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History of Germany	german lands saw armies marching back forth bringing devastation albeit far lower scale thirty years war almost two centuries also bringing new ideas liberty civil rights people.prussia austria ended failed wars france russia partitioned poland among .french consulate suzereignity france took control rhineland imposed frenchstyle reforms abolished feudalism established constitutions promoted freedom religion emancipated jews opened bureaucracy ordinary citizens talent forced nobility share power rising middle class.napoleon created kingdom westphalia – model state.reforms proved largely permanent modernized western parts germany.
History of Germany	french tried impose french language german opposition grew intensity.second coalition britain russia austria attacked france failed.napoleon established direct indirect control western europe including german states apart prussia austria.old holy roman empire little farce napoleon simply abolished forming new countries control.germany napoleon set confederation rhine comprising german states except prussia austria.
History of Germany	imperial french suzereignity frederick william iis weak rule .prussia undergone serious economic political military decline.successor king frederick william iii tried remain neutral war third coalition french emperor napoleons dissolution holy roman empire reorganisation german principalities.induced queen prowar party frederick william joined fourth coalition october .napoleon easily defeated prussian army battle jena occupied berlin.
History of Germany	prussia lost recently acquired territories western germany army reduced men trade britain allowed berlin pay paris high reparations fund french army occupation.saxony changed sides support napoleon joined confederation rhine.ruler frederick augustus rewarded title king given part poland taken prussia became known duchy warsaw.after napoleons military fiasco russia prussia allied russia sixth coalition.series battles followed austria joined alliance.napoleon decisively defeated battle leipzig late .
History of Germany	german states confederation rhine defected coalition napoleon rejected peace terms.coalition forces invaded france early paris fell april napoleon surrendered.prussia one winners congress vienna gained extensive territory.– overview continental europe state overall turbulence exhaustion consequence french revolutionary napoleonic wars.liberal spirit enlightenment revolutionary era diverged toward romanticism edmund burke joseph de maistre novalis.
History of Germany	victorious members coalition negotiated new peaceful balance powers vienna agreed maintain stable german heartland keeps french imperialism bay.however idea reforming defunct holy roman empire discarded.napoleons reorganization german states continued remaining princes allowed keep titles.return guarantees allies sovereignty integrity southern german states baden württemberg bavaria would preserved broke france.german confederation congress vienna former states confederation rhine joined german confederation loose agreement mutual defense.
History of Germany	attempts economic integration customs coordination frustrated repressive antinational policies.great britain approved union convinced stable peaceful entity central europe could discourage aggressive moves france russia.historians however concluded confederation weak ineffective obstacle german nationalism.union undermined creation zollverein revolutions rivalry prussia austria finally dissolved wake austroprussian war replaced north german confederation year.society economy population population german confederation excluding austria grew around million million.
History of Germany	simultaneously demographic transition took place high birth rates high death rates preindustrial country shifted low birth death rates fastgrowing industrialized urban economic agricultural system.increased agricultural productivity secured steady food supply famines epidemics declined.allowed people marry earlier children.high birthrate offset high rate infant mortality largescale emigration united states.emigration totaled s. upper middle classes first practiced birth control soon universally adopted.
History of Germany	industrialization germanys social structure poorly suited entrepreneurship economic development.domination france french revolution however produced important institutional reforms included abolition feudal restrictions sale large landed estates reduction power guilds cities introduction new efficient commercial law.idea reforms beneficial industrialization contested.nevertheless traditionalism remained strong many small principalities.guilds landed aristocracy churches government bureaucracies maintained many rules restrictions held entrepreneurship low esteem given little opportunity develop.
History of Germany	prussia saxony states introduced agriculture based sugar beets turnips potatoes yielded higher crops enabled surplus rural population move industrial areas.in early th century industrial revolution full swing britain france belgium.various small federal states germany developed slowly independently competition strong.early investments railway network came almost exclusively private hands.without central regulatory agency construction projects quickly realized.actual industrialization took wake railroad construction.
History of Germany	textile industry grew rapidly profiting elimination tariff barriers zollverein.second half th century german industry grew exponentially germany industrial world leader along britain united states.historian thomas nipperdey remarkson whole industrialisation germany must considered positive effects.change society countryside finally world...it created modern world live in.solved problems population growth underemployment pauperism stagnating economy abolished dependency natural conditions agriculture finally hunger.created huge improvements production short longterm improvements living standards.
History of Germany	however terms social inequality assumed change relative levels income.statistical distribution wealth order entrepreneurs workers respectively.hand new problems arose form interrupted growth new crises urbanisation alienation new underclasses proletariat proletarian misery new injustices new masters eventually class warfare.urbanization population predominantly rural lived communities people lived cities people.urban population grew rapidly due influx young people rural areas.
History of Germany	berlin grew inhabitants hamburg munich dresden .railways takeoff stage economic development came railroad revolution opened new markets local products created pool middle managers increased demand engineers architects skilled machinists stimulated investments coal iron.political disunity three dozen states pervasive conservatism made difficult build railways s. however trunk lines link major cities german state responsible lines within borders.economist friedrich list summed advantages derived development railway system .means national defence facilitates concentration distribution direction army.. means improvement culture nation.
History of Germany	brings talent knowledge skill every kind readily market.. secures community dearth famine excessive fluctuation prices necessaries life.. promotes spirit nation tendency destroy philistine spirit arising isolation provincial prejudice vanity.binds nations ligaments promotes interchange food commodities thus making feel unit.iron rails become nerve system one hand strengthens public opinion hand strengthens power state police governmental purposes.lacking technological base first engineering hardware imported britain.many cities new railway shops centres technological awareness training germany selfsufficient meeting demands railroad construction railways major impetus growth new steel industry.observers found even late engineering inferior britain.
