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History of Germany	soviet troops took part assault faced german troops.– soviets killed german civilians soldiers killed.hitler committed suicide april .final german instrument surrender signed may .by september nazi germany axis partners italy japan defeated chiefly forces soviet union united states great britain.much europe lay ruins million people worldwide killed civilians including approximately million jews million nonjews became known holocaust.
History of Germany	world war ii resulted destruction germanys political economic infrastructure led directly partition considerable loss territory especially east historical legacy guilt shame.germany cold war – consequence defeat nazi germany onset cold war countrys territory shrunk split two global blocs east west period known division germany.millions refugees central eastern europe moved west west germany.two countries emerged west germany parliamentary democracy nato member founding member since became european union one worlds largest economies allied military control east germany totalitarian communist dictatorship controlled soviet union satellite moscow.collapse communism europe reunion west germanys terms followed.no one doubted germanys economic engineering prowess question long bitter memories war would cause europeans distrust germany whether germany could demonstrate rejected totalitarianism militarism embraced democracy human rights.
History of Germany	expulsion potsdam conference germany divided four military occupation zones allies regain independence .provinces east oder neisse rivers oderneisse line transferred poland russia kaliningrad oblast pending final peace conference germany eventually never took place.remaining german population expelled.around .million germans living westshifted poland mostly within previously german lands million germansettled regions czechoslovakia deported west.
History of Germany	postwar chaos total german war dead prewar population .million million people.included .million military million civilians.chaos million foreign workers pows left soldiers returned home million displaced germanspeaking refugees eastern provinces eastcentral eastern europe expelled native land came western german lands often foreign them.
History of Germany	cold war west german government estimated death toll .million civilians due flight expulsion germans forced labour soviet union.figure remained unchallenged historians put death toll – confirmed deaths.german government reaffirmed position .–.million deaths occurred.denazification removed imprisoned executed top officials old regime middle lower ranks civilian officialdom seriously affected.
History of Germany	accordance allied agreement made yalta conference millions pows used forced labor soviet union european countries.in east soviets crushed dissent imposed another police state often employing exnazis dreaded stasi.soviets extracted east german gnp reparations west reparations minor factor.in – housing food conditions bad disruption transport markets finances slowed return normal.west bombing destroyed fourth housing stock million refugees east crowded living camps.food production – twothirds prewar level grain meat shipments – usually supplied food – longer arrived east.furthermore end war brought end large shipments food seized occupied nations sustained germany war.
History of Germany	coal production cascading negative effects railroads heavy industry heating.industrial production fell half reached prewar levels end .allied economic policy originally one industrial disarmament plus building agricultural sector.western sectors industrial plants minimal bomb damage allies dismantled industrial plants reparations.however deindustrialization became impractical u.s. instead called strong industrial base germany could stimulate european economic recovery.u.s. shipped food – made million loan rebuild german industry.may removal machinery ended thanks lobbying u.s. army.
History of Germany	truman administration finally realised economic recovery europe could go forward without reconstruction german industrial base previously dependent.washington decided orderly prosperous europe requires economic contributions stable productive germany.in occupying powers took newspapers germany purged nazi influence.american occupation headquarters office military government united states omgus began newspaper based munich die neue zeitung.edited german jewish émigrés fled united states war.mission encourage democracy exposing germans american culture operated.
History of Germany	paper filled details american sports politics business hollywood fashions well international affairs.east germany western half soviet zone became deutsche demokratische republik – ddr german democratic republic – gdr simply often east germany control socialist unity party.neither country significant army east germany built stasi powerful secret police infiltrated every aspect society.east germany eastern bloc state political military control soviet union occupation forces warsaw treaty.political power solely executed leading members politburo communistcontrolled socialist unity party sed.sovietstyle command economy set later gdr became advanced comecon state.
History of Germany	east german propaganda based benefits gdrs social programs alleged constant threat west german invasion many citizens looked west political freedoms economic prosperity.walter ulbricht – party boss .ulbricht fled moscow served comintern agent loyal stalin.world war ii ending stalin assigned job designing postwar german system would centralize power communist party.ulbricht became deputy prime minister secretary chief executive socialist unity communist party ..
History of Germany	million people fled east germany built berlin wall stop – shooting attempted it.gdr called antifascist protective wall major embarrassment program cold war stabilize east germany postpone collapse.ulbricht lost power kept nominal head state.replaced failed solve growing national crises worsening economy – fear another popular uprising occurred disgruntlement moscow berlin caused ulbrichts détente policies toward west.the transition erich honecker general secretary led change direction national policy efforts politburo pay closer attention grievances proletariat.honeckers plans successful however dissent growing among east germanys population.in socialist regime collapsed years despite omnipresent secret police stasi.
History of Germany	main reasons collapse included severe economic problems growing emigration towards west.east germanys culture shaped communism particularly stalinism.characterized east german psychoanalyst hansjoachim maaz produced congested feeling among germans east result communist policies criminalizing personal expression deviates government approved ideals enforcement communist principals physical force intellectual repression government agencies particularly stasi.critics east german state claimed states commitment communism hollow cynical tool ruling elite.argument challenged scholars claim party committed advance scientific knowledge economic development social progress.however vast majority regarded states communist ideals nothing deceptive method government control.according german historian jürgen kocka conceptualizing gdr dictatorship become widely accepted meaning concept dictatorship varies.
History of Germany	massive evidence collected proves repressive undemocratic illiberal nonpluralistic character gdr regime ruling party.west germany bonn republic three western occupation zones american british french combined federal republic germany frg west germany.government formed chancellor konrad adenauer conservative cducsu coalition.cducsu power period since .capital bonn moved berlin .
