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VHS	ft .per minute respectively.tape length vhs cassette .metres ft. tape loading technique almost cassettebased videotape systems vhs machines pull tape cassette shell wrap around inclined head drum rotates rpm ntsc machines rpm pal one complete rotation head corresponding one video frame.vhs uses mloading system also known mlacing tape drawn two threading posts wrapped around degrees head drum also tape transport components shape roughly approximating letter m. heads rotating drum get signal wirelessly using rotary transformer.
VHS	recording capacity vhs cassette holds maximum ft tape lowest acceptable tape thickness giving maximum playing time four hours tdf ntsc five hours e pal standard play sp quality.frequently however vhs tapes thicker required minimum avoid complications jams tears tape.speeds include long play lp extended play ep super long play slp standard ntsc rarely found pal machines.ntsc lp epslp doubles triples recording time accordingly speed reductions cause reduction horizontal resolution – normal equivalent vertical lines sp equivalent lp even less epslp.nature recording diagonally spinning drum actual write speed video heads get slower tape speed reduced.
VHS	instead video tracks become narrower packed closer together.results noiser playback difficult track correctly effect subtle misalignment magnified narrower tracks.heads linear audio spinning drum tape speed one reel speed heads across tape.speed quite slow sp audio cassette ep slower slowest microcassette speed.widely considered inadequate anything basic voice playback major liability vhsc camcorders encouraged use ep speed.
VHS	color depth deteriorates significantly lower speeds pal often color image pal tape recorded low speed displayed monochrome intermittent color playback paused.tape lengths ntsc palsecam vhs cassettes physically identical although signals recorded tape incompatible.however tape speeds differ ntsc palsecam playing time given cassette vary accordingly systems.order avoid confusion manufacturers indicate playing time minutes expected market tape sold in.perfectly possible record play back blank txxx tape pal machine blank exxx tape ntsc machine resulting playing time different indicated.to calculate playing time txxx tape pal machine formula usedpalsecam recording time txxx minutes .to calculate playing time exxx tape ntsc machine formula usedntsc recording time exxx minutes .exxx indicates playing time minutes pal secam sp lp speeds.txxx indicates playing time minutes ntsc palm sp lp epslp speeds.sp standard play lp long play ⁄ speed equal recording time dvhs hs mode epslp extendedsuper long play ⁄ speed primarily released ntsc market.several defined lengths cassette entered mass production markets either used professional duplication purposes often pushing limit much tape particular grade thickness could fit standard cassette order hold films could quite fit onto shorter standard size without risking poorer quality reliability switching thinner grade failed find popularity among home consumers glut tape length choices poor value money e.g.
VHS	e e. copy protection vhs designed facilitate recording various sources including television broadcasts vcr units content producers quickly found home users able use devices copy videos one tape another.despite generation loss regarded widespread problem members motion picture association america mpaa claimed caused great financial losses.response several companies developed technologies protect copyrighted vhs tapes casual duplication home users.the popular method analog protection system better known simply macrovision produced company name.according macrovision technology applied million videocassettes annually used every mpaa movie studio videocassette releases.commercial duplication facilities around world equipped supply macrovision videocassette copy protection rights owners...the study found vcr households admit unauthorized copies total annual revenue loss due copying estimated annually.the system first used copyrighted movies beginning film cotton club.macrovision copy protection saw refinement throughout years always worked essentially introducing deliberate errors protected vhs tapes output video stream.
VHS	errors output video stream ignored televisions interfere rerecording programming second vcr.first version macrovision introduces high signal levels vertical blanking interval occurs video fields.high levels confuse automatic gain control circuit vhs vcrs leading varying brightness levels output video ignored tv framedisplay period.level ii macrovision uses process called colorstriping inverts analog signals colorburst period causes offcolor bands appear picture.level iii protection added additional colorstriping techniques degrade image.these protection methods worked well defeat analogtoanalog copying vcrs time.
