. states either refer pci dss directly make equivalent provisions.legal scholars edward morse vasant raval argued enshrining pci dss compliance legislation card networks reallocated externalized cost fraud card issuers merchants.in minnesota enacted law prohibiting retention types payment card data subsequent hours authorization transaction.in nevada incorporated standard state law requiring compliance merchants business state current pci dss shielding compliant entities liability.nevada law also allows merchants avoid liability approved security standards.in washington also incorporated standard state law. |
Payment Card Industry Data Security Standard | unlike nevadas law entities required compliant pci dss compliant entities shielded liability event data breach.risk management protect cardholder data pci dsss requirement merchants financial institutions implored protect clients’ sensitive data strong cryptography.noncompliant solutions pass audit.typical risk management program structured stepsidentify known risks recorddescribe risk register.example hardware security modules hsm used cryptographic key management process could potentially introduce risks compromised whether physically logically. |
Payment Card Industry Data Security Standard | hsms create root trust within system.however unlikely hsm compromised could compromise entire system.develop risk management program analyze identified risks.included analysis mix qualitative quantitative techniques determine risk treatment methods used reduce possibility risks.example organization might analyze risk using cloud hsm versus physical device use site.treat risks response risk analysis previously performed.example employing different treatments protect client information stored cloud hsm versus ensuring security physically logically onsite hsm could include implementing controls obtaining insurance maintain acceptable level risk.continuous monitoring review part process reducing pci dss cryptography risks. |
Payment Card Industry Data Security Standard | includes maintenance schedules predefined escalation recovery routines security weaknesses discovered.controversies criticisms visa mastercard impose fines noncompliance.stephen theodora cissy mccomb owners ciseros ristorante nightclub park city utah allegedly fined breach two forensics firms could find evidence occurred pci system less system securing customer card data system raking profits card companies via fines penalties.visa mastercard impose fines merchants even fraud loss simply fines profitable them.michael jones cio michaels stores testified u.s. congress subcommittee regarding pci dss ...the pci dss requirements... expensive implement confusing comply ultimately subjective interpretation enforcement.often stated twelve requirements pci compliance.fact subrequirements place incredible burden retailer many subject interpretation.others suggested pci dss step toward making businesses pay attention security even minimum standards enough completely eradicate security problems. |
Payment Card Industry Data Security Standard | example bruce schneier spoken favour pci dssregulation—sox hipaa glba creditcard industrys pci various disclosure laws european data protection act whatever—has best stick industry found beat companies head with.works.regulation forces companies take security seriously sells products services.pci council general manager bob russos responded objections national retail federation pci structured blend...of specificity highlevel concepts allows stakeholders opportunity flexibility work qualified security assessors qsas determine appropriate security controls within environment meet intent pci standards.compliance compromises according visa chief enterprise risk officer ellen richey ...no compromised entity yet found compliance pci dss time breach.in breach heartland payment systems organization validated compliant pci dss resulted compromising one hundred million card numbers.around time hannaford brothers tjx companies also validated pci dss compliant similarly breached result alleged coordinated efforts albert segvec gonzalez two unnamed russian hackers.assessments examine compliance merchants services providers pci dss specific point time frequently utilize sampling methodology allow compliance demonstrated representative systems processes. |
Payment Card Industry Data Security Standard | responsibility merchant service provider achieve demonstrate maintain compliance times throughout annual validationassessment cycle across systems processes entirety.although could breakdown merchant service provider compliance written standard blame breaches hannaford brothers received pci dss compliance validation one day made aware twomonthlong compromise internal systems.failure identified assessor suggests incompetent verification compliance undermines security standard.other criticism lies compliance validation required level merchants may optional level depending card brand acquirer.visas compliance validation details merchants state level merchants compliance validation requirements set acquirer visa level merchants merchants processing less visa ecommerce transactions annually merchants processing million visa transactions annually.time payment card compromises affected level merchants handle transactions. |
