Split (1)

train · 173k rows

title stringlengths 1 105	content stringlengths 5 58.1k
Canada Revenue Agency	cannot enforce interpret legislation behalf agency access taxpayer information.advisory committees cra maintains four advisory committees assist operational planning decisionmaking relates different sectors issues.advisory committees consist tax professionals lawyers accountants community leaders help agency improve service delivery within specific area.current advisory committees followsadvisory committee charitable sectoraudit file resolution committeedisability advisory committeeoffshore compliance advisory committee headquarters cras headquarters located ottawa responsible several agencywide functions including ministerial reporting corporate planning human resources information technology communications interpreting tax legislation.headquarters divided five program branches help deliver agencys core mandate around tax benefits administration seven corporate branches deliver services support daytoday operations cra.
Canada Revenue Agency	regions outside headquarters cras operations across canada divided four regions help carry agencys operations different regions country.region headed assistant commissioner oversees activities region including tax centres tcs tax services offices tsos area responsibility.atlanticontarioquebecwestern tax centres tc tax centres responsible intaking processing individual business tax returns.four tax centres located across canada assigned geographic areas responsibility may vary depending type returnjonquière tax centre quebecprince edward island tax centre atlanticsudbury tax centre ontariowinnipeg tax centre prairie pacific tax services offices tso tax services offices field offices handle complex audit collection files agency generally involve direct interaction taxpayers.tsos present every province territories currently active tsos instead jurisdiction tsos located parts canada.tax services offices sometimes divided branch offices organizational purposes.there twentyfive tsos situated across canada organized follows branch offices indicated indented bullets corresponding tso applicable¹also responsible northwest territories²also responsible yukon³also responsible nunavut national verifications collections centres nvcc national verifications collections centres responsible noncomplex files related collection verification validation involve inperson interaction.
Canada Revenue Agency	new facilities introduced agency part effort modernize agencys services.three nvccs located across canadast.johns nvccshawinigan nvccsurrey nvcc northern service centres cra opened introduced northern service centres access tax services assistance residents yukon northwest territories nunavut colocated existing service canada offices.three nscs located across northwhitehorse nsc yukonyellowknife nsc northwest territoriesiqaluit nsc nunavut employees fiscal year cra employed people making largest organization within federal government personnel.despite headquartered ottawa employees based national capital region.
Canada Revenue Agency	employees .indeterminate permanent employees .students .contract employees.average age cra employee years old.under financial administration act cra designated schedule v separate agency outside core public administration allows cra establish different job classifications pay rates enter labour negotiations differently form government departments agencies.
Canada Revenue Agency	consequently job classifications used cra may align typically used parts public service.unions executives management students generally represented union.however majority cra employees represented union taxation employees component public service alliance canada.auditors investigators computer systems employees represented professional institute public service canada.tax return processing canadian tax system based principle mandatory selfassessment.
Canada Revenue Agency	taxpayers comprising businesses individuals must complete tax return every year determine whether owe taxes receive refund.individual tax returns returns generally due april preceding tax year.entities charities corporations sole proprietorships partnerships selfemployed individuals tax deadline may vary widely.penalties may imposed returns received deadline outstanding amounts owed also subject penalties daily compounded interest.additionally taxpayers repeatedly fail report income several tax years make false statements omissions may subject penalties may vary depending severity taxpayers actions.the cra processes tax returns limited review promptly issues notice assessment.notice assessment provides summary entitys income credits deductions.
Canada Revenue Agency	taxpayer disagrees assessment may file appeal may lead challenging assessment tax court.tax return assessed may subject review.cases tax return could reviewed assessed.after objection filed cra required reassess tax return due dispatch according subsection income tax act.may different meanings depending busy cra time year factors.subsection sayson receipt notice objection section minister shall due dispatch reconsider assessment vacate confirm vary assessment reassess shall thereupon notify taxpayer writing ministers action.
Canada Revenue Agency	income tax returns residents canada required file individual income tax return every year.nonresidents may file tax return certain circumstances directly earn income canada rental payments stock dividends royalties nonresident earns canada given tax year.income generally reported tseries forms number corresponding specific type income situation.individual taxpayers report income using return.corporations trusts respectively use forms.employers use form issue statement remuneration paid individual employees submitted employees filing purposes lastly investment income capital gains earned taxpayer reported form.
Canada Revenue Agency	depending complexity taxpayers income situation supplementary forms outside tseries may need completed.for income tax purposes trusts treated taxable entity income tax act.legal representative estate deceased person may file return estate properties distributed.unlike united states families cannot file joint returns.partnership taxable entity income tax purposes income taxed hands partners.individual taxpayers file paper telephone electronically.taxpayers two methods filing electronically netfile individuals file tax returns efile used professional tax preparers file behalf clients.
Canada Revenue Agency	taxpayers prepare taxes netfile generally need obtain tax filing software thirdparty provider order use system.tax year vast majority taxpayers file taxes electronically .increasingly fewer taxpayers .use traditional paper method.taxpayers .
Canada Revenue Agency	rely efile submit return meaning canadians generally seek tax professionals preparing annual returns.many benefits canada child benefit ccb determined income reported returns.returns filed taxpayers may able obtain benefits entitled to.registered retirement savings plan rrsp contribution room also depends taxpayers reported income.employees normally income tax withheld paycheque employers remit tax withheld together payroll taxes cra.contractors pensioners normally required pay instalments income tax cra year.tax return filed tax refund available tax withheld instalments tax owing calculated tax return.
Canada Revenue Agency	tax return results balance due must paid full due date interest accrue daily.gsthst returns goods services tax gst harmonized sales tax hst collectively referred gsthst governed excise tax act requires many entities register gsthst account remit gsthst collected.entities include soleproprietors partnerships corporations.notfor profit organizations normally exempt income tax purposes required register gsthst accounts current rules.gsthst returns due monthly quarterly annually depending volume sales.sales less per year business may qualify smaller suppliers required register gsthst.
Canada Revenue Agency	payroll tax returns employer required withhold income tax payroll taxes cpp ei remit withheld amount cra monthly quarterly annually depending amount withholding.end every february employer required file return summary total wages paid business slips wages paid employees cra.tax collection cra responsible collecting several taxes behalf federal government provincial territorial governments except quebec including personal income taxes corporate taxes sales taxes fuel charges certain excise taxes defined excise tax act.separate agency cra maintains partnerships agreements provincial territorial levels government administer nonharmonized sales tax programs costrecovery basis.income tax personal income taxesthe canada revenue agency collects individual income taxes canada.