VHS	products capable digital video recording mandated law include features detect macrovision encoding input analog streams reject copying video.intentional falsepositive detection macrovision protection frustrated archivists wish copy nowfragile vhs tapes digital format preservation.devices marketed video stabilizers may used attempt removal macrovision copy protection mechanism.recording process recording process vhs consists following steps orderthe tape pulled supply reel capstan pinch roller similar used audio tape recorders.the tape passes across erase head wipes existing recording tape.the tape wrapped around head drum using little degrees drum.one heads spinning drum records one field video onto tape one diagonally oriented track.the tape passes across audio control head records control track linear audio track tracks.the tape wound onto takeup reel due torque applied reel machine.erase head erase head fed high level high frequency ac signal overwrites previous recording tape.
VHS	without step new recording cannot guaranteed completely replace old recording might tape.video recording tape path carries tape around spinning head drum wrapping around little degrees called omega transport system helical fashion assisted slanted tape guides.head rotates constantly .rpm ntsc machines exactly pal complete rotation corresponding one frame video.two tape heads mounted cylindrical surface drum degrees apart two heads take turns recording.rotation inclined head drum combined relatively slow movement tape results head recording track oriented diagonal respect length tape heads moving across tape speeds higher would otherwise possible.
VHS	referred helical scan recording.heads drum move across tape writing speed ..meters per second.to maximize use tape video tracks recorded close together other.reduce crosstalk adjacent tracks playback azimuth recording method used gaps two heads aligned exactly track path.
VHS	instead one head angled plus seven degrees track minus seven degrees.results playback destructive interference signal tracks either side one played.each diagonalangled tracks complete tv picture field lasting second pal display.one tape head records entire picture field.adjacent track recorded second tape head another second tv picture field on.thus one complete head rotation records entire ntsc pal frame two fields.the original vhs specification two video heads.
VHS	ep recording speed introduced thickness heads reduced accommodate narrower tracks.however subtly reduced quality sp speed dramatically lowered quality freeze frame high speed search.later models implemented wide narrow heads could use four pause shuttle modes improve quality.machines supporting vhs hifi described later yet another pair heads added handle vhs hifi signal.camcorders using miniaturized drum required twice many heads complete given task.
VHS	almost always meant four heads miniaturized drum performance similar two head vcr full sized drum.attempt made record hifi audio devices would require additional four heads work.the high tapetohead speed created rotating head results far higher bandwidth could practically achieved stationary head.vhs tapes approximately mhz video bandwidth khz chroma bandwidth lower mhz ntsc broadcasts mhz type c videotape.luminance black white portion video recorded frequency modulated downconverted color chroma color signal recorded directly baseband.helical track contains single field even odd field equivalent half frame see interlaced video encoded analog raster scan similar analog tv broadcasts.
VHS	horizontal resolution lines per picture height lines across scan line vertical resolution number scan lines respective analog tv standard pal ntsc usually somewhat fewer scan lines actually visible due overscan.modernday digital terminology ntsc vhs roughly equivalent × pixels luma × chroma resolutions see also chroma subsampling × pixels pixels .mp megapixel pal vhs offers equivalent × pixels luma × chroma vertical chroma resolution pal limited mechanism secam limited resolution delay line mechanism.jvc countered superbeta vhs hq high quality.frequency modulation vhs luminance signal limited megahertz makes higher resolutions technically impossible even highestquality recording heads tape materials hq branded deck includes luminance noise reduction chroma noise reduction white clip extension improved sharpness circuitry.effect increase apparent horizontal resolution vhs recording analog equivalent pixels lefttoright digital terminology.
VHS	major vhs oems resisted hq due cost concerns eventually resulting jvc reducing requirements hq brand white clip extension plus one improvement.in jvc introduced new format called super vhs often known svhs extended bandwidth megahertz yielding analog horizontal pixels lefttoright.super vhs recorders play back standard vhs tapes vice versa.svhs designed higher resolution failed gain popularity outside japan high costs machines tapes.limited user base super vhs never picked significant degree manufacturers prerecorded tapes although used extensively lowend professional market filming editing.audio recording leaving head drum tape passes stationary audio control head.
