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Transgender history | trans people israel face widespread harassment difficulty accessing employment healthcare half physically attacked.ottoman empire eunuchs served ottoman empire th late th century commonly exiled egypt terms black eunuchs served preottoman rulers civil servants since th century sometimes viewed kind third gender alternative male gender.central asia kazakhstan since trans people undergo sterilizing sex reassignment surgery change gender legal documents rights.in kyrgyzstan especially since drafting discriminatory legislation trans people face widespread discrimination access work severe widespread violence many move russia.uzbekistan trans people often beaten raped murdered though laws adopted soviets western pressure enable uzbeks transition.trans people also face harassment tajikistan reportedly three reassignment surgeries performed turkmenistan repressive state notorious violating human rights.east asia china eunuchs existed china since years ago imperial servants years ago common civil servants time qin dynasty century ago sometimes viewed third sex transgender practice chinese histories often expressed relationship ruler officials terms male relationship females.crossgender behavior long common chinese theatre especially dan roles since least ming qing dynasties. |
Transgender history | today jin xing wellknown entertainer trans woman.in mids yao jinpings father went missing war japan yearold reported lost feminine traits become man said adams apple flattened breasts left find event widely reported press.du wrote account insisted yao become man yao compared lili elbe underwent sex reassignment decade hua mulan mythical wartime crossdresser.in doctors taiwan forced xie jianshun intersex man undergo maletofemale sex reassignment surgery taiwanese press compared former soldier christine jorgensen sought surgery decadelong media frenzy xie led increased coverage intersex transgender people general.in transgender studies established academic discipline.transgender people considered sexual minority china widespread transphobia means trans people face discrimination accessing housing education work healthcare.china requires trans people get consent families sex reassignment surgery leading many buy hormones black market attempt surgeries themselves.japan historical documentation male femaleassigned transgender people extensive especially edo period. |
Transgender history | transmasculine people found especially yoshiwara edos redlight district modern era worked onabe bars since s. start edo period izumo okuni founded kabuki dressing handsome man tryst woman one popular performance honored statue near performed depicts crossdressing samurai sword fan tokugawa shogunate banned women acting male performers took roles women.onnagata actor yoshizawa ayame dressed behaved ate like women even outside theatre.outside entertainment industry however trans people face stigma japan passed law requiring trans people want change gender marker sex reassignment surgery sterilized single children age supreme court upheld .japan became one first countries modern world elect openly trans man office electing tomoya hosoda city councillor iruma.south southeast asia cambodia khmer rouge phnom penhs trans community expelled killed trans women men raped jailed killed.escaped live refugees us. |
Transgender history | cambodia today trans traditional thirdgender people often harassed denied employment sex work.indian subcontinent indian texts early years ago document third gender connected hijras formed category thirdgender transfeminine people indian subcontinent since ancient times.rigveda roughly years ago said creation world lacked distinctions including sex gender state ancient poets expressed images like men wombs breasts.mahabharata – years ago tells trans man shikhandi.ramayana roughly years ago rama asks men women follow hijras remain blesses them. |
Transgender history | hijras assigned male birth may may castrate intersex assigned female.hijras wear feminine clothing usually adopt feminine names often live together households often regardless differences caste religion relate female fictive kin sisters daughters etc.perform events births weddings.the buddhist tipitaka composed years ago documents four gender categories female male pandaka ubhatobyanjanaka.says buddha tolerant monks transitioning nuns least initially though trans people face stigma possibility monastic transition later curtailed tradition female monasticism extinguished theravada buddhism third fifth century indian buddhists hostile transgender people.trans thirdgender categories connected § kathoeys exist thailand.beginning colonial authorities attempted eliminate hijras prohibiting performances transvestism. |
Transgender history | india since independence several state governments introduced specific welfare programs redress historical discrimination hijras transgender people.today least hijras india estimated bangladesh legally recognized third gender bangladesh india nepal pakistan.kamla jaan became first hijra elected mayor indian city katni around time shabnam mausi elected legislator gorakhpur.bangladesh several trans people filed run parliament currently trans hijra members.in hinduism ardhanarishvara halfmale halffemale fusion shiva shakti one several deities important many hijras transgender hindus called androgynous transgender deity.indonesia indonesia transthirdgender category people called waria. |
Transgender history | estimated million waria indonesian population million people.the bugis sulawesi recognize three sexes male female intersex five genders makkunrai comparable cisgender women oroané cisgender men calabai trans women calalai trans men bissu androgynous gender.an alltransgender netball team indonesia competed gay games new york city.team indonesian national champions.philippines today maleassigned people adopt feminine gender expression transgender gay termed bakla sometimes considered third gender.historically crossgender babaylan shamans respected termed bayog bayoc luzon asog visayan islands outlawed suppressed spanish colonial authorities.teduray people mindanao accepted two trans identities mentefuwaley lagey one became man mentefuwaley libun one became woman least s. crossdressing practiced american colonial rule. |
Transgender history | singer actress helen cruz prominent trans figure especially pioneer swardspeak.thailand especially thai scholars identify third fourth genders documented tipitaka kathoey thirdgender category already part traditional thai khmer culture time scripture composed years ago.especially thai buddhists say ananda buddhas cousin attendant born kathoeytransgender many previous lives expiate past misdeed.the category kathoey historically open maleassigned femaleassigned intersex people.since term come used others denote mainly maleassigned transvestites trans women latter usually refer simply phuying women minority refer phuying praphet song secondtype women sao praphet song secondtype females refer kathoey.kathoey often rendered english ladyboy.thailand become center performing sex reassignment surgery performs country. |
Transgender history | government proposed recognizing thirdgender people constitution instead retained protections individuals regardless phet sex interpreted include trans people third gender recognized identity documents.europe earliest history drawings figures around years ago depicting androgynous genderless humans domestic religious funerary settings occur around mediterranean.near today prague burial years ago found biologically male skeleton womans outfit feminine grave goods archaeologists consider early transgender burial.ancient greece ancient rome byzantium ancient greece phrygia roman republic empire cybele attis worshiped galli priests documented around bce around ce wore feminine clothes referred women often castrated therefore seen early transgender figures.in rome crossdressing also practiced saturnalia argue reinforced established gender identities making practices unacceptable outside rite.romans also viewed crossdressing negatively imposed punishment charondas catane decreed deserters wear female clothes three days crassus defeat persians hung lookalike dead general clad woman.women crossdressed men could access male opportunities depicted fictional story athenian woman dressing man vote ekklesia aristophanes ekklesiazusae agnodice athens dressed man get degree medicine axiothea philus crossdressed attend platos lectures wife calvisius sabinus dressed soldier join military camp.roman emperor elagabalus c. – said roman historians depilated worn makeup wigs rejected called lord preferred called lady offered vast sums money physician could provide imperial body female genitalia.despite marrying several women syrians stable relationship chariot driver hierocles cassius dio says elagabalus delighted called hierocles mistress wife queen. |
Transgender history | severan emperor therefore seen writers transgender transsexual.in anastasia patrician fled life court justinian constantinople spend twentyeight years death dressed male monk egypt coming viewed today transgender saint.coptic texts era fifth ninth centuries like texts around europe tell many femaleassigned people transitioning live men one monastic named hilaria child zeno dresses man brings reduction breast size cessation menstruation asceticism comes accepted fellow monks male hilarion modern scholars trans story marinos marina another byzantine became monk lebanon similar.other byzantine hagiographies describe eunuchs occupied kind thirdgender status like ignatios constantinople became patriarch constantinople saint.early scandinavia vikingera norse norse society stigmatized effeminacy especially sexual passivity also—it sometimes said—transgender crossdressing behavior calling ergi time characteristics norse revered gods complicated odin skilled effeminate seiðr magic assumed form woman several myths loki changed gender several occasions reason modern works label depict trickster deity genderfluid.in archaeologists found bones viking buried birka masculine grave goods female suggested burial could trans man original archaeologists said want apply modern term preferred see person woman.middle ages study concluded grave hattula finland containing body buried feminine clothing brooches valuable furs hiltless sword second sword later buried original grave earlier researchers speculated two bodies male female powerful woman one person klinefelter syndrome overall context grave indicates respected person whose gender identity may well nonbinary.in book even boḥan kalonymus ben kalonymus provence france wrote poem expressing lament cursing born boy calling penis defect wishing created woman writers see expression gender dysphoria identification trans woman.in london authorities arrested malebodied sex worker womens clothing went name eleanor rykener.rykener reported first gotten womens clothing learned embroidery perhaps completing apprenticeship female apprentices sleep men pay elizabeth brouderer rykener also slept women. |