Behavioral immune system | see also penetration testvulnerability managementwireless lanwireless security references external links official pci security standards council sitea guide pci compliancetheorized mechanisms comprise behavioral immune system evolved crude first line defense diseasecausing pathogens.in humans animals activating physiological immune response pathogens effective metabolically costly.immune responses activated expense fitness enhancing activities.inflammation infection also harmful body e.g.contribute diseases aging.addition cultural adaptations avoid pathogens behavioral immune system acts set defense mechanisms protect pathogens infection occurs proximate mechanisms mechanisms behavioral immune system include sensory processes cues connoting presence parasitic infections perceived e.g. |
Behavioral immune system | smell foul odor sight pox pustules well stimulus–response systems sensory cues trigger cascade aversive affective cognitive behavioral reactions e.g.arousal disgust automatic activation cognitions connote threat disease behavioral avoidance.sensory components early current research behavioral immune system activation focused visual cues triggers elicit responses.however recent work suggests sensory modalities may work disease detection.smell studies show olfactory cues disease elicit disgust predict pathogen avoidance behaviors. |
Behavioral immune system | humans body odors diseased individuals rated less desirable likeable perceived unhealthier intense less pleasant.disgust body odors also influenced closeness source odor.odors family members rated less disgusting body odors strangers.experimental studies showed presence aversive odors leads prophylactic behaviors willing condom use lessdirect prophylactic behaviors like stricter punishment moral violations.a new body work linked olfactory acuity disgust behavioral immune system responses.given olfactory cues pathogen threat often ambiguous overgeneralized better ability detect smells would lead better pathogen avoidance. |
Behavioral immune system | recent work suggests higher olfactory acuity may associated higher avoidance motivation.taste gustatory stimuli particularly spoiled foods elicit feels disgust motivate pathogen avoidance behavior.people disgust sensitivity predicted aversion novel foreign foods.sight touch visual cues pathogen threat linked increases tactile sensitivity lead perceived people accents foreign especially among individuals higher disgust sensitivity.disgust sensitivity among individuals also predictive preferred amount personal space. |
Behavioral immune system | overgeneralization “smoke detector principle” evolved systems regulate protective responses also used describe behavioral immune systems tendency overgeneralize.evolved responses signals pathogen threat cannot perfect rely liberal identification criteria.makes behavioral immune system susceptible activating pathogens absent.noninfectious physical mental abnormalities including elderly appearance disabilities obesity disfigurement act cues pathogen presence none present.even though many false alarms may triggered response nonharmful cues costs associated behavioral immune activation may relatively small costs missing true disease threat. |
Behavioral immune system | table taken signal detection theory sdt.cues foul smell activate behavioral immune system emotion disgust stimulus present real pathogen threat absent perceived pathogen threat.responses disgust pathogen disgust system behavioral immune system studied separately recognition functionally same.darwin first recognized emotion disgust aided avoiding tainted food.emotion disgust recognized adaptive function avoiding pathogen exposure response cues potential pathogen threat. |
Behavioral immune system | however disgust pathogenrelated cues contextdependent function adaptively.one study shuar indigenous subsistencebased population highpathogen stress pathogen disgust sensitivity pds measured disgust questionnaire used predict pathogen infection.study found individual pds negatively correlated pathogen infection predictive hypothesis disgust acts pathogen defense mechanism sensitive local costs benefits avoidance infection.functional flexibility functional flexibility term used describe ability behavioral immune system adjust responses pathogens depending individual’s infectionrelated threat infectionrelating vulnerability.like many evolved threat management systems behavioral immune system sensitive costs benefits pathogen avoidance. |
Behavioral immune system | reactive proactive two categories outputs generated behavioral immune system reactive proactive responses reactive responses occur response presence cues connoting immediate infection risk.responses generally take form avoidant prophylactic behaviors.include restricted sexual attitudes positivity towards condom use avoidance people cues associated illness.proactive responses occur response longterm persistent threat pathogens.across species proactive management pathogen threat seen hygiene behaviors mitigate reoccurring bacterial viral threats.additionally proactive responses seen importance placed potential mates physical attractiveness symmetry secondary sexcharacteristics indicators health healthy people less likely carry disease. |