VHS	records control track bottom edge tape one two linear audio tracks along top edge.original linear audio system original vhs specification audio recorded baseband single linear track upper edge tape similar audio compact cassette operates.recorded frequency range dependent linear tape speed.vhs sp mode already uses lower tape speed compact cassette resulted mediocre frequency response roughly hz khz ntsc frequency response pal vhs lower standard tape speed somewhat worse.signaltonoise ratio snr acceptable db.
VHS	parameters degraded significantly vhss longer play modes epntsc frequency response peaking khz.svhs tapes give better audio video quality tapes designed almost twice bandwidth vhs speed.sound cannot recorded vhs tape without recording video signal even audio dubbing mode.video signal vcr input vcrs record black video generate control track sound recorded.early vcrs record audio without control track signal little use absence signal control track means linear tape speed irregular playback.more sophisticated vcrs offer stereo audio recording playback.linear stereo fits two independent channels space original mono audiotrack.
VHS	approach preserves acceptable backward compatibility monoaural audio heads splitting audio track degraded signals snr causing objectionable tape hiss normal listening volume.counteract hiss vcrs use dolby b noise reduction recording playback.dynamically boosts midfrequency band audio program recorded medium improving signal strength relative tapes background noise floor attenuates midband playback.dolby b transparent process dolbyencoded program material exhibits unnatural midrange emphasis played vcrs made work form noise reduction.another option use noise reduction similar dbx—that recording high volume compressed dynamic range.playback decompression yield original audio weaker signals attenuated hiss also significantly attenuated.highend consumer recorders take advantage linear nature audio track audio track could erased recorded without disturbing video portion recorded signal.
VHS	hence audio dubbing video dubbing either audio video rerecorded tape without disturbing supported features prosumer linear video editingdecks.without dubbing capability audio video edit could done inplace master cassette requires editing output captured another tape incurring generational loss.studio film releases began emerge linear stereo audiotracks .point onward nearly every home video release hollywood featured dolbyencoded linear stereo audiotrack.however linear stereo never popular equipment makers consumers.tracking adjustment index marking another linear control track tapes lower edge holds pulses mark beginning every frame video used finetune tape speed playback high speed rotating heads remained exactly helical tracks rather somewhere two adjacent tracks known tracking.
VHS	since good tracking depends precise distances rotating drum fixed controlaudio head reading linear tracks usually varies couple micrometers machines due manufacturing tolerances vcrs offer tracking adjustment either manual automatic correct mismatches.the control track also used hold index marks normally written beginning recording session found using vcrs index search function fastwind forward backward nth specified index mark resume playback there.times higherend vcrs provided functions user manually add remove marks.by late highend vcrs offered sophisticated indexing.example panasonics tape library system assigned id number cassette logged recording information channel date time optional program title entered user cassette vcrs memory recordings titles.hifi audio system around jvc added hifi audio vhs model hrdu response betamaxs introduction beta hifi.vhs hifi betamax hifi delivered flat fullrange frequency response hz khz excellent db signaltonoise ratio consumer space second compact disc dynamic range db professional audiograde channel separation db.
VHS	vhs hifi audio achieved using audio frequency modulation afm modulating two stereo channels l r two different frequencymodulated carriers embedding combined modulated audio signal pair video signal.avoid crosstalk interference primary video carrier vhss implementation afm relied form magnetic recording called depth multiplexing.modulated audio carrier pair placed hithertounused frequency range luminance color carrier .mhz recorded first.subsequently video head erases rerecords video signal combined luminance color signal tape surface video signals higher center frequency results shallower magnetization tape allowing video residual afm audio signal coexist tape.
VHS	pal versions beta hifi use technique.playback vhs hifi recovers depthrecorded afm signal subtracting audio heads signal contains afm signal contaminated weak image video signal video heads signal contains video signal demodulates left right audio channels respective frequency carriers.result complex process audio high fidelity uniformly solid across tapespeeds ep lp sp.since jvc gone complexity ensuring hifis backward compatibility nonhifi vcrs virtually studio home video releases produced time contained hifi audio tracks addition linear audio track.normal circumstances hifi vhs vcrs record hifi linear audio simultaneously ensure compatibility vcrs without hifi playback though early highend hifi machines provided linear stereo compatibility.the sound quality hifi vhs stereo comparable extent quality cd audio particularly recordings made highend professional vhs machines manual audio recording level control.