History of Germany	however german unification stimulated consolidation nationalisation stateowned companies rapid growth.unlike situation france goal support industrialisation.eventually numerous lines crisscrossed ruhr area industrial centers provided good connections major ports hamburg bremen.locomotives pulled passengers tons freight day.newspapers magazines existed national newspaper many states issued great variety printed media although rarely exceeded regional significance.
History of Germany	typical town existed one two outlets urban centers berlin leipzig dozens.audience limited percent male adults chiefly aristocratic upper middle class.liberal publishers outnumbered conservative ones wide margin.foreign governments bribed editors guarantee favorable image.censorship strict imperial government issued political news supposed published.
History of Germany	strict press laws enforced bismarck contain socialists hostile editors.editors focused political commentary culture arts high culture popular serialized novels.magazines politically influential attracted intellectual authors.science culture th th century thcentury artists intellectuals greatly inspired ideas french revolution great poets writers johann wolfgang von goethe – gotthold ephraim lessing – friedrich schiller –.sturm und drang romantic movement embraced emotion given free expression reaction perceived rationalism enlightenment.
History of Germany	philosophical principles methods revolutionized immanuel kants paradigm shift.ludwig van beethoven – influential composer period classical romantic music.use tonal architecture way allow significant expansion musical forms structures immediately recognized bringing new dimension music.later piano music string quartets especially showed way completely unexplored musical universe influenced franz schubert – robert schumann –.opera new romantic atmosphere combining supernatural terror melodramatic plot folkloric context first successfully achieved carl maria von weber – perfected richard wagner – ring cycle.
History of Germany	brothers grimm – – collected folk stories popular grimms fairy tales ranked among founding fathers german studies initiated work deutsches wörterbuch german dictionary comprehensive work german language.university professors developed international reputations especially humanities led history philology brought new historical perspective study political history theology philosophy language literature.georg wilhelm friedrich hegel – friedrich wilhelm joseph schelling – arthur schopenhauer – friedrich nietzsche – max weber – karl marx – friedrich engels – philosophy friedrich schleiermacher – theology leopold von ranke – history became famous.university berlin founded became worlds leading university.von ranke example professionalized history set world standard historiography.mathematics physics chemistry biology emerged world class science led alexander von humboldt – natural science carl friedrich gauss – mathematics.
History of Germany	young intellectuals often turned politics support failed revolution forced many exile.religion two main developments reshaped religion germany.across land movement unite larger lutheran smaller reformed protestant churches.churches brought baden nassau bavaria.however prussia king frederick william iii determined handle unification entirely terms without consultation.
History of Germany	goal unify protestant churches impose single standardized liturgy organization even architecture.longterm goal fully centralized royal control protestant churches.series proclamations several decades church prussian union formed bringing together numerous lutherans less numerous reformed protestants.government prussia full control church affairs king recognized leading bishop.opposition unification came old lutherans silesia clung tightly theological liturgical forms followed since days luther.
History of Germany	government attempted crack went underground.tens thousands migrated south australia especially united states formed missouri synod still operation conservative denomination.finally new king frederick william iv offered general amnesty allowed old lutherans form separate church association nominal government control.from religious point view typical catholic protestant major changes underway terms much personalized religiosity focused individual church ceremony.rationalism late th century faded away new emphasis psychology feeling individual especially terms contemplating sinfulness redemption mysteries revelations christianity.pietistic revivals common among protestants.
History of Germany	among catholics sharp increase popular pilgrimages.alone half million pilgrims made pilgrimage city trier rhineland view seamless robe jesus said robe jesus wore way crucifixion.catholic bishops germany historically largely independent rome vatican exerted increasing control new ultramontanism catholics highly loyal rome.sharp controversy broke – largely catholic rhineland religious education children mixed marriages mother catholic father protestant.government passed laws require children always raised protestants contrary napoleonic law previously prevailed allowed parents make decision.
History of Germany	put catholic archbishop house arrest.new king frederick william iv sought reconciliation ended controversy agreeing catholic demands.however catholic memories remained deep led sense catholics always needed stick together face untrustworthy government.politics restoration revolution napoleon fall napoleon europes statesmen convened vienna reorganisation european affairs leadership austrian prince metternich.political principles agreed upon congress vienna included restoration legitimacy solidarity rulers repression revolutionary nationalist ideas.the german confederation german deutscher bund founded loose union states ruling princes free cities austrian leadership federal diet german bundestag meeting frankfurt main.
History of Germany	loose coalition failed satisfy nationalists.member states largely went way austria interests.in student radical assassinated reactionary playwright august von kotzebue scoffed liberal student organisations.one major actions german confederation prince metternich called conference issued repressive carlsbad decrees designed suppress liberal agitation conservative governments german states.decrees terminated fastfading nationalist fraternities german burschenschaften removed liberal university professors expanded censorship press.decrees began persecution demagogues directed individuals accused spreading revolutionary nationalist ideas.
History of Germany	among persecuted poet ernst moritz arndt publisher johann joseph görres father gymnastics ludwig jahn.in zollverein established customs union prussia german states excluding austria.industrialisation developed need unified german state uniform currency legal system government became obvious.growing discontent political social order imposed congress vienna led outbreak march revolution german states.may german national assembly frankfurt parliament met frankfurt draw national german constitution.but revolution turned unsuccessful king frederick william iv prussia refused imperial crown frankfurt parliament dissolved ruling princes repressed risings military force german confederation reestablished .many leaders went exile including number went united states became political force there.
History of Germany	period extreme political reaction.dissent vigorously suppressed many germans emigrated america following collapse uprisings.frederick william iv became extremely depressed melancholic period surrounded men advocated clericalism absolute divine monarchy.prussian people lost interest politics.prussia expanded territory began industrialize rapidly maintaining strong agricultural base.
