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History of United States prison systems | ...may well expect instill decent habits hog reform criminal whose habits surroundings filthy pigs.some proponents lease claimed system would teach blacks work many contemporary observers came recognize—as historian c. vann woodward later would—that system dealt great blow whatever moral authority white society retained paternalistic approach race problem.time penitentiary came carry little stigma black community preachers community leaders spread word cruelty.whites presented far united front defense lease system reconstruction era. |
History of United States prison systems | reformers government insiders began condemning worst abuses system early on.newspapers began taking call although defended politically charged years immediately followed civil war.system also defenders—at times even reformers chafed northern criticism even agreed substance.thescientific racial attitudes late nineteenth century also helped supporters lease assuage misgivings.one commentator wrote blacks died numbers convict lease farms weakness inferior uneducated blood.economic rather moral concerns underlay successful attacks leasing. |
History of United States prison systems | labor launched effective opposition movements lease postwar period.birmingham alabama anticonvict league formed center movement according ayers.coal miner revolts lease occurred twentytwo recorded times south .tennessee caved demands miners abolished lease system.revolts notably crossed racial lines. |
History of United States prison systems | alabama instance white black free miners marched sidebyside protest use convict labor local mining operations.in confrontations convict labor surely took somewhat exaggerated importance free workers argues edward l. ayers.convicts engaged form labor arrangement south.emerging nature southern industry labor groups—which tended smaller concentrated—made situation small number convicts could affect entire industries.progressive era southern developments gradual demise convict lease convict lease emerged gradually postwar south also made gradual exit.although virginia texas tennessee kentucky missouri utilized northernstyle manufacturing prisons addition farms late majority southern convicts still passed sentences convict camps run absentee businessmen.also marked beginning gradual shift toward compromise lease system form staterun prison farms. |
History of United States prison systems | states began cull women children sick old privately run camps period remove contamination bad criminals provide healthier setting labor regime.mississippi enacted new state constitution called end lease .despite changes continuing attacks labor movements populists greenbackers two southern states besides mississippi ended system prior twentieth century.southern states bring systems tighter control make increasing use state penal farms twentieth century however resulting improved conditions decline death rates.georgia abolished system exposé charles edward russell everybodys magazine revealed hideous conditions lease projects.former warden described men georgia camps hung thumbs punishment point thumbs became stretched deformed length index fingers resembled paws certain apes. |
History of United States prison systems | floridas prison camps—where even sick forced work threat beating shooting—remained use .replacements lease system chain gangs state prison farms different predecessors.example lingering influence lease system found arkansas prison farms.midtwentieth century arkansas male penal system still consisted two large prison farms remained almost totally cut outside world continued operate much reconstruction era.conditions camps bad late oregon judge refused return escapees arkansas apprehended jurisdiction.judge declared returning prisoners arkansas would make state complicit described institutes terror horror despicable evil compared nazi concentration camps.in around time oregon judges ruling ratio staff inmates arkansas penal farms one staff member every sixtyfive inmates. |
History of United States prison systems | contrast national average time around one prison staff member every seven inmates.state entity profiting farm private operators controlled certain industries maintained high profit margins.physician ran farms forprofit blood bank instance earned per year inmate donations sold hospitals.faced acute shortage manpower authorities penal farms relied upon armed inmates known trusties riders guard convicts worked trusties control prisoners worked ten fourteen hours per day depending time year six days per week.arkansas time state prison officials could still whip convicts.violent deaths commonplace arkansas prison farms.investigation begun incumbent governor orval faubus heated gubernatorial race revealed ongoing abuses—e.g. |
History of United States prison systems | use wire pliers inmates genitals stabbings use nut crackers break inmates knuckles trampling inmates horses charging inmates hospital time beatings.chairman arkansas legislatures prison committee asked allegations however replied arkansas best prison system united states.later federal court intervened reforms begin arkansas prison camps.civil rights era prisoners rights movements law order movement movement safety security integrity prison system.gang awareness training first reach toward civil rights humane living conditions. |
History of United States prison systems | facilitation reentry society gangsters communicating widely cohorts inside outside prison.stopping illicit financial transactions extortion corruption ability operate fashion raises specter greater violence inside prison.investigation cities cellblocks suburbs.reference societal cultures range known organized cultural crime.organized criminals individuals letting gang violence thrive. |
History of United States prison systems | enprisoning criminals unfaithful act supporting gang recruitment enforcement.environmentfocused punishment pay may provide temporary relief.prison ground breeding system gangrelated criminal activity.state prisons involved gangs way associations recruits force extortion etc.. system lacking reform levels.focus individuals avoid new gang recruitments. |
History of United States prison systems | ensure law enforcement corrupted lookinto individuals gangrelated tattoos associates.weekly inspections selecttraining racial profiling etc.. day day inspections prison operations week week cleansing prison operations.look trends try new perspectives concerned curious test limits wary organized crime variation.forprofit privately owned prisons pay reasonable amount prisoners work basic necessities overpriced undersupplied.environmental work additionally assigned inmate prisoner. |
History of United States prison systems | reasonable pay fruitful jobs eliminate use lawabiding citizen tax dollars.demand exponential growth security guards individuals watching cameras unpredictable schedules random assignments guards architecture modern prisons technical manual functions prevent technological mishaps.inmates entitled protection ganginspired recruitment violence outright physical harm.inmates entitled rehabilitation reentry programs.organized crime may entail emphasis systemic issues law enforcement response them. |