VHS	high quality compared consumer audio recording formats compact cassette attracted attention amateur hobbyist recording artists.home recording enthusiasts occasionally recorded high quality stereo mixdowns master recordings multitrack audio tape onto consumerlevel hifi vcrs.however vhs hifi recording process intertwined vcrs videorecording function advanced editing functions audioonly videoonly dubbing impossible.shortlived alternative hifi feature recording mixdowns hobbyist audioonly projects pcm adaptor highbandwidth digital video could use grid blackandwhite dots analog video carrier give prograde digital sounds though dat tapes made obsolete.some vhs decks also simulcast switch allowing users record external audio input along offair pictures.televised concerts offered stereo simulcast soundtrack fm radio events like live aid recorded thousands people full stereo soundtrack despite fact stereo tv broadcasts years especially regions adopted nicam.
VHS	examples included network television shows friday night videos mtv first years existence.likewise countries notably south africa provided alternate language audio tracks tv programming fm radio simulcast.the considerable complexity additional hardware limited vhs hifi highend decks many years.linear stereo disappeared home vhs decks hifi became common feature vhs decks.even customers unaware significance merely enjoyed better audio performance newer decks.issues hifi audio due path followed video hifi audio heads striped discontinuous—unlike linear audio track—headswitching required provide continuous audio signal.
VHS	video signal easily hide headswitching point invisible vertical retrace section signal exact switching point important obviously possible continuous audio signal inaudible sections.hifi audio thus dependent much exact alignment head switching point required nonhifi vhs machines.misalignments may lead imperfect joining signal resulting lowpitched buzzing.problem known head chatter tends increase audio heads wear down.another issue made vhs hifi imperfect music inaccurate reproduction levels softer louder recreated original source.variations supervhs adat svhset several improved versions vhs exist notably supervhs svhs analog video standard improved video bandwidth.
VHS	svhs improved horizontal luminance resolution lines versus vhsbeta dvd.audio system linear afm same.svhs made little impact home market gained dominance camcorder market due superior picture quality.the adat format provides ability record multitrack digital audio using svhs media.jvc also developed svhset technology supervhs camcorders vcrs simply allows record super vhs signals onto lowerpriced vhs tapes albeit slight blurring image.nearly later jvc supervhs camcorders vcrs svhset ability.
VHS	vhsc super vhsc another variant vhscompact vhsc originally developed portable vcrs ultimately finding success palmsized camcorders.longest tape available ntsc holds minutes sp mode minutes ep mode.since vhsc tapes based magnetic tape fullsize tapes played back standard vhs players using mechanical adapter without need kind signal conversion.magnetic tape vhsc cassettes wound one main spool uses gear wheel advance tape.the adapter mechanical although early examples motorized battery.internal hub engage vcr mechanism location normal fullsize tape hub driving gearing vhsc cassette.
VHS	also vhsc cassette inserted adapter small swingarm pulls tape miniature cassette span standard tape path distance guide rollers fullsize tape.allows tape miniature cassette use loading mechanism standard cassette.super vhsc svhs compact developed jvc .svhs provided improved luminance chrominance quality yet svhs recorders compatible vhs tapes.sony unable shrink betamax form instead developed videohi direct competition vhscsvhsc format throughout s. ultimately neither format superseded digital high definition equipment.wvhs digitalvhs highdefinition wvhs allowed recording muse hivision analog high definition television broadcast japan .improved standard called digitalvhs dvhs records digital high definition video onto vhs form factor tape.
VHS	dvhs record hours atsc digital television p formats using fastest record mode equivalent vhssp hours lowerdefinition video slower speeds.also jvcdesigned component digital professional production format known digitals officially name uses vhs form factor tape essentially mechanical tape handling techniques svhs recorder.format least expensive format support selsync preread video editing.format competed sonys digital betacam professional broadcast market although area sonys betacam family ruled supreme contrast outcome vhsbetamax domestic format war.superseded high definition formats.