Behavioral immune system | influences social psychology two social consequences activating behavioral immune system according ackerman et al..increased aversion avoidance unfamiliar outgroup targets .strengthened cohesion familiar ingroup targets.interpersonal perception interpersonal perception influenced behavioral immune system due early stage cognitive processes recruited identifying pathogenic threat risks associated interpersonal contagion.visual attention one early cognitive process recruited toward cues pathogen threat perceivers find difficult visually disengage faces possessing cues like physical abnormalities even threat present .the behavioral immune system may also cause people perceive greater pathogen threat report greater distinctions ingroup outgroup members classify strangers threatening. |
Behavioral immune system | judgment decisionmaking judgments inferences decisions people objects cognitive processes recruited behavioral immune system affected pathogen threat.processes motivative choices help perceivers avoid unfamiliar stimuli may include contamination dangers.examples influence perceived pathogen threat processes include avoidance controllable risk reduced desire social affiliation devaluation consumer products previously handled strangers.additional lines research behavioral immune system shown people engage reticent conservative forms behavior conditions feel vulnerable disease transmission.instance potential threat disease made salient people tend less extraverted sociable.close relationships behavioral immune system influences potential mating choices sexual behavior.high concern chronic pathogen threats environments greater pathogen stress increase value individual places physical attractiveness lessens preference mates physical abnormality sexdivergent features. |
Behavioral immune system | among perceivers cues pathogen prevalence real perceived associated restricted sexual pursuits attitudes avoid infection.opposite sexual opportunism found individuals perceived insufficient immune systems survival environments higher pathogen stress.stereotyping prejudice another outcome behavioral immune system activity prejudice stereotyping outgroup members.individuals higher risk pathogen infection likely stigmatize individuals possessing cues disease real perceived.the disease–avoidant processes characterize behavioral immune system shown contribute prejudices obese individuals elderly individuals people physical disfigurements disabilities.addition behavioral immune system appears contribute xenophobia ethnocentrism. |
Behavioral immune system | seen among pregnant women face higher infectionrelated vulnerability express increase ethnocentric views.attitudes might function way avoid people new pathogens practices local practices unsuited manage.one implication prejudices tend exaggerated conditions people feel especially vulnerable potential transmission infectious diseases.group processes cultural norms behavioral immune system ability impact group intragroup attitudes behaviors.research shows pathogen stress associated higher social conformity higher levels disgust aids pathogen avoidance predictive greater sensitivity moral violations.some studies used behavioral immune system explain root fundamental dimensions culture including variance individualismcollectivism social political orientation religious beliefs response levels pathogen stress.collectivist cultures defined behavioral manifestations ethnocentrism social conformity aid pathogen avoidance correlated higher historical pathogen stress compared individualistic cultures. |
Behavioral immune system | given might benefits associated individualistic cultures societies create individualist cultures also confer greater pathogen exposure.environments greater pathogen stress behavioral manifestations collectivism help avoid pathogens may serve adaptive advantage.critiques ingroup preference ingroup preferences defined degree people prefer interacting investing family friends group members suggested function behavioral immune system order defend pathogens.however studies crosspopulation level data criticized incorporating nonindependence variables alternative hypotheses.follow study using measures measure ingroup preference hofstedes collectivism van de vlierts ingroup favoritism fincher thornhills strength family ties find less government effectiveness better predictor ingroup preference pathogen stress. |
Behavioral immune system | implications immunology complimentary research suggests behavioral immune system implications functioning physiological immune system pis too.one study found mere visual perception diseasedlooking people stimulated white blood cells respond aggressively infection indicated production proinflammatory cytokine interleukin response bacterial stimulus.in studies exposure visual environmental pathogen cues addition increased feelings disgust prejudice responses associated behavioral immune system bis upregulate oral blood immune inflammatory biomarkers.body literature suggests visual cues connected bis may invoke pis responses pathogen threat immediate.compensatory absence immediate pathogen threat pis bis may complimentary compensatory.example experiment stimulated release proinflammatory cytokines il ilb tnfalpha collected healthy individuals related selfreported germ aversion invivo il levels negatively correlated germ aversion perceived longevity. |