History of Germany	frg absorbed east germany gained full sovereignty berlin.points west germany much larger richer east germany became dictatorship control communist party closely monitored moscow.germany especially berlin cockpit cold war nato warsaw pact assembling major military forces west east.however never combat.economic miracle west germany enjoyed prolonged economic growth beginning early wirtschaftswunder economic miracle.
History of Germany	industrial production doubled gross national product grew rate per year providing engine economic growth western europe.labor unions supported new policies postponed wage increases minimized strikes support technological modernization policy codetermination mitbestimmung involved satisfactory grievance resolution system well requiring representation workers boards large corporations.recovery accelerated currency reform june u.s. gifts .billion part marshall plan breaking old trade barriers traditional practices opening global market.west germany gained legitimacy respect shed horrible reputation germany gained nazis.west germany played central role creation european cooperation joined nato founding member european economic community .
History of Germany	refugee settlements house germanspeakers expelled eastern europe quarters cheap building erected outskirts major minor towns villages west germany.often quarters recognizable streets named towns former eastern germany sudetenland previously germansettled towns.currency reform dramatic successful policy event currency reform .since prices wages controlled money plentiful.meant people accumulated large paper assets official prices wages reflect reality black market dominated economy half transactions taking place unofficially.
History of Germany	june western allies withdrew old currency replaced new deutsche mark rate new per old.wiped government private debt well private savings.prices decontrolled labor unions agreed accept wage increase despite rise prices.result prices german export products held steady profits earnings exports soared poured back economy.currency reforms simultaneous .
History of Germany	billion marshall plan money coming united states used primarily investment.in addition marshall plan forced german companies well western europe modernize business practices take account international market.marshall plan funding helped overcome bottlenecks surging economy caused remaining controls removed marshall plan business reforms opened greatly expanded market german exports.overnight consumer goods appeared stores could sold realistic prices emphasizing germans economy turned corner.the success currency reform angered soviets cut road rail canal links western zones west berlin.berlin blockade lasted june may .response u.s. britain launched airlift food coal distributed new currency west berlin well.
History of Germany	city thereby became economically integrated west germany.mids served americas berlin symbolizing united states commitment defending freedom john f. kennedy underscored visit june .adenauer konrad adenauer – dominant leader west germany.first chancellor top official frg – death founder leader christian democratic union cdu coalition conservatives ordoliberals adherents protestant catholic social teaching dominated west germany politics history.chancellorship west germany economy grew quickly west germany established friendly relations france participated emerging european union established countrys armed forces bundeswehr became pillar nato well firm ally united states.
History of Germany	adenauers government also commenced long process reconciliation jews israel holocaust.erhard ludwig erhard – charge economic policy economics director british american occupation zones adenauers longtime economics minister.erhards decision lift many price controls despite opposition social democratic opposition allied authorities plus advocacy free markets helped set federal republic strong growth wartime devastation.norbert walter former chief economist deutsche bank argues germany owes rapid economic advance world war ii system social market economy established ludwig erhard.erhard politically less successful served cdu chancellor .
History of Germany	erhard followed concept social market economy close touch professional economists.erhard viewed market social supported minimum welfare legislation.however erhard suffered series decisive defeats effort create free competitive economy compromise key issues anticartel legislation.thereafter west german economy evolved conventional west european welfare state.meanwhile adopting godesberg program social democratic party germany spd largely abandoned marxism ideas embraced concept market economy welfare state.instead sought move beyond old working class base appeal full spectrum potential voters including middle class professionals.
History of Germany	labor unions cooperated increasingly industry achieving labor representation corporate boards increases wages benefits.grand coalition erhard lost support kurt kiesinger – elected chancellor new cducsuspd alliance combining two largest parties.socialist spd leader willy brandt deputy federal chancellor foreign minister.grand coalition lasted – best known reducing tensions soviet bloc nations establishing diplomatic relations czechoslovakia romania yugoslavia.guest workers booming economy short unskilled workers especially berlin wall cut steady flow east germans frg negotiated migration agreements italy spain greece turkey brought hundreds thousands temporary guest workers called gastarbeiter.
History of Germany	frg signed guest worker agreement yugoslavia employed additional guest workers.gastarbeiter young men paid fullscale wages benefits expected return home years.the agreement turkey ended workers returned good jobs turkey.million people turkish descent germany.generation born germany attended german schools poor command either german turkish either lowskilled jobs unemployed.brandt ostpolitik willy brandt – leader social democratic party – west german chancellor –.
History of Germany	leadership german government sought reduce tensions soviet union improve relations german democratic republic policy known ostpolitik.relations two german states icy best propaganda barrages direction.heavy outflow talent east germany prompted building berlin wall worsened cold war tensions prevented east germans travel.although anxious relieve serious hardships divided families reduce friction brandts ostpolitik intent holding concept two german states one german nation.ostpolitik opposed conservative elements germany brandt international reputation nobel peace prize .september west east germany admitted united nations.
History of Germany	two countries exchanged permanent representatives east germanys leader erich honecker paid official state visit west germany.economic crisis germany hard hit worldwide economic crisis soaring oil prices stubbornly high unemployment jumped .million .ruhr region hardest hit easytoreach coal mines petered expensive german coal longer competitive.likewise ruhr steel industry went sharp decline prices undercut lowercost suppliers japan.
History of Germany	welfare system provided safety net large number unemployed workers many factories reduced labor force began concentrate highprofit specialty items.ruhr moved service industries high technology.cleaning heavy air water pollution became major industry right.meanwhile formerly rural bavaria became hightech center industry.a spy scandal forced brandt step chancellor remaining party leader.replaced helmut schmidt b. spd served chancellor –.
History of Germany	schmidt continued ostpolitik less enthusiasm.phd economics interested domestic issues reducing inflation.debt grew rapidly borrowed cover cost ever expensive welfare state.foreign policy issues grew central cold war turned hot again.german peace movement mobilized hundreds thousands demonstrators protest american deployment europe new mediumrange ballistic missiles.