Canada Revenue Agency	canada uses tax brackets determine individuals tax obligations rates set department finance.personal income taxes levied federal government provincial governments separate rates collected together exception quebec.based individual earnings employers typically deduct income tax addition canada pension plan cpp quebec pension plan qpp employment insurance ei deductions employees paycheque.however taxpayers rely rental investment income selfemployed generally taxes automatically deducted pay must remit tax payments cra either lumpsum quarterly instalments.while taxpayers file cra quebec residents file separately cra revenu québec year.corporate income taxes taxes provincial corporations canada administered cra except provinces alberta quebec.ontario previously administered corporate taxes cra took responsibility collecting taxes.
Canada Revenue Agency	provinces maintain dual tax rates lower rate applicable income qualifies federal small business deduction higher rate forms income.provinces adhere business limit lower rate set federal governments provinces choose maintain rate.goods services tax gst canada revenue agency collects goods services tax gst canadian federal value added tax per cent provinces.quebec agreement federal government revenu québec administers gst businesses administers quebecs quebec sales tax qst.goods services tax introduced per cent added value sales goods services.
Canada Revenue Agency	gst reduced per cent per cent current rate.harmonized sales tax hst prince edward island new brunswick newfoundland labrador nova scotia ontario goods services tax gst replaced harmonized sales tax hst.harmonized sales tax combines national gst provincial sales tax single tax.hst administered cra.province harmonized sales tax receives portion hst cra.in british columbia removed hst public protests newly taxed items hst taxed pstgst system.
Canada Revenue Agency	benefits credits administration cra administers social benefits tax credits behalf federal government provinces territories.notable benefits credits federal level include canada child benefit ccb aims assist families children climate action incentive cai pays dividends directly canadians part canadas carbon pricing scheme disability tax credit dtc helps eligible recipients disabilities reduce amount income tax owe.canada child benefit canada child benefit ccb nontaxable benefit canadians children assist cost living.amount taxpayer receives ccb tied household income could include income taxpayers spouse.taxpayers required file taxes order assessed receive benefit.
Canada Revenue Agency	ccb implemented july builds upon existing benefit programs uccb cctb addition childrelated credits.covid emergency benefits economic impact covid pandemic resulted temporary permanent closure businesses throughout canada leading loss several thousand jobs.resulted creation several economic measures targeting different sectors canadian society cra tasked administering.the canada emergency response benefit cerb introduced temporary benefit available canadians stopped working involuntarily due pandemic.provides per month successful applicants eligible period.however income earned cerb taxable applied without eligible could face penalties future tax assessments.
Canada Revenue Agency	eligible recipients required also earned income tax year could earn per month claiming cerb.benefit administered jointly cra service canada nearly .million canadians applying benefit.representing nearly .million unique applications.similarly canada emergency student benefit cesb developed parallel benefit high school graduates postsecondary students recent postsecondary graduates qualify cerb shorter eligibility period four months.
Canada Revenue Agency	cesb received .million applicants unique applicants august .compliance audits cra performs audits auditors ensure taxpayers meeting tax obligations compliant tax legislation receive benefits entitled to.auditors right examine books records taxpayer examine property inventory taxpayer enter taxpayers premises place business require owner manager property give reasonable assistance answer questions require taxpayer person provide information documents.taxpayers must cooperate auditors may face obstruction charges section income tax act.income tax audits done tax service office tso.
Canada Revenue Agency	examiners work office audit program restrict examination business expenses reviews.conduct examin correspondence visit business field.auditors working sme small medium enterprises basic file large file programs conduct audits field typically taxpayers place business.audit conducted field auditors restricted could cover many issues tax return.gsthst audits done tsos.refund integrity program deals credit return gsthst return requests refund.
Canada Revenue Agency	prepayment examination restricted audit input tax credits itcs.post audit full audit gsthst returns covers itc also gsthst collected.when auditor feels though cannot rely upon books records taxpayer audited avail net worth methodology.method rather auditing actual books records taxpayer auditor calculates difference taxpayers net worth assets less liabilities beginning audit period end audit period.auditor adds change net worth increase decrease cost living taxpayer period question.sum two figures used auditor determine taxable income taxpayer audit period.
Canada Revenue Agency	figure turn compared figure reported taxpayer.methodology widely used cra auditors manual indicates method last resort used limited circumstances.investigations cra operates four investigation programs voluntary disclosures program informant leads program special enforcement program criminal investigations program.voluntary disclosures program vdp program allows taxpayers avoid penalty prosecution choose correct inaccurate incomplete information disclose information previously withheld cra.order accepted program taxpayers action omission must involve application potential application penalty cra heshe willing make complete disclosure.informant leads program ilp program allows citizens report individuals businesses may committing tax evasion taxrelated offences.special enforcement program sep proceeds crime taxable program specifically conducts audits undertake civil enforcement actions individuals known suspected deriving income illegal activities.collections officers responsible collecting taxes owed seize assets income tax act.
Canada Revenue Agency	program eliminated federal budget cut.criminal investigations program cip investigators program responsible suspected cases tax evasion fraud serious violations tax laws.criminal investigators given badges exercise investigative power compliance canadian charter rights freedoms.cppei rulings cra responsible making cppei rulings determine whether wages payments insurable canadian pension program andor employment insurance program.substance ruling determine whether individual employee selfemployed contractor.employee get ei benefits contractor cannot.
Canada Revenue Agency	normally cppei rulings requested service canada try determine whether ei benefits paid out.arbitrary assessments taxpayer file tax return time cra may first send request like reminder taxpayer asking file outstanding return.first letter called tx.taxpayer still file return cra may send second letter demanding return filed.second letter called tx.
Canada Revenue Agency	third letter txd could issued normally registered mail could delivered personally nonfiler officer.if return filed computergenerated letters tx tx nonfiler officer could arbitrarily prepare tax return taxpayer normally generating larger tax bill taxpayer would expect.notice assessment subsection income tax act issued.assessment commonly known arbitrary assessment.collection actions may follow.taxpayer could file amended tax return reduce tax bill.
Canada Revenue Agency	amended returns filed audit normally triggered.if nonfiler officer determines insufficient info available issuing arbitrary assessment may refer file investigations would take taxpayer court.taxpayer may ordered court file outstanding return normally imposed court fine.taxpayer ignore court order subject contempt court charges.dispute resolution appeals taxpayers believe cra assessed correct amount tax may dispute assessment filing objection.strict timelines filing objection.
Canada Revenue Agency	objection reviewed appeals program cra.appeal officer make decision independent audit.appeal officer could confirm vary vacate audit.appeal officer discretion negotiate settlement normally condition taxpayer appeal tax court.if objection assessed taxpayer still dissatisfied appeal may made tax court canada within permitted time.court examines taxpayers claim evidence looks evidence arguments made government passing judgment.
Canada Revenue Agency	cra becomes witness purpose providing evidence tax court.like canadian court tax court operates treating side dispute equals applying tax law administrative law constitutional law laws evidence.addition taxpayer responsible costs relation opponent costs related defense.event appeal successful however repayment costs cra may sought.tax court deals income tax excise tax cppei issues.tax return tax payable tax court could deal it.
