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Climate change in Africa | “experiments algorithmic governance ethnography dao failed decentralized autonomous organization” archive link.bitcoin beyond challenges opportunities blockchains global governance edited malcolm campbellverduyn.routledge press.according intergovernmental panel climate change vulnerability africa climate change driven range factors include weak adaptive capacity high dependence ecosystem goods livelihoods less developed agricultural production systems.risks climate change agricultural production food security water resources ecosystem services likely increasingly severe consequences lives sustainable development prospects africa.high confidence projected many african countries regions agricultural production food security would probably severely compromised climate change climate variability.managing risk requires integration mitigation adaptation strategies management ecosystem goods services agriculture production systems africa.over coming decades warming climate change expected across almost earths surface global mean rainfall increase.regional effects rainfall tropics expected much spatially variable sign change one location often less certain although changes expected. |
Climate change in Africa | consistent observed surface temperatures generally increased africa since late th century early st century °c locally much °c minimum temperature sahel end dry season.observed precipitation trends indicate spatial temporal discrepancies expected.observed changes temperature precipitation vary regionally.the united nations environment programme unep produced postconflict environmental assessment sudan.according unep environmental stresses sudan interlinked social economic political issues population displacement competition natural resources.regional climate change decreased precipitation thought one factors contributed conflict darfur. |
Climate change in Africa | along environmental issues climate change could negatively affect future development sudan.one recommendations made unep international community assist sudan adapting climate change.kenya also experiences high vulnerability impacts climate change.main climate hazards include droughts floods current projects forecasting intense less predictable rainfall.addition projections anticipate temperatures rising .°c. |
Climate change in Africa | crowded urban settlements nairobi kenya conditions informal settlements “slums” may exacerbate impacts climate change disasterrelated risk.particular living conditions large informal settlements often create warmer microclimate due home construction materials lack ventilation sparse green space poor access electrical power services.mitigate climate changerelated risks informal neighborhood settlements important upgrade settlements urban development interventions built climate resilience.interventions include upgrades waste.in terms adaptation efforts regionallevel actors making progress.includes development adoption several regional climate change adaptation strategies e.g. |
Climate change in Africa | sadc policy paper climate change adaptation strategy water sector.addition efforts enhance climate change adaptation tripatite programme climate change adaptation mitigation eastern southern africa comesaeacsadc.as supranational organization member states african union put forward goals corresponding actions draft report combat mitigate climate change continent.secretary general united nations also declared need close cooperation african union order tackle climate change accordance uns sustainable development goals.greenhouse gas emissions impacts natural environment temperature weather changes observed surface temperatures generally increased africa since late th century early st century °c locally much °c minimum temperature sahel end dry season.observed precipitation trends indicate spatial temporal discrepancies expected. |
Climate change in Africa | observed changes temperature precipitation vary regionally.water resources water quality availability deteriorated areas africa particularly due climate change.water resources vulnerable possibility strongly impacted climate change vast ramifications human societies.ipcc predicts millions people africa persistently face increased water stress due climate variability change ipcc .changes precipitation patterns directly affect surface runoff water availability. |
Climate change in Africa | changes hydrological cycle may significant effects river basins africa.improve understanding past future changes water availability due climate change ipcc ipcc recommends using dynamic downscaling technique.ipcc proposed using coordinated regional downscaling experiment cordex regional climate models runs maximum km resolutions resolution used depends upon size watershed area coverage meteorological records.however using climate simulations dynamic downscaling appropriate evaluate performance different spatial scales since performance differs one location another one rcm another.climate change likely exacerbate waterstressed catchments across africa example rufiji basin tanzania owing diversity land uses complex sociopolitical challenges.impacts people climate change increasingly impact africa due many factors. |
Climate change in Africa | impacts already felt increase magnitude action taken reduce global carbon emissions.impacts include higher temperatures drought changing rainfall patterns increased climate variability.conditions bearing energy production consumption.recent drought many african countries linked climate change adversely affected energy security economic growth across continent.africa one regions impacted adverse effects climate change.reasons africas vulnerability diverse include low levels adaptive capacity poor diffusion technologies information relevant supporting adaptation high dependence agroecosystems livelihoods. |
Climate change in Africa | many countries across africa classified leastdeveloped countries ldcs poor socioeconomic conditions implication faced particular challenges responding impacts climate change.pronounced risks identified africa ipccs fifth assessment report relate ecosystems water availability agricultural systems implications food security.economic impacts agriculture relation agricultural systems heavy reliance rainfed subsistence farming low adoption climate smart agricultural practices contribute sectors high levels vulnerability.situation compounded poor reliability access climate data information support adaptation actions.agriculture inherently sensitive climate conditions one vulnerable sectors risks impacts global climate change.agriculture african countries mainly smallscale rainfed making particularly vulnerable climate variability change. |
Climate change in Africa | observed projected disruptions precipitation patterns due climate change likely shorten growing seasons affect crop yield many parts africa.furthermore agriculture sector africa dominated smallholder farmers limited access technology resources adapt.climate variability change continue principal source fluctuations global food production across developing countries production highly raindependent.agriculture sector sensitive climate variability especially interannual variability precipitation temperature patterns extreme weather events droughts floods.climatic events predicted increase future expected significant consequences agriculture sector.would negative influence food prices food security landuse decisions. |
Climate change in Africa | yields rainfed agriculture african countries could reduced .order prevent future destructive impact climate variability food production crucial adjust suggest possible policies cope increased climate variability.african countries need build national legal framework manage food resources accordance anticipated climate variability.however devising policy cope impacts climate variability especially agriculture sector critical clear understanding climate variability affects different food crops.particularly relevant due severe invasion locusts adversely affecting agriculture eastern africa. |
Climate change in Africa | invasion partially attributed climate change warmer temperature heavier rainfall caused abnormal increase number locusts.energy increasing population corresponding energy demand energy security must addressed energy crucial sustainable development.climate change affected energy sectors africa many countries depend hydropower generation.decreasing rainfall levels droughts resulted lower water levels dams adverse impacts hydropower generation.resulted low electrical energy production high cost electricity power outages loadshedding african countries depend hydroelectric power generation. |
Climate change in Africa | disruptions hydropower generation negatively affected various sectors countries ghana uganda kenya tanzania.health impacts african countries least efficient public health systems world.infectious disease burdens malaria schistosomiasis dengue fever meningitis sensitive climate impacts highest subsaharan african region.instance percent annual global malaria cases africa.changes climate affect spread infectious agents well alter people’s disposition infections.climate change resulting increased temperatures storms droughts rising sea levels affect incidence distribution infectious disease across globe.in july world food programme wfp blamed ongoing southern madagascar food crisis caused solely climate change war conflict. |
Climate change in Africa | declared first famine caused climate change.malaria africa malaria continues dramatic effects population.climate change continues specific areas likely experience yearround highrisk transmission malaria shift coastal west africa area democratic republic congo uganda known african highlands.scientific limitations examining shifting malaria transmission rates african highlands similar related broader understandings climate change malaria.modeling temperature changes shows relationship increase temperature increase malaria transmission limitations still exist.future population shifts affect population density well changes behavior mosquitos affect transmission rates limiting factors determining future risk malaria outbreaks also affect planning correct outbreak response preparation. |