Transgender history | rykeners testimony offers glimpse medieval sexual identities.carolyn dinshaw suggests rykeners living working oxford woman time indicates rykener enjoyed cordelia beattie says evident rykener could pass woman passing everyday life would involved gendered behaviour historian ruth mazo karras argues rykener trans woman could also described bisexual.historian judith bennett argues people familiar enough hermaphroditism rykeners repeated forays space male female might unremarkable streets fourteenthcentury london would soho today robert mills argues officials would even concerned rykeners switching gender roles sex work.a medieval works explore femaletomale transformation trans figures.th century french roman de silence nature nurture personified try sway child born girl raised boy longs feminine things also long enjoys life man put female identity clothing end story silence viewed least temporarily transgender.christine de pizans livre de la mutacion de fortune opens formerly woman fact man ... current selfdescription truth. |
Transgender history | shall describe means fiction fact transformation using metaphor iphis ianthe myth john gowers iphis ianthe also took leading modern scholars also view fortunes protagonist gowers transgender.balkans balkan sworn virgins stana cerović people assigned female birth transition live men personal desire urging family necessity dress men socialize men mens activities usually referred masculine pronouns outside presence.take name vow celibacy traditionally swore.gender found among several national religious groups balkans including muslims christians albania bosnia macedonia dalmatia dates least th century.thought traditional formally socially defined transmasculine gender role europe suggested may survival widespread prechristian european gender category.in serbia today since trans people able change legal gender approval psychiatrist endocrinologist without undergoing surgery one notable trans woman helena vuković former army major. |
Transgender history | belgium since belgians right change legal gender without sterilization.many belgian hospitals specialize sex reassignment surgery attracting patients countries france.october petra de sutter sworn deputy prime minister belgium alexander de croo becoming senior trans politician europe de sutter previously belgian senator member european parliament gynaecologist head department reproductive medicine ghent university hospital.denmark lili elbe danish trans woman one first recipients sex reassignment surgery.elbe assigned male birth successful painter transitioning. |
Transgender history | transitioned changed legal name lili ilse elvenes died complications overy uterus transplants.denmark also known role transition american christine jorgensen whose operations performed copenhagen starting .in denmark became first country world remove transgender identities list disorders mental health.france chevalier déon – french diplomat soldier appeared publicly man pursued masculine occupations years time successfully infiltrated court empress elizabeth russia presenting woman later promoted may engineered rumours déon assigned female birth thereafter agreed french government dress womens clothing death.doctors examined déons body death discovered male organs every respect perfectly formed also feminine characteristics modern scholars think deon may trans woman andor intersex.herculine barbin – french intersex individual assigned female birth raised girl.doctors examination age barbin reassigned male legal papers followed declaring barbin officially male.barbin changed names abel barbin wrote memoirs using female pronouns period transition male pronouns thereafter recovered following barbins suicide age published france english . |
Transgender history | judith butler refers michel foucaults commentary barbin book gender trouble.in march tilloylezmarchiennes elected—and may inaugurated—marie cau mayor making first openly transgender mayor france.germany early transgender people became subject popular interest germany covered several biographies sympathetic liberal press berlin.karl m. baer became one first known trans men sex reassignment surgery gained full legal recognition gender new birth certificate married first wife published semifictionalized autobiography aus eines mannes mädchenjahren memoirs mans maiden years emigrated palestine.year brazilian socialite dina alma de paradeda moved breslau became engaged male teacher committing suicide doctor revealed body male.made one first trans women known name central europe south american origin. |
Transgender history | biography published tagebuch einer männlichen braut diary male bride supposedly based diary.during weimar republic berlin liberal city one active lgbt rights movements world.magnus hirschfeld cofounded scientifichumanitarian committee whk berlin sought social recognition homosexual transgender men women branches several countries committee small scale first international lgbt organization.hirschfeld cofounded institut für sexualwissenschaft sexology research institute research library large archive marriage sex counseling office.institute worldwide pioneer call civil rights social acceptance homosexual transgender people.hirschfeld coined word transvestite. |
Transgender history | hirschfelds doctors help dora richter became first known trans woman undergo vaginoplasty along removal penis following removal testicles several years earlier lili elbe underwent similar surgeries dresden including unsuccessful ovary uterus transplant complications resulted death.nazis burned institutes library.on june european court human rights ruled favor van kück german trans woman whose insurance company denied reimbursement sex reassignment surgery hormone replacement therapy sued article article european convention human rights.italy traditional neapolitan culture recognized femminielli sort third gender maleassigned people markedly feminine gender expression androphilichomosexual orientation remain largely unstigmatized.in vladimir luxuria became first openly transgender woman elected italian parliament first transgender member parliament europe.in court cassation ruled sterilization sex reassignment surgery required order obtain legal gender change.in alex hai came trans man becoming first openly trans gondolier venice.russia european russia soviet union performed first sex reassignment surgeries since —when government passed law promoting nontraditional relations—russia become notoriously hostile trans people facing increasing harassment.dmitri isaevs clinic provided medical authorization half sex reassignment surgeries forced operate secret. |
Transgender history | court saint petersburg russias liberal city ordered business fired woman transitioned reinstate her.indigenous peoples far east among itelmens siberia third gender category koekchuch recorded th th centuries individuals assigned male birth dressed women did.spain records several individuals spain raised girls subsequently adopting male identities various circumstances historians think transgender including eleno de céspedes catalina de erauso.during franco era thousands trans women gay men jailed today fight compensation.law took effect allowing trans people change gender markers documents birth certificates passports without undergoing sterilization sex reassignment surgery.turkey bülent ersoy turkish singer assigned male birth gender reassignment surgery april . |
Transgender history | rüzgar erkoçlar turkish actor assigned female birth came trans february .united kingdom irishborn surgeon james barry long career surgeon rose second highest medical office british army improving conditions wounded soldiers inhabitants cape town south africa performing one first caesarean sections mother child survived.in first sexreassignment phalloplasty performed one british surgeon another harold gillies michael dillon earlier phalloplasty done cisgender man russia.in english model april ashley outed transgender one earliest britons known sex reassignment surgery made member order british empire mbe promoting trans equality.in gender recognition act passed giving transgender people legal recognition gender law subject certain conditions.oceania australia first reported case australian undertaking sex change operation exraaf staff sergeant robert james brooks february .the gender dysphoria clinic queen victoria hospital melbourne established dr trudy kennedy dr herbert bower .moved monash medical centre closed .australias first transgender rights advocacy organizations established melbournebased victorian transsexual coalition victorian transsexual association followed sydneybased australian transsexual association included prominent activist academic author roberta perkins.new zealand cook islands niue georgina beyer became first openly trans mayor world carterton new zealand elected became first transgender member parliament winning election represent wairarapa former sex worker helped pass prostitution reform bill decriminalizing sex work.some maori use terms whakawahine like woman tangata ira tane human man refer transwoman transmanlike categories. |