History of Germany	bismarck takes charge – prussian king frederick william iv suffered stroke brother william served regent became king william i. although conservative william pragmatic.significant accomplishment naming otto von bismarck prussian minister president .cooperation bismarck defense minister albrecht von roon field marshal helmut von moltke set stage military victories denmark austria france led unification germany.in – disputes prussia denmark schleswig escalated part german confederation danish nationalists wanted incorporate danish kingdom.conflict led second war schleswig .prussia joined austria easily defeated denmark occupied jutland.
History of Germany	danes forced cede duchy schleswig duchy holstein austria prussia.subsequent management two duchies led tensions austria prussia.austria wanted duchies become independent entity within german confederation prussia intended annex them.disagreement served pretext seven weeks war austria prussia broke june .july two armies clashed sadowaköniggrätz bohemia enormous battle involving half million men.
History of Germany	prussian superior logistics modern breechloading needle guns superioity slow muzzleloading rifles austrians proved elementary prussias victory.battle also decided struggle hegemony germany bismarck deliberately lenient defeated austria play subordinate role future german affairs.north german confederation – seven weeks war german confederation dissolved north german federation german norddeutscher bund established leadership prussia.austria excluded immense influence germany finally came end.north german federation transitional organisation existed dissolution german confederation founding german empire.
History of Germany	german empire – overview chancellor otto von bismarck determined political course german empire .fostered alliances europe contain france one hand aspired consolidate germanys influence europe other.principal domestic policies focused suppression socialism reduction strong influence roman catholic church adherents.issued series antisocialist laws accord set social laws included universal health care pension plans social security programs.kulturkampf policies vehemently resisted catholics organized political opposition center party zentrum.
History of Germany	german industrial economic power grown match britain .in young ambitious kaiser wilhelm ii became emperor.rejected advice experienced politicians ordered bismarcks resignation .opposed bismarcks careful delicate foreign policy determined pursue colonialist policies britain france centuries.kaiser promoted active colonization africa asia lands already colonies european powers.kaiser took mostly unilateral approach europe allied austrohungarian empire embarked dangerous naval arms race britain.
History of Germany	aggressive erroneous policies greatly contributed situation assassination austrianhungarian crown prince would spark world war i. bismarck era bismarck dominant personality germany europe indeed entire diplomatic world – historians continue debate personality.lothar gall ernst engelberg consider bismarck futureoriented modernizer.sharp contrast jonathan steinberg decided basically traditional prussian whose highest priorities reinforce monarchy army social economic dominance junker class thereby responsible tragic history removal .new empire spanish queen isabella ii deposed glorious revolution leaving countrys throne vacant.prussia suggested hohenzollern candidate prince leopold successor france vehemently objected.
History of Germany	matter evolved diplomatic scandal july france resolved end fullscale war.conflict quickly decided prussia joined forces pangerman alliance never gave tactical initiative.series victories northeastern france followed another french army group simultaneously encircled metz.weeks later french army contingent emperor napoleon iiis personal command finally forced capitulate fortress sedan.napoleon taken prisoner provisional government hastily proclaimed paris.
History of Germany	new government resolved fight tried reorganize remaining armies germans settled besiege paris.starving city surrendered january jules favre signed surrender versailles.france forced pay indemnities billion francs cede alsacelorraine germany.conclusion left french national psyche deeply humiliated aggravated french–german enmity.during siege paris german princes assembled hall mirrors palace versailles january announced establishment german empire proclaimed prussian king wilhelm german emperor.act unified ethnic german states exception austria little german solution federal economic political administrative unit.
History of Germany	bismarck appointed serve chancellor.federal empire new empire federal union states varied considerably size demography constitution economy culture religion sociopolitical development.however even prussia accounted twothirds territory well population emerged empires periphery newcomer.also faced colossal cultural economic internal divisions.prussian provinces westphalia rhineland example french control previous decades.
History of Germany	local people benefited liberal civil reforms derived ideas french revolution little common predominantly rural communities authoritarian disjointed junker estates pommerania.the inhabitants smaller territorial lands especially central southern germany greatly rejected prussianized concept nation preferred associate terms individual home state.hanseatic port cities hamburg bremen lübeck ranked among ferocious opponents socalled contract prussia.advocates free trade objected prussian ideas economic integration refused sign renewed zollverein custom union treaties .hanseatic merchants overseas economic success corresponded globalist mindset.citizen hamburg bismark characterized extremely irritating german ambassador london worst germans particularly appalled prussian militarism unopposed growing influence.the prussogerman authorities aware necessary integration concepts results voter turnout first imperial elections clearly demonstrated.
History of Germany	historians increasingly argue nationstate forged empire.national identity expressed bombastic imperial stone iconography achieved imperial people emperor head state develop imperial ambitions – domestic european global.bismarcks domestic policies chancellor germany based effort universally adopt idea protestant prussian state achieve clear separation church state imperial principalities.kulturkampf lit.culture struggle tried minimize influence roman catholic church political arm catholic centre party via secularization education introduction civil marriage without success.kulturkampf antagonised many protestants well catholics eventually abandoned.
History of Germany	millions nongerman imperial subjects like polish danish french minorities left choice endure discrimination accept policies germanisation.three class system aristocracythe new empire provided attractive top level career opportunities national nobility various branches consular civil services army.consequence aristocratic near total control civil sector guaranteed dominant voice decision making universities churches.german diplomatic corps consisted princes counts barons representants lower nobility mere commoners.commoners indiscriminately recruited elite industrialist banking families.