History of United States prison systems | support public peace safety justice.organized criminals white bluecollar workers aid elements prison manifesting backdrop broad societal trends providing context larger crime.concern citation state new jersey commission investigation gangland behind bars may focus district columbia mississippi california new york florida puerto rico new mexico texas nevada hawaii new jersey mississippi arizona louisiana georgia maryland.modern developments see also history criminal justice colonial america references bibliography alexander michelle new jim crow mass incarceration age colorblindness new york.ayers edward l. vengeance justice crime punishment thcentury american south new york.blackmon douglas a. slavery another name reenslavement black americans civil war world war ii new york.bookspan shelley germ goodness california state prison system – lincoln.christianson scott liberty years imprisonment america boston.ekirch a. roger bound america transportation british convicts colonies – oxford.gottschalk marie prison gallows politics mass incarceration america cambridge.hindus michael stephen prison plantation crime justice authority massachusetts south carolina – chapel hill.hirsch adam j. rise penitentiary prisons punishment early america new haven.ignatieff michael measure pain penitentiary industrial revolution – new york.lewis o. f. development american prisons prison customs – new york.lewis w. david newgate dannemora rise penitentiary new york – ithaca.lynch mona sunbelt justice arizona transformation american punishment stanford.mckelvey blake american prisons study american social history prior chicago.mclennan rebecca crisis imprisonment protest politics making american penal state – cambridge.mcpherson james m. battle cry freedom civil war era new york.meranze michael laboratories virtue punishment revolution authority philadelphia – chapel hill.rothman david j. conscience convenience asylum alternatives progressive america new york.rothman david j. discovery asylum social order disorder new republic new brunswick.wray harmon .cells sale. |
Ground segment | southern changes.–.archived original .ground segment enables management spacecraft distribution payload data telemetry among interested parties ground.primary elements ground segment areground earth stations provide radio interfaces spacecraft mission control operations centers spacecraft managed ground networks connect ground elements one another remote terminals used support personnel spacecraft integration test facilitieslaunch facilities elements present nearly space missions whether commercial military scientific.may located together separated geographically may operated different parties.elements may support multiple spacecraft simultaneously.elements ground stations ground stations provide radio interfaces space ground segments telemetry tracking command ttc well payload data transmission reception. |
Ground segment | tracking networks nasas near earth network space network handle communications multiple spacecraft timesharing.ground station equipment may monitored controlled remotely often via serial andor ip interfaces.often backup stations radio contact maintained problem primary ground station renders unable operate natural disaster.contingencies considered continuity operations plan.transmission reception signals uplinked spacecraft must first extracted ground network packets encoded baseband modulated typically onto intermediate frequency carrier upconverted assigned radio frequency rf band. |
Ground segment | rf signal amplified high power carried via waveguide antenna transmission.colder climates electric heaters hot air blowers may necessary prevent ice snow buildup parabolic dish.received downlinked signals passed lownoise amplifier often located antenna hub minimize distance signal must travel downconverted two functions may combined lownoise block downconverter.signal demodulated data stream extracted via bit frame synchronization decoding.data errors caused signal degradation identified corrected possible.extracted data stream packetized saved files transmission ground networks. |
Ground segment | ground stations may temporarily store received telemetry later playback control centers often ground network bandwidth sufficient allow realtime transmission received telemetry.a single spacecraft may make use multiple rf bands different telemetry command payload data streams depending bandwidth requirements.passes timing passes line sight exists spacecraft determined location ground stations characteristics spacecraft orbit trajectory.space network uses geostationary relay satellites extend pass opportunities horizon.tracking ranging ground stations must track spacecraft order point antennas properly must account doppler shifting rf frequencies due motion spacecraft.ground stations may also perform automated ranging ranging tones may multiplexed command telemetry signals. |
Ground segment | ground station tracking ranging data passed control center along spacecraft telemetry often used orbit determination.mission control centers mission control centers process analyze distribute spacecraft telemetry issue commands data uploads software updates spacecraft.crewed spacecraft mission control manages voice video communications crew.control centers may also responsible configuration management data archival.ground stations often backup control facilities available support continuity operations. |
Ground segment | telemetry processing control centers use telemetry determine status spacecraft systems.housekeeping diagnostic science types telemetry may carried separate virtual channels.flight control software performs initial processing received telemetry includingseparation distribution virtual channels timeordering gapchecking received frames gaps may filled commanding retransmissiondecommutation parameter values association values parameter names called mnemonicsconversion raw data calibrated engineering values calculation derived parameters limit constraint checking may generate alert notifications generation telemetry displays may tabular graphical plots parameters time synoptic interfaceoriented graphics.spacecraft database provided spacecraft manufacturer called provide information telemetry frame formatting positions frequencies parameters within frames associated mnemonics calibrations soft hard limits.contents database—especially calibrations limits—may updated periodically maintain consistency onboard software operating procedures change life mission response upgrades hardware degradation space environment changes mission parameters. |
Ground segment | commanding commands sent spacecraft formatted according spacecraft database validated database transmitted via ground station.commands may issued manually real time may part automated semiautomated procedures.typically commands successfully received spacecraft acknowledged telemetry command counter maintained spacecraft ground ensure synchronization.certain cases closedloop control may performed.commanded activities may pertain directly mission objectives may part housekeeping. |
Ground segment | commands telemetry may encrypted prevent unauthorized access spacecraft data.spacecraft procedures generally developed tested spacecraft simulator prior use actual spacecraft.analysis support mission control centers may rely offline i.e.nonrealtime data processing subsystems handle analytical tasks asorbit determination maneuver planningconjunction assessment collision avoidance planning – mission planning scheduling – onboard memory management – short longterm trend analysis path planning case planetary roversdedicated physical spaces may provided control center certain mission support roles flight dynamics network control roles may handled via remote terminals outside control center.onboard computing power flight software complexity increased trend toward performing automated data processing board spacecraft.– staffing control centers may continuously regularly staffed flight controllers. |
Ground segment | staffing typically greatest early phases mission critical procedures periods.increasingly commonly control centers uncrewed spacecraft may set lightsout automated operation means controlling costs.flight control software typically generate notifications significant events – planned unplanned – ground space segment may require operator intervention.ground networks ground networks handle data transfer voice communication different elements ground segment.– networks often combine lan wan elements different parties may responsible. |