Transgender history | related term fakafifine denotes maleassigned people niue fulfill feminine third gender.similarly cook islands akavaine cook islands māori rarotongan word due crosscultural contact polynesians living new zealand especially samoan faafafine used since refer transgender people māori descent cook islands.samoa tonga fiji tahiti samoa faafafine manner women third gender uncertain origins go back least beginning twentieth century.faafafine assigned male birth express masculine feminine gender traits performing role otherwise performed women.word faatamaloa sometimes used transmale tomboyish gender category role.in tonga related term fakafefine commonly fakaleiti manner ladies denotes maleassigned people dress work women may partner men call simply leiti ladies. |
Spirit possession | common—one children former king taufaahau tupou iv d. leiti—and still held high regard though colonization westernization introduced transphobia.in fiji vakasalewalewa also written vaka sa lewa lewa maleassigned people perform roles usually carried women.tahiti rae rae fulfil similar role.see also digital transgender archiveinternational transgender day visibilityintersex historylgbt historytimeline lgbt historytimeline transgender historytransgender history book – book susan strykertransgender legal history united statestransgender rightstransgender studieshistory crossdressing referencesconcept spirit possession exists many cultures religions including buddhism christianity haitian vodou hinduism islam wicca southeast asian african traditions.depending cultural context found possession may considered voluntary involuntary may considered beneficial detrimental effects host.in study funded national institute mental health spirit possession beliefs found exist sample societies parts world highest numbers believing societies pacific cultures lowest incidence among native americans north south america.pentecostal charismatic christian churches move african oceanic areas merger belief take place demons becoming representative old indigenous religions christian ministers attempt exorcise.african traditions central africa democratic republic congo horn africa ethiopia among gurage people ethiopia spirit possession common belief.wiliam a. shack postulated caused gurage cultural attitudes food hunger plentiful food supply cultural pressures force gurage either share meet social obligations hoard eat secretly cause feelings anxiety. |
Spirit possession | distinctions drawn spirits strictly possess men spirits possess women spirits possess victims either sex.ritual illness affects men believed caused spirit called awre.affliction presents loss appetite nausea attacks severe stomach pains.persists victim may enter trancelike stupor sometimes regains consciousness long enough take food water.breathing often labored. |
Spirit possession | seizures trembling overcome patient extreme cases partial paralysis extremities.if victim recover naturally traditional healer sagwara summoned.sagwara determined spirits name use divination prescribes routine formula exorcise spirit.permanent cure however believed allow victim form relationship spirit.nevertheless victim subject chronic repossession treated repeating formula.formula involves preparation consumption dish ensete butter red pepper. |
Spirit possession | ritual victims head covered drape eats ensete ravenously ritual participants participate chanting.ritual ends possessing spirit announces satisfied.shack notes victims overwhelmingly poor men women fooddeprived men due ritual activities involve food redistribution consumption.shack postulates awre serves bring possessed man center social attention relieve anxieties inability gain prestige redistributing food primary way gurage men gain status society.the belief spirit possession part native culture sidama people southwest ethiopia.anthropologists irene john hamer postulated form compensation deprived within sidama society although draw i.m. |
Spirit possession | lewis see cultural anthropology section scientific views.majority possessed women whose spirits demand luxury goods alleviate condition men possessed well.possessed individuals sexes become healers due condition.hamer hamer suggest form compensation among deprived men deeply competitive society sidama man cannot gain prestige orator warrior farmer may still gain prestige spirit healer.women sometimes accused faking possession men never are. |
Spirit possession | east africa kenyathe digo people kenya refer spirits supposedly possess shaitani.shaitani typically demand luxury items make patient well again.despite fact men sometimes accuse women faking possessions order get luxury items attention sympathy generally regard spirit possession genuine condition view victims ill fault own.however men sometimes suspect women actively colluding spirits order possessed.the giriama people coastal kenya believe spirit possession.mayotein mayotte approximately adult population five times many women men enter trance states supposedly possessed certain identifiable spirits maintain stable coherent identities one possession next.mozambiquein mozambique new belief spirit possession appeared mozambican civil war.spirits called gamba said identified dead soldiers allegedly overwhelmingly possess women. |
Spirit possession | prior war spirit possession limited certain families less common.ugandain uganda woman named alice auma reportedly possessed spirit male italian soldier named lakwena messenger.ultimately led failed insurrection governmental forces.tanzaniathe sukuma people tanzania believe spirit possession.a nowextinct spirit possession cult existed among hadimu women zanzibar revering spirit called kitimiri.cult described account french missionary.cult faded virtually unknown s. southern africa belief spirit possession appears among xesibe xhosaspeaking people transkei south africa.majority supposedly possessed married women. |
Spirit possession | condition spirit possession among called inwatso.develop condition inwatso regarded special calling divine future.first treated sympathy respect allegedly develop abilities foretell future.west africa one religion among hausa people west africa hausa animism belief spirit possession prevalent.african diasporic traditions many diasporic traditional african religions possessing spirits necessarily harmful evil rather seeking rebuke misconduct living. |
Spirit possession | possession also purpose gain knowledge insight ancestral spirit deity.done dancing circle counterclockwise performing rituals call spirit.possession spirit african diaspora african traditional religions result healing person possessed information gained possession spirit provides knowledge one possessed.haitian vodou haitian vodou related african diaspora traditions one way participate practice spiritual experience possessed loa lwa.loa descends upon practitioner practitioners body used spirit according tradition. |
Spirit possession | spirits believed able give prophecies upcoming events situations pertaining possessed one also called chwal horse spirit.practitioners describe beautiful tiring experience.people possessed spirit describe onset feeling blackness energy flowing body electrocuted.according vodou believers occurs sign possession take place.according tradition practitioner recollection possession fact possessing spirit leaves body possessed one tired wonders happened possession.also believed feign possessions want attention feeling importance possessed carry high importance ceremony. |
Spirit possession | often chwal undergo form trial testing make sure possession allegedly genuine.example someone possessed one guédé spirits may offered piment liqueur made steeping chili peppers kleren potent alcoholic beverage.chwal consumes piment without showing evidence pain discomfort possession regarded genuine.umbanda concept spirit possession also found umbanda afrobrazilian folk religion.according tradition one possessing spirit pomba gira possesses women males. |
Spirit possession | hoodoo culture hoodoo created africanamericans.regional styles tradition africanamericans traveled tradition hoodoo changed according africanamericans environment.hoodoo includes reverence ancestral spirits africanamerican quilt making herbal healing bakongo igbo burial practices holy ghost shouting praise houses snake reverence africanamerican churches spirit possession nkisi practices black spiritual churches black theology ring shout kongo cosmogram simbi water spirits graveyard conjuring crossroads spirit making conjure canes incorporating animal parts pouring libations bible conjuring conjuring africanamerican tradition.hoodoo people become possessed holy ghost.spirit possession hoodoo influenced west african vodun spirit possession. |
Spirit possession | africans enslaved united states holy spirit holy ghost replaced african gods possession.spirit possession reinterpreted christian terms.africanamerican churches called filled holy ghost.william edward burghardt du bois w. e. b. du bois studied africanamerican churches early twentieth century.du bois asserts early years black church slavery plantations influenced voodooism.through counterclockwise circle dancing ring shouters built spiritual energy resulted communication ancestral spirits led spirit possession. |
Spirit possession | enslaved african americans performed counterclockwise circle dance someone pulled center ring spiritual vortex center.spiritual vortex center ring shout sacred spiritual realm.center ring shout ancestors holy spirit reside center.ring shout sacred dance hoodoo black churches results spirit possession.ring shout counterclockwise circle dance singing clapping results possession holy spirit. |
Spirit possession | believed people become possessed holy spirit hearts become filled holy ghost purifies heart soul evil replace joy.ring shout hoodoo influenced kongo cosmogram sacred symbol bantukongo people central africa.symbolizes cyclical nature life birth life death rebirth reincarnation soul.kongo cosmogram also symbolizes rising setting sun sun rising east setting west counterclockwise ring shouters dance circle counterclockwise invoke spirit.asian traditions buddhism according indian medical literature tantric buddhist scriptures seizers threaten lives young children appear animal form cow lion fox monkey horse dog pig cat crow pheasant owl snake. |