Canada Revenue Agency	provincial tax tax court could deal resolved provincial court.tax court two procedures informal general.informal procedure cheap fast.taxpayer could represent get friend accountant informal procedure.informal procedures deal assessments certain threshold taxpayer elect take route.decisions informal procedures precedentsetting judge discretion general procedures.
Canada Revenue Agency	informal procedures allow limited appeal rights higher court.general procedures deal assessments require taxpayer either represent get lawyer.general procedures could drag years decisions precedentsetting.if taxpayer still happy tax court decision could take federal court appeals even supreme court canada.service complaints taxpayers aggrieved conduct cra may file servicerelated complaint.complaint must deal strictly service provided legal aspect service example service level complaint may raised unprofessional language request payment law.the complaint first passed office subject complaint.
Canada Revenue Agency	taxpayer satisfied way first office handles may escalate complaint regional office investigates complaint contacts taxpayer.taxpayer remains unsatisfied complaint may made taxpayer ombudsman.remission order remission orders commonly known rarely granted.taxpayer agree tax assessment unable pay could request remission order cra make recommendation minister advise governorincouncil grant remission order collection tax unjust.taxpayer relief taxpayer relief governed subsection .
Canada Revenue Agency	income tax act section .excise tax act.gives cra discretion cancel penalties interest pay personal income tax refund years tax return assessed accept latefiled elections.the cra exercise discretion late filing caused extraordinary circumstances flood earthquake cra delay error financial hardship.cra published income tax information circular ic subject.a taxpayer may request relief prescribed form may elect use letter instead provided points raised form covered letter.request denied taxpayer could request second review done higher rank official.
Canada Revenue Agency	request still denied taxpayer could request judicial review decision federal court tax court.federal court determine whether cra exercises discretion reasonably.court send file back cra reconsideration.court rarely make decision cra discretion cra court.taxpayer happy judicial decision pursue appeal federal court appeal.
Canada Revenue Agency	oversight accountability office taxpayers ombudsperson office taxpayers ombudsperson armslength office reports directly minister national revenue improve accountability cra.taxpayers ombudsperson appointed governorincouncil mandate assist advise inform minister national revenue matter relating services provided taxpayer cra.taxpayers ombudsperson currently vacant ongoing process underway appoint successor.in fulfilling mandate ombudsperson reviews complaints taxpayers report breaches servicerelated rights cra.ombudsperson upholds eight taxpayer service rights taxpayer bill rights directly related services delivered cra.uphold rights office taxpayers ombudsperson facilitates access available redress mechanisms taxpayers raises awareness role office taxpayers ombudsperson.in addition individual examinations ombudsperson may initiative conduct examination systemic servicerelated issues.
Canada Revenue Agency	minister national revenue may also request ombudsperson conducts examination.examinations reported minister national revenue made public year ombudsperson releases annual report presented minister national revenue turn tabled parliament.taxpayer bill rights harper government introduced taxpayer bill rights commitment small business help improve cras service canadians.taxpayer bill rights meant enshrine cras corporate values professionalism integrity respect collaboration setting clear standards taxpayers treated interacting cra.rights include right privacy confidentiality expect clear service standards lodge service complaints request formal reviews without fear reprisal.criticism controversies call centre operations cbc reported internal survey determined calls asking help cras business enquiries call centre received inaccurate information.
Canada Revenue Agency	financial records u.s. government september cra criticized sending nearly financial records canadian residents internal revenue service united states.represents significant growth .tax complaints financial post reported auditor general criticized cra taking long respond tax complaints.delays cost canadian taxpayers large sums money interest amounts dispute.see also canada border services agencycanadian efilenetfiletaxation canadainteramerican center tax administrationsinternal revenue service us equivalenthm revenue customs uk equivalent references external links official websitetaxpayer ombudsman
History of capitalism	concept capitalism many debated roots fully fledged capitalism generally thought scholars emerged northwestern europe especially great britain netherlands.following centuries capital accumulated variety methods variety scales became associated much variation concentration wealth economic power.capitalism gradually became dominant economic system throughout world.much history past years concerned development capitalism various forms.historiography processes capitalism emerged evolved spread subject extensive research debate among historians.debates sometimes focus bring substantive historical data bear key questions.
History of capitalism	key parameters debate include extent capitalism natural human behavior versus extent arises specific historical circumstances whether origins lie towns trade rural property relations role class conflict role state extent capitalism distinctively european innovation relationship european imperialism whether technological change driver merely secondary byproduct capitalism whether beneficial way organize human societies.the historiography capitalism divided two broad schools.one associated economic liberalism thcentury economist adam smith foundational figure.associated marxism drawing particular inspiration thcentury economist karl marx.liberals view capitalism expression natural human behaviors evidence millennia beneficial way promoting human well being.see capitalism originating trade commerce freeing people exercise entrepreneurial natures.marxists view capitalism historically unusual system relationships classes could replaced economic systems would serve human well better.see capitalism originating powerful people taking control means production compelling others sell labour commodity.
History of capitalism	reasons much work history capitalism broadly marxist.origins origins capitalism much debated depend partly capitalism defined.traditional account originating classical thcentury liberal economic thought still often articulated commercialisation model.sees capitalism originating trade.reading capitalism emerged earlier trade merchants acquired sufficient wealth referred primitive capital begin investing increasingly productive technology.
History of capitalism	account tends see capitalism continuation trade arising peoples natural entrepreneurialism freed constraints feudalism partly urbanisation.thus traces capitalism early forms merchant capitalism practiced western europe middle ages.views competitor commercialisation model agrarian model explains rise capitalism unique circumstances english agrarianism.evidence cites traditional mercantilism focused moving goods markets cheap markets expensive rather investing production many cultures including early modern dutch republic saw urbanisation amassing wealth merchants without emergence capitalist production.the agrarian argument developed particularly karl polanyis great transformation maurice dobbs studies development capitalism robert brenners research discussion known brenner debate.wake norman conquest english state unusually centralised.
History of capitalism	gave aristocrats relatively limited powers extract wealth directly feudal underlings political means least threat violence.englands centralisation also meant unusual number english farmers peasants land thus direct access subsistence tenants renting land.circumstances produced market leases.landlords lacking ways extract wealth motivated rent tenants could pay tenants lacking security tenure motivated farm productively possible win leases competitive market.led cascade effects whereby successful tenant farmers became agrarian capitalists unsuccessful ones became wagelabourers required sell labour order live landlords promoted privatisation renting common land least enclosures.