Climate change in Africa | adaptation reduce impacts climate change african countries adaption measures required multiple scales ranging local national regional levels.first generation adaptation projects africa largely characterised smallscale nature focused targeted investments agriculture diffusion technologies support adaptive decisionmaking.recently programming efforts reoriented towards larger coordinated efforts tackling issues spanning multiple sectors.improved weather forecasting technology subsaharan africa important inform response climate change aid decisionmaking associated adaptation climate change example.during st conference parties cop african heads state launched africa adaptation initiative aai.aai’s steering committee composed african ministerial conference environment amcen bureau chair african group negotiators agn.the africa adaptation initiative also supported european union.european union partnered african union promotion sustainable resources management environmental resilience climate change mitigationat regional level regional policies actions support adaptation across africa still infancy. |
Climate change in Africa | ipccs fifth assessment report ar highlights examples various regional climate change action plans including developed southern african development community sadc lake victoria basin committee.national level many early adaptation initiatives coordinated national adaptation programmes action napas national climate change response strategies nccrs.implementation slow however mixed success delivery.integration climate change wider economic development planning remains limited growing.at subnational level many provincial municipal authorities also developing strategies example western cape climate change response strategy.yet levels technical capacity resources available implement plans generally low. |
Climate change in Africa | considerable attention across africa given implementing communitybased adaptation projects.broad agreement support locallevel adaptation best achieved starting existing local adaptive capacity engaging indigenous knowledge practices.the ipcc highlights number successful approaches promote effective adaptation africa outlining five common principles.includeenhancing support autonomous forms adaptationincreasing attention cultural ethical rights considerations adaptation especially active participation women youth poor vulnerable people adaptation activitiescombining “soft path” options flexible iterative learning approaches technological infrastructural approaches including integration scientific local indigenous knowledge developing adaptation strategiesfocusing enhancing resilience implementing lowregrets adaptation options andbuilding adaptive management encouraging process social institutional learning adaptation activities.the world health organizations report “adaptation climate change africa plan action health sector .intended provide comprehensive evidencebased coordinated response health sector climate change adaptation needs african countries order support commitments priorities african governments.action plan includes goals like scaling public health activities coordinating efforts international scale strengthening partnerships collaborative efforts promoting research effects climate change well effective measures taken local communities mitigate climate change consequences.according international monetary fund imf subsaharan africa requires billion additional financing year adapt effects climate change.according european investment banks banking africa study african institutions becoming conscious need address dangers posed climate change beginning capitalize possibilities green financing. |
Climate change in Africa | example questioned banks study saw climate change strategic concern people focusing climaterelated fronts.subsaharan african banks growing digital offerings expedited covid pandemic.majority banks surveyed said pandemic accelerated speed digital transformation shift permanent.the poor vulnerable susceptible migrant workers refugees marginalised groups likely suffer most.gdp per capita likely rebound levels risks tilting downside crisis reversed predicted drop number poor people according imf.in comparison precrisis forecasts might result additional million people subsaharan africa living extreme poverty well additional nine million middle east north africa mena area.northern africa adaption measures key adaptations northern africa relate increased risk water scarcity resulting combination climate change affecting water availability increasing demand. |
Climate change in Africa | reduced water availability turn interacts increasing temperatures create need adaptation among rainfed wheat production changing disease risk example leishmaniasis.government actions adaptation centre water supply side example desalination interbasin transfers dam construction.migration also observed act adaptation individuals households northern africa.like many regions however examples adaptation action opposed intentions act vulnerability assessments north africa limited systematic review published showed examples reported adaptations came north africa.western africa adaption measures water availability particular risk western africa extreme events drought leading humanitarian crises associated periodic famines food insecurity population displacement migration conflict insecurity. |
Climate change in Africa | adaptation strategies environmental culturalagronomic economic.adaptation strategies evident agriculture sector developed promoted formal research experimental stations.indigenous agricultural adaptations observed northern ghana croprelated soilrelated involve cultural practices.livestockbased agricultural adaptations include indigenous strategies adjusting quantities feed feed livestock storing enough feed abundant period fed livestock lean season treating wounds solution certain barks trees keeping local breeds already adapted climate northern ghana livestock production technologies include breeding health feednutrition housing.the choice adoption adaptation strategies variously contingent demographic factors household size age gender education household head economic factors income source farm size knowledge adaptation options expectation future prospects.eastern africa adaption measures eastern africa adaptation options varied including improving use climate information actions agriculture livestock sector water sector.making better use climate weather data weather forecasts management tools enables timely information preparedness people sectors agriculture depend weather outcomes.means mastering hydrometeorological information early warning systems. |
Climate change in Africa | argued indigenous communities possess knowledge historical climate changes environmental signs e.g.appearance migration certain birds butterflies etc.thus promoting indigenous knowledge considered important adaptation strategy.adaptation agricultural sector includes increased use manure cropspecific fertilizer use resistant varieties crops early maturing crops.manure especially animal manure thought retain water essential microbes breakdown nutrients making available plants compared synthetic fertilizers compounds released environment due overuse release greenhouse gases.one major vulnerability agriculture sector eastern africa dependence rainfed agriculture. |
Climate change in Africa | adaptation solution efficient irrigation mechanisms efficient water storage use.drip irrigation especially identified waterefficient option directs water root plant minimal wastage.countries like rwanda kenya prioritized developing irrigated areas gravity water systems perennial streams rivers zones vulnerable prolonged droughts.heavy rains many areas experience flooding resulting bare grounds due deforestation little land cover.adaptation strategies proposed promoting conservation efforts land protection planting indigenous trees protecting water catchment areas managing grazing lands zoning.for livestock sector adaptation options include managing production sustainable land pasture management ecosystems. |
Climate change in Africa | includes promoting hay fodder production methods e.g.irrigation use waste treated water focusing investing hay storage use dry seasons.keeping livestock considered livelihood rather economic activity.throughout eastern africa countries especially asals regions argued promoting commercialization livestock adaptation option.involves adopting economic models livestock feed production animal traceability promoting demand livestock products meat milk leather linking niche markets enhance businesses provide disposable income.in water sector options include efficient use water households animals industrial consumption protection water sources. |
Climate change in Africa | campaigns planting indigenous trees water catchment areas controlling human activities near catchment areas especially farming settlement carried help protect water resources avail access water communities especially climatic shocks.comoros napa operational extension poverty reduction strategy paper prsp includes among adaptation priorities agriculture fishing water housing health also tourism indirect way reconstitution basin slopes fight soils erosion therefore protection reefs limiting silting terrigenous contributions.kenya gazetted climate change act establishes authority oversee development management implementation regulation mechanisms enhance climate change resilience low carbon development sustainable development national county governments private sector civil society actors.kenya also developed national climate change action plan nccap aims countrys development goals providing mechanisms measures achieve low carbon climateresilient development manner prioritizes adaptation.central africa adaption measures angola objective national adaptation programs action identify communicate urgent immediate needs country regarding climate change adaptation increase angola‘s resilience climate variabilities climate change ensure achievement poverty reduction programs sustainable development objectives millennium development goals pursued government.southern africa adaption measures several initiatives local sitespecific local national regional scales aimed strengthening climate change.regional climate change programme rccp sasscal assar undp climate change adaptation resilim fractal. |