Spirit possession | however apart nightmare shapes believed impersonation incarnation animals could circumstances also highly beneficial according michel strickmann.chi chungfu chinese gynecologist writing early th century wrote addition five sorts falling frenzy classified according causative factors also four types frenzies distinguished sounds movements given victim seizure cow horse pig dog frenzies.mārain buddhism māra sometimes translated demon either suffering hell realm delusion.siddhartha became gautama buddha challenged mara embodiment temptation overcame it.traditional buddhism four forms māra enumeratedkleśamāra māra embodiment unskillful emotions greed hate delusion.mṛtyumāra māra death.skandhamāra māra metaphor entirety conditioned existence.devaputramāra deva sensuous realm tries prevent gautama buddha attaining liberation cycle rebirth night buddhas enlightenment.it believed māra depart different realm appeased.east asia certain sects taoism korean shamanism shinto japanese new religious movements east asian religions feature idea spirit possession.sects feature shamans supposedly become possessed mediums allegedly channel beings supernatural power enchanters said imbue foster spirits within objects like samurai swords. |
Spirit possession | hong kong film super normal ii 大迷信 shows true famous story young lady taiwan possesses dead body married woman live predetermined remaining life.still serving zhen tian temple yunlin county.chinashi chinese ancestor venerationshamanism solon people inner mongoliatangkijapanmisaki south asia ayurvedabhūtavidyā exorcism possessing spirits traditionally one eight limbs ayurveda.rajasthanthe concept spirit possession exists culture modern rajasthan.spirits allegedly possessing rajasthanis seen good beneficial others seen malevolent.good spirits said include murdered royalty underworld god bhaironji muslim saints fakirs.bad spirits believed include perpetual debtors die debt stillborn infants deceased widows foreign tourists. |
Spirit possession | supposedly possessed individual referred ghorala mount.possession even benign spirit regarded undesirable seen entail loss selfcontrol violent emotional outbursts.tamil nadutamil women india said experience possession peye spirits.according tradition spirits overwhelmingly possess new brides usually identified ghosts young men died romantically sexually frustrated ritually exorcised.sri lankathe coast veddas social group within minority group sri lankan tamil people eastern province sri lanka enter trances religious festivals regarded possessed spirit.although speak dialect tamil trances sometimes use mixed language contains words vedda language.southeast asia indonesiain bali animist traditions island include practice called sanghyang induction voluntary possession trance states specific purposes. |
Spirit possession | roughly similar voluntary possession vaudon voodoo sanghyang considered sacred state hyangs deities helpful spirits temporarily inhabit bodies participants.purpose sanghyang believed cleanse people places evil influences restore spiritual balance.thus often referred exorcism ceremony.in sulawesi women bonerate people sulawesi practice possessiontrance ritual smother glowing embers bare feet climax.fact burned process considered proof authenticity possession.malaysiafemale workers malaysian factories allegedly become possessed spirits factory owners generally regard mass hysteria intrusion irrational archaic beliefs modern setting.anthropologist aihwa ong noted spirit possession beliefs malaysia typically held older married women whereas female factory workers typically young unmarried.connects rapid industrialization modernization malaysia. |
Spirit possession | ong argued spirit possession traditional way rebelling authority without punishment suggests means protesting untenable working conditions sexual harassment women compelled endure.oceanic traditions melanesia urapmin people new guinea highlands practice form group possession known spirit disco tok pisin spirit disko.men women gather church buildings dancing circles jumping women sing christian songs called pulling holy spirit tok pisin pulim spirit urap sinik dagamin.songs melodies borrowed traditional womens songs sung drum dances urap wat dalamin lyrics typically telefol mountain ok languages.successful dancers get spirit tok pisin kisim spirit flailing wildly careening dance floor. |
Spirit possession | hour possessed collapse singing end spirit disco end prayer time bible reading sermon.body believed normally heavy urapmin ilum sin possession process holy spirit throwing sins ones body making person light fong again.completely new ritual urapmin indigenous tradition spiritpossession.micronesia concept spirit possession appears chuuk state one four states federated states micronesia.although chuuk overwhelmingly christian society traditional beliefs spirit possession dead still exist usually held women events usually brought family conflicts. |
Spirit possession | supposed spirits speaking women typically admonish family members treat better.european traditions ancient greece abrahamic traditions christianity roman catholic doctrine states angels noncorporeal spiritual beings intelligence will.fallen angels demons able demonically possess individuals without victims knowledge consent leaving morally blameless.demonic possession beginning christianity held possession derives devil i.e.satan lesser demons fallen angels. |
Spirit possession | battle satan heaven satan believed engage spiritual attacks including demonic possession human beings use supernatural powers harm physically psychologically.prayer deliverance blessings upon man womans house body sacraments exorcisms generally used drive demon out.old testamentthe catholic encyclopedia says one apparent case demonic possession old testament king saul tormented evil spirit samuel depends interpreting hebrew word rûah implying personal influence may even example described certain.addition saul described tormented rather possessed relieved torments david play lyre him.some theologians ángel manuel rodríguez say mediums like ones mentioned leviticus possessed demons.another possible case demonic possession old testament includes false prophets king ahab relied upon recapturing ramothgilead kings .described empowered deceiving spirit.new testamentthe new testament mentions several episodes jesus drove demons persons. |
Spirit possession | whilst christians believe demonic possession involuntary affliction biblical verses suggest demon possession voluntary.example judas isacriot fell devils possession john continually agreed devils suggestions betray jesus wholly submitted him.the new testament holy bible indicates people possessed demons linguistically debatable according original greek text.nestlealand page et al demons respond submit jesus christs authorityin synagogue man possessed word exist original greek text.see nestlealand p. et al demon evil spirit.cried top voice ha want us jesus nazareth come destroy us know are—the holy one god quiet jesus said sternly. |
Spirit possession | come demon threw man came without injuring him.people amazed said teaching authority power gives orders evil spirits come news spread throughout surrounding areait also indicates demons possess animals exorcism gerasene demoniac.catholicismcatholic exorcists differentiate ordinary satanicdemonic activity influence mundane everyday temptations extraordinary satanicdemonic activity take six different forms ranging complete control satan demons voluntary submissionpossession satan demons take full possession persons body without consent.possession usually comes result persons actions actions lead increased susceptibility satans influence.obsession includes sudden attacks irrationally obsessive thoughts usually culminating suicidal ideation typically influences dreams.oppression loss consciousness involuntary action biblical book job job tormented satan series misfortunes business material possessions family health.external physical pain caused satan demons.infestation affects houses objectsthings animals andsubjection person voluntarily submits satan demons.in roman ritual true demonic satanic possession characterized since middle ages following four typical characteristicsmanifestation superhuman strength.speaking tongues languages victim cannot know.revelation knowledge distant hidden victim cannot know.blasphemous rage obscene hand gestures using profanity aversion holy symbols names relics places.the new catholic encyclopedia states ecclesiastical authorities reluctant admit diabolical possession cases many explained physical mental illness alone.therefore medical psychological examinations necessary performance major exorcism.standard must met moral certitude de exorcismis . |
Spirit possession | exorcist morally certain beyond reasonable doubt dealing genuine case demonic possession must reasonable explanation phenomena question.official catholic doctrine affirms demonic possession occur distinguished mental illness stresses cases mental illness misdiagnosed demonic influence.catholic exorcisms occur authority bishop accordance strict rules simple exorcism also occurs baptism.reformedthe infliction demonic torment upon individual chronicled premodern protestant literature.king james discussed four methods daemonic influence upon individual book daemonologiespectra haunting troubling certain houses solitary places.obsession following outwardly torment individual diverse hours either weaken cast diseases upon body book job.possession entrance inwardly individual beget uncontrollable fits induce blasphemiesfaerie influence voluntarily submit consort prophesy servitude.king james attested symptoms derived demonic possession could discernible natural diseases.rejected symptoms signs prescribed catholic church vain e.g.rage begotten holy water fear cross etc. |
Spirit possession | found exorcism rites troublesome ineffective recite.rites catholic church remedy torment demonic spirits rejected counterfeit since possessed could cured them.james therefore declared protestant view casting devils easy understand casting devils virtue fasting prayer incalling name god suppose many imperfections person instrument christ teaches us mat.power false prophets cast devils.in medieval great britain christian church offered suggestions safeguarding ones home.suggestions ranged dousing household holy water placing wax herbs thresholds ward witches occult avoiding certain areas townships known frequented witches devil worshippers dark. |