History of Germany	schmidt supported deployment opposed left wing spd brandt.the probusiness free democratic party fdp coalition spd changed direction.led finance minister otto graf lambsdorff – fdp adopted marketoriented kiel theses rejected keynesian emphasis consumer demand proposed reduce social welfare spending try introduce policies stimulate production facilitate jobs.lambsdorff argued result would economic growth would solve social problems financial problems.consequence fdp switched allegiance cdu schmidt lost parliamentary majority .time west germanys history government fell vote confidence.
History of Germany	kohl helmut kohl – brought conservatives back power cducsufdp coalition served chancellor .repeated victories finally defeated landslide biggest record left federal elections succeeded chancellor gerhard schröder spd.kohl best known orchestrating reunification approval four powers world war ii still voice german affairs.reunification summer rapid changes known peaceful revolution die wende took place east germany quickly led german reunification.growing numbers east germans emigrated west germany many via hungary hungarys reformist government opened borders.the opening iron curtain austria hungary paneuropean picnic august triggered chain reaction end longer gdr eastern bloc disintegrated.
History of Germany	otto von habsburgs idea developed greatest mass exodus since construction berlin wall shown ussr rulers eastern european satellite states ready keep iron curtain effective.made loss power visible clear gdr longer received effective support communist eastern bloc countries.thousands east germans tried reach west staging sitins west german diplomatic facilities east european capitals notably prague.exodus generated demands within east germany political change mass demonstrations several cities continued grow.unable stop growing civil unrest erich honecker forced resign october november east german authorities unexpectedly allowed east german citizens enter west berlin west germany.hundreds thousands people took advantage opportunity new crossing points opened berlin wall along border west germany.
History of Germany	led acceleration process reforms east germany ended german reunification came force october .federal republic germany –present schröder spd coalition greens elections .spd leader gerhard schröder positioned centrist third way candidate mold british prime minister tony blair united states president bill clinton.schröder march reversed position proposed significant downsizing welfare state known agenda .enough support overcome opposition trade unions spds left wing.agenda five goals tax cuts labor market deregulation especially relaxing rules protecting workers dismissal setting hartz concept job training modernizing welfare state reducing entitlements decreasing bureaucratic obstacles small businesses providing new lowinterest loans local governments.on december christmas holiday boxing day celebration several thousand germans thailand parts across region south southeast asia affected catastrophic tsunami magnitude .
History of Germany	earthquake indonesian islands west coast sumatra many thousands german lives lost .memorial service held berlin cathedral bundestag january behalf germans.on may spd lost christian democratic union cdu north rhinewestphalia gerhard schröder announced would call federal elections soon possible.motion confidence subsequently defeated bundestag july abstaining schröder urged members vote government order trigger new elections.response grouping leftwing spd dissidents neocommunist party democratic socialism agreed run joint ticket general election schröders rival oskar lafontaine leading new group.merkel germany ruled grand coalition led cdus angela merkel chancellor.
History of Germany	merkel headed centreright government cducsu fdp.together france eu states germany played leading role european union.germany especially chancellor helmut kohl one main supporters admitting many east european countries eu.germany forefront european states seeking exploit momentum monetary union advance creation unified capable european political defence security apparatus.german chancellor schröder expressed interest permanent seat germany un security council identifying france russia japan countries explicitly backed germanys bid.germany formally adopted euro january permanently fixing deutsche mark rate december .since german bundeswehr participated number peacekeeping disaster relief operations abroad.
History of Germany	since german troops formed part international security assistance force war afghanistan resulting first german casualties combat missions since world war ii.in light worldwide great recession began germany experience much economic hardship european nations.germany later sponsored massive financial rescue wake eurozone crisis affected german economy.following earthquake tsunami japan led fukushima nuclear disaster german public opinion turned sharply nuclear power germany time produced fourth electricity supply.response merkel announced plans close nuclear power plants following decade commitment rely heavily wind alternative energy sources addition coal natural gas.germany affected european migrant crisis became final destination choice many asylum seekers africa middle east entering eu.country took million refugees migrants developed quota system redistributed migrants around federal states based tax income existing population density.decision merkel authorize unrestricted entry led heavy criticism germany well within europe.
History of Germany	major factor rise farright party alternative germany entered bundestag federal election.the covid pandemic greatly affected german society million confirmed cases deaths.following first confirmed case january german government commended effective model instituting methods curbing infections deaths lost status end year due rising number cases.vaccines began administered december many restrictions lifted may .historiography sonderweg debate major historiographical debate german history concerns sonderweg alleged special path separated german history normal course historical development whether nazi germany inevitable result sonderweg.proponents sonderweg theory fritz fischer point events revolution authoritarianism second empire continuation imperial elite weimar nazi periods.
History of Germany	opponents gerhard ritter sonderweg theory argue proponents theory guilty seeking selective examples much contingency chance german history.addition much debate within supporters sonderweg concept reasons sonderweg whether sonderweg ended .sonderweg winkler saysfor long time educated germans answered positive initially laying claim special german mission collapse criticizing germanys deviation west.today negative view predominant.germany according prevailing opinion differ great european nations extent would justify speaking unique german path.
History of Germany	case country earth ever took described normal path.see also notes citations references encyclopedia journals atlas maps atlas germany wikipedia maps copyright reading surveys biesinger joseph a. germany reference guide renaissance present bithell jethro ed.germany companion german studies th ed.pp essays german literature music philosophy art especially history.bösch frank.mass media historical change germany international perspective present berghahn .
History of Germany	pp.online reviewbuse dieter k. ed.modern germany encyclopedia history people culture – vol clark christopher.iron kingdom rise downfall prussia – detwiler donald s. germany short history rd ed.pp.fulbrook mary .