History of capitalism	reading merchants manufacturers drove process propelled early development capitalism.transformation social property relations firmly rooted countryside transformation englands trade industry result cause englands transition capitalism.stcentury scholarship st century seen renewed interest history capitalism history capitalism become field right courses history departments.harvard university founded program study u.s. capitalism cornell university established history capitalism initiative columbia university press launched monograph series titled studies history u.s. capitalism.field includes topics insurance banking regulation political dimension impact middle classes poor women minorities.
History of capitalism	initiatives incorporate formerly neglected questions race gender sexuality history capitalism.grown aftermath financial crisis – associated great recession.some academic institutions clemson institute study capitalism reject notion race gender sexuality significant relationship capitalism instead seek show laissezfaire capitalism particular provides best numerous economic opportunities people.agrarian capitalism crisis th century according historians modern capitalist system originated crisis late middle ages conflict landowning aristocracy agricultural producers serfs.manorial arrangements inhibited development capitalism number ways.serfs obligations produce lords therefore interest technological innovation also interest cooperating one another produced sustain families.
History of capitalism	lords owned land relied force guarantee received sufficient food.lords producing sell market competitive pressure innovate.finally lords expanded power wealth military means spent wealth military equipment conspicuous consumption helped foster alliances lords incentive invest developing new productive technologies.the demographic crisis th century upset arrangement.crisis several causes agricultural productivity reached technological limitations stopped growing bad weather led great famine – black death – led population crash.factors led decline agricultural production.
History of capitalism	response feudal lords sought expand agricultural production extending domains warfare therefore demanded tribute serfs pay military expenses.england many serfs rebelled.moved towns bought land entered favorable contracts rent lands lords needed repopulate estates.the collapse manorial system england enlarged class tenant farmers freedom market goods thus incentive invest new technologies.lords want rely renters could buy evict tenant farmers hire free labor work estates giving incentive invest two kinds commodity owners.one kind money means production subsistence eager valorize sum value appropriated buying labor power others.
History of capitalism	kind free workers sold labor.workers neither formed part means production owned means production transformed land even money call capital.marx labeled period prehistory capitalism.in effect feudalism began lay foundations necessary development mercantilism precursor capitalism.feudalism mostly confined europe lasted medieval period th century.feudal manors almost entirely selfsufficient therefore limited role market.
History of capitalism	stifled incipient tendency towards capitalism.however relatively sudden emergence new technologies discoveries particularly agriculture exploration facilitated growth capitalism.important development end feudalism emergence robert degan calls dichotomy wage earners capitalist merchants.competitive nature meant always winners losers became clear feudalism evolved mercantilism economic system characterized private corporate ownership capital goods investments determined private decisions prices production distribution goods determined mainly competition free market.enclosure england th century already centralized state much feudal order medieval europe swept away.
History of capitalism	centralization strengthened good system roads disproportionately large capital city london.capital acted central market entire country creating large internal market goods contrast fragmented feudal holdings prevailed parts continent.economic foundations agricultural system also beginning diverge substantially manorial system broken time land began concentrated hands fewer landlords increasingly large estates.system put pressure landlords tenants increase agricultural productivity create profit.weakened coercive power aristocracy extract peasant surpluses encouraged try better methods.
History of capitalism	tenants also incentive improve methods succeed increasingly competitive labour market.land rents moved away previous stagnant system custom feudal obligation becoming directly subject economic market forces.an important aspect process change enclosure common land previously held open field system peasants traditional rights mowing meadows hay grazing livestock.enclosed uses land became restricted owner ceased land commons.process enclosure began widespread feature english agricultural landscape th century.th century unenclosed commons become largely restricted rough pasture mountainous areas relatively small parts lowlands.marxist neomarxist historians argue rich landowners used control state processes appropriate public land private benefit.
History of capitalism	created landless working class provided labour required new industries developing north england.example agriculture years years wholesale enclosure village village common rights lost.enclosure sophistications allowed plain enough case class robbery.anthropologist jason hickel notes process enclosure led myriad peasant revolts among ketts rebellion midland revolt culminated violent repression executions.other scholars argue betteroff members european peasantry encouraged participated actively enclosure seeking end perpetual poverty subsistence farming.careful ascribe enclosure developments consequence much broader complex process historical change.
History of capitalism	impact eighteenth nineteenth century enclosure grossly exaggerated.... merchant capitalism mercantilism precedents trade existed since early human history capitalism.earliest recorded activity longdistance profitseeking merchants traced old assyrian merchants active mesopotamia nd millennium bce.roman empire developed advanced forms commerce similarly widespread networks existed islamic nations.however capitalism took shape europe late middle ages renaissance.an early emergence commerce occurred monastic estates italy france independent city republics italy late middle ages.innovations banking insurance accountancy various production commercial practices linked closely spirit frugality reinvestment city life promoted attitudes sociologists tended associate northern europe protestantism much later age.
History of capitalism	city republics maintained political independence empire church traded north africa middle east asia introduced eastern practices.also considerably different absolutist monarchies spain france strongly attached civic liberty.emergence modern capitalism fully emerged early modern period th th centuries establishment mercantilism merchant capitalism.early evidence mercantilistic practices appears early modern venice genoa pisa mediterranean trade bullion.region mercantilisms real birth however atlantic ocean.england began largescale integrative approach mercantilism elizabethan era.
History of capitalism	early statement national balance trade appeared discourse common weal realm england must always take heed buy strangers sell impoverish enrich them.period featured various often disjointed efforts court queen elizabeth develop naval merchant fleet capable challenging spanish stranglehold trade expanding growth bullion home.elizabeth promoted trade navigation acts parliament issued orders navy protection promotion english shipping.these efforts organized national resources sufficiently defense england far larger powerful spanish empire turn paved foundation establishing global empire th century.authors noted establishing english mercantilist system include gerard de malynes thomas mun first articulated elizabethan system.latters englands treasure forraign trade balance forraign trade rule treasure gave systematic coherent explanation concept balance trade.
History of capitalism	written published .mercantile doctrines developed josiah child.numerous french authors helped cement french policy around mercantilism th century.french mercantilism best articulated jeanbaptiste colbert office – although policies greatly liberalised napoleon.doctrines mercantilism european merchants backed state controls subsidies monopolies made profits buying selling goods.
History of capitalism	words francis bacon purpose mercantilism opening wellbalancing trade cherishing manufacturers banishing idleness repressing waste excess sumptuary laws improvement husbanding soil regulation prices... similar practices economic regimentation begun earlier medieval towns.however mercantilism given contemporaneous rise absolutism state superseded local guilds regulator economy.among major tenets mercantilist theory bullionism doctrine stressing importance accumulating precious metals.mercantilists argued state export goods imported foreigners would pay difference precious metals.mercantilists asserted raw materials could extracted home imported.promoted idea government subsidies granting monopolies protective tariffs necessary encourage home production manufactured goods.proponents mercantilism emphasized state power overseas conquest principal aim economic policy.