Spirit possession | afflicted persons restricted entering church might share shelter porch lepers persons offensive life.prayers quiet might come receive bishops blessing listen sermon.fed daily prayed exorcists case recovery fast days admitted eucharist names cures entered church records.church england forbade clergy performing exorcisms numerous fraudulent cases demonic possession.baptistin may baptist deliverance study group baptist union great britain christian denomination issued warning occult spirituality following rise people trying communicate dead.commission reported becoming involved activities spiritualism open doorway great spiritual oppression requires christian rite set person free.evangelicalin charismatic evangelical christianity exorcisms demons often carried individuals groups belong deliverance ministries movement. |
Spirit possession | according groups symptoms possessions include chronic fatigue syndrome homosexuality addiction pornography alcoholism.new testaments description people evil spirits includes knowledge future events acts great strength act among others shows evil spirits speak christ mark .evangelical denominations believe demonic possession possible one already professed faith christ holy spirit already occupies body demon cannot enter.islam various types creatures jinn shayatin ʻafarit found within islamic culture often held responsible spirit possession.spirit possession appears islamic theology wider cultural tradition.ʻafaritalthough opposed muslim scholars sleeping near graveyard tomb believed enable contact ghosts dead visit sleeper dreams provide hidden knowledge. |
Spirit possession | possession ʻafarit vengeful ghost said grant possessed supernatural powers drives insane well.jinnjinn much physical spirits however due subtle bodies composed fire air marijin min nar purported able possess bodies humans.physical intrusion jinn conceptually different whisperings devils.though directly attested quran notion jinn possessing humans widespread among muslims also accepted islamic scholars.since jinn said free reasons possess humans necessarily harmful.various reasons given jinn might seek possess individual falling love taking revenge hurting relatives undefined reasons. |
Spirit possession | intended possession covenant jinn must renewed.since jinn necessarily evil distinguished cultural concepts possession devilsdemons.shayatinin contrast jinn shayatin inherently evil.iblis leader shayatin tempts humans sin following lower nafs.hadiths suggest demonsdevils whisper within human body within next heart devilish whisperings arabic waswās وَسْوَاس sometimes thought kind possession.unlike possession jinn whisperings demons affects soul instead body. |
Spirit possession | judaism shedimalthough forbidden hebrew bible magic widely practiced late second temple period well documented period following destruction temple rd th th centuries c.e.jewish magical papyri inscriptions amulets ostraca incantation bowls used jewish magical practices shedim unclean spirits.according catholic encyclopedia jewish methods exorcism described book tobias.dybbukin th century isaac luria jewish mystic wrote transmigration souls seeking perfection.disciples took idea step creating idea dybbuk soul inhabiting victim accomplished task atoned sin.dybbuk appears jewish folklore literature well chronicles jewish life. |
Spirit possession | jewish folklore dybbuk disembodied spirit wanders restlessly inhabits body living person.baal shem could expel harmful dybbuk exorcism.shamanic traditions shamanism religious practice involves practitioner believed interact spirit world altered states consciousness trance.goal usually direct spirits spiritual energies physical world healing another purpose.new religious movements wicca wiccans believe voluntary possession goddess connected sacred ceremony drawing moon. |
Spirit possession | high priestess solicits goddess possess speak her.scientific views cultural anthropology works jean rouch germaine dieterlen marcel griaule extensively cited research studies possession western africa extended brazil north america due slave trade.the anthropologist i.m.lewis noted women likely involved spirit possession cults men postulated cults act means compensation exclusion spheres within respective cultures.physical anthropology anthropologists alice b. kehoe dody h. giletti argued reason women commonly seen afroeurasian spirit possession cults deficiencies thiamine tryptophanniacin calcium vitamin d. argued combination poverty food taboos cause problem exacerbated strains pregnancy lactation.postulated involuntary symptoms deficiencies affecting nervous systems institutionalized spirit possession. |
Spirit possession | medicine psychology spirit possession kind including demonic possession psychiatric medical diagnosis recognized either dsm icd.however clinical psychiatry trance possession disorders defined states involving temporary loss sense personal identity full awareness surroundings generally classed type dissociative disorder.people alleged possessed spirits sometimes exhibit symptoms similar associated mental illnesses psychosis catatonia hysteria mania tourettes syndrome epilepsy schizophrenia dissociative identity disorder including involuntary uncensored behavior extrahuman extrasocial aspect individuals actions.uncommon ascribe experience sleep paralysis demonic possession although physical mental illness.studies found alleged demonic possessions related trauma.in entry article dissociative identity disorder dsm states possessionform identities dissociative identity disorder typically manifest behaviors appear spirit supernatural outside person taken control individual begins speaking acting distinctly different manner.symptoms vary across cultures. |
Origins of the Cold War | dsm indicates personality states dissociative identity disorder may interpreted possession cultures instances spirit possession often related traumatic experiences—suggesting possession experiences may caused mental distress.cases dissociative identity disorder alter personality questioned identity percent reported identify demons.th century term mental disorder patient believes possessed demons evil spirits demonomania cacodemonomanis.some expressed concern belief demonic possession limit access health care mentally ill. notable examples purported spirit channelers alphabetical order purported demonic possessions chronological order see also references bibliographyorigins derive diplomatic occasional military confrontations stretching back decades followed issue political boundaries central europe nondemocratic control east soviet army.came economic issues especially marshall plan first major military confrontation threat hot war berlin blockade –.lines sharply drawn cold war largely place europe.outside europe starting points vary conflict centered us development informal empire southeast asia mids.events preceding world war ii even communist takeover russia underlay older tensions soviet union european countries united states.russian revolution world war britain france russia formed triple entente comprised major allied powers start. |
Origins of the Cold War | us joined selfstyled associated power march .bolsheviks seized power russia november german armies advanced rapidly across borderlands.allies responded economic blockade russia.early march soviets followed wave popular disgust war accepted harsh german peace terms treaty brestlitovsk.eyes allies russia helping germany win war freeing million german soldiers western front relinquishing much russias food supply industrial base fuel supplies communications western europe. |
Origins of the Cold War | according historian spencer tucker allies felt treaty ultimate betrayal allied cause sowed seeds cold war.brestlitovsk spectre german domination eastern europe threatened become reality allies began think seriously military intervention proceeded step economic warfare bolsheviks.bolsheviks saw russia first step planning incite revolutions capitalism every western country need peace germany led soviet leader vladimir lenin away position.in britain sent money troops support antibolshevik white counterrevolutionaries.policy spearheaded minister war winston churchill.france japan united states also sent forces help decide russian civil war whites’ favor. |
Origins of the Cold War | lenin made peace overtures wilson american leader responded sending diplomat william bullitt moscow.allies ultimately rejected ceasefire terms bullitt negotiated believing white victory imminent.however bolsheviks operating unified command central location defeated opposition one one took full control russia well breakaway provinces ukraine georgia armenia azerbaijan.bainbridge colby american secretary state announced american policy refusing deal new regime.soviet russia found isolated international diplomacy.lenin stated soviet union surrounded hostile capitalist encirclement viewed diplomacy weapon keep soviet enemies divided. |
Origins of the Cold War | lenin set comintern called revolutionary upheavals capitalist countries.nevertheless communist revolutions failed germany bavaria hungary mids moscow longer fomenting revolution.interwar diplomacy – differences political economic systems western democracies soviet union—dictatorship one party versus pluralistic competition among parties mass arrests execution dissidents versus free press independent courts state ownership farms businesses versus capitalism became simplified refined ideologies represent two ways life.united states president franklin d. roosevelt officially recognized soviet union.long delay caused moscows repudiation tsaristera debts undemocratic nature soviet government threats overthrow capitalism using local communist parties. |
Origins of the Cold War | issues faded opportunity greater trade appealed washington.start world war ii – moscow angry western appeasement adolf hitler signing munich agreement gave germany partial control czechoslovakia conference soviet union invited.in conducting negotiations british french group germany regarding potential military political agreements soviet union germany signed commercial agreement providing trade certain german military civilian equipment exchange soviet raw materials molotov–ribbentrop pact commonly named foreign secretaries two countries molotov–ribbentrop included secret agreement split poland eastern europe two states.wartime alliance – june germany broke molotov–ribbentrop pact operation barbarossa invasion soviet union territories two countries previously divided.stalin switched cooperation hitler churchill.britain soviets signed formal alliance u.s. join attack pearl harbor december . |