History of Germany	concise history germany.cambridge concise histories.cambridge university press.isbn .text updated editions.gall lothar.
History of Germany	milestones setbacks sidetracks path parliamentary democracy germany historical exhibition deutscher dom berlin exhibit catalog heavily illustrated pp political history since herbert ulrich.history twentiethcentury germany excerptholborn hajo.history modern germany – vol reformation vol – vol – standard scholarly survey onlinekitchen martin.history modern germany onlinemaehl william harvey.germany western civilization pp focus politics diplomacyorlow dietrich.
History of Germany	history modern germany present onlineozment steven.mighty fortress new history german people focus cultural historyraff diether.history germany medieval empire present ppreinhardt kurt f. germany years vols.stress cultural topicsrichie alexandra.fausts metropolis history berlin pp scholar excerpt text search emphasis th centurysagarra eda.
History of Germany	social history germany – editionschulze hagen deborah lucas schneider.germany new history smith helmut walser ed.oxford handbook modern german history pp essays specialists germany since smith helmut walser .germany nation time nationalism first ed.. new york ny.isbn .
History of Germany	pp.snyder louis ed.documents german history online.pp primary sources english translationtaylor a.j.p.course german history survey development german history since ..
History of Germany	ppwatson peter.german genius .pp covers many thinkers writers scientists etc.since isbn winkler heinrich august.germany long road west vol since excerpt text search vol zabecki david t. ed.
History of Germany	germany war years military history vol.medieval arnold benjamin.medieval germany – political interpretation arnold benjamin.power property medieval germany economic social change c. – oxford university press barraclough geoffrey.origins modern germany ed.
History of Germany	fuhrmann horst.germany high middle ages c. – haverkamp alfred helga braun richard mortimer.medieval germany – innes matthew.state society early middle ages middle rhine valley – cambridge u.p.jeep john m. medieval germany encyclopedia pp articles scholars cover ad nicholas david.
History of Germany	northern lands germanic europe c. –c.wileyblackwell .pages.reuter timothy.germany early middle ages c. – reformation bainton roland h. stand life martin luther reprinted dickens a. g. martin luther reformation basic introductionholborn hajo.history modern germany vol reformation junghans helmar.
History of Germany	martin luther exploring life times –.book plus cd rom macculloch diarmaid.reformation influential recent surveyranke leopold von.history reformation germany pp germanys foremost scholar complete text online freesmith preserved.age reformation pages complete text online free early modern asprey robert b. frederick great magnificent enigma atkinson c.t.
History of Germany	history germany – old focus politicalmilitarydiplomatic history germany austria online editionblanning tim.frederick great king prussia major new scholarly biographybruford w.h.germany eighteenth century social background literary revival online free borrow covers social historyclark christopher.iron kingdom rise downfall prussia – gagliardo john g. germany old regime excerptgaxotte pierre.frederick great yale university press pages political biography french historianheal bridget.
History of Germany	cult virgin mary early modern germany protestant catholic piety – holborn hajo.history modern germany.vol – onlinehughes michael.early modern germany – ogilvie sheilagh.germany new social economic history vol.
History of Germany	– pp germany new social economic history vol.– ppogilvie sheilagh.bitter living women markets social capital early modern germany doi.acprofoso.. onlineozment steven.flesh spirit private life early modern germany .schulze hagen.course german nationalism frederick great bismarck storring adam l. age frederick great classical warfare uses abuses military history.
History of Germany	international journal military history historiography .aop .online – blackbourn david.long nineteenth century history germany – excerpt text searchblackbourn david geoff eley.peculiarities german history bourgeois society politics nineteenthcentury germany brandenburg erich.bismarck world war history german foreign policy – pp old standard scholarly historybrose eric dorn.
History of Germany	german history – holy roman empire bismarckian reich.craig gordon a. germany – onlinehamerow theodore s. ed.age bismarck documents interpretations pp excerpts primary sources put historical context professor hamerowhamerow theodore s. ed.otto von bismarck imperial germany historical assessment excerpts historians primary sourceshoyer katja.blood iron rise fall german empire nipperdey thomas.
History of Germany	germany napoleon bismarck – online edition princeton university press dense coverage every aspect german society economy government.excerptogilvie sheilagh richard overy.germany new social economic history volume since pflanze otto ed.unification germany – essays historiansramm agatha.germany political history online free borrowsheehan james j. german history – major survey english onlinesteinberg jonathan.
History of Germany	bismarck life major scholarly biographystern fritz.gold iron bismark bleichroder building german empire bismark worked closely leading banker financier excerpt text searchtaylor a.j.p..bismarck man statesman.new york alfred knopf.
History of Germany	isbn .onlinewehler hansulrich.german empire – – balfour michael.kaiser times onlineberghahn volker rolf.modern germany society economy politics twentieth century acls ebookberghahn volker rolf.
History of Germany	imperial germany – economy society culture politics nd ed.brandenburg erich.bismarck world war history german foreign policy – online.cecil lamar.wilhelm ii prince emperor – vol wilhelm ii emperor exile – child john.edexcel gcse history making modern world unit germany student book onlinecraig gordon a. germany – onlinedugdale e.t.s.
History of Germany	ed.german diplomatic documents – vol – english translation.onlinegordon peter e. john p. mccormick eds.weimar thought contested legacy princeton u.p.pages scholarly essays law culture politics philosophy science art architectureherbert ulrich.
History of Germany	history twentiethcentury germany excerptherwig holger h. first world war germany austria–hungary – isbn kolb eberhard.weimar republic mommsen wolfgang j. imperial germany – politics culture society authoritarian state morrow ian f. d. foreign policy prince von bulow .cambridge historical journal –.onlinepeukert detlev.weimar republic retallack james.