History of capitalism	state could supply raw materials according mercantilists acquire colonies could extracted.colonies constituted sources raw materials also markets finished products.interests state allow competition help mercantilists colonies prevented engaging manufacturing trading foreign powers.mercantilism system trade profit although commodities still largely produced noncapitalist production methods.noting various precapitalist features mercantilism karl polanyi argued mercantilism tendency toward commercialization never attacked safeguards protected two basic elements production – labor land – becoming elements commerce.thus mercantilist regulation akin feudalism capitalism.
History of capitalism	according polanyi competitive labor market established england hence industrial capitalism social system cannot said existed date.chartered trading companies muscovy company first major chartered joint stock english trading company.established monopoly trade england muscovy.offshoot earlier company merchant adventurers new lands founded richard chancellor sebastian cabot sir hugh willoughby locate northeast passage china allow trade.precursor type business would soon flourish england dutch republic elsewhere.the british east india company dutch east india company launched era large state chartered trading companies.
History of capitalism	companies characterized monopoly trade granted letters patent provided state.recognized chartered jointstock companies state companies enjoyed lawmaking military treatymaking privileges.characterized colonial expansionary powers states powerful nationstates sought accumulate precious metals military conflicts arose.era merchants previously traded invested capital east india companies colonies seeking return investment.industrial capitalism mercantilism declined great britain midth century new group economic theorists led adam smith challenged fundamental mercantilist doctrines worlds wealth remained constant state could increase wealth expense another state.
History of capitalism	however mercantilism continued less developed economies prussia russia much younger manufacturing bases.the midth century gave rise industrial capitalism made possible accumulation vast amounts capital merchant phase capitalism investment machinery fact enclosures meant britain large population people access subsistence agriculture needed buy basic commodities via market ensuring mass consumer market.industrial capitalism marx dated last third th century marked development factory system manufacturing characterized complex division labor within work processes routinization work tasks.industrial capitalism finally established global domination capitalist mode production.during resulting industrial revolution industrialist replaced merchant dominant actor capitalist system led decline traditional handicraft skills artisans guilds journeymen.also period capitalism transformed relations british landowning gentry peasants giving rise production cash crops market rather subsistence feudal manor.surplus generated rise commercial agriculture encouraged increased mechanization agriculture.
History of capitalism	industrial revolution productivity gains capitalist production began sustained unprecedented increase turn th century process commonly referred industrial revolution.starting england steady transition new manufacturing processes variety industries including going hand production methods machine production new chemical manufacturing iron production processes improved efficiency water power increasing use steam power development machine tools.also included change wood biofuels coal.in textile manufacturing mechanized cotton spinning powered steam water increased output worker factor due application james hargreaves spinning jenny richard arkwrights water frame samuel cromptons spinning mule inventions.power loom increased output worker factor .cotton gin increased productivity removing seed cotton factor .
History of capitalism	large gains productivity also occurred spinning weaving wool linen although great cotton.finance growth britains industry stimulated concomitant growth system finance credit.th century services offered banks increased.clearing facilities security investments cheques overdraft protections introduced.cheques invented th century england banks settled payments direct courier issuing bank.
History of capitalism	around began meeting central location th century dedicated space established known bankers clearing house.london clearing house used method bank paid cash paid cash inspector end day.first overdraft facility set royal bank scotland.the end napoleonic war subsequent rebound trade led expansion bullion reserves held bank england low million pounds million pounds late .older innovations became routine parts financial life th century.bank england first issued bank notes th century notes hand written number.partially printed cashiers still sign note make payable named person.
History of capitalism	parliament passed bank charter act tying notes gold reserves effectively creating institution central banking monetary policy.notes became fully printed widely available .growing international trade increased number banks especially london.new merchant banks facilitated trade growth profiting englands emerging dominance seaborne shipping.two immigrant families rothschild baring established merchant banking firms london late th century came dominate world banking next century.tremendous wealth amassed banking firms soon attracted much attention.
History of capitalism	poet george gordon byron wrote makes politics run glibber shade bonapartes noble daring jew rothschild fellowchristian baring.the operation banks also shifted.beginning century banking still elite preoccupation handful wealthy families.within decades however new sort banking emerged owned anonymous stockholders run professional managers recipient deposits growing body small middleclass savers.although breed banks newly prominent new – quaker family barclays banking way since .free trade globalization height first french empire napoleon sought introduce continental system would render europe economically autonomous thereby emasculating british trade commerce.
History of capitalism	involved stratagems use beet sugar preference cane sugar imported tropics.although caused businessmen england agitate peace britain persevered part well industrial revolution.war opposite effect – stimulated growth certain industries pigiron production increased tons .in david ricardo james mill robert torrens famous theory comparative advantage argued free trade would benefit industrially weak well strong.principles political economy taxation ricardo advanced doctrine still considered counterintuitive economicswhen inefficient producer sends merchandise produces best country able produce efficiently countries benefit.by mid th century britain firmly wedded notion free trade first era globalization began.corn laws navigation acts repealed ushering new age free trade.
History of capitalism	line teachings classical political economists led adam smith david ricardo britain embraced liberalism encouraging competition development market economy.industrialization allowed cheap production household items using economies scale rapid population growth created sustained demand commodities.nineteenthcentury imperialism decisively shaped globalization period.first second opium wars completion british conquest india vast populations regions became ready consumers european exports.period areas subsaharan africa pacific islands incorporated world system.meanwhile european conquest new parts globe notably subsaharan africa yielded valuable natural resources rubber diamonds coal helped fuel trade investment european imperial powers colonies united states.the inhabitant london could order telephone sipping morning tea various products whole earth reasonably expect early delivery upon doorstep.
History of capitalism	militarism imperialism racial cultural rivalries little amusements daily newspaper.extraordinary episode economic progress man age came end august .the global financial system mainly tied gold standard period.united kingdom first formally adopted standard .soon follow canada newfoundland united states germany de jure .new technologies telegraph transatlantic cable radiotelephone steamship railway allowed goods information move around world unprecedented degree.the eruption civil war united states blockade ports international commerce meant main supply cotton lancashire looms cut off.
History of capitalism	textile industries shifted reliance upon cotton africa asia course u.s. civil war created pressure anglofrench controlled canal suez peninsula.suez canal opened year central pacific railroad spanned north american continent completed.capitalism engine profit making globe smaller place.th century several major challenges capitalism appeared early part th century.russian revolution established first communist state world decade later great depression triggered increasing criticism existing capitalist system.