Origins of the Cold War | immediately disagreement britains ally poland soviet union.british poles strongly suspected stalin cooperating hitler ordered execution polish officer pows later become known katyn massacre.still soviets western allies forced cooperate despite tensions.u.s. shipped vast quantities lendlease material soviets.britain agreed broader military political alliance .during war sides disagreed military strategy especially question opening second front germany western europe. |
Origins of the Cold War | early july stalin asked britain invade northern france britain position carry request.stalin also requested western allies open second front early months war—which finally occurred dday june .us britain initially indicated would open second front postponed times.throughout world war ii soviet nkvds mole kim philby access highimportance british mi intelligence passed soviets.able alert nkvd british intelligence soviets–including american oss shared british soviets.soviets believed time charged throughout cold war americans intentionally delayed opening second front germany order intervene last minute influence peace settlement dominate europe. |
Origins of the Cold War | historians john lewis gaddis dispute claim citing military strategic calculations timing normandy invasion.meantime russians suffered heavy casualties many twenty million dead.nevertheless soviet perceptions misconceptions west vice versa left strong undercurrent tension hostility allied powers.in turn soviets appeared allies deliberately delayed relief polish undergrounds warsaw uprising nazis.soviets supply uprising air significant time also refused allow american air drops.least one occasion soviet fighter shot raf plane supplying polish insurgents warsaw. |
Origins of the Cold War | george orwell moved make public warning soviet postwar intentions.secret war also took place british soebacked ak soviet nkvdbacked partisans.britishtrained polish special forces agent maciej kalenkiewicz killed soviets time.british soviets sponsored competing factions resistance fighters yugoslavia greece although ceased churchill stalin made percentages agreement.both sides moreover held dissimilar ideas regarding establishment maintenance postwar security.americans tended understand security situational terms assuming usstyle governments markets established widely possible countries could resolve differences peacefully international organizations. |
Origins of the Cold War | key us vision security postwar world shaped according principles laid atlantic charter—in words liberal international system based free trade open markets.vision would require rebuilt capitalist europe healthy germany center serve hub global affairs.this would also require us economic political leadership postwar world.europe needed usas assistance rebuild domestic production finance international trade.usa world power economically devastated fighting.end war producing around fifty percent worlds industrial goods.soviet leaders however tended understand security terms space. |
Origins of the Cold War | reasoning conditioned russias historical experiences given frequency country invaded preceding years.second world war experience particularly dramatic russians soviet union suffered unprecedented devastation result nazi onslaught million soviet citizens died war tens thousands soviet cities towns villages leveled soviet factories destroyed.order prevent similar assault future stalin determined use red army gain control poland dominate balkans destroy utterly germanys capacity engage another war.problem stalins strategy risked confrontation equally powerful united states viewed stalins actions flagrant violation yalta agreement.at end war europe may soviets insisted occupying danish island bornholm due strategic position entrance baltic.local german commander insisted surrendering western allies german forces rest denmark soviets bombed island causing heavy casualties damage among civilian population lightly touched throughout war invaded island occupied mid considered initial moves cold war.even war came end seemed highly likely cooperation western powers ussr would give way intense rivalry conflict. |
Origins of the Cold War | due primarily starkly contrasting economic ideologies two superpowers quite easily strongest world.whereas usa liberal twoparty democracy advanced capitalist economy based free enterprise profitmaking ussr oneparty marxist–leninist state statecontrolled economy private wealth outlawed.nevertheless origins cold war also seen historical episode demarcated spheres interests united states soviet union.wartime conferences several postwar disagreements western soviet leaders related differing interpretations wartime immediate postwar conferences.the tehran conference late first allied conference stalin present.conference soviets expressed frustration western allies yet opened second front germany western europe. |
Origins of the Cold War | tehran allies also considered political status iran.time british occupied southern iran soviets occupied area northern iran bordering soviet republic azerbaijan.nevertheless end war tensions emerged timing pull sides oilrich region.the differences roosevelt churchill led several separate deals soviets.october churchill traveled moscow proposed percentages agreement divide balkans respective spheres influence including giving stalin predominance romania bulgaria churchill carte blanche greece.yalta conference february roosevelt signed separate deal stalin regard asia refused support churchill issues poland reparations. |
Origins of the Cold War | roosevelt ultimately approved percentage agreement still apparently firm consensus framework postwar settlement europe.at second quebec conference highlevel military conference held quebec city – september churchill roosevelt reached agreement number matters including plan germany based henry morgenthau jr.s original proposal.memorandum drafted churchill provided eliminating warmaking industries ruhr saar ... looking forward converting germany country primarily agricultural pastoral character.however longer included plan partition country several independent states.may president truman signed u.s. occupation directive jcs effect two years enthusiastically supported stalin.directed u.s. forces occupation ...take steps looking toward economic rehabilitation germany.some historians argued cold war began us negotiated separate peace nazi ss general karl wolff northern italy. |
Origins of the Cold War | soviet union initially allowed participate dispute led heated correspondence franklin roosevelt stalin.general wolff war criminal appears guaranteed immunity nuremberg trials office strategic services oss commander later cia director allen dulles met march .wolff forces considered help implement operation unthinkable secret plan invade soviet union winston churchill advocated period.at february yalta conference allies attempted define framework postwar settlement europe.allies could reach firm agreements crucial questions occupation germany postwar reparations germany fate poland.final consensus reached germany agree soviet request reparations totaling billion basis negotiations. |
Origins of the Cold War | debates composition polands postwar government also acrimonious.yalta conference ended declaration liberated europe pledging respect democratic forms providing diplomatic mechanism constituting generally acceptable polish government.following allied victory may soviets effectively occupied eastern europe us much western europe.occupied germany us soviet union established zones occupation loose framework fourpower control ailing french british.potsdam atomic bomb potsdam conference starting late july allies met decide administer defeated nazi germany agreed unconditional surrender nine weeks earlier may may day.serious differences emerged future development germany eastern europe. |
Origins of the Cold War | potsdam us represented new president harry s. truman april succeeded office upon roosevelts death.truman unaware roosevelts plans postwar engagement soviet union generally uninformed foreign policy military matters.new president therefore initially reliant set advisers including ambassador soviet union averell harriman secretary navy james forrestal.group tended take harder line towards moscow roosevelt done.administration officials favoring cooperation soviet union incorporation socialist economies world trade system marginalized. |
Origins of the Cold War | uk represented new prime minister clement attlee replaced churchill labour partys defeat conservatives general election.the us invited britain atomic bomb project kept secret soviet union.stalin became aware americans working bomb spy network however.one week end potsdam conference us bombed hiroshima nagasaki.shortly attacks stalin protested us officials truman offered soviets little real influence occupied japan.stalin also outraged actual dropping bombs calling “superbarbarity” claiming “the balance destroyed…that cannot be.” truman administration intended use ongoing nuclear weapons program pressure soviet union international relations.the immediate end war material shipments america ussr surrender germany also upset politicians moscow believed showed u.s. intentions support ussr to. |