History of Germany	imperial germany – oxford university press scheck raffael.lecture notes germany europe – full text online brief textbook leading scholarwatson alexander.ring steel germany austriahungary world war excerpt nazi era bullock alan.hitler study tyranny onlineburleigh michael.third reich new history.
History of Germany	.pp.stress antisemitismevans richard j. coming third reich history..pp.
History of Germany	major scholarly survey third reich power –..pp.third reich war – vol onlinefriedlander saul.nazi germany jews – abridged version standard two volume historyherbert ulrich.
History of Germany	history twentiethcentury germany excerptkershaw ian.hitler – hubris.vol...
History of Germany	pp.vol hitler – nemesis..pp.leading scholarly biography.kirk tim.
History of Germany	longman companion nazi germany .koonz claudia.mothers fatherland women family life nazi ideology –..pp.major studyovery richard.
History of Germany	dictators hitlers germany stalins russia comparative historyspielvogel jackson j. david redles.hitler nazi germany th ed.excerpt text search th ed.stackelberg roderick.hitlers germany origins interpretations legacies stackelberg roderick ed.
History of Germany	routledge companion nazi germany stibbe matthew.women third reich pp.tooze adam.wages destruction making breaking nazi economy highly influential new study online review richard tilly summary reviewsthomsett michael c. german opposition hitler resistance underground assassination plots – nd ed pageszentner christian bedürftig friedemann eds.encyclopedia third reich.vol.
History of Germany	.pp.since bark dennis l. david r. gress.history west germany vol shadow substance – isbn vol democracy discontents – isbn berghahn volker rolf.modern germany society economy politics twentieth century acls ebook onlinedaum andreas.
History of Germany	kennedy berlin.new york cambridge university press isbn .gehler michael.three germanies west germany east germany berlin republic reaktion books .hanrieder wolfram f. germany america europe forty years german foreign policy isbn herbert ulrich.history twentiethcentury germany excerptjarausch konrad h. hitler recivilizing germans – junker detlef ed.united states germany era cold war vol short essays scholars covering – excerpt text search vol excerpt text search vol main steven j. soviet occupation germany.
History of Germany	hunger mass violence struggle peace –.europeasia studies pp –.schwarz hanspeter.konrad adenauer german politician statesman period war revolution reconstruction vol excerpt text search vol smith gordon ed developments german politics isbn broad survey reunified nationweber jurgen.germany – central european university press primary sources beate ruhm von oppen ed.documents germany occupation – oxford university press gdr dennis mike norman laporte.
History of Germany	state minorities communist east germany berghahn books scholarly analysis treatment jehovahs witnesses jews guest workers vietnam mozambique football fans others.fulbrook mary.anatomy dictatorship inside gdr – fulbrook mary.peoples state east german society hitler honecker excerpt text searchharsch donna.revenge domestic women family communism german democratic republic jarausch konrad h.. eve duffy.dictatorship experience towards sociocultural history gdr jarausch konrad h. volker gransow eds.
History of Germany	uniting germany documents debates – primary sources reunificationmcadams a. james.germany divided wall reunification.princeton university press .pence katherine paul betts eds.socialist modern east german everyday culture politics excerpt text searchpritchard gareth.making gdr – ross corey.
History of Germany	east german dictatorship problems perspectives interpretation gdr saxonberg steven.fall comparative study end communism czechoslovakia east germany hungary poland routledge .steiner andré.plans failed economic history east germany – historiography berghahn volker r. simone lassig eds.biography structure agency central european lives international historiography chickering roger ed.imperial germany historiographical companion pp essays specialistsevans richard j. rereading german history unification reunification – hagemann karen jean h. quataert eds.
History of Germany	gendering modern german history rewriting historiography hagemann karen .margins mainstream womens gender history germany.journal womens history.–.doi.jowh... scid .hagen william w. german history modern times four lives nation excerptjarausch konrad h. michael geyer eds.
History of Germany	shattered past reconstructing german histories klessmann christoph.divided past rewriting postwar german history lehmann hartmut james van horn melton eds.paths continuity central european historiography perkins j. a. dualism german agrarian historiography comparative studies society history apr vol.issue pp –rüger jan nikolaus wachsmann eds.rewriting german history new perspectives modern germany palgrave macmillan .stuchtey benedikt peter wende eds.
Transgender history	british german historiography – traditions perceptions transfersmodern terms meanings transgender gender gender identity gender role emerged s. result opinions categorize historical accounts gendervariant people identities vary.sumerian akkadian texts years ago document transgender transvestite priests known gala.likely depictions occur art around mediterranean years ago.ancient greece phrygia rome galli priests scholars believe transwomen.roman emperor elagabalus d. ad preferred called lady rather lord sought sex reassignment surgery modern day seen trans figure.hijras indian subcontinent kathoeys thailand formed transfeminine third gender social spiritual communities since ancient times presence documented thousands years texts also mention trans male figures.
Transgender history	today least half million hijras live india another half million bangladesh legally recognized third gender many trans people accepted thailand.arabia khanith today like earlier mukhannathun fulfill third gender role attested since ad s. africa many societies traditional roles trans women trans men survive modern era.americas prior european colonization well contemporary north american indigenous cultures social ceremonial roles third gender people whose gender expression transforms navajo nádleehi zuni lhamana.in middle ages accounts around europe document trans men.kalonymus ben kalonymuss lament born man instead woman seen early account gender dysphoria.eleanor rykener malebodied briton arrested living sex work dressed woman seen trans woman.
Transgender history	balkans since femaleassigned people transitioned live men called sworn virgins.japan accounts trans people go back edo period.indonesia millions transthirdgender waria bugis sulawesi recognize five genders.oceania transthirdgender roles like akavaine faafafine fakaleiti exist among cook island maori samoans tongans.in colonial america thomasine hall adopted clothes roles men women genderless public universal friend arose.people began new lives men served military including albert cashier james barry otherwise transitioned like joseph lobdell trans women like frances thompson also transitioned.