History of Germany	consular corps employed numerous commoners however occupied positions little executive power.prussian tradition reserve highest military ranks young aristocrats adopted new constitution put military affairs direct control emperor beyond control reichstag.large corps reserve officers across germany military strengthened role estate upheld nation historian hansulrich wehler added became almost separate selfperpetuating caste.power increasingly centralized among aristocrats resided national capital berlin neighboring potsdam.berlins rapidly increasing rich middleclass copied aristocracy tried marry it.peerage could permanently boost rich industrial family upper reaches establishment.
History of Germany	however process tended work direction nobility became industrialists.example mines silesia owned nobles king prussia himself.middle classthe middle class cities grew exponentially although never acquired powerful parliamentary representation legislative rights france britain united states.association german womens organizations bdf established encompass proliferating womens organizations emerged since s. beginning bdf bourgeois organization members working toward equality men areas education financial opportunities political life.workingclass women welcome organized socialists.working classthe rise socialist workers party later known social democratic party germany spd aimed peacefully establish socialist order transformation existing political social conditions.bismarck tried oppose growing social democratic movement outlawing partys organisation assemblies newspapers.
History of Germany	nonetheless social democrats grew stronger bismarck initiated social welfare program order appease working class.bismarck built tradition welfare programs prussia saxony began early s. introduced old age pensions accident insurance medical care unemployment insurance formed basis modern european welfare state.paternalistic programs support german industry goals win support working classes empire reduce outflow immigrants america wages higher welfare exist.bismarck support industry skilled workers high tariff policies protected profits wages american competition although alienated liberal intellectuals wanted free trade.kulturkampf bismarck would tolerate power outside germany—as rome—having say domestic affairs.launched kulturkampf culture war power pope catholic church state prussia.
History of Germany	gained strong support german liberals saw catholic church bastion reaction greatest enemy.catholic element turn saw nationalliberals worst enemy formed center party.catholics although nearly third national population seldom allowed hold major positions imperial government prussian government.systematic purge remaining catholics powerful interior ministry handled police affairs catholic messenger boy.jews likewise heavily discriminated against.most kulturkampf fought prussia imperial germany passed pulpit law made crime cleric discuss public issues way displeased government.nearly catholic bishops clergy laymen rejected legality new laws defiantly faced increasingly heavy penalties imprisonments imposed bismarcks government.
History of Germany	historian anthony steinhoff reports casualty totalsas three eight prussian dioceses still bishops parishes vacant nearly priests ended jail exile ... finally numerous catholic newspapers confiscated catholic associations assemblies dissolved catholic civil servants dismissed merely pretence ultramontane sympathies.bismarck underestimated resolve catholic church foresee extremes struggle would attain.catholic church denounced harsh new laws anticatholic mustered support rank file voters across germany.following elections center party quarter seats imperial diet.conflict ended pope pius ix died bismarck broke liberals put main emphasis tariffs foreign policy attacking socialists.bismarck negotiated conciliatory new pope leo xiii.
History of Germany	peace restored bishops returned jailed clerics released.laws toned taken back mitigation laws – peace laws laws concerning education civil registry marriages religious disaffiliation remained place.center party gained strength became ally bismarck especially attacked socialism.foreign policies relations chancellor bismarcks imperial foreign policy basically aimed security prevention francorussian alliance order avoid likely twofront war.league three emperors signed russia austria germany.
History of Germany	stated republicanism socialism common enemies three powers would discuss matters concerning foreign policy.bismarck needed good relations russia order keep france isolated.russia fought victorious war ottoman empire attempted establish principality bulgaria strongly opposed france britain particular long concerned preservation ottoman empire russian containment bosphorus strait black sea.germany hosted congress berlin moderate peace settlement agreed upon.in germany formed dual alliance austriahungary agreement mutual military assistance case attack russia satisfied agreement congress berlin.establishment dual alliance led russia take conciliatory stance socalled reinsurance treaty signed germany russia.
History of Germany	two powers agreed mutual military support case france attacked germany austrian attack russia.russia turned attention eastward asia remained largely inactive european politics next years.italy seeking supporters interests north africa frances colonial policy joined dual alliance became triple alliance.return german austrian support italy committed assisting germany case french attack.bismarck always argued acquisition overseas colonies impractical burden administration maintenance would outweigh benefits.eventually bismarck gave way number colonies established africa togo cameroons german southwest africa german east africa oceania german new guinea bismarck archipelago marshall islands.
History of Germany	consequently bismarck initiated berlin conference formal meeting european colonial powers sought established international guidelines acquisition african territory see colonisation africa.outcome general act berlin conference seen formalisation scramble africa new imperialism.wilhelminian era – wilhelm ii emperor william died .son frederick iii open liberal political course reigned ninetynine days stricken throat cancer died three months coronation.son wilhelm ii followed throne age .
History of Germany	wilhelm rejected liberal ideas parents embarked conservative autocratic rule.early decided replace political elite march forced chancellor bismarck retirement.following principle personal regiment wilhelm determined exercise maximum influence government affairs.alliances diplomacy young kaiser wilhelm set apply imperialist ideas weltpolitik german ˈvɛltpoliˌtiːk world politics envisaged gratuitously aggressive political course increase empires influence control world.removal bismarck foreign policies tackled kaiser federal foreign office friedrich von holstein.
History of Germany	wilhelms increasingly erratic reckless conduct unmistakably related character deficits lack diplomatic skills.foreign offices rather sketchy assessment current situation recommendations empires suitable course action werefirst longterm coalition france russia fall apart secondly russia britain would never get together finally britain would eventually seek alliance germany.subsequently wilhelm refused renew reinsurance treaty russia.russia promptly formed closer relationship france dual alliance countries concerned novel disagreeability germany.furthermore anglo–german relations provided british point view basis consensus kaiser refused divert although somewhat peculiarly desperate anachronistic aggressive imperial engagement naval arms race particular.von holsteins analysis proved mistaken every point wilhelm however failed adopt nuanced political dialogue.