Climate change in Africa | south africa implemented longterm adaptation scenarios flagship research programme ltas april june .research also produced factsheets technical report covering sadc region entitled climate change adaptation perspectives southern african development community sadc.madagascar priority sectors adaptation agriculture livestock forestry public health water resources coastal zones.malawi napa identifies following high priority activities adaptation improving community resilience climate change development sustainable rural livelihoods restoring forests upper lower shire valleys catchments reduce siltation associated water flow problems improving agricultural production erratic rains changing climatic conditions improving malawi’s preparedness cope droughts floods improving climate monitoring enhance malawi’s early warning capability decision making sustainable utilization lake malawi lakeshore areas resources.mauritius adaptation address following priority areas coastal resources agriculture water resources fisheries health wellbeing land use change forestry biodiversity.mozambique proposed adaptation initiatives target various areas economic social development outline projects related reduction impacts natural disasters creation adaptation measures climate change fight soil erosion areas high desertification coastal zones reforestation management water resources.rwanda developed national adaptation programme action napa contains information guide national policymakers planners priority vulnerabilities adaptations important economic sectors.country also developed sector based policies adaptation climate change vision national environmental policy agricultural policy among others.tanzania tanzania outlined priority adaptation measures napa various national sector strategies research outputs.napa successful encouraging climate change mainstreaming sector policies tanzania however crosssectoral collaboration crucial implementing adaptation strategies remains limited due institutional challenges power imbalances budget constraints ingrained sectoral approach.projects tanzania concern agriculture water resource management irrigation water saving rainwater collection however energy tourism also play important role.zambia napa identifies urgent adaptation needs priority areas within sectors agriculture food security livestock fisheries crops energy water human health natural resources wildlifezimbabwe strategic interventions nap process strengthening role private sector adaptation planning enhancing capacity government develop bankable projects trainings improving management background climate information inform climate change planning crafting proactive resourcemobilization strategy identifying applying international climate finance requests funds primarily reactive present focusing emergency relief rather climate change risk reduction preparedness adaptation developing coordinated monitoring evaluation policy programs projects many institutions within government currently systematic approach monitoring evaluation. |
Climate change in Africa | lesotho key objectives napa process entail identification communities livelihoods vulnerable climate change generating list activities would form core national adaptation program action communicate country’s immediate urgent needs priorities building capacity adaptation climate changenamibia critical themes adaptation food security sustainable biological resource base sustainable water resources base human health well infrastructure development.south africa progress finalizing national climate change adaptation strategy.national adaptation strategy acts common reference point climate change adaptation efforts south africa provides platform upon national climate change adaptation objectives country articulated provide overarching guidance sectors economy regional differences central africa central africa part landlocked geographically threatened climate change.due high climate variability rainfed agriculture central africa expected experience longer frequent heatwaves well increase wet extremes.global mean temperature region increase .°c °c.the carbon dioxideabsorbing capacity forests congo basin decreased. |
Climate change in Africa | decrease occurred due increasing heat drought causing decreased tree growth.suggests even unlogged forests affected climate change.nature study indicates african jungle absorb percent less carbon dioxide around absorb none .eastern africa situated almost entirely tropics rainfall eastern africa dominated seasonal migration tropicalrain band.eastern africa characterized high spatiotemporal rainfall variability spans degrees latitude across equator. |
Climate change in Africa | influences indian atlantic oceans major orographic features highlands well inland water bodies lake victoria.therefore rainfall seasonality varies single wet season per year july–august parts northwest including ethiopia south sudan meteorologically connected west africa west african monsoon bringing rains single wet season per year december february south tanzania many areas close equator two rainy seasons per year approximately march–may “long rains” october december “short rains”.finescale variability rainfall seasonality often linked orography lakes.interannual variability large known controls include variations sea surface temperatures ssts different ocean basins largescale atmospheric modes variability maddenjulian osciliation mjo tropical cyclones.long rains main crop‐growing season region. |
Climate change in Africa | interannual predictability season low compared short rains recent drying contrasts climate projections wetter future “east african climate paradox”.eastern africa witnessed frequent severe droughts recent decades well devastating floods.trends rainfall since show general decrease march may mam seasonal rains slight increase june september jjas october december ond rains although appears recent recovery mam rains.future rainfall temperature projected change eastern africa.recent studies climate projections suggest average temperature might increase °c middle century °c end century.depend emission scenarios well real climate responds compared range possible outcomes shown models. |
Climate change in Africa | climate model projections tend show increase rainfall particularly ond season also projected occur later.delay short rain season linked deepening saharan heat low climate change.noted however models predict decreasing rainfall regions seasons largest rainfall increases predicted shown involve implausible mechanisms due systematic model errors.addition changes aerosols provide forcing rainfall change captured many assessments climate projections.the contrast drying trend mam long rains rainfall equatorial eastern africa models predicting wetting future labelled “east african climate change paradox although recent recovery rainfall.studies shown drying trend unlikely purely natural may driven factors aerosols rather greenhouse gases research needed. |
Climate change in Africa | drying shown caused shorter rainy season linked deepening arabian heat low.consistent uncertainty rainfall projections changes rainy seasons onset uncertain equatorial eastern africa although many models predict later wetter short rains.indian ocean dipole iod known provide strong control interannual variability short rains studies show extreme iods may increase climate change.globally climate change expected lead intensification rainfall extreme rainfall increases faster rate warming total rainfall does.recent work shows across africa global models expected underestimate rate change rainfall intensification changes rainfall extremes may much widespread predicted global models.southern parts eastern africa receive rainfall single rainy season southern hemisphere’s winter tanzania seasonal rainfall projected increase future climate change although uncertainty.south mozambique shorter season due later onset projected future climate change uncertainty.north africa west africa sahel west african region divided four climatic subregions namely guinea coast soudanosahel sahel extending eastward ethiopian border sahara different climatic conditions. |
Climate change in Africa | seasonal cycle rainfall mainly driven southnorth movement intertropical convergence zone itcz characterised confluence moist southwesterly monsoon winds dry northeasterly harmattan.based interannual rainfall variability three main climatic periods observed sahel wet period early followed dry period period onwards seen partial rainfall recovery.dry period sahel experienced number particularly severe drought events devastating effects.recent decades also witnessed moderate increment annual rainfall since beginning s. however total annual rainfall remains significantly observed s.some identified recent decades recovery period.others refer period ‘hydrological intensification’ much annual rainfall increase coming severe rain events sometimes flooding rather frequent rainfall similarly works underline continuity drought even though rainfall increased.since percent population affected five floods sahel region countries. |
Climate change in Africa | severe drought conditions sahel reported.governments region responded quickly launching strategies address issue.the region projected experience changes rainfall regime climate models suggesting decreases wet season rainfall likely western sahel increases likely central east sahel although opposite trends cannot yet ruled out.trends affect frequency severity floods droughts desertification sand dust storms desert locust plagues water shortages.however irrespective changes seasonal mean rain intense storms expected become intense amplifying flood frequency.enhanced carbon emissions global warming may also lead increase dry spells especially across guinea coast associated reduction wet spells .℃ ℃ global warming level.fifteen percent sahel region population also experienced temperature increase °c .sahel region particular experience higher average temperatures course st century changes rainfall patterns according intergovernmental panel climate change ipcc. |