Transgender history	trans autobiographer jennie june others organized cercle hermaphroditos musician billy tipton lived man lucy hicks anderson supported parents community woman.karl m. baer alan l. hart underwent early femaletomale reassignment surgeries dora richter lili elbe early maletofemale surgeries including elbe ovary uterus transplant.baer richter elbe aided magnus hirschfeld whose pioneering work institut für sexualwissenschaft trans medicine rights destroyed nazis .american trans woman christine jorgensens transition brought wide awareness sex reassignment surgery.grassroots fight trans rights became visible trans gay people fighting back police cooper donuts riot comptons cafeteria riot multiday stonewall riots .lou sullivan pioneered visibility gay trans men organized became ftm international.
Transgender history	time feminists opposed inclusion trans women creating later known transexclusionary radical feminism.transgender day remembrance started trans marches became common trans people elected public offices legislative court actions began recognizing trans peoples rights countries especially west india southern africa.time countries especially rest africa central asia arabia abridge trans peoples rights due transphobia.historiography transgender people known existed since ancient times.wide range societies traditional third gender roles otherwise accepted trans people form.
Transgender history	however precise history difficult modern concept transgender gender general develop mids.historical understandings thus inherently filtered modern principles largely viewed medical lens late s. writer genny beeman points outcan said “transgender history” “transgender” contemporary term individuals past centuries would perhaps appear transgender vantage point might conceptualized lives way individuals today ability describe transgender choose variety reasons including perception white middleclass western term belief implies transitioning one gender another left “transgender history” specifically identify transgender africa ancient egypt ancient egypt third gender categories including eunuchs.tale two brothers years ago bata removes penis tells wife woman like one modern scholar called temporarily body restored transgendered.mut sekhmet goddesses sometimes represented androgynously erect penises anat wears clothes men women.north africa trans people face stigma able change gender markers access hormone therapy reassignment surgery morocco founded group oppose discrimination.
Transgender history	algeria trans people mostly live shadows seek refuge france first lgbt magazine country el shad launched profiled several.tunisia trans people arrested jailed tortured seek asylum greece.egypt today also hostile transgender people subject arrest.the nuba peoples sudan including otoro nuba nyima tira krongo mesakin traditional roles maleassigned people dress live women may marry men seen transgender roles.however trans people face discrimination modern sudanese state crossdressing illegal.for history roman byzantine africa see § rome byzantium ottoman africa see § ottoman empire.west africa modern period igbo like many peoples gender transgender roles including females take male status marry women practice also exists among dahomey fon benin viewed transgender homosexual lenses.
Transgender history	anthropologist john mccall documented femaleassigned ohafia igbo named nne uko uma awa dressed behaved boy since childhood joined mens groups husband two wives awa stated creation meant man.happened coming world came womans body.dressed man.however trans people nigeria face harassment violence.in modern ghanaian state trans people face violence discrimination accessing healthcare work education housing also number western african states like gambia.trans people face abuse society government media doctors senegal harassed including police sierra leone built underground community spaces.transphobia rampant modern mali trans women often beaten streets.
Transgender history	liberia sexual minorities long part society founded transgender network liberia hold annual pageant mark trans day remembrance also face harassment.benefited us backing obama harmed trump administration cuts liberians wrongly believe transness introduced country west.in ivory coast trans women especially sex workers face harassment violence especially since election since annual drag pageant focuses gay men trans women travestis.modern benin one trans woman supported mother french organizing trans beninese abused relatives threatened police forced flee abroad.cape verde activist tchinda andrade came becoming well known trans people locally called tchindas documentary tchindas followed preparation annual carnival.trans people still face intolerance são vicente cape verde today among tolerant places africa locals attribute small size requiring people work together.
Transgender history	central africa cameroon trans people face violence discrimination accessing healthcare work education housing trans women attacked jailed.trans people democratic republic congo today also face harassment.trans gay people rwanda live openly face less violence neighboring states face stigma.angola trans singer titica initially faced violence become popular especially young angolans.east africa among swahilispeaking people kenya maleassigned mashoga may take feminine names marry men womanly household work mabasha marry women.
Transgender history	among kenyan peoples maleassigned priests called mugawe among meru kikuyu dress style hair like women may marry men compared trans women.among nuer people south sudan ethiopia femaleassigned people borne children may adopt male status marry woman regarded father children bear practice viewed transgender homosexual nuer also reported maletofemale role.maale people ethiopia also traditional role maleassigned ashtime take feminine roles traditionally served sexual partners king days ritually barred sex women introduction modern transphobia ashtime came viewed abnormal s. amhara people ethiopia stigmatize maleassigned people communities adopt feminine dress.in uganda today transphobia homophobia increasing introduced christian missionaries stoked conservative evangelicals trans people often kicked families denied work face discrimination accessing healthcare though trans men trying challenge transphobia sexist gender roles.traditionally ugandan peoples largely accepting trans gay people lango people accepted trans women—maleassigned people called jo apele jo aboich believed transformed conception women androgynous deity jok adopted womens names dress facedecorations grew hair long simulated menstruation could marry men—as karamojong teso lugbara people roles trans women okule trans men agule.in madagascar u.s. state department reported sexual orientation gender identity widely discussed attitudes ranged tacit acceptance violent rejection particularly transgender sex workers.early balou chabart rasoana became one first publicly trans women faced discrimination supported mother time neighborhood much lgbt community remains underground.southern africa traditional bantu third genders various bantu peoples southern africa including zulu basotho mpondo tsonga tradition young men inkotshane zulu boukonchana sesotho tinkonkana mpondo nkhonsthana tsonga called boywives english married intercrural anal sex older men sometimes dressed women wore breast prostheses grow beards womens work relationships became common among south african miners continued often interpreted homosexual boywives sometimes seen transgender.