Behavioral immune system | research may highlight function bis longterm health decreasing proinflammatory responses function il linked diseases aging.research also indicates immunerelevant interventions target pathogen transmission interrupt behavioral responses.example receiving flu vaccination washing ones hands reduce extent negative interpersonal intergroup attitudes elicited disease cues concerns.sickness behavior large body literature behavioral immune system focused behaviors triggered pathogen cues environment role disgust plays mitigating exposure infection.however emotion associated sick lassitude triggered active infection may also act behavioral defense mechanism pathogens.one study suggests lassitude may help fight active infection byreducing energetically expensive movement make energy available immune system.reducing exposure additional infections injuries would increase immune systems workload.promoting thermoregulatory behaviors facilitate immunity.regulating food consumption beneficial host detrimental pathogens.deploying strategies elicit caregiving behavior social allies. |
Irrawaddy dolphin | covid behavioral immune systems prediction ingroup favoritism ethnocentric beliefs applied individual beliefs global pandemic covid.several studies individuals scored higher dispositional worry disease reported stronger preference restrictive travel bans several regions asia.experimental increase pandemic salience also increased support travel bans high risk nation china italy low risk nations like canada mexico.another study measuring individual perceived vulnerability disease pvd responses covid found higher pvd positively associated stronger reactions threat covid including increased anxiety perceptions people alter typical behavior selfreported importance social distancing.references external links behavioral immune system publications mark schallers websiteis patriotism subconscious way humans avoid disease discover magazineyou blame bugs newsweek magazineclosely resembles australian snubfin dolphin genus orcaella described separate species .slate blue slate gray color.although found much riverine marine zones south southeast asia concentrated lagoon populations found chilika lake odisha india songkhla lake southern thailand.taxonomy one earliest recorded descriptions irrawaddy dolphin sir richard owen based specimen found harbour visakhapatnam east coast india.one two species genus. |
Irrawaddy dolphin | sometimes listed variously family containing monodontidae delphinapteridae.widespread agreement exists list family delphinidae.etymology local names species name brevirostris comes latin meaning shortbeaked.closely related australian snubfin dolphin orcaella heinsohni.two snubfin dolphins recognised separate species genetic analysis showed population found along coast northern australia forms second species genus orcaella. |
Irrawaddy dolphin | orcaella dolphins close relatives oceanic dolphins globicephalinae subfamily.vernacular names irrawaddy dolphin includethai โลมาอิรวดี loma irawadi โลมาหัวบาตร loma hua bat almsbowl dolphin due shape headsodia ଶିଶୁମାର sisumāra ଭୁଆସୁଣୀ ମାଛ bhuāsuṇi mācha lit.oilyielding dolphin lagoon area local name ଖେରା kherāfilipino lampasutbengali শুশুক shushukoindonesian pesut mahakamikan pesutkhmer ផ្សោត ph’soutlao ປາຂ່າ pa’khamalay empesutburmese ဧရာဝတီ လင်းပိုင် eyawadi lăbaing description irrawaddy dolphins colour grey dark slate blue paler underneath without distinctive pattern.dorsal fin small rounded behind middle back.forehead high rounded beak lacking.front snout blunt. |
Irrawaddy dolphin | flippers broad rounded.finless porpoise neophocaena phocaenoides similar back fin humpback dolphin sousa chinensis larger longer beak larger dorsal fin.it ranges weight kg lb length ..ft full maturity.maximum recorded length . |
Irrawaddy dolphin | .ft male thailand.the irrawaddy dolphin similar beluga appearance though closely related killer whale.large melon blunt rounded head beak indistinct.dorsal fin located twothirds posterior along back short blunt triangular.flippers long broad. |
Irrawaddy dolphin | lightly colored slightly white underside back.unlike dolphin irrawaddys ushaped blowhole left midline opens towards front dolphin.short beak appears different dolphins mouth known peglike teeth side jaws.behaviour communication carried clicks creaks buzzes dominant frequency kilohertz thought used echolocation.bony fish fish eggs cephalopods crustaceans taken food. |
Irrawaddy dolphin | observations captive animals indicate food may taken mouth suction.irrawaddy dolphins capable squirting streams water reach .metres ft distinct behaviour known herding fish general area hunting.sometimes spyhopping feeding apparently expel water ingested fish capture possibly herd fish.irrawaddy dolphins kept captivity trained spyhopping command. |
Irrawaddy dolphin | irrawaddy dolphin slow swimmer swimming speeds – kilometres per hour – mph reported dolphins chased boat.irrawaddy dolphins shy boats known bowride generally dive alarmed.relatively slow moving sometimes seen spyhopping rolling one side waving flipper occasionally breaching.generally found groups animals though sometimes many individuals known congregate deep pools.groups fewer six individuals common sometimes dolphins seen together.traveling staying groups enables irrawaddy dolphins hunt also creates maintains social bonds allows copulation occur.it surfaces rolling fashion lifts tail fluke clear water deep dive. |
Irrawaddy dolphin | deep dive times range seconds minutes.group dives timed time disappearance last dolphin group emergence first dolphin group laos mean duration .seconds range seconds .minutes.interspecific competition observed irrawaddy dolphins forced inshore excluded specialized dolphins.captive humpback dolphins sousa chinensis irrawaddy dolphins held together reportedly irrawaddy dolphins frequently chased confined small portion tank dominant humpbacks. |