History of Germany	germany left gradually isolated dependent triple alliance austriahungary italy.agreement hampered differences austria italy italy left alliance.in admiral alfred von tirpitz state secretary german imperial naval office devised initially rather practical yet nonetheless ambitious plan build sizeable naval force.although basically posing indirect threat fleet tirpitz theorized mere existence would force great britain dependent unrestricted movement seas agree diplomatic compromises.tirpitz started program warship construction enjoyed full support kaiser wilhelm.wilhelm entertained less rational ideas fleet circled around romantic childhood dream fleet day obsessive adherence direct policies along line alfred thayer mahans work influence sea power upon history.
History of Germany	exchange eastern african island zanzibar germany bargained island heligoland german bight britain converted island naval base installed immense coastal defense batteries.britain considered imperial german endeavours dangerous infringement centuryold delicate balance global affairs trade seas british control.british however resolved keep naval arms race introduced highly advanced new dreadnought battleship concept .germany quickly adopted concept arms race escalated.in first moroccan crisis germany nearly clashed britain france latter attempted establish protectorate morocco.kaiser wilhelm ii upset informed french intentions declared support moroccan independence.
History of Germany	william ii made highly provocative speech regarding this.following year conference held european powers except austriahungary little german satellite sided france.compromise brokered united states french relinquished control morocco.the second moroccan crisis saw another dispute morocco erupt france tried suppress revolt there.germany still smarting previous quarrel agreed settlement whereby french ceded territory central africa exchange germanys renouncing right intervene moroccan affairs.confirmed french control morocco became full protectorate country .
History of Germany	economy economy continued industrialize grow even higher rate previous two decades increased dramatically years leading world war i. growth rates individual branches sectors often varied considerably periodical figures provided kaiserliches statistisches amt imperial statistical bureau often disputed assessments.classification naming internationally traded commodities exported goods still progress structure production export changed four decades.published documents provide numbers proportion goods manufactured modern industry approximately proportion consumer related products manufactured exports stood .reasonably exact figures entire industrial production increased .historian j. a. perkins argued important bismarcks new tariff imported grain introduction sugar beet main crop.farmers quickly abandoned traditional inefficient practices favor modern methods including use artificial fertilizers mechanical tools.
History of Germany	intensive methodical farming sugar root crops made germany efficient agricultural producer europe .even farms usually small size women much field work.unintended consequence increased dependence migratory especially foreign labor.the basics modern chemical research laboratory layout introduction essential equipment instruments bunsen burners petri dish erlenmeyer flask taskoriented working principles team research originated thcentury germany france.organisation knowledge acquisition refined laboratory integration research institutes universities industries.germany acquired leading role worlds chemical industry late th century strictly organized methodology.
History of Germany	german chemical industry produced almost percent global supply dyestuffs sold percent production abroad.germany became europes leading steelproducing nation thanks large part protection american british competition afforded tariffs cartels.leading firm friedrich krupp ag hoeschkrupp run krupp family.merger several major firms vereinigte stahlwerke united steel works modeled u.s. steel corporation united states.new company emphasized rationalization management structures modernization technology employed multidivisional structure used return investment measure success.american german exports dominated world steel market britain slipped third place.in machinery iron steel industries german firms avoided cutthroat competition instead relied trade associations.
History of Germany	germany world leader prevailing corporatist mentality strong bureaucratic tradition encouragement government.associations regulate competition allowed small firms function shadow much larger companies.women germanys unification process heavily dominated men give priority fatherland theme related male issues military prowess.nevertheless middleclass women enrolled bund deutscher frauenvereine union german feminist organizations bdf.founded grew include separate womens rights groups nazi regime disbanded organization.
History of Germany	bdf gave national direction proliferating womens organizations sprung since s. beginning bdf bourgeois organization members working toward equality men areas education financial opportunities political life.workingclass women welcome organized socialists.formal organizations promoting womens rights grew numbers wilhelmine period.german feminists began network feminists countries participated growth international organizations.colonies german colonial expansion asia pacific kiauchau china marianas caroline islands samoa led frictions britain russia japan united states.construction baghdad railway financed german banks designed eventually connect germany turkish empire persian gulf also collided british russian geopolitical interests.the largest colonial enterprises africa.
History of Germany	harsh treatment nama herero namibia africa – led charges genocide germans.historians examining links precedents herero namaqua genocide holocaust s. world war causes ethnic demands nation states upset balance empires dominated europe leading world war started august .germany stood behind ally austria confrontation serbia serbia protection russia allied france.germany leader central powers included austriahungary ottoman empire later bulgaria arrayed allies consisting chiefly russia france britain italy.in explaining neutral britain went war germany author paul m. kennedy recognized critical war germany become economically powerful britain downplays disputes economic trade imperialism baghdad railway confrontations central eastern europe highcharged political rhetoric domestic pressuregroups.germanys reliance time sheer power britain increasingly appealed moral sensibilities played role especially seeing invasion belgium necessary military tactic profound moral crime.
History of Germany	german invasion belgium important british decision already made british concerned fate france.kennedy argues far main reason londons fear repeat – prussia german states smashed france – would mean germany powerful army navy would control english channel northwest france.british policy makers insisted would catastrophe british security.western front west germany sought quick victory encircling paris using schlieffen plan.failed due belgian resistance berlins diversion troops stiff french resistance marne north paris.
History of Germany	western front became extremely bloody battleground trench warfare.stalemate lasted early ferocious battles moved forces hundred yards best along line stretched north sea swiss border.british imposed tight naval blockade north sea lasted sharply reducing germanys overseas access raw materials foodstuffs.food scarcity became serious problem .united states joined allies april .