Transgender history	botswana two cases botswanas high court ruled trans men trans women right gender identity recognized government change gender markers court said registrars refusal change marker unreasonable violated persons rights dignity privacy freedom expression equal protection law freedom discrimination freedom inhumane degrading treatment.south africa south african defence force forced white gay lesbian soldiers sex reassignment surgery.since march trans intersex people allowed change legal sex medical treatment hormone replacement therapy.several labour court rulings found employers mistreated employees transitioned.americas north america early history prior western contact native american tribes thirdgender roles like diné navajo nádleehi zuni lhamana.european anthropologists usually referred people berdaches indigenous people always considered offensive slur.
Transgender history	indigenous north americans largely academia adopted panindian neologism twospirit attempt organize intertribally.though acceptance term traditional native communities already terms people limited generally met acceptance slur replaced.one first european accounts iroquois practices gender made missionary josephfrançois lafitau spent six years among iroquois starting observed women manly courage prided upon profession warrior seemed become men alone people called men cowardly enough live women.there archaeological evidence trans thirdgender individuals existed california years ago rates comparable exist among indigenous peoples modern era archaeological ethnographic evidence suggests thirdgender categories may great antiquity north america overall barbara voss suggests may go back first migrations people eastern asia siberia years ago.canada colonial period european system beliefs values imposed first nations enforced among colonists.in dianna boileau underwent sex reassignment surgery toronto general hospital becoming possibly first canada so.following two years boileau shared story number press outlets published memoir behold woman retreating public eye.in sexual orientation gender identity included northwest territories human rights act.in june gender identity expression added ontario human rights code gender identity added manitoba human rights code.december nova scotia added gender identity expression list things explicitly protected harassment provinces human rights act.
Transgender history	may legal battle reverse disqualification naturally born female vancouver resident jenna talackova became first trans woman compete miss universe pageant one four contestants win miss congeniality.in march house commons passed bill c officially extend human rights protections trans people canada.february senate canada amended bill ways criticized transphobic.in december legislator estefania cortesvargas came nonbinary legislative assembly alberta debate inclusion transgender rights provincial human rights code.provincial hansard normally reports members speeches gender honorifics mr. ms. cortesvargas recorded member cortesvargas.december kael mckenzie appointed provincial court manitoba becoming canadas first openly transgender judge.in gender identity expression added quebec charter rights freedoms.year jennifer pritzker gave million donation create worlds first endowed academic chair transgender studies university victoria british columbia aaron devor chosen inaugural chair.
Transgender history	may bill c introduced aiming update canadian human rights act criminal code include gender identity expression protected grounds discrimination hate publication advocacy genocide add targeting victims basis gender identity expression list aggravating factors sentencing first time bill put forward governing party house commons.since june places within canada explicitly within canadian human rights act equal opportunity antidiscrimination legislation prohibit discrimination gender identity expression.since august canadians indicate neither male female passports using x marker.in january canadian womens hockey league player jessica platt came first trans woman come north american professional hockey.haiti early haitian revolution black planter raised boy led uprising southern haiti name romainelaprophétesse romaine prophetess.romaine dressed like woman spoke possessed female spirit may transgender genderfluid compared transgender feminine religious figures west africa area many black haitians descended from.mary grace albanese hourya bentouhami list romaine among women led haitian revolution terry rey argues calling romaine transgender could anachronistic.
Transgender history	romaine compared kimpa vita professed incarnation male catholic saint.in modern era discrimination violence transgender people common haitian society though many lgbt people find easier open gender within vodou subculture believed example people may possessed divinities opposite sex.haitis criminal code prohibits vagrancy specific mention transvestites.mexico several precolumbian communities across mexico anthropologists colonial accounts document acceptance thirdgender categories.transvestitism accepted practice native cultures central south america including among aztecs mayans reflected mythologies.spanish colonizers hostile it.the zapotec people oaxaca third gender role muxes people dress behave perform work otherwise associated binary gender vestidas wear feminine clothes pintadas wear masculine clothes also makeup jewellery.
Transgender history	may marry women men muxes.suggested three gender system predates spanish colonization phenomenon muxes dressing women may recent.juchitán de zaragoza indigenous community isthmus tehuantepec many wellaccepted muxes myth attributing numbers bag thirdgenders carried saint vicent ripping accidentally spilling many town one study estimated males community muxes.during mexican revolution amelio robles ávila began dress demand treated man gaining respect capable leader promoted colonel.robles maleness accepted family society mexican government lived man age death neighbor said anyone called robles woman robles would threaten pistol killed two men attacked tried reveal anatomy.united states thomasine hall indentured servant virginia reported man woman adopted clothes roles different times ordered court wear mens breeches womans apron hall thought intersex cited early example gender nonconforming individual colonial america.in public universal friend reported genderless dressed androgynously asked followers gained preaching throughout new england next four decades use birth name gendered pronouns scholars called friend chapter trans history word transgender.
Transgender history	also cases people living opposite gender early years republic joseph lobdell assigned female birth lived man sixty years married woman.during civil war people assigned female birth donned mens clothing fought soldiers lived rest lives men thought transgender albert cashier.war frances thompson formerly enslaved black trans woman testified congresss investigation memphis riots ten years later arrested man dressed womens clothing.in late wewha zuni lhamana fiber artist potter became prominent cultural ambassador visiting washington d.c. meeting president grover cleveland.lhamana malebodied people may times take social ceremonial roles usually performed women culture times roles traditionally associated men.in group selfdescribed androgynes new york organized club called cercle hermaphroditos unite defense worlds bitter persecution.included jennie june assigned male birth whose autobiography androgyne one firstperson accounts early years th century cast light life transgender person like then.in cases immigrants would change gender identity upon arrival united states especially assigned female birth ostensibly social mobility like frank woodhull canadian immigrant lived years man california forced disclose processing ellis island.american jazz musician bandleader billy tipton assigned female birth lived man death socialite chef lucy hicks anderson insisted child girl supported parents doctors later oxnard california community popular hostess s. alan l. hart one first trans men undergo hysterectomy gonadectomy later became pioneering physician radiologist.the possibility someone changing sex became widely known christine jorgensen became first person widely publicized undergoing sex reassignment surgery.around time organizations clubs began form virginia princes transvestia publication international organization crossdressers operated shadows still forming gay subculture.