History of capitalism	one response crisis turn fascism ideology advocated state capitalism.another response reject capitalism altogether favour communist democratic socialist ideologies.keynesianism free markets economic recovery worlds leading capitalist economies period following end great depression second world war—a period unusually rapid growth historical standards—eased discussion capitalisms eventual decline demise.state began play increasingly prominent role moderate regulate capitalistic system throughout much world.keynesian economics became widely accepted method government regulation countries united kingdom experimented mixed economies state owned operated certain major industries.the state also expanded us total government expenditures amounted less onetenth gnp amounted around onethird.similar increases seen industrialised capitalist economies france reached even higher ratios government expenditures gnp united states.a broad array new analytical tools social sciences developed explain social economic trends period including concepts postindustrial society welfare state.the long postwar boom ended amid economic crises experienced following oil crisis.
History of capitalism	stagflation led many economic commentators politicians embrace marketoriented policy prescriptions inspired laissezfaire capitalism classical liberalism nineteenth century particularly influence friedrich hayek milton friedman.theoretical alternative keynesianism compatible laissezfaire emphasised rapid expansion economy.marketoriented solutions gained increasing support western world especially leadership ronald reagan united states margaret thatcher uk s. public political interest began shifting away socalled collectivist concerns keyness managed capitalism focus individual choice called remarketized capitalism.globalization although overseas trade associated development capitalism five hundred years thinkers argue number trends associated globalisation acted increase mobility people capital since last quarter twentieth century combining circumscribe room manoeuvre states choosing noncapitalist models development.today trends bolstered argument capitalism viewed truly world system burnham.
History of capitalism	however thinkers argue globalisation even quantitative degree greater earlier periods capitalist trade.after abandonment bretton woods system strict state control foreign exchange rates total value transactions foreign exchange estimated least twenty times greater foreign movements goods services eb.internationalisation finance see beyond reach state control combined growing ease large corporations able relocate operations lowwage states posed question eclipse state sovereignty arising growing globalization capital.while economists generally agree size global income inequality general disagreement recent direction change it.cases china income inequality clearly growing also evident overall economic growth rapidly increased capitalist reforms.book improving state world published libertarian think tank cato institute argues economic growth since industrial revolution strong factors adequate nutrition life expectancy infant mortality literacy prevalence child labor education available free time improved greatly.scholars including stephen hawking researchers international monetary fund contend globalization neoliberal economic policies ameliorating inequality poverty exacerbating creating new forms contemporary slavery.
History of capitalism	policies also expanding populations displaced unemployed imprisoned along accelerating destruction environment species extinction.imf warned inequality within nations spite global inequality falling recent decades risen sharply threatens economic growth could result political polarization.surging economic inequality following economic crisis anger associated resulted resurgence socialist nationalist ideas throughout western world economic elites places including silicon valley davos harvard business school concerned future capitalism.st century beginning twentyfirst century mixed economies capitalist elements become pervasive economic systems worldwide.collapse soviet bloc significantly reduced influence communism alternative economic system.
History of capitalism	leftist movements continue influential parts world notably latinamerican bolivarianism ties traditional anticapitalist movements bolivarian venezuelas ties cuba.in many emerging markets influence banking financial capital come increasingly shape national developmental strategies leading argue new phase financial capitalism.state intervention global capital markets following financial crisis – perceived signalling crisis freemarket capitalism.serious turmoil banking system financial markets due part subprime mortgage crisis reached critical stage september characterised severely contracted liquidity global credit markets posed existential threat investment banks institutions.future according transition information society involves abandoning parts capitalism capital required produce process information becomes available masses difficult control closely related controversial issues intellectual property.even speculate development mature nanotechnology particularly universal assemblers may make capitalism obsolete capital ceasing important factor economic life humanity.various thinkers also explored kind economic system might replace capitalism bob avakian paul mason.
History of capitalism	role women womens historians debated impact capitalism status women.alice clark argues capitalism arrived thcentury england negatively impacted status women lost much economic importance.clark argues thcentury england women engaged many aspects industry agriculture.home central unit production women played vital role running farms trades landed estates.useful economic roles gave sort equality husbands.
History of capitalism	however clark argues capitalism expanded th century division labor husband taking paid labor jobs outside home wife reduced unpaid household work.middleclass women confined idle domestic existence supervising servants lowerclass women forced take poorly paid jobs.capitalism therefore negative effect women.contrast ivy pinchbeck argues capitalism created conditions womens emancipation.tilly scott emphasized continuity status women finding three stages european history.
History of capitalism	preindustrial era production mostly home use women produced many household needs.second stage family wage economy early industrialization.stage entire family depended collective wages members including husband wife older children.third modern stage family consumer economy family site consumption women employed large numbers retail clerical jobs support rising standards consumption.see also brenner debatecapitalism islamcapitalist mode productionenclosure british agricultural revolutionfernand braudelfinancial crisis –history capitalist theoryhistory globalizationhistory private equity venture capitalprimitive accumulation capitalprotestant work ethicsimple commodity production references reading
Revolution	results include major changes culture economy sociopolitical institutions usually response perceived overwhelming autocracy plutocracy.scholarly debates constitute revolution center several issues.early studies revolutions primarily analyzed events european history psychological perspective modern examinations include global events incorporate perspectives several social sciences including sociology political science.several generations scholarly thought revolutions generated many competing theories contributed much current understanding complex phenomenon.notable revolutions recent centuries include creation united states american revolutionary war – french revolution – haitian revolution – spanish american wars independence – european revolutions russian revolution chinese revolution cuban revolution iranian revolution european revolutions .etymology word revolucion known french th century revolution english late fourteenth century regard revolving motion celestial bodies.revolution sense representing abrupt change social order attested least .
Revolution	political usage term well established description replacement james ii william iii.incident termed glorious revolution.types many different typologies revolutions social science literature.alexis de tocqueville differentiated betweenpolitical revolutions sudden violent revolutions seek establish new political system transform entire society andslow sweeping transformations entire society take several generations bring changes religion.one several different marxist typologies divides revolutions precapitalistearly bourgeoisbourgeoisbourgeoisdemocraticearly proletariansocialistcharles tilly modern scholar revolutions differentiated coup détat topdown seizure powercivil warrevolt andgreat revolution revolution transforms economic social structures well political institutions french revolution russian revolution islamic revolution iran.mark katz identified six forms revolutionrural revolutionurban revolutioncoup détat e.g.egypt revolution e.g.maos great leap forward revolution without e.g.
Revolution	allied invasions italy germany .revolution osmosis e.g.gradual islamization several countries.these categories mutually exclusive russian revolution began urban revolution depose czar followed rural revolution followed bolshevik coup november.katz also crossclassified revolutions followscentral countries usually great powers play leading role revolutionary wave e.g.ussr nazi germany iran since .aspiring revolutions follow central revolutionsubordinate puppet revolutionsrival revolutions e.g.communist yugoslavia china dimension katzs typology revolutions either antimonarchy antidictatorial anticommunist antidemocratic profascism communism nationalism etc.. latter cases transition period often necessary decide direction taken.other types revolution created typologies include social revolutions proletarian communist revolutions inspired ideas marxism aims replace capitalism communism failed abortive revolutions revolutions fail secure power temporary victories largescale mobilization violent vs. nonviolent revolutions.the term revolution also used denote great changes outside political sphere.