Irrawaddy dolphin | chilika lake local fishers say irrawaddy dolphins bottlenose dolphins meet outer channel former get frightened forced return toward lake.mating female male dolphin attempt pursue mate minutes.intertwine facing bellies together begin copulate seconds.copulation occurred dolphins break away set different directions.reproduction dolphins thought reach sexual maturity seven nine years. |
Irrawaddy dolphin | northern hemisphere mating reported december june.gestation period months cows give birth single calf every two three years.length .ft birth.birth weight kg lb. |
Irrawaddy dolphin | weaning two years.lifespan years.feeding plenty food items dolphin feeds upon.include fish crustaceans cephalopods.foraging periods herds dolphins circle around prey trap victim. |
Irrawaddy dolphin | prey entrapments occur slightly water surface level.habitat subpopulations although sometimes called irrawaddy river dolphin true river dolphin oceanic dolphin lives brackish water near coasts river mouths estuaries.established subpopulations freshwater rivers including ganges mekong well irrawaddy river takes name.range extends bay bengal new guinea philippines although appear venture shore.often seen estuaries bays borneo island sightings sandakan sabah malaysia parts brunei sarawak malaysia. |
Irrawaddy dolphin | specimen collected mahakam river east kalimantan.presence species chinese taiwanese hong kongs waters questioned reported sightings considered unreliable easternmost ranges along eurasian continent vietnam.no rangewide survey conducted vulnerable species however worldwide population appears .india irawaddy dolphins mostly found chilika lake.known subpopulations irrawaddy dolphins found eight places listed order population including conservation status.bangladesh vu coastal waters bay bengal vu brackish sundarbans mangrove forestindia vu brackishwater chilika lake odisha.presence recorded sundarbans national park west bengal also.laos cambodia cr km mi freshwater stretch mekong riverindonesia cr km mi stretch freshwater mahakam riverphilippines cr brackish inner malampaya sound.researchers studying recent discovery dolphins sighted waters pulupandan bago negros occidental western visayas.myanmar burma cr km mi freshwater stretch ayeyarwady riverthailand less cr brackish songkhla lake interaction humans irrawaddy dolphins mutualistic relationship cooperative fishing traditional fishers. |
Irrawaddy dolphin | fishers india recall would call dolphins tapping wooden key also known lahai kway sides boats asking irrawaddys drive fish nets.burma upper reaches ayeyarwady river irrawaddy dolphins drive fish towards fishers using cast nets response acoustic signals them.fishermen attempt gain attention dolphins various efforts using coneshaped wooden stick drum side canoes striking paddles surface water jingling nets making calls sound turkeylike.herd dolphins agrees work alongside fisherman entrap school fish semicircle guiding towards boat.return dolphins rewarded fishers bycatch. |
Irrawaddy dolphin | historically irrawaddy river fishers claimed particular dolphins associated individual fishing villages chased fish nets.report indicated legal claims frequently brought native courts fishers recover share fish nets rival fisher plaintiffs dolphin claimed helped fill.threats irrawaddy dolphins susceptible human conflict dolphins live farther ocean.drowning gillnets main threat throughout range.deaths reported died result entanglement gillnets large mesh sizes. |
Irrawaddy dolphin | majority reported dolphin deaths subpopulations due accidental capture drowning gillnets dragnets philippines bottomset crabnets.burma electrofishing gold mining dam building also serious continuing threats.though fishers sympathetic dolphins plight abandoning traditional livelihood difficult them.another identified threat towards irrawaddy dolphins noise pollution highspeed vessels.caused dolphins dive significantly longer usual.irrawaddy dolphins always changed directions encountered large vessels.laotians cambodians common belief irrawaddy dolphins reincarnations ancestors. |
Irrawaddy dolphin | even claim dolphins saved drowning villagers protected people attacks crocodiles.beliefs experiences led people laos cambodia live peacefully alongside one another ages recent years technique using explosives fishing emerged.government laos made use tactics illegal regulations made neighboring cambodia explosives sold local markets practice using fishnets abandoned.practice using explosives instead become popular led steady decline populations fish especially dolphins swimming area.although laotians may use explosives use nylon gillnets pose another large threat survival irrawaddy. |
Irrawaddy dolphin | dolphins accidentally become entangled net.poor fishermen refuse cut destroy nets would result great economic loss save one irrawaddy dolphin.in laos dam across mekong river planned.could threaten existence endangered irrawaddy dolphins downstream cambodia.laoss government decision forge dam upstream core habitat irrawaddy dolphins.could precipitate extinction specific species mekong river. |