Ground segment | geographically separated elements may connected via leased lines virtual private networks.design ground networks driven requirements reliability bandwidth security.reliability particularly important consideration critical systems uptime mean time recovery paramount concern.aspects spacecraft system redundancy network components primary means achieving required system reliability.security considerations vital protect space resources sensitive data.wan links often incorporate encryption protocols firewalls provide information network security.antivirus software intrusion detection systems provide additional security network endpoints. |
Ground segment | remote terminals remote terminals interfaces ground networks separate mission control center may accessed payload controllers telemetry analysts instrument science teams support personnel system administrators software development teams.may receiveonly may transmit data ground network.terminals used service customers including isps end users collectively called user segment typically distinguished ground segment.user terminals including satellite television systems satellite phones communicate directly spacecraft types user terminals rely ground segment data receipt transmission processing.integration test facilities space vehicles interfaces assembled tested integration test facilities.missionspecific provides opportunity fully test communications behavior spacecraft ground segment prior launch. |
Ground segment | launch facilities vehicles delivered space via launch facilities handle logistics rocket launches.launch facilities typically connected ground network relay telemetry prior launch.launch vehicle sometimes said constitute transfer segment may considered distinct space ground segments.costs costs associated establishment operation ground segment highly variable depend accounting methods.according study delft university technology ground segment contributes approximately total cost space system. |
Ground segment | according report rand corporation nasa small spacecraft missions operation costs alone contribute lifetime cost typical mission integration testing making .ground facilities .ground systems engineering .. ground segment cost drivers include requirements placed facilities hardware software network connectivity security staffing.ground station costs particular depend largely required transmission power rf bands suitability preexisting facilities.control centers may highly automated means controlling staffing costs. |
Ocean | images see also consultative committee space data systems ccsds maintains standards telemetry command formattingradiocommunication service defined itu radio regulationsonboard data handling subsystem referencessurface earth contains earths water.separate names used identify five different areas ocean pacific largest atlantic indian southern antarctic arctic smallest.seawater covers approximately km sq mi planet.ocean principal component earths hydrosphere therefore integral life earth.acting huge heat reservoir ocean influences climate weather patterns carbon cycle water cycle. |
Ocean | oceanographers divide ocean different vertical horizontal zones based physical biological conditions.pelagic zone consists water column surface ocean floor throughout open ocean.water column categorized zones depending depth much light present.photic zone includes water surface depth surface light open ocean photosynthesis occur.makes photic zone biodiverse. |
Ocean | photosynthesis plants microscopic algae free floating phytoplankton creates organic matter using light water carbon dioxide nutrients.ocean photosynthesis creates oxygen earths atmosphere.upper sunlit zone origin food supply sustains ocean ecosystem.light penetrates depth hundred meters remaining ocean cold dark.continental shelf ocean approaches dry land shallow depth hundred meters less. |
Ocean | human activity greater impact continental shelf.ocean temperatures depend amount solar radiation reaching ocean surface.tropics surface temperatures rise °c °f.near poles sea ice forms temperature equilibrium − °c °f.deep seawater temperature − °c °f °c °f parts ocean. |
Ocean | water continuously circulates oceans creating ocean currents.directed movements seawater generated forces acting upon water including temperature differences atmospheric circulation wind coriolis effect differences salinity.tidal currents originate tides surface currents caused wind waves.major ocean currents include gulf stream kuroshio current agulhas current antarctic circumpolar current.collectively currents move enormous amounts water heat around globe. |
Ocean | circulation significantly impacts global climate uptake redistribution pollutants carbon dioxide moving contaminants surface deep ocean.ocean water contains large quantities dissolved gases including oxygen carbon dioxide nitrogen.gas exchange takes place ocean surface solubility depends temperature salinity water.increasing concentration carbon dioxide atmosphere due fossil fuel combustion leads higher concentrations ocean water resulting ocean acidification.ocean provides society important environmental services including climate regulation.also offers means trade transport access food resources. |
Ocean | known habitat species may contain far – perhaps two million species.however ocean subject numerous environmental threats including marine pollution overfishing ocean acidification effects climate change.continental shelf coastal waters influenced human activity especially vulnerable.terminology ocean sea terms ocean sea used without specification refer interconnected body salt water covering majority earths surface.includes atlantic pacific indian southern arctic oceans. |
Ocean | general term ocean mostly interchangeable sea american english british english.strictly speaking sea body water generally division world ocean partly fully enclosed land.word sea also used many specific much smaller bodies seawater north sea red sea.sharp distinction seas oceans though generally seas smaller often partly marginal seas wholly inland seas bordered land.world ocean contemporary concept world ocean coined early th century russian oceanographer yuly shokalsky refer continuous ocean covers encircles earth. |
Ocean | global interconnected body salt water sometimes referred world ocean global ocean.concept continuous body water relatively free interchange among parts fundamental importance oceanography.etymology word ocean comes figure classical antiquity oceanus greek ὠκεανός ōkeanós pronounced ɔːkeanós elder titans classical greek mythology.oceanus believed ancient greeks romans divine personification enormous river encircling world.the concept ōkeanós indoeuropean connection.greek ōkeanós compared vedic epithet āśáyāna predicated dragon vṛtra captured cowsrivers. |
Ocean | related notion okeanos represented dragontail early greek vases.geography oceanic divisions major oceanic divisions – listed descending order area volume – named based nearest continents various archipelagos criteria.oceans fringed coastlines run kilometres total distance.also connected smaller adjoining bodies water seas gulfs bays bights straits.seawater covers approximately km sq mi customarily divided five principal oceans ocean ridges ocean basins every ocean basin midocean ridge creates long mountain range beneath ocean. |
Ocean | together form global midoceanic ridge system features longest mountain range world.longest continuous mountain range km mi.underwater mountain range several times longer longest continental mountain range—the andes.oceanographers state less oceans mapped.formation origin earths oceans unknown.oceans thought formed hadean eon may cause emergence life. |