History of Germany	entry united states war – following germanys declaration unrestricted submarine warfare – marked decisive turningpoint germany.total casualties western front killed wounded.eastern front wide open fighting eastern front.east decisive victories russian army trapping defeat large parts russian contingent battle tannenberg followed huge austrian german successes.breakdown russian forces – exacerbated internal turmoil caused russian revolution – led treaty brestlitovsk bolsheviks forced sign march russia withdrew war.gave germany control eastern europe.
History of Germany	spencer tucker says german general staff formulated extraordinarily harsh terms shocked even german negotiator.germany later complained treaty versailles harsh allies responded benign brestlitovsk.defeating russia germany able bring hundreds thousands combat troops east western front giving numerical advantage allies.retraining soldiers new stormtrooper tactics germans expected unfreeze battlefield win decisive victory american army arrived strength.however spring offensives failed allies fell back regrouped germans lacked reserves necessary consolidate gains.
History of Germany	summer americans arriving day german reserves exhausted matter time multiple allied offenses destroyed german army.homefront although war expected germany rapidly mobilized civilian economy war effort economy handicapped british blockade cut food supplies.steadily conditions deteriorated rapidly home front severe food shortages reported urban areas.causes involved transfer many farmers food workers military overburdened railroad system shortages coal especially british blockade cut imports abroad.winter – known turnip winter vegetable usually fed livestock used people substitute potatoes meat increasingly scarce.thousands soup kitchens opened feed hungry people grumbled farmers keeping food themselves.
History of Germany	even army cut rations soldiers.morale civilians soldiers continued sink.according historian william h. macneilby three years war various groups bureaucratic hierarchies operating less independently one another peacetime infrequently worked cross purposes subordinated one perhaps effective number general staff.military officers controlled civilian government officials staffs banks cartels firms factories engineers scientists workingmen farmersindeed almost every element german society efforts directed theory large degree also practice forwarding war effort.year deadly spanish flu pandemic struck hard population weakened years malnutrition.
History of Germany	revolution end october wilhelmshaven northern germany saw beginning german revolution –.units german navy refused set sail last largescale operation war saw good lost initiating uprising.november revolt spread cities states country many workers soldiers councils established.meanwhile hindenburg senior commanders lost confidence kaiser government.kaiser german ruling princes abdicated.
History of Germany	november social democrat philipp scheidemann proclaimed republic.on november compiègne armistice signed ending war.treaty versailles signed june .germany cede alsacelorraine france.eupenmalmédy would temporarily ceded belgium plebiscite held allow people choice territory either remaining belgium returned german control.following plebiscite territory allotted belgium september .
History of Germany	future north schleswig decided plebiscite.schleswig plebiscites danishspeaking population north voted denmark southern german speaking populace part voted germany.schleswig thus partitioned.holstein remained german without referendum.memel ceded allied associated powers decide future area.
History of Germany	january lithuanian forces invaded territory.following negotiations may league nations ratified annexation grounds lithuania accepted memel statute powersharing arrangement protect nonlithuanians territory autonomous status.germanlithuanian cooperation increased power sharing arrangement worked.poland restored provinces posen west prussia areas upper silesia reincorporated reformed country plebiscites independence uprisings.german colonies handed league nations assigned mandates australia france japan new zealand portugal united kingdom.
History of Germany	new owners required act disinterested trustee region promoting welfare inhabitants variety ways able govern themselves.left right banks rhine permanently demilitarised.industrially important saarland governed league nations years coalfields administered france.end time plebiscite determine saars future status.ensure execution treatys terms allied troops would occupy left german bank rhine period – years.
History of Germany	german army limited officers men general staff dissolved vast quantities war material handed manufacture munitions rigidly curtailed.navy similarly reduced military aircraft allowed.germany also required pay reparations civilian damage caused war.weimar republic – overview humiliating peace terms treaty versailles provoked bitter indignation throughout germany seriously weakened new democratic regime.december communist party germany kpd founded tried failed overthrow new republic.
History of Germany	adolf hitler took control new national socialist german workers party nsdap failed coup munich .parties well parties supporting republic built militant auxiliaries engaged increasingly violent street battles.electoral support parties increased great depression hit economy hard producing many unemployed men became available paramilitary units.nazis formerly german workers party mostly rural lower middle class base overthrew weimar regime ruled germany –.early years august weimar constitution came effect friedrich ebert first president.on december communist party germany founded spartacus league split social democratic party war.
History of Germany	headed rosa luxemburg karl liebknecht rejected parliamentary system.members independent social democratic party germany joined party transforming mass organization.communist party following electorate.in first months reichswehr reduced men accordance treaty versailles.included dissolution many freikorps – units made volunteers.attempt coup détat march kapp putsch extreme rightwing politician wolfgang kapp let freikorps soldiers march berlin proclaimed chancellor reich.
History of Germany	four days coup détat collapsed due popular opposition lack support civil servants officers.cities shaken strikes rebellions bloodily suppressed.germany first state establish diplomatic relations new soviet union.treaty rapallo germany accorded soviet union de jure recognition two signatories mutually cancelled prewar debts renounced war claims.when germany defaulted reparation payments french belgian troops occupied heavily industrialised ruhr district january .german government encouraged population ruhr passive resistance shops would sell goods foreign soldiers coalminers would dig foreign troops trams members occupation army taken seat would left abandoned middle street.passive resistance proved effective insofar occupation became lossmaking deal french government.