Environmental issues in Africa | southern africa climate research even though africa going one effected continents climate change systematic inequity biases related scientific research funding mean little published science climate change climate research funding african scientist.analysis research money climate change found research money research climate change africa spent european north american institutions spent former british colonies countries.pattern parachute science turn prevents local researchers groundbreaking work dont funding experimental activities reduces investment local researchers ideas topics important global south climate change adaptation.see also ecotourism africaregional effects climate changewater scarcity africa references external links future climate africa programmeafricas climate report african climate policy centre accp goal contribute poverty reduction successful mitigation adaptation climate change africa improve capacity african countries participate effectively multilateral climate negotiations.african monsoon multidisciplinary analysis amma aim address challenges understanding monsoon change future decades information effectively used support climatecompatible development region.collaborative adaptation research initiative africa asia cariaa builds resilience supporting collaborative research climate change adaptation inform adaptation policy practice.integrating hydroclimate science policy decisions climateresilient infrastructure livelihoods east africa hycristal aimed tackle uncertainties exist around climate change projections region concentrating particular mean availability management water.southern african science service centre climate change adaptive land management sasscal initiative aims put possible solutions many challenges global change develop produce scientifically sound findings sustainable socioeconomic benefits entire southern africa region.west african science service center climate change adapted land use wascal researchfocused climate service centre designed help tackle challenge thereby enhance resilience human environmental systems climate change increased variability west africa.issues include example deforestation soil degradation air pollution climate change water scarcity resulting problems access safe water supply sanitation.nearly africas environmental problems geographically variable human induced.deforestation large scale felling trees resulting decreases forest areas main environmental issues african continent.rampant clearing forests land conversion goes agriculture settlement fuel needs.ninety percent africas population requires wood use fuel heating cooking. |
Environmental issues in Africa | result forested areas decreasing daily example region equatorial evergreen forests.according united nations environment programme africas desertification rate twice worlds.the rate illegal logging another main cause deforestation varies country country cameroon liberia.democratic republic congo deforestation primarily caused needs poor citizens along unsupervised logging mining.in ethiopia main cause countrys growing population induces increase agriculture livestock production fuel wood.low education little government intervention also contributes deforestation.madagascars forest loss partially caused citizens using slashandburn techniques independence french. |
Environmental issues in Africa | nigeria highest rate deforestation world according food agriculture organisation united nations fao.deforestation nigeria caused logging subsistence agriculture collection wood fuel.according gfy deforestation wiped nearly africas forest.west africa .moist forests left nigerias oldgrowth forests disappeared within years. |
Environmental issues in Africa | deforestation also lowers chance rainfall ethiopia experienced famine droughts this.ethiopias forests disappeared last years.within years kenyas forest coverage decreased .. deforestation madagascar also led desertification soil loss water source degradation resulting countrys inability provide necessary resources growing population.last five years nigeria lost nearly half primary forests.ethiopias government along organizations like farm africa starting take steps stop excessive deforestation.deforestation issue forests important africa populations relied heavily provide basic needs.woods used shelter clothing agricultural elements much more.woodland supplies also used create medicines wide variety food. |
Environmental issues in Africa | foods include fruits nuts honey much more.wood crucial economic gain africa especially developing countries.forests also help environment.estimated green belt africa contains .million species. |
Environmental issues in Africa | without forest habitat protect species populations risk.livelihoods millions people species risk deforestation.act domino effect affects multiple aspects community ecosystem economy.many african nations begun implement restoration projects reverse effects deforestation.projects shown improve environment many ways livelihood people living near them.example reforestation agroforestry schemes help instance sequester carbon prevent flooding enhance biodiversity rehabilitate degraded lands provide local energy supply rural poor improve land use watershed management. |
Environmental issues in Africa | soil degradation erosion caused rains rivers winds well overuse soils agriculture low use manures resulted turning soils infertile example plains nile orange river.main cause soil degradation lack manufactured fertilizers used since african soil lacks organic sources nutrients.increase population also contributed people need crop source income take measures protect soil due low income.current methods create much pressure environmental aspects forests sustainable.also ecological causes poor soil quality. |
Environmental issues in Africa | much soil rocks clay volcanic activity.causes include erosion desertification deforestation.another source soil degradation improper management waste lack facilities techniques handle waste lead dumping waste soil therefore causes soil degradation process us leaching.degradation african soil causes decreased food production damaging ecological effects overall decrease quality living africa.issue would lessen fertilizers cropping supplies affordable thus used more.united nations commissioned global assessment human induced soil degradation glasod investigate causes state soil. |
Environmental issues in Africa | access information collected freely available hoped awareness raised among politicians threatened areas.air pollution air africa greatly polluted due multiple reasons stated below.primitive method farming takes place areas africa certainly causal factor.united nations food agriculture organization fao estimates .million hectares land lost annually agriculture grazing uncontrolled burning fuelwood consumption. |
Environmental issues in Africa | combustion wood charcoal used cooking results release carbon dioxide atmosphere toxic pollutant atmosphere.also due poor supply power homes rely fuel diesel generators keep electricity running.air pollution africa coming forefront must ignored.example south africa mercury levels severe due coal combustion gold mining.mercury absorbed air soil water. |
Environmental issues in Africa | soil allows crops absorb mercury humans ingest.animals eat grass absorbed mercury humans may ingest animals.fish absorb mercury water humans also ingest fish drink water absorbed mercury.increases mercury levels humans.cause serious health risks.it expected africa could represent half worlds pollution emissions warns cathy liousse director research atmospheric sounding cnrs along many researchers. |
Environmental issues in Africa | according report subsaharan africa experiencing fast increasing pollution derived many causes burning wood cooking open burning waste traffic agrifood chemical industries dust sahara carried winds sahel area reinforced greater population growth urbanisation.the world health organization reports need intervene one third total disability adjusted life years lost result exposure indoor air pollution africa.fuel needed power lights night.fuel burned causes great emissions carbon dioxide atmosphere.increased urbanization africa people burning fuel using vehicles transportation.rise vehicle emissions trend towards greater industrialization means urban air quality continent worsening. |
Environmental issues in Africa | also case many megacities nigeria key contributors poor air quality include vehicle emissions industrial emissions solid waste burning.seasonal variations pollution also exist highest levels air pollution occurring dry season november march north may september south.in many countries use leaded gasoline still widespread vehicle emission controls nonexistent.indoor air pollution widespread mostly burning coal kitchen cooking.compounds released fuel stations nitrogen hydrocarbon released airports cause air pollution.carbon dioxide greenhouse gases air causes increase people respiratory issues.there common relationship air pollution population. |
Environmental issues in Africa | africa widely diverse areas overpopulated versus areas scarcely populated.regions little industrial development people air quality high.vice versa densely populated industrialized regions air quality low.addressing air pollution big cities often big priority even though continent whole produces little air pollutants international standards.even air pollutants causing variety health environmental problems. |
Environmental issues in Africa | pollutants threat population africa environment try hard sustain.in air pollution killed .million people across africa according study published lancet planetary health october .million african children live households use solid fuels mostly wood coal cooking heating.emissions solid fuels main causes indoor air pollution.climate change water scarcity plastic pollution queen diambi kabatusuila kingdom luba campaigner plastic pollution. |
Environmental issues in Africa | see also african environment bulletinafricover un projectafr references hillstrom kevin laurie collier hillstrom.worlds environments.continental overview environmental issues.santa barbara ca abcclio .external links fleshman michael saving africa’s forests ‘lungs world’ january united nations |
Counterintelligence | includes gathering information conducting activities prevent espionage sabotage assassinations intelligence activities conducted behalf foreign powers organizations persons.many countries multiple organisations focusing different aspect counterintelligence domestic international counterterrorism.states formalise part police structure united states federal bureau investigation.others establish independent bodies united kingdoms mi.history modern tactics espionage dedicated government intelligence agencies developed course lateth century.key background development great game strategic rivalry conflict british empire russian empire throughout central asia . |
Counterintelligence | counter russian ambitions region potential threat posed british position india indian civil service built system surveillance intelligence counterintelligence.existence shadowy conflict popularized rudyard kiplings famous spy book kim portrayed great game phrase kipling popularized espionage intelligence conflict never ceases day night.the establishment dedicated intelligence counterintelligence organizations much colonial rivalries major european powers accelerating development military technology.espionage became widely used became imperative expand role existing police internal security forces role detecting countering foreign spies.evidenzbureau founded austrian empire role lateth century countering actions panslavist movement operating serbia.after fallout dreyfus affair – france responsibility french military counterespionage passed sûreté générale—an agency originally responsible order enforcement public safety—and overseen ministry interior.the okhrana initially formed combat political terrorism leftwing revolutionary activity throughout russian empire also tasked countering enemy espionage.main concern activities revolutionaries often worked plotted subversive actions abroad. |