Ocean | scientists believe sizable quantity water would material formed earth.water molecules would escaped earths gravity easily less massive formation.called atmospheric escape.plate tectonics postglacial rebound sea level rise continually change coastline structure world ocean.global ocean existed one form another earth eons. |
Ocean | physical properties volumes volume water oceans together approximately .billion cubic kilometers .million cubic miles.depth average depth oceans km.precisely average depth meters ft. nearly half worlds marine waters meters ft deep. |
Ocean | deep ocean anything meters ft. covers earths surface.figure include seas connected world ocean caspian sea.the deepest point ocean mariana trench located pacific ocean near northern mariana islands.maximum depth estimated meters ft. british naval vessel challenger ii surveyed trench named deepest part trench challenger deep.trieste successfully reached bottom trench manned crew two men.color oceanic zones oceanographers divide ocean different vertical horizontal zones defined physical biological conditions. |
Ocean | pelagic zone consists water column open ocean divided regions categorized light abundance depth.grouped light penetration photic zone includes oceans surface depth region photosynthesis occur therefore biodiverse.photosynthesis plants microscopic algae free floating phytoplankton allows creation organic matter chemical precursors including water carbon dioxide.organic matter consumed creatures.much organic matter created photic zone consumed sinks deeper waters.below photic zone mesopelagic twilight zone small amount light. |
Ocean | aphotic deep ocean surface sunlight penetrates.life exists deeper photic zone must either rely material sinking see marine snow find another energy source.hydrothermal vents source energy known aphotic zone depths exceeding m. pelagic part photic zone known epipelagic.grouped depth temperature pelagic part aphotic zone divided vertical regions according depth temperaturethe mesopelagic uppermost region.lowermost boundary thermocline °c °f generally lies – meters – ft tropics. |
Ocean | next bathypelagic lying °c °f typically – meters – ft – meters – ft. lying along top abyssal plain abyssopelagic whose lower boundary lies meters ft. last deepest zone hadalpelagic includes oceanic trench lies – meters – ft.the benthic zones aphotic correspond three deepest zones deepsea.bathyal zone covers continental slope meters ft. abyssal zone covers abyssal plains m. lastly hadal zone corresponds hadalpelagic zone found oceanic trenches.distinct boundaries ocean surface waters deep waters drawn based properties water.boundaries called thermoclines temperature haloclines salinity chemoclines chemistry pycnoclines density.zone undergoes dramatic changes temperature depth contains thermocline distinct boundary warmer surface water colder deep water.tropical thermocline typically deeper thermocline higher latitudes. |
Ocean | polar waters receive relatively little solar energy stratified temperature generally lack thermocline surface water polar latitudes nearly cold water greater depths.thermocline water everywhere ocean cold ranging −°c °c.deep cold layer contains bulk ocean water average temperature world ocean .°c.zone undergoes dramatic changes salinity depth contains halocline.zone undergoes strong vertical chemistry gradient depth contains chemocline. |
Ocean | temperature salinity control density ocean water colder saltier water dense density turn regulates global water circulation within ocean.halocline often coincides thermocline combination produces pronounced pycnocline boundary less dense surface water dense deep water.grouped distance land pelagic zone subdivided two sub regions based distance land neritic zone oceanic zone.neritic zone encompasses water mass directly continental shelves hence includes coastal waters whereas oceanic zone includes completely open water.the littoral zone covers region low high tide represents transitional area marine terrestrial conditions.also known intertidal zone area tide level affects conditions region. |
Ocean | temperature ocean temperatures depends amount solar radiation falling surface.tropics sun nearly overhead temperature surface layers rise °c °f near poles temperature equilibrium sea ice − °c °f.continuous circulation water oceans.warm surface currents cool move away tropics water becomes denser sinks.cold water moves back towards equator deep sea current driven changes temperature density water eventually welling towards surface. |
Ocean | deep seawater temperature − °c °f °c °f parts globe.seawater typical salinity ‰ freezing point −.°c .°f.temperature becomes low enough ice crystals form surface.break small pieces coalesce flat discs form thick suspension known frazil.calm conditions freezes thin flat sheet known nilas thickens new ice forms underside.turbulent seas frazil crystals join flat discs known pancakes. |
Ocean | slide coalesce form floes.process freezing salt water air trapped ice crystals.nilas may salinity –‰ time sea ice one year old falls –‰.ocean warming accounts earths energy accumulation global warming .one third extra heat estimated propagate depths meters.ocean currents global climate types ocean currents ocean current continuous directed movement seawater generated number forces acting upon water including wind coriolis effect temperature salinity differences. |
Ocean | ocean currents primarily horizontal water movements.different origins tides tidal currents wind waves surface currents.tidal currents phase tide hence quasiperiodic associated influence moon sun pull ocean water.tidal currents may form various complex patterns certain places notably around headlands.nonperiodic nontidal currents created action winds changes density water.littoral zones breaking waves intense depth measurement low maritime currents reach often knots.the wind waves create surface currents designated drift currents. |
Ocean | currents decompose one quasipermanent current varies within hourly scale one movement stokes drift effect rapid waves movement vary timescales couple seconds.quasipermanent current accelerated breaking waves lesser governing effect friction wind surface.this acceleration current takes place direction waves dominant wind.accordingly ocean depth increases rotation earth changes direction currents proportion increase depth friction lowers speed.certain ocean depth current changes direction seen inverted opposite direction current speed becoming null known ekman spiral.influence currents mainly experienced mixed layer ocean surface often meters maximum depth. |
Ocean | currents considerably change dependent yearly seasons.mixed layer less thick meters quasipermanent current surface adopt quite different direction relation direction wind.case water column becomes virtually homogeneous thermocline.the wind blowing ocean surface set water motion.global pattern winds also called atmospheric circulation creates global pattern ocean currents.driven wind also effect circulation earth coriolis force. |
Ocean | theses major ocean currents include gulf stream kuroshio current agulhas current antarctic circumpolar current.antarctic circumpolar current encircles antarctica influences areas climate well connecting currents several oceans.relationship currents climate collectively currents move enormous amounts water heat around globe influencing climate.wind driven currents largely confined top hundreds meters ocean.greater depth drivers water motion thermohaline circulation. |
Ocean | driven cooling surface waters northern southern polar latitudes creating dense water sinks bottom ocean.cold dense water moves slowly away poles waters deepest layers world ocean cold.deep ocean water circulation relatively slow water bottom ocean isolated ocean surface atmosphere hundreds even thousand years.circulation important impacts global climate uptake redistribution pollutants carbon dioxide moving contaminants surface deep ocean.ocean currents greatly affect earths climate transferring heat tropics polar regions thereby also affecting air temperature precipitation coastal regions inland. |