Irrawaddy dolphin | dam builders proposal use explosives dig tons rock.create strong sound waves could possibly kill irrawaddy dolphins due highly sensitive hearing structures.in several asian countries irrawaddy dolphins captured trained perform public aquaria.charismatic appearance unique behaviors including spitting water spyhopping flukeslapping make popular shows dolphinaria.commercial motivation using dolphin species high live freshwater tanks high cost marine aquarium systems avoided.region within near species range developed economically theme parks casinos entertainment venues include dolphin shows increased.khmer vietnamese fishermen regarded orcaella sacred animal. |
Irrawaddy dolphin | caught fishing nets release dolphin rest catch.contrast khmerislam fisherman kill food.led dolphin reputed recognize local languages area approach khmerislam caution.dolphinariums least nine asian countries.collateral deaths dolphins due blast fishing common vietnam thailand.past direct threat killing oil.the iucn lists five seven subpopulations endangered primarily due drowning fish nets. |
Irrawaddy dolphin | example malampaya population first discovered described time consisted individuals.due anthropogenic activities number dwindled dolphins .mahakam river borneo dolphin deaths related entanglement gillnets due heavy fishing boat traffic.tourism irrawaddy dolphins asia increasingly threatened tourist activity large numbers boats circulating areas live.development tours boats put large strain dolphins. |
Irrawaddy dolphin | disease cutaneous nodules found present various vulnerable populations irrawaddy dolphins.precise estimate affected dolphins six populations.although definite fate emergent disease unknown species risk.conservation irrawaddy dolphins proximity developing communities makes effort conservation difficult.entanglement fishnets degradation habitats main threats irrawaddy dolphins. |
Irrawaddy dolphin | conservation efforts made international national levels alleviate threats.international efforts protection international trade provided convention international trade endangered species wild fauna flora cites.enforcement though responsibility individual countries.international trade dolphinarium animals may occurred unlikely ever major threat species.some irrawaddy dolphin populations classified iucn critically endangered lao pdr cambodia viet nam mekong river subpopulation indonesia mahakam river subpopulation borneo myanmar ayeyarwadyirrawaddy river subpopulation philippines malampaya sound subpopulation thailand songkhla lake subpopulation.irrawaddy dolphins general however iucn listed endangered species applies throughout whole range. |
Irrawaddy dolphin | cites transferred irrawaddy dolphin appendix ii appendix forbids commercial trade species threatened extinction.the unepcms action plan conservation freshwater populations irrawaddy dolphins notes multipleuse protected areas play key role conserving freshwater populations.protected areas fresh water could particularly effective conservation tool facilitate management due fidelity species relatively circumscribed areas.action plan provides details strategies mitigating bycatch includesestablishing core conservation areas gillnetting banned severely restrictedpromoting net attendance rules providing training safe release entangled dolphinsinitiating programs compensate fishers damage caused nets entangled dolphins safely releasedproviding alternative diversified employment options gillnet fishersencouraging use fishing gear harm dolphins altering establishing fee structures fishing permits make gillnetting expensive decreasing fees nondestructive gearexperimenting acoustical deterrents reflective nets.the irrawaddy dolphin listed appendix appendix ii convention conservation migratory species wild animals cms.listed appendix species categorized danger extinction throughout significant proportion range cms parties strive towards strictly protecting animals conserving restoring places live mitigating obstacles migration controlling factors might endanger well appendix ii unfavourable conservation status would benefit significantly international cooperation organized tailored agreements.the species also covered memorandum understanding conservation cetaceans habitats pacific islands region mou.national efforts several national efforts resulting reduction threats local irrawaddy dolphin subpopulationsportions irrawaddy dolphin habitat sundarbans mangrove forest bangladesh included within ha sq mi three wildlife sanctuaries part sunderbans world heritage site. |
Irrawaddy dolphin | wildlife conservation society working bangladesh ministry environment forests create protected areas remaining dolphinsirrawaddy dolphins fully protected endangered species cambodian fishery law.world wide fund nature wwf established cambodian mekong dolphin conservation project support government local communities.aim support survival remaining population targeted conservation activities research education.january cambodian fisheries administration commission conservation development mekong river dolphin ecotourism zone wwf signed kratie declaration conservation mekong river irrawaddy dolphin agreement binding work together setting roadmap dolphin conservation mekong river.august cambodian government announced kilometrelong mi stretch mekong river eastern kratie province border laos stated limit fishing zone uses floating houses fishing cages gill nets disallowed simple fishing allowed. |