Revolution	revolutions usually recognized transformed society culture philosophy technology much political systems often known social revolutions.global others limited single countries.one classic examples usage word revolution context industrial revolution scientific revolution commercial revolution.note revolutions also fit slow revolution definition tocqueville.a similar example digital revolution.political socioeconomic revolutions perhaps often word revolution employed denote change social political institutions.
Revolution	jeff goodwin gives two definitions revolution.first broad one includingany instances state political regime overthrown thereby transformed popular movement irregular extraconstitutional andor violent fashion.second narrow one whichrevolutions entail mass mobilization regime change also less rapid fundamental social economic andor cultural change soon struggle state power.jack goldstone defines revolution asan effort transform political institutions justifications political authority society accompanied formal informal mass mobilization noninstitutionalized actions undermine authorities.political socioeconomic revolutions studied many social sciences particularly sociology political sciences history.among leading scholars area crane brinton charles brockett farideh farhi john foran john mason hart samuel huntington jack goldstone jeff goodwin ted roberts gurr fred halliday chalmers johnson tim mcdaniel barrington moore jeffery paige vilfredo pareto terence ranger eugen rosenstockhuessy theda skocpol james scott eric selbin charles tilly ellen kay trimberger carlos vistas john walton timothy wickhamcrowley eric wolf.scholars revolutions like jack goldstone differentiate four current generations scholarly research dealing revolutions.scholars first generation gustave le bon charles a. ellwood pitirim sorokin mainly descriptive approach explanations phenomena revolutions usually related social psychology le bons crowd psychology theory.second generation theorists sought develop detailed theories revolutions arise grounded complex social behavior theories.divided three major approaches psychological sociological political.the works ted robert gurr ivo k. feierbrand rosalind l. feierbrand james a. geschwender david c. schwartz denton e. morrison fall first category.
Revolution	followed theories cognitive psychology frustrationaggression theory saw cause revolution state mind masses varied approach exactly caused people revolt e.g.modernization recession discrimination agreed primary cause revolution widespread frustration sociopolitical situation.the second group composed academics chalmers johnson neil smelser bob jessop mark hart edward a. tiryakian mark hagopian followed footsteps talcott parsons structuralfunctionalist theory sociology saw society system equilibrium various resources demands subsystems political cultural etc.. psychological school differed definitions causes disequilibrium agreed state severe disequilibrium responsible revolutions.finally third group included writers charles tilly samuel p. huntington peter ammann arthur l. stinchcombe followed path political sciences looked pluralist theory interest group conflict theory.theories see events outcomes power struggle competing interest groups.model revolutions happen two groups cannot come terms within normal decision making process traditional given political system simultaneously enough resources employ force pursuing goals.the second generation theorists saw development revolutions twostep process first change results present situation different past second new situation creates opportunity revolution occur.situation event past would sufficient cause revolution e.g.
Revolution	war riot bad harvest sufficient however authorities aware danger still prevent revolution reform repression.many early studies revolutions tended concentrate four classic cases famous uncontroversial examples fit virtually definitions revolutions glorious revolution french revolution – russian revolution chinese revolution also known chinese civil war –.anatomy revolution however harvard historian crane brinton focused english civil war american revolution french revolution russian revolution.in time scholars began analyze hundreds events revolutions see list revolutions rebellions differences definitions approaches gave rise new definitions explanations.theories second generation criticized limited geographical scope difficulty empirical verification well may explain particular revolutions explain revolutions occur societies similar situations.the criticism second generation led rise third generation theories writers theda skocpol barrington moore jeffrey paige others expanding old marxist class conflict approach turning attention rural agrarianstate conflicts state conflicts autonomous elites impact interstate economic military competition domestic political change.particularly skocpols states social revolutions became one widely recognized works third generation skocpol defined revolution rapid basic transformations societys state class structures ... accompanied part carried classbased revolts attributing revolutions conjunction multiple conflicts involving state elites lower classes.from late new body scholarly work began questioning dominance third generations theories.old theories also dealt significant blow new revolutionary events could easily explained them.
Revolution	iranian nicaraguan revolutions people power revolution philippines autumn nations europe saw multiclass coalitions topple seemingly powerful regimes amidst popular demonstrations mass strikes nonviolent revolutions.defining revolutions mostly european violent state versus people class struggles conflicts longer sufficient.study revolutions thus evolved three directions firstly researchers applying previous updated structuralist theories revolutions events beyond previously analyzed mostly european conflicts.secondly scholars called greater attention conscious agency form ideology culture shaping revolutionary mobilization objectives.third analysts revolutions social movements realized phenomena much common new fourth generation literature contentious politics developed attempts combine insights study social movements revolutions hopes understanding phenomena.further social science research revolution primarily work political science begun move beyond individual comparative case studies towards largen empirical studies assessing causes implications revolution.initial studies generally rely polity projects data democratization.
Revolution	analyses like enterline maoz mansfield snyder identify revolutions based regime changes indicated change countrys score politys autocracy democracy scale.recently scholars like jeff colgan argued polity measures degree democratic autocratic authority states governing institutions based openness executive recruitment constraints executive authority political competition inadequate measures democratization revolution fails account regimes come power revolution fail change structure state society sufficiently yield notable difference polity score.instead colgan offers new data set revolutionary leaders identifies governments transform existing social political economic relationships state overthrowing rejecting principal existing institutions society.recent data set employed make empiricallybased contributions literature revolution identifying links revolution likelihood international disputes.revolutions also approached anthropological perspectives.drawing victor turners writings ritual performance bjorn thomassen argued revolutions understood liminal moments modern political revolutions much resemble rituals therefore studied within process approach.
Revolution	would imply focus political behavior also recognize moments high low relativized made irrelevant subverted micro macro levels fuse together critical conjunctions.economist douglass north argued much easier revolutionaries alter formal political institutions laws constitutions alter informal social conventions.according north inconsistencies rapidly changing formal institutions slowchanging informal ones inhibit effective sociopolitical change.longterm effect revolutionary political restructuring often moderate ostensible shortterm effect.while revolutions encompass events ranging relatively peaceful revolutions overthrew communist regimes violent islamic revolution afghanistan exclude coups détat civil wars revolts rebellions make effort transform institutions justification authority józef piłsudskis may coup american civil war well peaceful transitions democracy institutional arrangements plebiscites free elections spain death francisco franco.see also lists revolutions list revolutions rebellions reading beck colin j. .structure comparison study revolution.