Ocean | surface heat freshwater fluxes create global density gradients drive thermohaline circulation part largescale ocean circulation.plays important role supplying heat polar regions thus sea ice regulation.oceans moderate climate locations prevailing winds blow ocean.similar latitudes place earth influence ocean moderate climate place influence land.example cities san francisco . |
Ocean | n new york .n different climates san francisco influence ocean.san francisco west coast north america gets winds west pacific ocean influence ocean water yields moderate climate warmer winter longer cooler summer warmest temperatures happening later year.new york east coast north america gets winds west land new york colder winters hotter earlier summers san francisco.warmer ocean currents yield warmer climates long term even high latitudes. |
Ocean | similar latitudes place influenced warm ocean currents warmer climate overall place influenced cold ocean currents.french riviera .n rockland maine .n latitude french riviera influenced warm waters transported gulf stream mediterranean sea warmer climate overall.maine influenced cold waters transported south labrador current giving colder climate overall. |
Ocean | changes thermohaline circulation thought significant impacts earths energy budget.since thermohaline circulation governs rate deep waters reach surface may also significantly influence atmospheric carbon dioxide concentrations.however climate change might result shutdown thermohaline circulation future.would turn trigger cooling north atlantic europe north america.waves swell motions ocean surface known undulations wind waves partial alternate rising falling ocean surface. |
Ocean | series mechanical waves propagate along interface water air called swell – term used sailing surfing navigation.motions profoundly affect ships surface ocean wellbeing people ships might suffer sea sickness.wind blowing surface body water forms waves perpendicular direction wind.friction air water caused gentle breeze pond causes ripples form.strong blow ocean causes larger waves moving air pushes raised ridges water.waves reach maximum height rate travelling nearly matches speed wind. |
Ocean | open water wind blows continuously happens southern hemisphere roaring forties long organized masses water called swell roll across ocean.– wind dies wave formation reduced alreadyformed waves continue travel original direction meet land.size waves depends fetch distance wind blown water strength duration wind.waves meet others coming different directions interference two produce broken irregular seas.constructive interference cause individual unexpected rogue waves much higher normal.waves less ft high unusual strong storms double triple height. |
Ocean | rogue waves however documented heights meters ft.the top wave known crest lowest point waves trough distance crests wavelength.wave pushed across surface ocean wind represents transfer energy horizontal movement water.waves approach land move shallow water change behavior.approaching angle waves may bend refraction wrap around rocks headlands diffraction.wave reaches point deepest oscillations water contact ocean floor begin slow down. |
Ocean | pulls crests closer together increases waves height called wave shoaling.ratio waves height water depth increases certain limit breaks toppling mass foaming water.rushes sheet beach retreating ocean influence gravity.earthquakes volcanic eruptions major geological disturbances set waves lead tsunamis coastal areas dangerous.tides tides regular rise fall water level experienced oceans response gravitational influences moon sun effects earths rotation.tidal cycle given place water rises maximum height known high tide ebbing away minimum low tide level. |
Ocean | water recedes uncovers foreshore also known intertidal zone.difference height high tide low tide known tidal range tidal amplitude.in open ocean tidal ranges less meter coastal areas tidal ranges increase meters areas.largest tidal ranges world occur bay fundy ungava bay canada reaching meters.locations record high tidal ranges include bristol channel england wales cook inlet alaska río gallegos argentina.most places experience two high tides day occurring intervals hours minutes.half hours minute period takes earth make complete revolution return moon previous position relative observer. |
Ocean | tidal force tideraising force decreases rapidly distance moon twice great effect tides sun.sun moon earth aligned full moon new moon combined effect results high spring tides.storm surge occur high winds pile water coast shallow area coupled low pressure system raise surface ocean high tide dramatically.water cycle weather rainfall ocean water represents largest body water within global water cycle oceans contain earths water.evaporation ocean moves water atmosphere later rain back onto land ocean. |
Ocean | oceans significant effect biosphere.ocean whole thought cover approximately earths biosphere.oceanic evaporation phase water cycle source rainfall .ocean temperatures affect climate wind patterns affect life land.one dramatic forms weather occurs oceans tropical cyclones also called typhoons hurricanes depending upon system forms. |
Ocean | worlds ocean principal component earths hydrosphere integral life earth forms part carbon cycle water cycle – huge heat reservoir – influences climate weather patterns.chemical composition seawater salinity salinity measure total amounts dissolved salts seawater.originally measured via measurement amount chloride seawater hence termed chlorinity.routinely measured measuring electrical conductivity water sample.salinity calculated using chlorinity measure total mass halogen ions includes fluorine chlorine bromine iodine seawater. |
Ocean | international agreement following formula used determine salinitysalinity ‰ .× chlorinity ‰the average ocean water chlorinity .‰ thus average salinity around .‰.salinity major influence density seawater.zone rapid salinity increase depth called halocline.temperature maximum density seawater decreases salt content increases.freezing temperature water decreases salinity boiling temperature water increases salinity. |
Ocean | typical seawater freezes around − °c atmospheric pressure.salinity higher earths oceans evaporation lower precipitation.precipitation exceeds evaporation case polar temperate regions salinity lower.evaporation exceeds precipitation sometimes case tropical regions salinity higher.example evaporation greater precipitation mediterranean sea average salinity ‰ saline global average .‰.thus oceanic waters polar regions lower salinity content oceanic waters tropical regions. |
Ocean | however sea ice forms high latitudes salt excluded ice forms increase salinity residual seawater polar regions arctic ocean.general characteristics ocean surface waters waters different regions ocean quite different temperature salinity characteristics.due differences local water balance precipitation vs. evaporation sea air temperature gradients.characteristics vary widely among ocean regions.table provides illustration sort values usually encountered. |
Ocean | dissolved gases ocean water contains large quantities dissolved gases including oxygen carbon dioxide nitrogen.dissolve ocean water via gas exchange ocean surface solubility gases depending temperature salinity water.four abundant gases earth’s atmosphere oceans nitrogen oxygen argon carbon dioxide.ocean volume abundant gases dissolved seawater carbon dioxide including bicarbonate carbonate ions mll average nitrogen mll oxygen mll equilibrium °c °f gases soluble – easily dissolved – colder water warmer water.example salinity pressure held constant oxygen concentration water almost doubles temperature drops warm summer day °c °f freezing °c °f. |