Transgender history	late modern transgender gay activism began cooper donuts riot los angeles comptons cafeteria riot san francisco defining event gay transgender activism stonewall riots new york prominent activists included sylvia rivera.the saw organizations devoted transgender social activities activism come go including activist lou sullivans ftm support group grew ftm international leading advocacy group trans men.feminist lesbian organizations individuals began debate whether transgender women accepted womens groups events womens music collective olivia records trans woman sandy stone long employed michigan womyns music festival womenbornwomen policy.the saw establishment transgender day remembrance honor lost violence paris burning documenting gay trans new york ball culture transgender marches parades around time pride celebrations and—increasingly after—the visibility transgender people rose monica roberts starting transgriot mids model accurate media coverage trans community actress laverne cox cover time caitlyn jenner coming .early trans officials like joanne conte elected arvada colorados city council althea garrison elected massachusetts house serving elected kim coco iwamoto became first openly trans person elected statewide office election hawaii board education later hawaii civil rights commission danica roem became first openly trans person serve state legislature seat virginia house .organizations girl scouts episcopal church announced acceptance transgender members s. obama administration issued guidance clarified title ix protections transgender students wellknown allowing trans students use bathrooms locker rooms matching gender identity.however legislative bodies passed discriminatory bills north carolinas hb beginning trump administration rescinded obamaera protections trans students rescinded rules healthcare providers discriminating trans patients issued series orders employment trans people department defense.supreme court ruled bostock v. clayton county title vii civil rights act protects employees discrimination gender identity sexual orientation.
Transgender history	south america bolivia bolivia passed gender identity law allowed people change name gender picture legal documents.chile march first sexual reassignment surgery latin america took place chile marcia torres underwent santiago hospital.took place months chilean coup détat new dictatorship augusto pinochet began adopting policies criminalized marginalized activities gay trans people.torres however able acquire changed identity documents sought courts surgery.in president sebastián piñera signed gender identity law allows transgender people age update names legal documents guarantees right officially addressed according true gender.colombia december davinson stiven erazo sánchez charged murder anyela ramos claros transgender woman genderbased hate crime.
Transgender history	rosa elvira cely law feminicide defined killing woman gender previous instances violence victim accused including sexual violence made punishable prison sentence years.claros second transgender woman murderer punished law.peru prior th century arrival spanish conquistadors inca empire moche predecessors revered thirdgender persons organized society around andean cosmovision made room masculine feminine ambiguity based complementary dualism.thirdgender shamans ritual practitioners subject violence spanish suppressed precolonial worldviews.in peruvian constitutional court ruled transgender woman changing gender national identity document october court reversed earlier decision acknowledging people defined biological sex one must also take consideration psychic social reality.following trans people peru apply judge gender change without undergoing sex reassignment surgery.
Transgender history	uruguay uruguay passed law granting rights transgender people giving right sex reassignment surgery hormones paid uruguayan state.law also mandates minimum number transgender people given public jobs.transgender people selfidentify change legal names without needing approval judge.addition transgender people faced persecution military dictatorship receive compensation.law also lets people legally change names without previous requirement parents courts approval.
Transgender history	asia ancient sumer assyria sumer androgynous trans priests known gala used womensspeech dialect called emesal sometimes took female names.akkadian period similar people known kurgarrū assinnu served ishtar wearing feminine clothing performing dances temples goddess believed transform masculine feminine.in ancient assyria transgender cult prostitutes took part public processions singing dancing wearing costumes sometimes womens clothes carrying feminine symbols even times performing act giving birth.west asia middle east history roman byzantine asia see § rome byzantium.arabian peninsula khanith gender category oman arabia function sexual social ways women variously considered fill alternative gender role transgender still considered men omani standards laws transvestites.discussing maleassigned khanith older mukhannathun egyptian khawalat femaleassigned ghulamiyat everett rowson writes considerable evidence institutionalized crossdressing crossgender behavior premodern muslim societies among men extent women existed muhammads day continued umayyad abbasid periods khanith present.
Transgender history	iran mohammad reza pahlavi transsexuals crossdressers classed gays lesbians faced lashing death.beginning trans woman maryam khatoon molkara wrote ruhollah khomeini asking support live woman building decision corrective surgery intersex people islamic law agreed.islamic revolution molkara institutionalized forced detransition later released personally convinced ahmad khomeini decree transition sex reassignment surgery allowed islamic law advocated transgender rights death .as iran carries sex change operations nation except thailand government pays half cost needing financial assistance sex change recognized ones birth certificate.however trans people iran still face widespread harassment.gay people also pressured sex reassignment.transgender director saman arastoo directs plays starring trans people iran.
Transgender history	israel palestine israeli pop singer dana international became first trans person enter win eurovision song contest.singer trans woman aderet became popular israel neighboring lebanon.the second week june tel aviv pride parade international lgbt pride month.coincided building lgbt centre tel aviv.parade led gila goldstein became one first israelis receive sex reassignment surgery.festival popular participants .israel sometimes accused including transgender palestinians pinkwashing—projecting gay transfriendly image appear progressive distract mistreatment palestinians—while others argue actions trans issues regarded sincere.

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