Counterintelligence | set branch paris run pyotr rachkovsky monitor activities.agency used many methods achieve goals including covert operations undercover agents perlustration—the interception reading private correspondence.okhrana became notorious use agents provocateurs often succeeded penetrating activities revolutionary groups including bolsheviks.integrated counterintelligence agencies run directly governments also established.british government founded secret service bureau first independent interdepartmental agency fully control government counterintelligence activities.due intense lobbying william melville obtained german mobilization plans proof financial support boers british government authorized formation new intelligence section war office mo subsequently redesignated mo headed melville .working undercover flat london melville ran counterintelligence foreign intelligence operations capitalizing knowledge foreign contacts accumulated years running special branch.due success government committee intelligence support richard haldane winston churchill established secret service bureau joint initiative admiralty war office foreign office control secret intelligence operations uk overseas particularly concentrating activities imperial german government. |
Counterintelligence | first director captain sir george mansfield smithcumming alias c. secret service bureau split foreign counterintelligence domestic service .latter headed sir vernon kell originally aimed calming public fears largescale german espionage.service authorized police powers kell liaised extensively special branch scotland yard headed basil thomson succeeded disrupting work indian revolutionaries collaborating germans war.instead system whereby rival departments military services would work priorities little consultation cooperation newly established secret intelligence service interdepartmental submitted intelligence reports relevant government departments.for first time governments access peacetime centralized independent intelligence counterintelligence bureaucracy indexed registries defined procedures opposed ad hoc methods used previously.categories collective counterintelligence gaining information opponents intelligence collection capabilities whose aim entity.defensive counterintelligence thwarting efforts hostile intelligence services penetrate service.offensive counterintelligence identified opponents efforts system trying manipulate attacks either turning opponents agents double agents feeding false information report. |
Counterintelligence | counterintelligence counterterror government many governments organize counterintelligence agencies separately distinct intelligence collection services.countries counterintelligence mission spread multiple organizations though one usually predominates.usually domestic counterintelligence service usually part larger law enforcement organization federal bureau investigation united states.the united kingdom separate security service also known mi direct police powers works closely law enforcement especially special branch carry arrests searches warrant etc.the russian federations major domestic security organization fsb principally came second chief directorate third chief directorate ussrs kgb.canada separates functions general defensive counterintelligence contreingérence security intelligence intelligence preparation necessary conduct offensive counterintelligence law enforcement intelligence offensive counterintelligence.military organizations counterintelligence forces capable conducting protective operations home deployed abroad.depending country various mixtures civilian military foreign operations.example offensive counterintelligence mission us cias national clandestine service defensive counterintelligence mission u.s. diplomatic security service dss department state work protective security personnel information processed abroad us embassies consulates.the term counterespionage really specific countering humint since virtually offensive counterintelligence involves exploiting human sources term offensive counterintelligence used avoid ambiguous phrasing.other countries also deal proper organization defenses foreign intelligence services fis often separate services common authority head government.france example builds domestic counterterror law enforcement framework. |
Counterintelligence | france senior antiterror magistrate charge defense terrorism.french magistrates multiple functions overlap us uk functions investigators prosecutors judges.antiterror magistrate may call upon frances domestic intelligence service direction générale de la sécurité intérieure dgsi may work direction générale de la sécurité extérieure dgse foreign intelligence service.spain gives interior ministry military support leadership domestic counterterrorism.international threats national intelligence center cni responsibility.cni reports directly prime minister staffed principally subordinated directly prime ministers office. |
Counterintelligence | march madrid train bombings national investigation found problems interior ministry cni result national antiterrorism coordination center created.spains commission called center operational coordination well information collection dissemination.military organic counterintelligence meet specific military needs.counterintelligence missions frank wisner wellknown cia operations executive said autobiography director central intelligence allen w. dulles dulles disposes popular misconception counterintelligence essentially negative responsive activity moves chiefly reaction situations thrust upon counter initiatives mounted opposition.rather sees effective information gathering protecting friendly intelligence services creatively vigorously attacks structure personnel hostile intelligence services. |
Counterintelligence | todays counterintelligence missions broadened time threat restricted foreign intelligence services fis control nationstates.threats broadened include threats nonnational transnational groups including internal insurgents organized crime transnational based groups often called terrorists limiting.still fis term remains usual way referring threat counterintelligence protects.in modern practice several missions associated counterintelligence national field level.defensive analysis practice looking vulnerabilities ones organization due regard risk versus benefit closing discovered holes.offensive counterespionage set techniques least neutralizes discovered fis personnel arrests case diplomats expels declaring persona non grata.beyond minimum exploits fis personnel gain intelligence ones side actively manipulates fis personnel damage hostile fis organization.counterintelligence force protection source operations cfso human source operations conducted abroad intended fill existing gap nationallevel coverage protecting field station force terrorism espionage.counterintelligence part intelligence cycle security turn part intelligence cycle management.variety security disciplines also fall intelligence security management complement counterintelligence includingphysical securitypersonnel securitycommunications security comsecinformations system security infosecsecurity classificationoperations security opsecthe disciplines involved positive security measures ones society collects information actual potential security complement security. |
Counterintelligence | example communications intelligence identifies particular radio transmitter one used particular country detecting transmitter inside ones country suggests presence spy counterintelligence target.particular counterintelligence significant relationship collection discipline humint least relationship others.counterintelligence produce information protect it.all us departments agencies intelligence functions responsible security abroad except fall chief mission authority.governments try protect three thingstheir personneltheir installationstheir operationsin many governments responsibility protecting things split.historically cia assigned responsibility protecting personnel operations office security assigned security operations multiple groups within directorate operations counterintelligence staff area functional unit soviet russia division.one point counterintelligence unit operated quite autonomously direction james jesus angleton. |
Counterintelligence | later operational divisions subordinate counterintelligence branches well smaller central counterintelligence staff.aldrich ames counterintelligence branch europe division responsible directing analysis soviet intelligence operations.us military services similar even complex split.this kind division clearly requires close coordination fact occurs daily basis.interdependence us counterintelligence community also manifest relationships liaison services.counterintelligence community cannot cut relationships concern security experience shown must calculate risks involved.on side ci coin counterespionage one purpose transcends others importance penetration. |
Counterintelligence | emphasis kgb places penetration evident cases already discussed defensive security viewpoint.best security system world cannot provide adequate defense technique involves people.way sure enemy contained know plans advance detail.moreover highlevel penetration opposition tell whether service penetrated.highlevel defector also adversary knows defected within limits take remedial action.conducting ce without aid penetrations like fighting dark. |
Counterintelligence | conducting ce penetrations like shooting fish barrel.in british service cases cambridge five later suspicions mi chief sir roger hollis caused great internal dissension.clearly british penetrated philby never determined public forum serious penetrations.us service also significant disruption contradictory accusations moles defectors anatoliy golitsyn yuri nosenko respective supporters cia british security service mi.golitsyn generally believed angleton.george kisevalter cia operations officer cia side joint usuk handling oleg penkovsky believe angletons theory nosenko kgb plant. |