VHS	accessories shortly introduction vhs format vhs tape rewinders developed.devices served sole purpose rewinding vhs tapes.proponents rewinders argued use rewind function standard vhs player would lead wear tear transport mechanism.rewinder would rewind tapes smoothly also normally faster rate standard rewind function vhs players.however rewinder brands frequent abrupt stops occasionally led tape damage.some devices marketed allowed personal computer use vhs recorder data backup device.
VHS	notable arvid widely used russia cis states.similar systems manufactured united states corvus alpha microsystems uk backer danmere ltd. signal standards vhs record play back varieties analog television signals existence time vhs devised.however machine must designed record given standard.typically vhs machine handle signals using standard country sold in.parameters analog broadcast tv applicable vhs recordings number vhs tape recording format variations smaller number broadcast tv signal variations—for example analog tvs vhs machines except multistandard devices interchangeable uk germany vhs tapes are.
VHS	following tape recording formats exist conventional vhs listed form standardlinesframessecam secam french varietymesecam secam countries notably former soviet union middle eastntsc parts americas japan south koreapal i.e.palm brazilpal western europe australia new zealand many parts asia china india parts south america argentina uruguay falklands africanote pal vcrs allow playback secam mesecam tapes monochrome picture vice versa line standard same.since dual multistandard vhs machines able handle variety vhssupported video standards became common.example vhs machines sold australia europe could typically handle pal mesecam record playback ntsc playback suitable tvs.dedicated multistandard machines usually handle standards listed highend models could convert content tape one standard another fly playback using builtin standards converter.svhs implemented pal ntsc svhs machines sold secam markets record internally pal convert pal secam recording playback.svhs machines brazilian market record ntsc convert palm.a small number vhs decks able decode closed captions video cassettes sending full signal set captions.
VHS	smaller number still able additionally record subtitles transmitted world standard teletext signals predigital services simultaneously associated program.svhs sufficient resolution record teletext signals relatively errors although years possible recover teletext pages even complete page carousels regular vhs recordings using nonrealtime computer processing.uses marketing vhs popular longform content feature films documentaries well shortplay content music videos instore videos teaching videos distribution lectures talks demonstrations.vhs instruction tapes sometimes included various products services including exercise equipment kitchen appliances computer software.comparison betamax vhs winner protracted somewhat bitter format war late early sonys betamax format well formats time.betamax widely perceived time better format cassette smaller size betamax offered slightly better video quality vhs – lower video noise less lumachroma crosstalk marketed providing pictures superior vhs.
VHS	however sticking point consumers potential licensing partners betamax total recording time.overcome recording limitation beta ii speed twohour mode ntsc regions released order compete vhss twohour sp mode thereby reducing betamaxs horizontal resolution lines vs lines.turn extension vhs vhs hq produced lines vs lines overall typical betamaxvhs user could expect virtually identical resolution.highend betamax machines still supported recording beta mode even higher resolution beta beta super hiband mode maximum singlecassette run time l cassette.because betamax released year vhs held early lead format war.however united states betamax sales dipped percent sales.
VHS	debate experts cause betamaxs loss.including sonys founder akio morita say due sonys licensing strategy manufacturers consistently kept overall cost unit higher vhs unit jvc allowed manufacturers produce vhs units licensefree thereby keeping costs lower.others say vhs better marketing since much larger electronics companies time matsushita example supported vhs.sony would make first vhs playersrecorders although continued produce betamax machines concurrently .decline video cassette recorder mainstay televisionequipped american european living rooms twenty years introduction s. home television recording market well camcorder market since transitioned digital recording solidstate memory cards.
VHS	introduction dvd format american consumers march triggered market share decline vhs.dvd rentals surpassed vhs format united states first time june .though .million americans still owned vhs format vcrs market share continued drop.mids several retail chains united states europe announced would stop selling vhs equipment.u.s. major brickandmortar retailers stock vhs homevideo releases focusing dvd bluray media.the last known company world manufacture vhs equipment funai japan produced video cassette recorders sanyo brand china north america.funai ceased production vhs equipment july citing falling sales shortage components.