Origins of the Cold War | creation eastern bloc war stalin sought secure soviet unions western border installing communistdominated regimes soviet influence bordering countries.years immediately war soviet union annexed several countries soviet socialist republics within union soviet socialist republics.many originally countries effectively ceded nazi germany molotov–ribbentrop pact germany invaded soviet union.later annexed territories include eastern poland incorporated two different ssrs latvia became latvia ssr estonia became estonian ssr lithuania became lithuania ssr part eastern finland karelofinnish ssr annexed russian sfsr northern romania became moldavian ssr.other states converted soviet satellite states east germany peoples republic poland peoples republic hungary czechoslovak socialist republic peoples republic romania peoples republic albania aligned away soviet union towards peoples republic china.the defining characteristic stalinist communism implemented eastern bloc states unique symbiosis state society economy resulting politics economics losing distinctive features autonomous distinguishable spheres.initially stalin directed systems rejected western institutional characteristics market economies democratic governance dubbed bourgeois democracy soviet parlance rule law subduing discretional intervention state. |
Origins of the Cold War | economically communist depended upon soviet union significant amounts materials.first five years following world war ii massive emigration states west occurred restrictions implemented thereafter stopped eastwest migration except limited bilateral agreements.division long telegram mr. x february george f. kennans long telegram moscow helped articulate growing hard line soviets.telegram argued soviet union motivated traditional russian imperialism marxist ideology soviet behavior inherently expansionist paranoid posing threat united states allies.later writing mr. x article sources soviet conduct foreign affairs july kennan drafted classic argument adopting policy containment toward soviet union. |
Origins of the Cold War | iron curtain speech march winston churchill westminster college fulton missouri gave speech sinews peace declaring iron curtain descended across europe.standpoint soviets speech incitement west begin war ussr called angloamerican alliance soviets morgenthau marshall plans lost million people war suffered german invasion twice years suffered tens millions casualties onslaughts west three times preceding years soviet union determined destroy germanys capacity another war.alignment u.s. policy foreseen returning germany pastoral state without heavy industry morgenthau plan.september james f. byrnes made speech germany repudiating morgenthau plan warning soviets us intended maintain military presence europe indefinitely.see restatement policy germany byrnes admitted one month later nub program win german people ... battle us russia minds .... increasing costs food imports avoid massstarvation germany danger losing entire nation communism u.s. government abandoned morgenthau plan september secretary state james f. byrnes speech restatement policy germany.in january truman appointed general george marshall secretary state scrapped joint chiefs staff jcs directive embodied morgenthau plan supplanted jcs decreed orderly prosperous europe requires economic contributions stable productive germany.. administration officials met soviet foreign minister vyacheslav molotov others press economically selfsufficient germany including detailed accounting industrial plants good infrastructure already removed soviets. |
Origins of the Cold War | six weeks negotiations molotov refused demands talks adjourned.marshall particularly discouraged personally meeting stalin expressed little interest solution german economic problems.united states concluded solution could wait longer.june speech comporting truman doctrine marshall announced comprehensive program american assistance european countries wanting participate including soviet union eastern europe called marshall plan.with initial planning marshall plan mid plan depended reactivated german economy restrictions placed german production lessened.roof permitted steel production example raised prewar production levels prewar levels. |
Origins of the Cold War | scrapping jcs paved way currency reform halted rampant inflation.stalin opposed marshall plan.built eastern bloc protective belt soviet controlled nations western border wanted maintain buffer zone states combined weakened germany soviet control.fearing american political cultural economic penetration stalin eventually forbade soviet eastern bloc countries newly formed cominform accepting marshall plan aid.czechoslovakia required sovietbacked czechoslovak coup détat brutality shocked western powers event far set motion brief scare war would occur swept away last vestiges opposition marshall plan united states congress.september central committee secretary andrei zhdanov declared truman doctrine intended accordance american help reactionary regimes actively oppose democratic people bears undisguised aggressive character. |
Origins of the Cold War | greece italy greece civil war involving communistled partisan movement elaseam british special forces terminated arms supplies elaelam promonarchist armed forces strengthened.political front americans british encouragement attempted dismantle elaseam socialist structures countryside anticommunist swing gradually occurred.western allies conducted meetings italy march german representatives forestall takeover italian communist resistance forces northern italy hinder potential postwar influence civilian communist party.affair caused major rift stalin churchill letter roosevelt april stalin complained secret negotiations serve preserve promote trust countries.nazi–soviet relations falsifiers history relations deteriorated january u.s. state department also published collection documents titled nazi–soviet relations – documents archives german foreign office contained documents recovered foreign office nazi germany revealing soviet conversations germany regarding molotov–ribbentrop pact including secret protocol dividing eastern europe german–soviet commercial agreement discussions soviet union potentially becoming fourth axis power.response one month later soviet union published falsifiers history book edited partially rewritten stalin attacked west. |
Origins of the Cold War | berlin blockade airlift first major crisis emerging cold war berlin blockade –.historian carol k. fink argues crisis occupies special place cold war historiography emblem soviet aggressiveness angloamerican resistance.setbacks soviet plans marshall plan successful introduction new currency west germany massive electoral losses communist parties moscow decided cut land access west berlin rail highway thereby initiating berlin blockade.berlin located within sovietoccupied zone germany available methods supplying city three limited air corridors.by february massive postwar military cuts entire united states army reduced men.military forces nonsoviet berlin sectors totaled americans british french. |
Origins of the Cold War | soviet military forces soviet sector surrounded berlin totaled one half million men.two united states regiments berlin would provided little resistance soviet attack.therefore massive aerial supply campaign initiated united states britain france countries success caused stalin lift blockade may .time soviet military politburo contemplate military escalation berlin crisis.the united states berlin crisis underscored need reverse demobilization army.july president truman reopened military draft. |
Origins of the Cold War | called nearly million men register military service within next two months.the dispute germany escalated truman refused give soviet union reparations west germanys industrial plants believed would hamper germanys economic recovery further.stalin responded splitting soviet sector germany communist state.dismantling west german industry finally halted germany agreed place heavy industry control european coal steel community took role international authority ruhr.at times signs caution.stalin observed agreement churchill aid communists struggle britishsupported anticommunist regime greece.finland accepted friendly noncommunist government russian troops withdrawn austria end . |
Origins of the Cold War | soviet military perspective soviet military focused main mission defense soviet union.perspective formation nato decisive threat became starting point cold war.historian david glantz argues thatmilitarily soviets considered threatened first united states atomic monopoly broken second emergence united states dominated military alliances menacing nato.soviet union responded strategically preserving large expandable peacetime military establishment keeping large military forces conquered regions eastern europe cloaking forces within political guise alliance warsaw pact could contend nato multilateral basis.major thrust soviet military strategy possess conventional military force whose offensive capabilities could check western nuclear conventional military power. |
Origins of the Cold War | regions cold war took place worldwide somewhat different timing trajectory outside europe.africa decolonization took place first largely accomplished s. main rivals sought bases support new national political alignments.latin america world war ii united states military operations widespread support across latin america except argentina.cold war emerging europe washington made repeated efforts encourage latin american countries take cold war anticommunist position.reluctant – example colombia sent soldiers united nations contingent korean war. |
Origins of the Cold War | soviet union quite weak across latin america.late moscow achieve diplomatic commercial relationships latin american countries.two trade agreements argentina mexico.communist movements existed brazil elsewhere disbanded outlawed.washington exaggerated dangers decided preemptive attack possible communist threat. |
Origins of the Cold War | sought anticommunist resolutions annual meetings pan american union renamed organization american states oas paid special attention growth leftwing forces guatemala.compromise reached whereby latin american states agreed vague statements support american cold war position united states provided expanded financial grants loans stimulate economic growth.th interamerican conference caracas washington demanded resolution establishment communist government american state threat peace hemisphere.guatemala cast negative vote.guatemalas military cia encouragement overthrew leftwing government later year. |