Counterintelligence | nosenko exposed john vassall kgb asset principally british admiralty arguments vassall kgb sacrifice protect operations including nosenko possibly valuable source royal navy.defensive counterintelligence defensive counterintelligence starts looking places ones organization could easily exploited foreign intelligence services fis.fis established term art counterintelligence community todays world foreign shorthand opposing.opposition might indeed country could transnational group internal insurgent group.operations fis might ones nation another friendly nation. |
Counterintelligence | range actions might done support friendly government include wide range functions certainly including military counterintelligence activities also humanitarian aid aid development nation building.terminology still emerging transnational group could include terrorist groups also transnational criminal organization.transnational criminal organizations include drug trade money laundering extortion targeted computer communications systems smuggling etc.insurgent could group opposing recognized government criminal military means well conducting clandestine intelligence covert operations government question could ones friendly one.counterintelligence counterterrorism analyses provide strategic assessments foreign intelligence terrorist groups prepare tactical options ongoing operations investigations.counterespionage may involve proactive acts foreign intelligence services double agents deception recruiting foreign intelligence officers.clandestine humint sources give greatest insight adversarys thinking may also vulnerable adversarys attacks ones organization.trusting enemy agent remember people started trusted countries may still loyal country. |
Counterintelligence | offensive counterintelligence operations wisner emphasized dulles views best defense foreign attacks infiltration intelligence services active measures hostile services.often called counterespionage measures taken detect enemy espionage physical attacks friendly intelligence services prevent damage information loss possible turn attempt back originator.counterespionage goes beyond reactive actively tries subvert hostile intelligence service recruiting agents foreign service discrediting personnel actually loyal service taking away resources would useful hostile service.actions apply nonnational threats well national organizations.if hostile action ones country friendly one cooperating police hostile agents may arrested diplomats declared persona non grata.perspective ones intelligence service exploiting situation advantage ones side usually preferable arrest actions might result death threat. |
Counterintelligence | intelligence priority sometimes comes conflict instincts ones law enforcement organizations especially foreign threat combines foreign personnel citizens ones country.in circumstances arrest may first step prisoner given choice cooperating facing severe consequence including death sentence espionage.cooperation may consist telling one knows service preferably actively assisting deceptive actions hostile service.counterintelligence protection intelligence services defensive counterintelligence specifically intelligence services involves risk assessment culture sources methods resources.risk management must constantly reflect assessments since effective intelligence operations often risktaking.even taking calculated risks services need mitigate risk appropriate countermeasures.fis especially able explore open societies environment able subvert insiders intelligence community. |
Counterintelligence | offensive counterespionage powerful tool finding penetrators neutralizing tool.understanding leads individuals turn side focus project slammer.without undue violations personal privacy systems developed spot anomalous behavior especially use information systems.decision makers require intelligence free hostile control manipulation.since every intelligence discipline subject manipulation adversaries validating reliability intelligence collection platforms essential.accordingly counterintelligence organization validate reliability sources methods relate counterintelligence mission accordance common standards. |
Counterintelligence | mission areas usic examine collection analysis dissemination practices intelligence activities recommend improvements best practices common standards.intelligence vulnerable external also internal threats.subversion treason leaks expose vulnerabilities governmental commercial secrets intelligence sources methods.insider threat source extraordinary damage us national security aldrich ames robert hanssen edward lee howard access major clandestine activities.electronic system detect anomalies browsing counterintelligence files place robert hanssens searches suspicion activities soviet later russian paymasters might surfaced early.anomalies might simply show especiallycreative analyst trained intuition possible connections trying research them.adding new tools techniques national arsenals counterintelligence community seek manipulate foreign spies conduct aggressive investigations make arrests andwhere foreign officials involved expel engaging practices inconsistentwith diplomatic status exploit unwitting channel deception turn witting double agents. |
Counterintelligence | witting term intelligence art indicates one aware fact piece information also aware connection intelligence activities.victor suvorov pseudonym former soviet military intelligence gru officer makes point defecting humint officer special threat walkin volunteer assets country leaving.volunteers warmly welcomed take consideration fact despised hostile intelligence agents.the soviet operational officer seen great deal ugly face communism frequently feels utmost repulsion sell willingly.gru kgb officer decides break criminal organization something fortunately happens quite often first thing try expose hated volunteer.counterintelligence force protection source operations attacks military diplomatic related facilities real threat demonstrated attacks french us peacekeepers beirut attack khobar towers saudi arabia attacks colombian bases u.s. embassies local buildings kenya tanzania attack uss cole many others.u.s. military force protection measures set actions taken military personnel family members resources facilities critical information countries similar doctrine protecting facilities conserving potential forces. |
Counterintelligence | force protection defined defense deliberate attack accidents natural disasters.counterintelligence force protection source operations cfso human source operations normally clandestine nature conducted abroad intended fill existing gap national level coverage well satisfying combatant commanders intelligence requirements.military police patrols mingle local people may indeed valuable humint sources counterintelligence awareness likely cfsos.gleghorn distinguishes protection national intelligence services intelligence needed provide combatant commands information need force protection.humint sources military reconnaissance patrols avoid mixing foreign personnel indeed may provide humint humint especially relevant counterintelligence.active countermeasures whether force protection protection intelligence services protection national security interests apt involve humint disciplines purpose detecting fis agents involving screening debriefing nontasked human sources also called casual incidental sources. |
Counterintelligence | aswalkins writeins individuals volunteer informationunwitting sources individual providing useful information counterintelligence process divulging information may know aiding investigationdefectors enemy prisoners war epwrefugee populations expatriatesinterviewees individuals contacted course investigationofficial liaison sources.physical security important override role force protection intelligence... although intelligence disciplines used gather force protection intelligence humint collected intelligence ci agencies plays key role providing indications warning terrorist force protection threats.force protection forces deployed host countries occupation duty even home may supported sufficiently nationallevel counterterrorism organization alone.country colocating fpci personnel services military assistance advisory units allows agents build relationships host nation law enforcement intelligence agencies get know local environments improve language skills.fpci needs legal domestic capability deal domestic terrorism threats.as example terrorist planning cycles khobar towers attack shows need longterm fpci.hizballah operatives believed conducted attack began intelligence collection planning activities .recognized american military personnel billeted khobar towers fall began surveillance facility continued plan june . |
Counterintelligence | march saudi arabian border guards arrested hizballah member attempting plastic explosive country leading arrest two hizballah members.hizballah leaders recruited replacements arrested continued planning attack.defensive counterintelligence operations u.s. doctrine although necessarily countries ci seen primarily counter fis humint.us army counterintelligence manual ci broader scope various intelligence collection disciplines.overarching ci tasks described asdeveloping maintaining disseminating multidiscipline threat data intelligence files organizations locations individuals ci interest. |
Counterintelligence | includes insurgent terrorist infrastructure individuals assist ci mission.educating personnel fields security.component multidiscipline threat briefing.briefings tailored scope classification level.briefings could used familiarize supported commands nature multidiscipline threat posed command activity.more recent us joint intelligence doctrine restricts primary scope counterhumint usually includes counterterror.always clear doctrine responsible intelligence collection threats military resource. |
Counterintelligence | full scope us military counterintelligence doctrine moved classified publication joint publication jp .counterintelligence human intelligence support joint operations.more specific countermeasures intelligence collection disciplines listed counterhumint counterhumint deals detection hostile humint sources within organization detection individuals likely become hostile humint sources mole double agent.additional category relevant broad spectrum counterintelligence one becomes terrorist.the acronym micemoneyideologycompromise coercionegodescribes common reasons people break trust disclose classified materials reveal operations hostile services join terrorist groups.makes sense therefore monitor trusted personnel risks areas financial stress extreme political views potential vulnerabilities blackmail excessive need approval intolerance criticism.luck problems employee caught early assistance provided correct espionage avoided useful employee retained.sometimes preventive neutralization tasks overlap case earl edwin pitts. |