VHS	modern use despite decline vhs players programming vhs machines still owned households worldwide.still use hold vhs number reasons including nostalgic value ease use recording keeping personal videos home movies watching content currently exclusive vhs collecting.expatriate communities united states also obtain video content native countries vhs format.although vhs discontinued united states vhs recorders blank tapes still sold stores developed countries prior digital television transitions.acknowledgement continued use vhs panasonic announced worlds first dual deck vhsbluray player .last standalone jvc vhsonly unit produced october .
VHS	jvc manufacturers continued make combination dvdvhs units even decline vhs.a market prerecorded vhs tapes continued online retailers amazon still sell new used prerecorded vhs cassettes movies television programs.none major hollywood studios generally issue releases vhs.last major studio film released format united states part special marketing promotions history violence .october distribution video audio inc. last major american supplier prerecorded vhs tapes shipped final truckload tapes stores america.however exceptions.example house devil released vhs amazonexclusive deal keeping films intent mimic horror films.
VHS	first paranormal activity film produced vhs release netherlands .horror film vhs released combo north america included vhs tape addition bluray dvd copy september .paramount pictures produced limited quantities film bumblebee give away promotional contest prizes.professional wrestling promotion impact wrestling released limited run vhs tapes containing years slammiversary quickly sold out.company later announced future vhs runs payperview events.
VHS	successors vcd video cd vcd created becoming alternative medium video cdsized disc.though occasionally showing compression artifacts color banding common discrepancies digital media durability longevity vcd depends production quality disc handling.data stored digitally vcd theoretically degrade analog sense like tape.disc player physical contact made either data label sides.handled properly vcd last long time.since vcd hold minutes video movie exceeding mark divided two discs.
VHS	dvd dvdvideo format introduced first november japan united states march test marketed midtolate europe australia.despite dvds better quality typical horizontal resolution versus lines per picture height availability standalone dvd recorders vhs still used home recording video content.commercial success dvd recording rewriting hindered number factors includinga reputation temperamental unreliable well risk scratches hairline cracks.incompatibilities playing discs recorded different manufacturers machines original recording machine.compression artifacts mpeg video compression result visible artifacts macroblocking mosquito noise ringing become accentuated extended recording modes three hours dvd disc.standard vhs suffer problems characteristic certain digital video compression systems see discrete cosine transform vhs result reduced luminance chroma resolution makes picture look horizontally blurred resolution decreases lp ep recording modes.vhs also adds considerable noise luminance chroma channels.highcapacity digital recording technologies highcapacity digital recording systems also gaining popularity home users.
VHS	types systems come several form factorshard disk–based settop boxeshard diskoptical disc combination settop boxespersonal computer–based media centerportable media players tvout capabilityhard diskbased systems include tivo well digital video recorder dvr offerings.types systems provide users nomaintenance solution capturing video content.customers subscriberbased tv generally receive electronic program guides enabling onetouch setup recording schedule.hard disk–based systems allow many hours recording without usermaintenance.example gb system recording extended recording rate xp mbits mpeg record hours video content.
England in the Middle Ages	legacy often considered important medium film history influence vhs art cinema highlighted retrospective staged museum arts design .yale university library collected nearly horror exploitation movies vhs tapes distributed calling cultural id era.the documentary film rewind directed josh johnson tracks impact vhs film industry various filmmakers collectors.see also analog videotape head cleaner references external links howstuffworks vcrs workthe total rewind vcr museum covering history vhs vintage formatsvhscollector.com analog video cassette archive growing archive commercially released video cassettes dawn present guide collecting.england emerged collapse roman empire economy tatters many towns abandoned.several centuries germanic immigration new identities cultures began emerge developing kingdoms competed power.rich artistic culture flourished anglosaxons producing epic poems beowulf sophisticated metalwork.anglosaxons converted christianity th century network monasteries convents built across england.th th centuries england faced fierce viking attacks fighting lasted many decades eventually establishing wessex powerful kingdom promoting growth english identity.