Origins of the Cold War | fidel castro engineered revolutionary takeover cuba – little soviet support.united states smaller latin countries outvoted larger powers required twothirds majority identify cuba communist regime suspend oas.far east pacific war ended malaya plunged state emergency british commonwealth forces fought protracted counterinsurgency war former communistled mpaja ally fought japanese demanded independence britain.british hong kong surrendered japan december civil unrest occurred britain rapidly reestablished rule end war.australias entry cold war came rushed combat air sea forces korean war two days americans did.australian prime minister received heros welcome washington. |
Origins of the Cold War | anzus military alliance new zealand united states signed july plan consultation involve military planning like nato.public opinion australia intensely hostile japan wartime atrocities japan ally cold war australias accepted generous soft peace treaty japan .instead worrying resurgent japan australia worried possible chinese threat.asia following decades struggle chinese communists mao zedong defeated chiang kaisheks nationalist armies took control mainland.nationalist leaders much chinas upper class fled taiwan american protection. |
Origins of the Cold War | stalin long supported chiang kaishek also giving help communists.united states tried – bring nationalists communists together coalition success.conflict therefore part cold war –.late however china ussr swords point became bitter enemies ideological control marxist–leninist orthodoxy.two set rival communist organizations countries across world. |
Origins of the Cold War | cold war became threeway conflict.france many years dealing nationalist insurgency vietnam communists led ho chi minh played prominent leadership role.maos communists took control north side chinavietnam border began supporting insurgents especially providing sanctuary french attacks.mark lawrence frederik logevall point resurgent french colonialism became inextricably intertwined cold war tensions especially years .american pressure france tried force france give priority fighting communism rather fighting vietnamese nationalism.middle east political situation iran flashpoint major players – soviet union sponsoring two breakaway provinces northern iran adjacent soviet republic azerbaijan. |
Origins of the Cold War | soviet troops stationed northwestern iran war.refused withdraw backed revolts established shortlived prosoviet separatist national states called azerbaijan peoples government republic kurdistan.issue debated united nations moscow abandoned position conflict permanently resolved peacefully prowestern government resuming control.iran become major battlefield cold war history confrontation britain united states.the longstanding conflict arabs jews mandatory palestine region continued britain increasingly impossible situation mandate holder.balfour declaration calling homeland jews supported soviet union united states. |
Origins of the Cold War | countries promptly recognize independent state israel .soviet union later broke israel support arab enemies.region independent trouble zone rather playing field cold war precipitating factor cold war.by arab nationalism based egypt neutralizing force.soviet union leaned increasingly toward egypt.united states based cold war coalition primarily baghdad pact formed central treaty organization cento included iran iraq pakistan turkey united kingdom. |
Origins of the Cold War | historians beginning cold war historians trace origins period immediately following world war ii others argue began october revolution russia bolsheviks took power.lenin stated new state surrounded hostile capitalist encirclement viewed diplomacy weapon used order keep soviet unions enemies divided.began new communist international comintern based moscow designed plan revolutionary upheavals abroad.ineffective—communist uprisings failed germany hungary elsewhere.historian max beloff argues soviets saw prospect permanent peace soviet constitution proclaimingsince time formation soviet republics states world divided two camps camp capitalism camp socialism. |
Origins of the Cold War | camp capitalism national enmity inequality colonial slavery chauvinism national oppression pogroms imperialist brutalities wars.camp socialism mutual confidence peace national freedom equality dwelling together peace brotherly collaboration peoples.according british historian christopher suttonin called first cold war britains intervention russian civil war uneasy alliance soviet union axis powers british distrust revolutionary regicidal bolsheviks resulted domestic foreign colonial policies aimed resisting spread communism.conflict took new battlefields new weapons new players greater intensity still fundamentally conflict soviet imperialism real imagined.the idea longterm continuity minority scholarly view challenged.frank ninkovich writesas two cold wars thesis chief problem two periods incommensurable.sure joined together enduring ideological hostility postworld war years bolshevism geopolitical menace. |
Origins of the Cold War | world war ii contrast soviet union superpower combined ideological antagonism kind geopolitical threat posed germany japan second world war.even amicable relations conceivable post relations would turned much same.the usage term cold war describe postwar tensions u.s. sovietled blocs popularized bernard baruch u.s. financier adviser harry truman used term speech south carolina state legislature april .since term cold war popularized extensive disagreement many political scholarly discourses exactly sources postwar tensions.american historiography disagreement responsible quick unraveling wartime alliance whether conflict two superpowers inevitable could avoided.discussion questions centered large part works william appleman williams walter lafeber gabriel kolko john lewis gaddis.officials truman administration placed responsibility postwar tensions soviets claiming stalin violated promises made yalta pursued policy expansionism eastern europe conspired spread communism throughout world.historians associated wisconsin school diplomatic history williams however placed responsibility breakdown postwar peace mostly u.s. citing range u.s. efforts isolate confront soviet union well end world war ii. |
Origins of the Cold War | according williams later writers influenced work—such lafeber author popular survey text america russia cold war published ten editions —u.s.policymakers shared overarching concern maintaining capitalism domestically.order ensure goal pursued policy ensuring open door foreign markets u.s. business agriculture across world.perspective growing economy domestically went handinhand consolidation u.s. power internationally.williams lafeber also dismissed assumption soviet leaders committed postwar expansionism.cited evidence soviet unions occupation eastern europe defensive rationale soviet leaders saw attempting avoid encirclement united states allies. |
Origins of the Cold War | view soviet union weak devastated end second world war unable pose serious threat u.s. emerged sole world power economically devastated war also sole possessor atomic bomb .gaddis however argues conflict less lone fault one side result plethora conflicting interests misperceptions two superpowers propelled domestic politics bureaucratic inertia.gaddis hold either side entirely responsible onset conflict argues soviets held least slightly accountable problems.according gaddis stalin much better position compromise western counterparts given much broader power within regime truman contend congress often undermined vociferous political opposition home.asking possible predict wartime alliance would fall apart within matter months leaving place nearly half century cold war gaddis wrote essay geography demography tradition contributed outcome determine it.took men responding unpredictably circumstances forge chain causation took stalin particular responding predictably authoritarian paranoid narcissistic predisposition lock place.global historian prasenjit duara placed issue global context cold war increasingly treated global historical period beginning customarily truman doctrine sought contain communism expansion soviet influence ending decline fall soviet union eastern bloc late s. see also great gameculture cold warhistoriography cold warnonaligned movement notes reading beschloss michael r conquerors roosevelt truman destruction hitlers germany – simon schuster isbn böcker anita regulation migration international experiences het spinhuis isbn brune lester brune richard dean burns. |
Origins of the Cold War | chronology cold war – pp highly detailed monthbymonth summary many countries christenson ron political trials history antiquity present transaction publishers isbn churchill winston second world war houghton mifflin harcourt isbn gaddis john lewis united states origins cold war – columbia university press isbn gaddis john lewis russia soviet union united states— interpretive historygrenville john ashley soames history world th st century routledge isbn hardt john pearce kaufman richard f. eastcentral european economies transition m.e.sharpe isbn henig ruth beatrice origins second world war – routledge isbn huston robert .roots cold war.conspectus history..leffler melvyn p. odd arne westad eds. |
Origins of the Cold War | cambridge history cold war volume origins essays leading scholars.excerptleffler melvyn preponderance power national security truman administration cold war stanford university press isbn lee stephen j. stalin soviet union routledge isbn lewkowicz nicolas united states soviet union geopolitical implications origins cold war anthem press londonlewkowicz nicolas role ideology origins cold war scholars press isbn lewkowicz nicolas german question international order palgrave macmillan isbn lewkowicz nicolas german question origins cold war ipoc isbn miller roger gene save city berlin airlift – texas university press isbn nekrich aleksandr moiseevich ulam adam bruno freeze gregory l. pariahs partners predators german–soviet relations – columbia university press isbn porter bernard lions share short history british imperialism – longman .pp.–.roberts geoffrey stalins wars world war cold war – yale university press isbn roberts geoffrey.stalin pact nazi germany origins postwar soviet diplomatic historiography. |
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