Irrawaddy dolphin | area patrolled network river guards specifically protect dolphins.january february dozen irrawaddy dolphins found dead.discovery new baby dolphins coast cambodia relief gave hope endangered irrawaddy dolphins would make comeback population.since endangerment evident guards posted coast cambodia protect dolphins two deaths reported since efforts.make efforts keep animals going extinct use fishing nets coast cambodia banned well.the irrawaddy dolphin common name snubfin dolphin scientific name misspelled oreaella brevezastris included indian wildlife protection act schedule bans killing transport sale products. |
Irrawaddy dolphin | major restoration effort open new mouth chilika lake bay bengal successful restoring lake ecology regulating salinity gradient lake waters resulted increases population irrawaddy dolphin due increase prey species fish prawns crabs.a conservation program entitled conservation foundation protection rare aquatic species indonesia focused protecting irrawaddy dolphin population habitat mahakam river.program educates surveys public also monitors dolphin population habitat.prime example establishment patrols several villages.some major concern population mekong river arisen due numerous threats.many irrawaddy dolphins slaughtered oil soon intensive fishing practices explosives gillnets began.dolphins protected cambodia laos democratic republic. |
Irrawaddy dolphin | explosive fishing use gillnets restricted many irrawaddy dolphins habitats.canadian conservationist ian baird set lao community fisheries dolphin protection project study irrawaddy dolphins laotian part mekong.part project compensated fishers loss nets damaged free entangled dolphins.project expanded include cambodia majority dolphin population determined killed migrated laos southern neighbor.si phan wetlands project successfully encouraged river communities set aside conservation zones establish laws regulate fish caught. |
Irrawaddy dolphin | april kg irrawaddy dolphin found dead coast laos death toll irrawaddy dolphins five .usually irrawaddy dolphins found dead bruises scars body killed illegal poaching irrawaddy dolphin found dead old age.oldest largest irrawaddy dolphin researchers discovered.dolphin .ft length likely late s.myanmars department fisheries took charge december instituted protected region km mi segment ayeyarwady river mingun kyaukmyaung created multiple provisions well. |
Irrawaddy dolphin | protective measures area include mandatory release entangled dolphins prohibition catching killing dolphins trade whole parts prohibition electrofishing gillnets metres ft long spaced less metres ft apart.mercury poisoning habitat loss goldmining dredging operations river eliminatedin malampaya sound proclaimed protected seascape.lowest possible prioritization given protected area.malampaya sound ecological studies project initiated wwf.technical support provided project municipality taytay malampaya park management developed fishery policies minimize threats irrawaddy dolphin bycatch capture. |
Irrawaddy dolphin | gear studies gear modification conserve dolphin species implemented.project completed .in coral triangle initiative new multilateral partnership help safeguard marine coastal resources coral triangle including irrawaddy dolphin subpopulation malampaya sound launched.new population discovered guimaras island visayas.another new population discovered bago negros occidental part negros island visayas.in marine coastal resources department assigned protect rare aquatic animals dolphins whales turtles thai territorial waters.protect dolphins patrol vessels ensure boats stay least ft away dolphins chasing running schools dolphins occurs. |
Irrawaddy dolphin | many fishermen bang pakong river prachinburi province persuaded authorities stop shrimp fishing certain area fishing boats modified offer dolphin sightseeing tours.a total irrawaddi dolphins found dead along coast trat province past three years.local fishing industry blamed deaths dolphins.january dozen dead irrawaddy dolphins found coast thailand.dolphins said dead lack oxygen.dolphins mammals unlike animals live sea must come surface air. |
Irrawaddy dolphin | many dolphins found dead water others washed ashore said dead days.also first week february many four irrawaddy dolphins found dead.in department forestry sarawak forestry cooperative sarawak established protected area irrawaddy dolphins santubong damai kuching wetland.furthermore plan establish beaches miri protected areas them.protection measures area include prohibition catching killing dolphins trade whole parts prohibiting use gillnets.government may also start small mediumscale research species sarawak malaysia university sponsorship sarawak shell.in vietnam group scientists took four irrawaddy dolphins provided medical care see would survive. |
Irrawaddy dolphin | however found first case saw irrawaddy dolphins bacterial infections.bacterial infection chorioamnionitis common many marine animals dolphins taken scientists discovered bacterial infection first time group dolphins.disease mostly affects animals pregnant infection occurs umbilical cord goes maternal bloodstream.one dolphins pregnant death found circling around bottom pool found dead early next morning.bacterial infection affects many organs body animal. |