England in the Middle Ages	despite repeated crises succession danish seizure power start th century also argued england powerful centralised state strong military successful economy.the norman invasion england led defeat replacement anglosaxon elite norman french nobles supporters.william conqueror successors took existing state system repressing local revolts controlling population network castles.new rulers introduced feudal approach governing england eradicating practice slavery creating much wider body unfree labourers called serfs.position women society changed laws regarding land lordship shifted.englands population doubled th th centuries fueling expansion towns cities trade helped warmer temperatures across northern europe.
England in the Middle Ages	new wave monasteries friaries established ecclesiastical reforms led tensions successive kings archbishops.despite developments englands governance legal system infighting anglonorman elite resulted multiple civil wars loss normandy.th century england saw great famine black death catastrophic events killed around half englands population throwing economy chaos undermining old political order.social unrest followed resulting peasants revolt changes economy resulted emergence new class gentry nobility began exercise power system termed bastard feudalism.nearly villages deserted inhabitants many men women sought new opportunities towns cities.
England in the Middle Ages	new technologies introduced england produced great medieval philosophers natural scientists.english kings th th centuries laid claim french throne resulting hundred years war.times england enjoyed huge military success economy buoyed profits international wool cloth trade country crisis facing military failure france ongoing recession.social unrest broke followed wars roses fought rival factions english nobility.henry viis victory conventionally marks end middle ages england start early modern period.
England in the Middle Ages	political history early middle ages – start middle ages england part britannia former province roman empire.local economy dominated imperial roman spending large military establishment turn helped support complex network towns roads villas.end th century however roman forces largely withdrawn economy collapsed.germanic immigrants began arrive increasing numbers th th centuries establishing small farms settlements language old english swiftly spread settlers arrived previous inhabitants moved west brittany switched british celtic british latin migrants language.new political social identities emerged including anglian culture east england saxon culture south local groups establishing regiones small polities ruled powerful families individuals.
England in the Middle Ages	th century rulers including wessex east anglia essex kent begun term kings living villae regales royal centres collecting tribute surrounding regiones kingdoms often referred heptarchy.in th century kingdom mercia rose prominence leadership king penda.mercia invaded neighbouring lands loosely controlled around regiones covering much england.mercia remaining kingdoms led warrior elites continued compete territory throughout th century.massive earthworks defensive dyke built offa mercia helped defend key frontiers towns.however first scandinavian raids england began viking attacks grew number scale danish micel great army invaded england captured york defeated kingdom east anglia.
England in the Middle Ages	mercia northumbria fell alfred wessex driven internal exile .however year alfred decisive victory danes battle edington exploited fear viking threat raise large numbers men using network defended towns called burhs defend territory mobilise royal resources.suppressing internal opposition rule alfred contained invaders within region known danelaw.son edward elder grandson æthelstan wessex expanded north mercia danelaw reigns eadred edgar york finally permanently retaken vikings.west saxon rulers kings angelcynn whole english folk.with death edgar however royal succession became problematic.æthelred took power following murder brother edward england invaded sweyn forkbeard son danish king.
England in the Middle Ages	attempts bribe sweyn attack using danegeld payments failed took throne .sweins son cnut liquidated many older english families following seizure power .æthelreds son edward confessor survived exile normandy returned claim throne .edward childless succession became concern.england became dominated godwin family taken advantage danish killings acquire huge wealth.
England in the Middle Ages	edward died harold godwinson claimed throne defeating rival norwegian claimant harald hardrada battle stamford bridge.high middle ages – william duke normandy took advantage english succession crisis start norman conquest.army norman followers mercenaries defeated harold battle hastings rapidly occupied south england.william used network castles control major centres power granting extensive lands main norman followers coopting eliminating former anglosaxon elite.major revolts followed william suppressed intervening northeast england establishing norman control york devastating region.
England in the Middle Ages	norman lords used england launching point attacks south north wales spreading valleys create new marcher territories.time williams death england formed largest part anglonorman empire ruled network nobles landholdings across england normandy wales.englands growing wealth critical allowing norman kings project power across region including funding campaigns along frontiers normandy.norman rule however proved unstable successions throne contested leading violent conflicts claimants noble supporters.william ii inherited throne faced revolts attempting replace older brother robert cousin stephen aumale.william ii died hunting.