Ocean | similarly carbon dioxide nitrogen gases soluble colder temperatures solubility changes temperature different rates.oxygen carbon cycling process photosynthesis surface ocean releases oxygen consumes carbon dioxide.photosynthesis ocean dominated phytoplankton microscopic free floating algae.plants grow bacterial decomposition organic matter formed photosynthesis ocean consumes oxygen releases carbon dioxide.sinking bacterial decomposition organic matter deep ocean water depths waters contact atmosphere leads reduction oxygen concentrations increase carbon dioxide carbonate bicarbonate. |
Ocean | cycling carbon dioxide oceans important part global carbon cycle.increasing carbon dioxide concentrations atmosphere due fossil fuel combustion lead higher concentrations ocean waters ocean acidification.dissolving atmospheric carbon dioxide reacts bicarbonate carbonate ions seawater shift chemical balance water making acidic.oceans represent major sink carbon dioxide taken atmosphere photosynthesis dissolution.also increasing attention focused carbon dioxide uptake coastal marine habitats mangroves saltmarshes process sometimes referred “blue carbon”. |
Ocean | attention focused ecosystems strong carbon sinks well ecologically important habitats considerable threat human activities environmental degradation.deep ocean water circulates throughout globe contains gradually less oxygen gradually carbon dioxide time away air surface.gradual decrease oxygen concentration happens sinking organic matter continuously gets decomposed time water contact atmosphere.deep waters ocean still contain relatively high concentrations oxygen sufficient animals survive.however ocean areas low oxygen due long periods isolation water atmosphere. |
Ocean | oxygen deficient areas called oxygen minimum zones hypoxic waters could made worse climate change.residence times chemical elements ions ocean waters contain many chemical elements dissolved ions.elements dissolved ocean waters wide range concentrations.elements high concentrations several grams per liter sodium chloride together making majority ocean salts.elements iron present tiny concentrations nanograms − grams per liter.the concentration element depends rate supply ocean rate removal. |
Ocean | elements enter ocean rivers atmosphere hydrothermal vents.elements removed ocean water sinking becoming buried sediments evaporating atmosphere case water gases.oceanographers consider balance input removal estimating residence time element.residence time average time element would spend dissolved ocean removed.abundant elements ocean water like sodium high rates input reflecting high abundance rocks relatively rapid rock weathering coupled slow removal ocean sodium ions rather unreactive soluble. |
Ocean | contrast elements iron aluminium abundant rocks insoluble meaning inputs ocean low removal rapid.cycles represent part major global cycle elements gone since earth first formed.residence times abundant elements ocean estimated millions years highly reactive insoluble elements residence times hundreds years.nutrients elements nitrogen phosphorus iron potassium essential life major components biological material commonly called “nutrients”.nitrate phosphate ocean residence times years respectively potassium much abundant ion ocean residence time million years. |
Ocean | biological cycling elements means represents continuous removal process oceans water column degrading organic material sinks ocean floor sediment.phosphate intensive agriculture untreated sewage transported via runoff rivers coastal zones ocean metabolized.eventually sinks ocean floor longer available humans commercial resource.production rock phosphate essential ingredient inorganic fertilizer slow geological process occurring worlds ocean sediments thus making minable sedimentary apatite phosphate effect nonrenewable resource see peak phosphorus.continuous net deposition loss nonrenewable phosphate human activities may become resource problem future fertilizer production food security. |
Ocean | marine life life within ocean evolved billion years prior life land.depth distance shore strongly influence biodiversity plants animals present region.diversity life ocean immense includinganimals animal phyla species inhabit ocean including many found marine environments sponges cnidaria corals jellyfish comb jellies brachiopods echinoderms sea urchins sea stars.many familiar animal groups primarily live ocean including cephalopods includes octopus squid crustaceans includes lobsters crabs shrimp fish sharks cetaceans includes whales dolphins porpoises.addition many land animals adapted living major part life oceans. |
Ocean | instance seabirds diverse group birds adapted life mainly oceans.feed marine animals spend lifetime water many going land breeding.birds adapted oceans living space penguins seagulls pelicans.seven species turtles sea turtles also spend time oceans.plants including sea grasses mangrovesalgae algae catchall term include many photosynthetic singlecelled eukaryotes green algae diatoms dinoflagellates also multicellular algae red algae including organisms like pyropia source edible nori seaweed brown algae including organisms like kelp.bacteria ubiquitous singlecelled prokaryotes found throughout worldarchaea prokaryotes distinct bacteria inhabit many environments ocean well many extreme environmentsfungi many marine fungi diverse roles found oceanic environments human uses oceans ocean linked human activity throughout history.activities serve wide variety purposes including navigation exploration naval warfare travel shipping trade food production e.g. |
Ocean | fishing whaling seaweed farming aquaculture leisure cruising sailing recreational boat fishing scuba diving power generation see marine energy offshore wind power extractive industries offshore drilling deep sea mining freshwater production via desalination.many worlds goods moved ship worlds seaports.large quantities goods transported across ocean especially across atlantic around pacific rim.lot cargo manufactured goods usually transported within standard sized lockable containers loaded purposebuilt container ships dedicated terminals.containerization greatly increased efficiency decreased cost moving goods sea major factor leading rise globalization exponential increases international trade midtolate th century.oceans also major supply source fishing industry.major harvests shrimp fish crabs lobster. |
Ocean | biggest commercial fishery globally anchovies alaska pollock tuna.report fao stated percent fish stocks world’s marine fisheries classified overfished.fish fishery products wild fisheries aquaculture among widely consumed sources protein essential nutrients.data showed fish consumption accounted percent global population’s intake animal proteins.order fulfill need coastal countries exploited marine resources exclusive economic zone although fishing vessels increasingly venturing afield exploit stocks international waters.the ocean offers large supply energy carried ocean waves tides salinity differences ocean temperature differences harnessed generate electricity. |
Ocean | forms sustainable marine energy include tidal power ocean thermal energy wave power.offshore wind power captured wind turbines placed ocean advantage wind speeds higher land though wind farms costly construct offshore.large deposits petroleum oil natural gas rocks beneath ocean floor.offshore platforms drilling rigs extract oil gas store transport land.freedom seas principle international law dating seventeenth century.stresses freedom navigate oceans disapproves war fought international waters. |