Counterintelligence | pitts fbi agent sold secret information soviets fall ussr russians.caught fbi false flag sting fbi agents posing russian fsb agents came pitts offer reactivate him.activities seemed motivated money ego perceived bad treatment fbi agent.sentence required tell fbi knew foreign agents.ironically told suspicious actions robert hanssen taken seriously time. |
Counterintelligence | motivations information operations disclosure go beyond slogans project slammer effort intelligence community staff director central intelligence come characteristics individual likely commit espionage united states.it examines espionage interviewing psychologically assessing actual espionage subjects.additionally persons knowledgeable subjects contacted better understand subjects private lives perceived others conducting espionage.according press report project slammer congressional oversight counterespionage one fairly basic function observing ones personnel behavior either suggests could targets foreign humint may already subverted.news reports indicate hindsight red flags flying noticed.several major penetrations us services aldrich ames walker ring robert hanssen individual showed patterns spending inconsistent salary.people changed spending may perfectly good reason inheritance even winning lottery patterns ignored.personnel sensitive positions difficulty getting along peers may become risks compromised approach based ego. |
Counterintelligence | william kampiles lowlevel worker cia watch center sold small sum critical operations manual kh reconnaissance satellite.interviewer kampiles suggested someone noted problem—constant conflicts supervisors coworkers—and brought outside counseling might stolen kh manual.by project slammer work presented public meetings security policy advisory board.funding cut caused loss impetus midnineties research data used throughout security community.emphasize essential multifaceted motivational patterns underlying espionage.future slammer analyses focus newly developing issues espionage role money new dimensions loyalty seems developing trend toward economic espionage. |
Counterintelligence | countersigint signals intelligence military security organizations provide secure communications may monitor less secure systems commercial telephones general internet connections detect inappropriate information passed them.education need use secure communications instruction using properly become vulnerable specialized technical interception.counterimint imagery intelligence basic methods countering imint know opponent use imaging ones side interfering taking images.situations especially free societies must accepted public buildings may always subject photography techniques.countermeasures include putting visual shielding sensitive targets camouflaging them.countering threats imaging satellites awareness orbits guide security personnel stop activity perhaps cover sensitive parts satellite overhead. |
Counterintelligence | also applies imaging aircraft uavs although direct expedient shooting attacking launch support area option wartime.counterosint opensource intelligence concept well precedes recognition discipline osint idea censorship material directly relevant national security basic osint defense.democratic societies even wartime censorship must watched carefully lest violate reasonable freedom press balance set differently different countries different times.the united kingdom generally considered free press danotice formerly dnotice system.many british journalists find system used fairly always arguments.specific context counterintelligence note peter wright former senior member security service left service without pension moved australia publishing book spycatcher. |
Counterintelligence | much book reasonable commentary revealed specific sensitive techniques operation rafter means detecting existence setting radio receivers.countermasint measurement signature intelligence masint mentioned completeness discipline contains varied range technologies typebytype strategy beyond current scope.one example however draw operation rafter technique revealed wrights book.knowledge radiofrequency masint used pick internal frequency radio receivers would possible design shielded receiver would radiate signal rafter monitored.theory offensive counterintelligence offensive techniques current counterintelligence doctrine principally directed human sources counterespionage considered synonym offensive counterintelligence. |
Counterintelligence | heart exploitation operations objective degrade effectiveness adversarys intelligence service terrorist organization.offensive counterespionage counterterrorism done one two ways either manipulating adversary fis terrorist manner disrupting adversarys normal operations.defensive counterintelligence operations succeed breaking clandestine network arresting persons involved exposing actions demonstrate disruption quite measurable effective fis right actions taken.defensive counterintelligence stops terrorist attacks succeeded.offensive counterintelligence seeks damage longterm capability adversary.lead national adversary putting large resources protecting nonexistent threat lead terrorists assume sleeper agents country become unreliable must replaced possibly killed security risks greater level success seen defensive operations alone carry offensive counterintelligence however service must detect must manipulate persons associated adversary.the canadian department national defence makes useful logical distinctions directive itsnational counterintelligence unit.terminology used services distinctions usefulcounterintelligence contreingérence means activities concerned identifying counteracting threats security dnd employees cf members dnd cf property information posed hostile intelligence services organizations individuals may engaged espionage sabotage subversion terrorist activities organized crime criminal activities. |
Counterintelligence | corresponds defensive counterintelligence services.security intelligence renseignement de sécurité means intelligence identity capabilities intentions hostile intelligence services organizations individuals may engaged espionage sabotage subversion terrorist activities organized crime criminal activities.emphasis added correspond directly offensive counterintelligence intelligence preparation necessary conduct offensive counterintelligence.the duties canadian forces national counterintelligence unit include identifying investigating countering threats security dnd cf espionage sabotage subversion terrorist activities criminal activity identifying investigating countering actual possible compromise highly classified special dnd cf material conducting ci security investigations operations security briefings debriefings counter threats preserve security dnd cf interests.mandate good statement mandate conduct offensive counterintelligence.dnd makes useful clarificationthe security intelligence process confused liaison conducted members canadian forces national investigation service cfnis purpose obtaining criminal intelligence collection type information within mandate.manipulating intelligence professional trained counterintelligence easy task unless already predisposed toward opposing side.effort start sympathetic person take longterm commitment creative thinking overcome defenses someone knows counterintelligence target also knows counterintelligence techniques.terrorists hand although engage deception function security appear prone manipulation deception wellplaced adversary foreign intelligence services.part due fact many terrorist groups whose members often mistrust fight among disagree vary conviction. |
Counterintelligence | internally cohesive foreign intelligence services potentially leaving vulnerable deception manipulation.reading johnson william r. thwarting enemies home abroad counterintelligence officer ginkel b. van .towards intelligent use intelligence quis custodiet ipsos custodes..hague international centre counterterrorism. |
Military intelligence | cite journal cite journal requires journal helplee newton .counterterrorism cybersecurity total information awareness second ed.. springer international publishing switzerland.isbn .toward theory ci see also irregular warfarelist counterintelligence organizationsfbi counterintelligence divisionsaedathe institute world politicsx counter espionage branch references external linksaim achieved providing assessment data range sources directed towards commanders mission requirements responding questions part operational campaign planning.provide analysis commanders information requirements first identified incorporated intelligence collection analysis dissemination.areas study may include operational environment hostile friendly neutral forces civilian population area combat operations broader areas interest.intelligence activities conducted levels tactical strategic peacetime period transition war war itself.most governments maintain military intelligence capability provide analytical information collection personnel specialist units arms services.military civilian intelligence capabilities collaborate inform spectrum political military activities.personnel performing intelligence duties may selected analytical abilities personal intelligence receiving formal training.levels intelligence operations carried throughout hierarchy political military activity. |
Military intelligence | strategic strategic intelligence concerned broad issues economics political assessments military capabilities intentions foreign nations increasingly nonstate actors.intelligence may scientific technical tactical diplomatic sociological changes analyzed combination known facts area question geography demographics industrial capacities.strategic intelligence formally defined intelligence required formation policy military plans national international levels corresponds strategic level warfare formally defined level warfare nation often member agroup nations determines national multinational alliance coalition strategic security objectives guidance develops uses national resources achieve objectives.operational operational intelligence focused support denial intelligence operational tiers.operational tier strategic level leadership refers design practical manifestation.formally defined intelligence required planning conducting campaigns major operations accomplish strategic objectives within theaters operational areas. |