History of Germany	ruhr fight also led hyperinflation many lost fortune would become bitter enemies weimar republic voters antidemocratic right.see german inflation.in september deteriorating economic conditions led chancellor gustav stresemann call end passive resistance ruhr.november government introduced new currency rentenmark later reichsmark together measures stop hyperinflation.following six years economic situation improved.germanys industrial production even regained prewar levels .the national elections led swing right.
History of Germany	field marshal paul von hindenburg elected president .in october treaty locarno signed germany france belgium britain italy recognised germanys borders france belgium.moreover britain italy belgium undertook assist france case german troops marched demilitarised rheinland.locarno paved way germanys admission league nations .reparations actual amount reparations germany obliged pay billion marks decided london schedule rather million marks stipulated b bonds.historian sally marks says billion marks c bonds entirely chimerical—a device fool public thinking germany would pay much more.
History of Germany	actual total payout payments suspended indefinitely billion german gold marks worth us billion £ billion british pounds..billion cash came mostly loans new york bankers.rest goods like coal chemicals assets like railway equipment.reparations bill fixed basis german capacity pay basis allied claims.
History of Germany	highly publicized rhetoric paying damages veterans benefits irrelevant total determine recipients spent share.germany owed reparations chiefly france britain italy belgium us received million.economic collapse political problems – wall street crash marked beginning worldwide great depression hit germany hard nation.july darmstätter und nationalbank – one biggest german banks – failed.early number unemployed soared .on top collapsing economy came political crisis political parties represented reichstag unable build governing majority face escalating extremism far right nazis nsdap.
History of Germany	march president hindenburg appointed heinrich brüning chancellor invoking article weimars constitution allowed override parliament.push package austerity measures majority social democrats communists nsdap nazis brüning made use emergency decrees dissolved parliament.march april hindenburg reelected german presidential election .the nazi party largest party national elections .july received .votes election november received less still largest share .
History of Germany	making biggest party reichstag.communist kpd came third .together antidemocratic parties far right able hold considerable share seats parliament swords point political left fighting streets.nazis particularly successful among protestants among unemployed young voters among lower middle class cities among rural population.weakest catholic areas large cities.
History of Germany	january pressured former chancellor franz von papen conservatives president hindenburg appointed hitler chancellor.science culture th th century weimar years saw flowering german science high culture nazi regime resulted decline scientific cultural life germany forced many renowned scientists writers flee.german recipients dominated nobel prizes science.germany dominated world physics led hermann von helmholtz wilhelm conrad röntgen albert einstein otto hahn max planck werner heisenberg.chemistry likewise dominated german professors researchers great chemical companies basf bayer persons like justus von liebig fritz haber emil fischer.theoretical mathematicians georg cantor th century david hilbert th century.
History of Germany	karl benz inventor automobile rudolf diesel pivotal figures engineering wernher von braun rocket engineer.ferdinand cohn robert koch rudolph virchow three key figures microbiology.among important german writers thomas mann – hermann hesse – bertolt brecht –.reactionary historian oswald spengler wrote decline west – inevitable decay western civilization influenced intellectuals germany martin heidegger max scheler frankfurt school well intellectuals around world.after nazi proponents aryan physics led nobel prizewinners johannes stark philipp lenard attacked einsteins theory relativity degenerate example jewish materialism realm science.many scientists humanists emigrated einstein moved permanently u.s. others returned .nazi germany – nazi regime restored economic prosperity ended mass unemployment using heavy spending military suppressing labor unions strikes.
History of Germany	return prosperity gave nazi party enormous popularity minor isolated subsequently unsuccessful cases resistance among german population years rule.gestapo secret police heinrich himmler destroyed political opposition persecuted jews trying force exile taking property.party took control courts local government civic organizations except protestant catholic churches.expressions public opinion controlled hitlers propaganda minister joseph goebbels made effective use film mass rallies hitlers hypnotic speaking.nazi state idolized hitler führer leader putting powers hands.
History of Germany	nazi propaganda centered hitler quite effective creating historians called hitler myth—that hitler allwise mistakes failures others would corrected brought attention.fact hitler narrow range interests decision making diffused among overlapping feuding power centers issues passive simply assenting pressures whoever ear.top officials reported hitler followed basic policies considerable autonomy daily basis.establishment nazi regime order secure majority nazi party reichstag hitler called new elections.evening february reichstag building set afire.
History of Germany	hitler swiftly blamed alleged communist uprising convinced president hindenburg sign reichstag fire decree rescinded german civil liberties including rights assembly freedom press.decree allowed police detain people indefinitely without charges court order.four thousand members communist party germany arrested.communist agitation banned time communist party itself.communists socialists brought hastily prepared nazi concentration camps kemna concentration camp mercy gestapo newly established secret police force.
History of Germany	communist reichstag deputies taken protective custody despite constitutional privileges.despite terror unprecedented propaganda last free general elections march resulting .failed give majority nsdap hitler hoped.together german national peoples party dnvp however able form slim majority government.march enabling act amendment weimar constitution passed reichstag vote .obtain twothirds majority needed pass bill accommodations made catholic centre party nazis used provisions reichstag fire decree keep several social democratic deputies attending communists deputies already banned.
History of Germany	amendment allowed hitler cabinet pass laws—even laws violated constitution—without consent president reichstag.enabling act formed basis dictatorship dissolution länder trade unions political parties nazi party suppressed.centralised totalitarian state established longer based liberal weimar constitution.germany withdrew league nations shortly thereafter.coalition parliament rigged defining absence arrested murdered deputies voluntary therefore cause exclusion wilful absentees.
History of Germany	subsequently july centre party voluntarily dissolved quid pro quo pope anticommunist pope pius xi reichskonkordat manoeuvres hitler achieved movement catholic voters nazi party longawaited international diplomatic acceptance regime.according professor dick geary nazis gained larger share vote protestant areas catholic areas elections held november .communist party proscribed april .thereafter chief staff sa ernst röhm demanded political military power men caused anxiety among military industrial political leaders.response hitler used ss gestapo purge entire sa leadership—along number hitlers political adversaries gregor strasser former chancellor kurt von schleicher.became known night long knives took place june july .