Revolution	sociological theory.–.bibliography popovic srdja.blueprint revolution use rice pudding lego men nonviolent techniques galvanize communities overthrow dictators simply change world.spiegel grau new york isbn international encyclopedia revolution protest present ed.
Revolution	immanuel ness malden etc.wiley sons isbn perreausausine emile.les libéraux face aux révolutions commentaire spring pp.– references external links hannah arendt iep.utm.edu revolution penguin classics new ed edition february .isbn x
Presidency of Barack Obama	obama democrat illinois took office following decisive victory republican nominee john mccain presidential election.four years later presidential election defeated republican nominee mitt romney win reelection.obama succeeded republican donald trump presidential election.first african american president first multiracial president first nonwhite president first president born hawaii.obamas firstterm actions addressed global financial crisis included major stimulus package partial extension bush tax cuts legislation reform health care major financial regulation reform bill end major us military presence iraq.obama also appointed supreme court justices elena kagan sonia sotomayor latter became first hispanic american supreme court.
Presidency of Barack Obama	democrats controlled houses congress republicans majority house representatives elections.following elections obama congressional republicans engaged protracted standoff government spending levels debt ceiling.obama administrations policy terrorism downplayed bushs counterinsurgency model expanding air strikes making extensive use special forces encouraging greater reliance hostgovernment militaries.obama administration orchestrated military operation resulted death osama bin laden may .in second term obama took steps combat climate change signing major international climate agreement executive order limit carbon emissions.obama also presided implementation affordable care act legislation passed first term negotiated rapprochements iran cuba.
Presidency of Barack Obama	number american soldiers afghanistan fell dramatically obamas second term though u.s. soldiers remained afghanistan throughout obamas presidency.republicans took control senate elections obama continued grapple congressional republicans government spending immigration judicial nominations issues.major acts legislation election winning election represent state illinois senate obama announced would run president february .democratic primary obama faced senator former first lady hillary clinton.several candidates including senator joe biden delaware former senator john edwards also ran nomination candidates dropped initial primaries.
Presidency of Barack Obama	june day final primaries obama clinched nomination winning majority delegates including pledged delegates superdelegates.obama biden obama selected running mate nominated democratic ticket august democratic national convention.with republican president george w. bush termlimited republicans nominated senator john mccain arizona presidency.general election obama defeated mccain taking .popular vote electoral votes.congressional elections democrats added majorities houses congress speaker house nancy pelosi senate majority leader harry reid remained posts.
Presidency of Barack Obama	republicans john boehner mitch mcconnell continued serve house minority leader senate minority leader respectively.transition period inauguration presidential transition period began following obamas election presidency november though obama chosen chris lu begin planning transition may .john podesta valerie jarrett pete rouse cochaired obamabiden transition project.transition period obama announced nominations cabinet administration.november congressman rahm emanuel accepted obamas offer serve white house chief staff.
Presidency of Barack Obama	obama inaugurated january succeeding george w. bush.obama officially assumed presidency pm est completed oath office pm est.delivered inaugural address immediately following oath.obamas transition team highly complimentary bush administrations outgoing transition team particularly regards national security elements bushobama transition later codified law.administration cabinet appointees following inauguration obama senate worked confirm nominees united states cabinet.
Presidency of Barack Obama	three cabinetlevel officers require confirmation vice president joe biden obama chosen running mate democratic national convention chief staff rahm emanuel defense secretary robert gates obama chose retain previous administration.early list suggestions came michael froman executive citigroup.obama described cabinet choices team rivals obama chose several prominent public officials cabinet positions including former democratic primary rival hillary clinton secretary state.obama nominated several former clinton administration officials cabinet positions.april senate confirmed former kansas governor kathleen sebelius secretary health human services completing obamas initial cabinet.
Presidency of Barack Obama	obamas presidency four republicans served obamas cabinet ray lahood secretary transportation robert mcdonald secretary veterans affairs gates chuck hagel secretaries defense.notable noncabinet positions counselor presidentpete rouse –john podesta –senior advisor presidentvalerie jarrett –pete rouse –david axelrod –david plouffe –daniel pfeiffer –brian deese –shailagh murray –white house deputy chief staffjim messina –mona sutphen –nancyann deparle –alyssa mastromonaco –mark b. childress –rob nabors –anita decker breckenridge –kristie canegallo –white house press secretaryrobert gibbs –jay carney –josh earnest –white house communications directorellen moran anita dunn daniel pfeiffer –jennifer palmieri –jen psaki –white house counselgreg craig –bob bauer –kathryn ruemmler –neil eggleston –†appointed president bush‡originally appointed president bush reappointed president obama judicial nominees united states supreme court three vacancies supreme court united states obamas tenure obama made two successful supreme court appointments.th congress democrats held majority senate obama successfully nominated two supreme court justicessonia sotomayor replacing david souter – elena kagan replacing john paul stevens – justice antonin scalia died february th congress republican majority senate.march obama nominated chief judge merrick garland d.c. circuit fill scalias seat.however senate majority leader mitch mcconnell judiciary committee chair chuck grassley senate republicans argued supreme court nominations made presidential election year winner presidential election instead appoint scalias replacement.
Presidency of Barack Obama	garlands nomination remained senate longer supreme court nomination history nomination expired end th congress.president donald trump later nominated neil gorsuch scalias former seat supreme court gorsuch confirmed senate april .courts obamas presidency saw continuation battles parties confirmation judicial nominees.democrats continually accused republicans stalling nominees throughout obamas tenure.several nomination battles senate democrats reformed use filibuster could longer used executive judicial nominations excluding supreme court.
Presidency of Barack Obama	republicans took senate elections giving power block judicial nominee th congress confirmed judicial nominees lowest number confirmations since nd congress.obamas judicial nominees significantly diverse previous administrations appointments going women minorities.first days within minutes taking oath office january obamas chief staff rahm emanuel issued order suspending lastminute regulations executive orders signed predecessor george w. bush.first actions obamas presidency focused reversing measures taken bush administration following september attacks.first week office obama signed executive order suspending ongoing proceedings guantanamo military commissions ordering guantanamo detention facility shut within year.
Presidency of Barack Obama	another order executive order banned torture coercive techniques waterboarding.obama also issued executive order placing tighter restrictions lobbying white house rescinded mexico city policy banned federal grants international groups provide abortion services counseling.on january obama signed bill first time presidency lilly ledbetter fair pay act revised statute limitations filing pay discrimination lawsuits.february signed childrens health insurance program reauthorization act chip expanding chips health care coverage million children million children.march obama lifted restrictions federal funding embryonic stem cell research.obama stated like bush would employ signing statements deems portion bill unconstitutional subsequently issued several signing statements.

Subsets and Splits

No community queries yet

The top public SQL queries from the community will appear here once available.