Military intelligence | aligns operational level warfare defined level warfare campaigns major operations planned conducted sustained achieve strategic objectives within theaters operational areas.the term operation intelligence used within law enforcement refer intelligence supports longterm investigations multiple similar targets.operational intelligence discipline law enforcement intelligence concerned primarily identifying targeting detecting intervening criminal activity.use within law enforcement law enforcement intelligence scaled use general intelligence militarynaval intelligence narrowed scope.tactical tactical intelligence focused support operations tactical level would attached battlegroup.tactical level briefings delivered patrols current threats collection priorities. |
Military intelligence | patrols debriefed elicit information analysis communication reporting chain.tactical intelligence formally defined intelligence required planning conduct tactical operations corresponds tactical level warfare defined level warfare battles engagements planned executed achieve military objectives assigned tactical units task forces.tasking intelligence respond needs leadership based military objective operational plans.military objective provides focus estimate process number information requirements derived.information requirements may related terrain impact vehicle personnel movement disposition hostile forces sentiments local population capabilities hostile order battle.in response information requirements analysts examine existing information identifying gaps available knowledge.gaps knowledge exist staff may able task collection assets target requirement.analysis reports draw available sources information whether drawn existing material collected response requirement. |
Military intelligence | analysis reports used inform remaining planning staff influencing planning seeking predict adversary intent.this process described collection coordination intelligence requirement management ccirm.process process intelligence four phases collection analysis processing dissemination.in united kingdom known direction collection processing dissemination.in u.s. military joint publication jp states six categories intelligence operations planning direction collection processing exploitation analysis production dissemination integration evaluation feedback.collection many important facts well known may gathered public sources.form information collection known opensource intelligence.example population ethnic makeup main industries region extremely important military commanders information usually public. |
Military intelligence | however imperative collector information understands collected information become intelligence analyst evaluated verified information.collection read materials composition units elements disposition strength training tactics personalities leaders units elements contribute overall intelligence value careful analysis.the tonnage basic weaponry capital ships aircraft also public speeds ranges often reasonably estimated experts often photographs.ordinary facts like lunar phase particular days ballistic range common military weapons also valuable planning habitually collected intelligence library.a great deal useful intelligence gathered photointerpretation detailed highaltitude pictures country.photointerpreters generally maintain catalogs munitions factories military bases crate designs order interpret munition shipments inventories.most intelligence services maintain support groups whose purpose keep maps.since maps also valuable civilian uses agencies often publicly associated identified parts government. |
Military intelligence | historic counterintelligence services especially russia china intentionally banned placed disinformation public maps good intelligence identify disinformation.it commonplace intelligence services large countries read every published journal nations interested main newspapers journals every nation.basic source intelligence.it also common diplomatic journalistic personnel secondary goal collecting military intelligence.western democracies extremely rare journalists paid official intelligence service may still patriotically pass tidbits information gather carry legitimate business.also much public information nation may unavailable outside country.intelligence services attach members foreign service offices.some industrialized nations also eavesdrop continuously entire radio spectrum interpreting real time. |
Military intelligence | includes broadcasts national local radio television also local military traffic radar emissions even microwaved telephone telegraph traffic including satellite traffic.the u.s. particular known maintain satellites intercept cellphone pager traffic usually referred echelon system.analysis bulk traffic normally performed complex computer programs parse natural language phone numbers looking threatening conversations correspondents.extraordinary cases undersea landbased cables tapped well.more exotic secret information encryption keys diplomatic message traffic policy orders battle usually restricted analysts needtoknow basis order protect sources methods foreign traffic analysis.analysis analysis consists assessment adversarys capabilities vulnerabilities.real sense threats opportunities. |
Military intelligence | analysts generally look least defended fragile resource necessary important military capabilities.flagged critical vulnerabilities.example modern mechanized warfare logistics chain military units fuel supply often vulnerable part nations order battle.human intelligence gathered spies usually carefully tested unrelated sources.notoriously prone inaccuracy.cases sources make imaginative stories pay may try settle grudges identifying personal enemies enemies state paying intelligence. |
Military intelligence | however human intelligence often form intelligence provides information opponents intentions rationales therefore often uniquely valuable successful negotiation diplomatic solutions.in intelligence organizations analysis follows procedure.first general media sources screened locate items groups interest location capabilities inputs environment systematically assessed vulnerabilities using continuouslyupdated list typical vulnerabilities.filing critical vulnerabilities indexed way makes easily available advisors line intelligence personnel package information policymakers warfighters.vulnerabilities usually indexed nation military unit list possible attack methods.critical threats usually maintained prioritized file important enemy capabilities analyzed schedule set estimate enemys preparation time.example nuclear threats ussr u.s. analyzed real time continuously onduty staffs. |
Military intelligence | contrast analysis tank army deployments usually triggered accumulations fuel munitions monitored every days.cases automated analysis performed real time automated data traffic.packaging threats vulnerabilities decisionmakers crucial part military intelligence.good intelligence officer stay close policymaker war fighter anticipate information requirements tailor information needed.good intelligence officer also ask fairly large number questions order help anticipate needs.important policymaker intelligence officer staff research projects assigned.developing plan attack responsibility intelligence though helps analyst know capabilities common types military units. |
Military intelligence | generally policymakers presented list threats opportunities.approve basic action professional military personnel plan detailed act carry out.hostilities begin target selection often moves upper end military chain command.ready stocks weapons fuel depleted logistic concerns often exported civilian policymakers.dissemination processed intelligence information disseminated database systems intel bulletins briefings different decisionmakers. |
Military intelligence | bulletins may also include consequently resulting information requirements thus conclude intelligence cycle.see also intelligence gathering disciplineslist intelligence gathering disciplinesnationaldefence intelligence organisation australiaintelligence branch canadian forcesmilitary intelligence czech republicdirection du renseignement militaire francebundesnachrichtendienst bnd german federal intelligence service militärischer abschirmdienst mad german military counterintelligencestrategic intelligence agency indonesiainterservices intelligence military intelligence pakistancentro de informações e segurança militares cismil portugalglavnoye razvedyvatelnoye upravleniye gru russian military intelligencemilitary intelligence agency voa serbiasecret intelligence service mi defence intelligence intelligence corps united kingdomunited states intelligence communitydefense intelligence agencyg us army unitdefence intelligence sandf south africa footnotes references n. j. e. austin n. b. rankov exploratio military political intelligence roman world second punic war battle adrianople.london routledge .julius caesar civil war.translated jane f. mitchell.baltimore md penguin books .cassius dio dios roman history. |
Military intelligence | translated earnest cary.new york g.p.putnams sons .francis dvornik origins intelligence services.new brunswick nj rutgers university press .terrance finnegan origins modern intelligence surveillance reconnaissance military intelligence front – studies intelligence pp.–.j. |
Military intelligence | f. c. fuller military history western world vol.earliest times battle lepanto.new york da capo press .richard a. gabriel karen s. metz sumer rome military capabilities ancient armies.new york greenwood press .john keegan intelligence war.new york knopf .charles h. harris louis r. sadler. |
Military intelligence | border revolution clandestine activities mexican revolution –.highlonesome books .ishmael jones human factor inside cias dysfunctional intelligence culture new york encounter books isbn .henry landau enemy within inside story german sabotage america.g. p. putnam sons .sidney f. mashbir.american spy.vantage .nathan miller. |
Military intelligence | spying america hidden history u.s. intelligence.dell publishing .ian sayer douglas botting.americas secret army untold story counter intelligence corps.franklin watts publishers .barbara w. tuchman zimmermann telegram.ballantine books .coast guard intelligence looking good men women. |
Military intelligence | commandants bulletin jun p. .coast guard investigative service.coast guard dec pp.–.the coast guard war volume xii intelligence.washington dc historical section public information division u.s. coast guard headquarters january .hinsley francis h. british intelligence second world war influence strategy operations.cambridge university press .ruiz victor h. . |
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