History of Germany	reward ss became independent organisation command reichsführerss heinrich himmler.would rise become chief german police june already control concentration camps system.upon hindenburgs death august hitlers cabinet passed law proclaiming presidency vacant transferred role powers head state hitler chancellor führer leader.antisemitism holocaust nazi regime particularly hostile towards jews became target unending antisemitic propaganda attacks.nazis attempted convince german people view treat jews subhumans immediately winning almost parliamentary seats federal elections nazis imposed nationwide boycott jewish businesses.
History of Germany	march first official nazi concentration camp established dachau bavaria nazi regime consolidated power.law restoration professional civil service passed april forced jewish civil servants retire legal profession civil service.nuremberg laws banned sexual relations jews germans german related blood eligible considered citizens remainder classed state subjects without citizenship rights.stripped jews roma others legal rights.jews continued suffer persecution nazi regime exemplified kristallnacht pogrom half germanys jews fled country escape became almost impossible.in nazi leadership decided implement plan called final solution came known holocaust.
History of Germany	plan jews lesser races along political opponents germany well occupied countries systematically murdered murder sites starting extermination camps.jews gypsies slavs communists homosexuals mentally physically disabled members groups targeted methodically murdered – origin word genocide.total approximately million people killed holocaust including .million children jewish children .military hitler officially reestablished luftwaffe air force reintroduced universal military service.
History of Germany	breach treaty versailles britain france italy issued notes protest.hitler officers swear personal allegiance him.german troops marched demilitarised rhineland.territory part germany british french governments feel attempting enforce treaty worth risk war.move strengthened hitlers standing germany.
History of Germany	reputation swelled summer olympics held year berlin proved another great propaganda success regime orchestrated master propagandist joseph goebbels.women historians paid special attention efforts nazi germany reverse gains women made especially relatively liberal weimar republic.appears role women nazi germany changed according circumstances.theoretically nazis advocated patriarchal society german woman would recognise world husband family children home.however women played important roles nazi organization allowed autonomy mobilize women.
History of Germany	hitler came power feminist groups shut incorporated national socialist womens league coordinated groups throughout country promote feminine virtues motherhood household activities.courses offered childrearing sewing cooking.nazi regime promote liberal code conduct regarding heterosexual relations among germans sympathetic women bore children wedlock.lebensborn fountain life association founded himmler created series maternity homes single mothers could accommodated pregnancies.as germany prepared war large numbers incorporated public sector need full mobilization factories women age fifty required register employment office work assignments help war effort.womens wages remained unequal women denied positions leadership control.
History of Germany	– women volunteer uniformed auxiliaries german armed forces wehrmacht.number served civil aerial defense volunteered nurses many replaced drafted men wartime economy.luftwaffe served auxiliary roles helping operate antiaircraft systems shot allied bombers.foreign policy hitlers diplomatic strategy make seemingly reasonable demands threatening war met.opponents tried appease accepted gains offered went next target.
History of Germany	aggressive strategy worked germany pulled league nations rejected versailles treaty began rearm back saar remilitarized rhineland formed alliance axis mussolinis italy sent massive military aid franco spanish civil war – annexed austria took czechoslovakia british french appeasement munich agreement formed peace pact joseph stalins soviet union august finally invaded poland september .britain france declared war germany two days later world war ii europe began.after establishing romeberlin axis benito mussolini signing anticomintern pact japan – joined italy year later – hitler felt able take offensive foreign policy.march german troops marched austria attempted nazi coup unsuccessful .austrianborn hitler entered vienna greeted loud cheers.four weeks later austrians voted favour annexation anschluss country german reich.
History of Germany	austria hitler turned czechoslovakia .millionstrong sudeten german minority demanding equal rights selfgovernment.munich conference september hitler italian leader benito mussolini british prime minister neville chamberlain french prime minister édouard daladier agreed upon cession sudeten territory german reich czechoslovakia.hitler thereupon declared german reichs territorial claims fulfilled.however hardly six months munich agreement march hitler used smoldering quarrel slovaks czechs pretext taking rest czechoslovakia protectorate bohemia moravia.
History of Germany	month secured return memel lithuania germany.chamberlain forced acknowledge policy appeasement towards hitler failed.world war ii first germany successful military operations.less three months april – june germany conquered denmark norway low countries france.unexpectedly swift defeat france resulted upswing hitlers popularity upsurge war fever.
History of Germany	hitler made peace overtures new british leader winston churchill july churchill remained dogged defiance.churchill major financial military diplomatic help president franklin d. roosevelt u.s. hitlers bombing campaign britain september –may failed.british civilians killed wounded blitz much london destroyed buildings destroyed damaged.germanys armed forces invaded soviet union june – weeks behind schedule due invasion yugoslavia – swept forward reached gates moscow.hitler assembled troops including axis allies.
History of Germany	soviets lost nearly killed action soviet troops captured first six months war.einsatzgruppen nazi mobile death squads executed soviet jews located germans went jewish households forced families concentration camps labor extermination camps death.the tide began turn december invasion soviet union hit determined resistance battle moscow hitler declared war united states wake japanese pearl harbor attack.surrender north africa losing battle stalingrad – germans forced defensive.late united states canada france great britain closing germany west soviets victoriously advancing east.in – soviet forces completely partially liberated romania bulgaria hungary yugoslavia poland czechoslovakia austria denmark norway.nazi germany collapsed berlin taken soviet unions red army fight death city streets.

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