Belize Barrier Reef | see also list cetaceansmarine biologyenvironmental issues indonesiasouth asian river dolphin references bibliography encyclopedia marine mammals isbn national audubon society guide marine mammals world isbn whales dolphins porpoises mark carwardine isbn external links video irrawaddy dolphin behaviorwwfus irrawaddy dolphin pagewhale dolphin conservation societytranscript briefing burmese marine biologist tint tun describes humandolphin cooperative fishingworldwide bycatch cetaceans national marine fisheries service noaa tech.memo.nmfsopr july irrawaddy dolphin mentionsdolphin world irrawaddy dolphinwdc irrawaddy dolphinphotos irrawaddy dolphin sealife collectionbelize barrier reef kilometer mi long section kilometer mi mesoamerican barrier reef system continuous cancún northeastern tip yucatán peninsula riviera maya honduras making second largest coral reef system world great barrier reef australia.belizes top tourist destination popular scuba diving snorkeling attracting almost half visitors.also vital countrys fishing industry.charles darwin described remarkable reef west indies .in addition barrier reef also boasts three distinct caribbean atolls turneffe atoll glovers reef lighthouse reef.lighthouse reef easterly diving area belize home great blue hole made famous jacques cousteau turneffe atoll lies directly east belize city nearest atolls capital.different reefs provide diverse scuba diving opportunities include walls pinnacles reef flats located throughout enormous area sea. |
Belize Barrier Reef | species belize barrier reef home large diversity plants animals hard coral species soft coral species species fishhundreds invertebrate specieswith reef still needing researched estimated species discovered.environmental protection large portion reef protected belize barrier reef reserve system includes seven marine reserves cayes three atolls.totals square kilometres sq mi area includingglovers reef marine reservegreat blue holesouth water caye marine reservehalf moon caye natural monumenthol chan marine reservecayes include ambergris caye caye caulker caye chapel carrie bow caye st. georges caye english caye rendezvous caye gladden caye ranguana caye long caye moho caye blackbird caye three corner caye northern caye tobacco caye sandbore caye.in reserve system designated world heritage site due vulnerability fact contains important significant natural habitats insitu conservation biological diversity according criteria vii ix x.belize became first country world completely ban bottom trawling december .december belize banned offshore oil drilling within km barrier reef.despite protective measures reef remains threat oceanic pollution well uncontrolled tourism shipping fishing.threats include hurricanes along global warming resulting increase ocean temperatures causes coral bleaching. |
Belize Barrier Reef | claimed scientists belizes coral reef damaged since .the belize barrier reef affected massbleaching events.first mass bleaching occurred estimated mortality percent coral colonies according report coastal zone management institute belize.second massbleaching event occurred hurricane mitch struck .biologists observed percent reduction live coral cover across belize reef system.usually hard distinguish whether reason coral bleaching human activities natural reasons storms bacterial fluctuations.case belize barrier reef many factors make distinction difficult apply. |
Belize Barrier Reef | human population area much sparse corresponding areas near coral reefs human activity pollution much lower compared coral reefs belize reef system much enclosed area.when coral bleaching occurs large part coral dies remaining part ecosystem begins process repairing damage.chances recovery low corals bleached become much vulnerable disease.disease often kills corals bleaching event itself.continuous bleaching coral reef little chance recovery.gallery see also list reefsworld heritage sites danger references external links unesco world heritage website |
Porcupine caribou | resembles subspecies known barrenground caribou r. t. groenlandicus sometimes included it.migratory caribou herds named calving grounds case porcupine river runs large part range porcupine herd.though numbers fluctuate herd comprises animals based july photocensus.migrate mi km year winter range calving grounds beaufort sea longest land migration route land mammal earth.range spans alaskayukon border valued resource cooperatively managed alaska department fish game canadian wildlife agencies local aboriginal peoples.caribou primary sustenance gwichʼin first nationsalaska native people traditionally built communities align caribous migration patterns. |
Porcupine caribou | also routinely hunted indigenous peoples including inupiat inuvialuit hän northern tutchone.by july porcupine herd reached record high animals.sixteen years earlier herd half large.barrenground caribou herds declined porcupine herd remained relatively stable.taxonomy porcupine caribou also known grants caribou r. t. granti subspecies caribou found alaska united states yukon northwest territories canada.sometimes included subspecies called barrenground caribou r. t. groenlandicus resembles. |
Porcupine caribou | range porcupine herd range covers mi km calving grounds porcupine river named river valleys slopes ogilvie richardson mountains yukon southern brooks range alaska.calving area located .million acres .million ha porcupine river coastal region beaufort sea known area part arctic national wildlife refuge.area runs large part range porcupine herd.in spring pregnant cows move northeast alaskan winter ranges north northwest canadian winter ranges. |
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