Ocean | today concept enshrined united nations convention law sea unclos.there two major international legal organizations involved ocean governance global scale namely international maritime organization united nations.international maritime organization imo ratified responsible mainly maritime safety liability compensation held conventions marine pollution related shipping incidents.ocean governance conduct policy actions affairs regarding worlds oceans.threats human activities affect marine life marine habitats many negative influences marine pollution including marine debris microplastics overfishing ocean acidification effects climate change oceans.marine pollution plastic pollution overfishing climate change ocean acidification protection protecting earths oceans ecosystems recognized threats major component environmental protection closely related sustainable development. |
Ocean | one main techniques creation enforcement marine protected areas mpas.techniques may include standardized product certifications supply chain transparency requirements policies policies prevent marine pollution ecotariffs research development ecosystemassistance e.g.coral reefs support sustainable seafood e.g.sustainable fishing practices types aquaculture banning systematically obstructing e.g.via higher costs policies unsustainable ocean use associated industries e.g. |
Ocean | cruise ship travel certain shipping practices monitoring revising waste management plastics fashion industry pollutants protection marine resources components whose extraction disturbance would cause substantial harm engagement broader publics impacted communities novel decisionmaking mechanisms development ocean cleanup projects.ocean protection serves i.a.protect human health safeguard stable conditions natural ecosystem upon humans depend.marine conservationists rely combination scientific principles derived marine biology ecology oceanography fisheries science well human factors demand marine resources maritime law economics policy order determine best protect conserve marine species ecosystems.marine conservation may described subdiscipline conservation biology.marine conservation addressed sustainable development goal ensures sustainable use marine resources sustainable development. |
Ocean | full article...it may necessary consider marine protection within national regional international context.marine protection could also synergistic effects – instance according study global network mpas designed improve fisheries productivity could substantially increase future catch.in expert scientists published first scientific framework version – via integration review clarifications standardization – enables evaluation levels protection marine protected areas serve guide subsequent efforts improve plan monitor marine protectionquality extents efforts towards protectiongoal global deal nature uns sdg .extraterrestrial oceans extraterrestrial oceans may composed water elements compounds.confirmed large stable bodies extraterrestrial surface liquids lakes titan made hydrocarbons instead water.however strong evidence subsurface water oceans existence elsewhere solar system. |
Ocean | bestestablished candidates subsurface water oceans solar system jupiters moons europa ganymede callisto saturns moons enceladus titan.although earth known planet large stable bodies liquid water surface one solar system celestial bodies thought large oceans.june nasa scientists reported likely exoplanets oceans may common milky way galaxy based mathematical modeling studies.supercritical fluid gas giants inner structure gas giants remain poorly understood.scientists suspect extreme pressure hydrogen would act supercritical fluid.hence likelihood oceans liquid hydrogen deep interior gas giants like jupiter.the possibility oceans liquid carbon hypothesized occur ice giants notably neptune uranus. |
2016 United Kingdom European Union membership referendum | see also european atlas seasland water hemisphereslist seasmarine heatwaveworld ocean atlasworld oceans day references external links fao food agriculture organization united nations fisheries divisionnoaa – national oceanic atmospheric administration united statesunited nations decade ocean science sustainable development –organised facilitated european union referendum act political parties elections referendums act .referendum resulted .votes cast favour leaving eu.although referendum legally nonbinding government time promised implement result.membership eu long topic debate united kingdom.country joined european communities ec principally european economic community eec common market forerunner european union along european coal steel community ecsc european atomic energy community eaec euratom. |
2016 United Kingdom European Union membership referendum | referendum continued membership communities held .votes cast favour britain remaining member.in may following conservative party manifesto pledge legal basis eu referendum established european union referendum act .britain stronger europe became official group campaigning uk remain eu endorsed prime minister david cameron chancellor george osborne.vote leave official group campaigning uk leave eu fronted conservative mps boris johnson michael gove along labour mp gisela stuart.campaign groups political parties businesses trade unions newspapers prominent individuals also involved sides supporters across political spectrum. |
2016 United Kingdom European Union membership referendum | parties favour remain included labour liberal democrats scottish national party snp plaid cymru green party uk independence party ukip campaigned favour leaving european union conservative party remained neutral.spite official positions conservative party labour parties allowed mps publicly campaign either side issue.immediately result financial markets reacted negatively worldwide cameron announced would resign prime minister leader conservative party campaigned unsuccessfully remain european union.first time national referendum result gone preferred option uk government.cameron succeeded theresa may july .labour leader jeremy corbyn also faced leadership challenge result eu referendum. |
2016 United Kingdom European Union membership referendum | parliament gave legal effect referendum passing european union notification withdrawal act march united kingdom gave formal notice intent withdraw eu.background european communities formed – european coal steel community ecsc european atomic energy community eaec euratom european economic community eec .eec ambitious three came known common market.uk first applied join vetoed france.later application successful uk joined two years later first ever national referendum continuing membership resulted . |
2016 United Kingdom European Union membership referendum | approval .turnout.political integration gained greater focus maastricht treaty established european union eu incorporated treaty lisbon succeeded european communities.growing pressure referendum prior general election leader conservative party leader opposition david cameron promised referendum lisbon treaty backtracked eu countries ratified treaty election.when attended may nato summit meeting uk prime minister david cameron foreign secretary william hague ed llewellyn discussed idea using european union referendum concession energise eurosceptic wing conservative party.january cameron delivered bloomberg speech promised conservatives win parliamentary majority general election british government would negotiate favourable arrangements continuing british membership eu holding referendum whether uk remain leave eu. |
2016 United Kingdom European Union membership referendum | conservative party published draft eu referendum bill may outlined plans renegotiation followed inout vote i.e.referendum giving options leaving remaining current terms new terms become available party reelected .draft bill stated referendum held later december .the draft legislation taken forward private members bill conservative mp james wharton known european union referendum bill .bills first reading house commons took place june .cameron said spokesperson pleased would ensure bill given full support conservative party.regarding ability bill bind uk government – parliament indirectly result referendum proved last two years holding referendum parliamentary research paper noted thatthe bill simply provides referendum continued eu membership end december otherwise specify timing requiring secretary state bring forward orders end . |
2016 United Kingdom European Union membership referendum | ... party obtained majority next general election due might uncertainty passage orders next parliament.the bill received second reading july passing votes none almost labour mps liberal democrat mps abstained cleared commons november introduced house lords december members voted block bill.conservative mp bob neill introduced alternative referendum bill commons.debate october passed public bills committee commons failed pass money resolution bill unable progress dissolution parliament march .at european parliament election uk independence party ukip secured votes seats party first time party conservatives labour topped nationwide poll years leaving conservatives third place.under ed milibands leadership labour party ruled inout referendum unless transfer powers uk eu proposed.manifesto general election liberal democrats pledged hold inout referendum event change eu treaties.uk independence party ukip british national party bnp green party democratic unionist party respect party supported principle referendum.when conservative party majority seats house commons general election cameron reiterated partys manifesto commitment hold inout referendum uk membership eu end negotiating new settlement britain eu.renegotiation referendum early david cameron outlined changes aimed bring eu uks relationship it. |
2016 United Kingdom European Union membership referendum | additional immigration controls especially citizens new eu member states tougher immigration rules present eu citizens new powers national parliaments collectively veto proposed eu laws new freetrade agreements reduction bureaucracy businesses lessening influence european court human rights british police courts power individual member states less central eu abandonment eu notion ever closer union.intended bring series negotiations eu leaders reelected announce referendum.in november year cameron gave update negotiations details aims.key demands made eu economic governance recognise officially eurozone laws would necessarily apply noneurozone eu members latter would bail troubled eurozone economies competitiveness expand single market set target reduction bureaucracy businesses sovereignty uk legally exempted ever closer union national parliaments able collectively veto proposed eu laws immigration eu citizens going uk work unable claim social housing inwork benefits worked four years unable send child benefit payments overseas.the outcome renegotiations announced february .renegotiated terms addition united kingdoms existing optouts european union uk rebate.significance changes euuk agreement contested speculated upon none changes considered fundamental considered important many british people. |
2016 United Kingdom European Union membership referendum | limits inwork benefits eu immigrants agreed would apply sliding scale four years would new immigrants could applied country would get permission european council.child benefit payments could still made overseas would linked cost living country.sovereignty uk reassured would required participate ever closer union reassurances line existing eu law.camerons demand allow national parliaments veto proposed eu laws modified allow national parliaments collectively object proposed eu laws case european council would reconsider proposal deciding do.economic governance antidiscrimination regulations noneurozone members would reinforced would unable veto legislation. |
2016 United Kingdom European Union membership referendum | final two areas covered proposals exclude scope free movement rights third country nationals prior lawful residence member state marrying union citizen make easier member states deport eu nationals public policy public security reasons.extent various parts agreement would legally binding complex part agreement changed eu law parts could enforceable international law.the eu reportedly offered david cameron socalled emergency brake would allowed uk withhold social benefits new immigrants first four years arrived brake could applied period seven years.offer still table time brexit referendum expired vote determined uk would leave eu.cameron claimed could avoided brexit european leaders let control migration according financial times.however angela merkel said offer made eu. |
2016 United Kingdom European Union membership referendum | merkel stated german parliament wish free access single market accept fundamental european rights well obligations come it.true great britain anybody else.legislation planned referendum included queens speech may .suggested time cameron planning hold referendum october european union referendum act authorised went house commons following day three weeks election.bills second reading june members house commons voted favour endorsing principle holding referendum scottish national party voting against. |
2016 United Kingdom European Union membership referendum | contrast labour partys position prior general election miliband acting labour leader harriet harman committed party supporting plans eu referendum .to enable referendum take place european union referendum act passed parliament united kingdom.extended include take legislative effect gibraltar received royal assent december .act turn confirmed enacted implemented gibraltar european union referendum act gibraltar passed gibraltar parliament entered law upon receiving assent governor gibraltar january .the european union referendum act required referendum held question uks continued membership european union eu end .contain requirement uk government implement results referendum.instead designed gauge electorates opinion eu membership. |
2016 United Kingdom European Union membership referendum | referendums held scotland wales northern ireland examples type opinion tested legislation introduced.uk constitutional provisions would require results referendum implemented unlike example republic ireland circumstances binding referendum held set constitution.contrast legislation provided referendum held av may would implemented new system voting without legislation provided boundary changes also provided parliamentary voting system constituencies act also implemented.event substantial majority change.referendum held renegotiated terms uks ec membership agreed ec member states terms set command paper agreed houses. |
2016 United Kingdom European Union membership referendum | following referendum high court confirmed result legally binding owing constitutional principles parliamentary sovereignty representative democracy legislation authorising referendum contain clear words contrary.referendum question research electoral commission confirmed recommended question clear straightforward voters neutral wording range options ... considered tested citing responses consultation diverse range consultees.proposed question accepted government september shortly bills third reading.the question appeared ballot papers referendum act waswith responses question marked single xand welshwith responses marked single x administration date prior officially announced widely speculated june date referendum serious possibility.first ministers northern ireland scotland wales cosigned letter cameron february asking hold referendum june devolved elections scheduled take place previous month may.elections postponed year avoid clash general election westminster implemented fixedterm parliament act. |
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