England in the Middle Ages	despite roberts rival claims younger brother henry immediately seized power.war broke ending roberts defeat tinchebrai subsequent life imprisonment.roberts son clito remained free however formed focus fresh revolts death .henrys legitimate son william died aboard white ship disaster sparking fresh succession crisis henrys nephew stephen blois claimed throne disputed empress matilda henrys daughter.civil war broke across england normandy resulting long period warfare later termed anarchy.
England in the Middle Ages	matildas son henry finally agreed peace settlement winchester succeeded king .henry ii first angevin rulers england socalled also count anjou northern france.henry also acquired huge duchy aquitaine marriage england became key part looseknit assemblage lands spread across western europe later termed angevin empire.henry reasserted royal authority rebuilt royal finances intervening claim power ireland promoting anglonorman colonisation country.henry strengthened englands borders wales scotland used countrys wealth fund longrunning war rivals france arrangements succession proved problematic.several revolts broke led henrys children eager acquire power lands sometimes backed france scotland welsh princes.
England in the Middle Ages	final confrontation henry son richard succeeded throne .richard spent reign focused protecting possessions france fighting third crusade brother john inherited england lost normandy aquitaine several years war france.john fought successive increasingly expensive campaigns bid regain possessions.johns efforts raise revenues combined fractious relationships many english barons led confrontation attempt restore peace signing magna carta finally outbreak first barons war.john died fought rebel barons french backers stalemate royal power reestablished barons loyal young henry iii.englands power structures remained unstable outbreak second barons war resulted kings capture simon de montfort.
England in the Middle Ages	henrys son edward defeated rebel factions restoring father power.late middle ages – becoming king edward rebuilt status monarchy restoring extending key castles fallen disrepair.uprisings princes north wales led edward mobilising huge army defeating native welsh undertaking programme english colonisation castle building across region.wars conducted flanders aquitaine.edward also fought campaigns scotland unable achieve strategic victory costs created tensions nearly led civil war.
England in the Middle Ages	edward ii inherited war scotland faced growing opposition rule result royal favourites military failures.despenser war – followed instability subsequent overthrow possible murder edward hands french wife isabella rebel baron roger mortimer.isabella mortimers regime lasted years falling coup led isabellas son edward iii .like grandfather edward iii took steps restore royal power black death arrived england.losses epidemic recurring plagues followed significantly affected events england many years come.meanwhile edward pressure france aquitaine made challenge french throne.
England in the Middle Ages	next century english forces fought many campaigns longrunning conflict became known hundred years war.despite challenges involved raising revenues pay war edwards military successes brought influx plundered wealth many parts england enabled substantial building work king.many members english elite including edwards son black prince heavily involved campaigning france administering new continental territories.edwards grandson young richard ii faced political economic problems many resulting black death including peasants revolt broke across south england .coming decades richard groups nobles vied power control policy towards france henry bolingbroke seized throne support parliament .ruling henry iv exercised power royal council parliament attempting enforce political religious conformity.
England in the Middle Ages	son henry v reinvigorated war france came close achieving strategic success shortly death .henry vi became king age nine months english political system military situation france began unravel.a sequence bloody civil wars later termed wars roses finally broke spurred economic crisis widespread perception poor government.edward iv leading faction known yorkists removed henry power fighting recommenced edward henry edwards brother george backed leading nobles powerful french supporters vied power.edward triumphant rivals dead.death power passed brother richard gloucester initially ruled behalf young edward v seizing throne richard iii.
England in the Middle Ages	future henry vii aided french scottish troops returned england defeated richard battle bosworth bringing end majority fighting although lesser rebellions tudor dynasty would continue several years afterwards.government society governance social structures early middle ages – anglosaxon kingdoms hierarchical societies based ties allegiance powerful lords immediate followers.top social structure king stood many normal processes anglosaxon life whose household special privileges protection.beneath king thegns nobles powerful maintained courts termed ealdormen.relationship kings nobles bound military symbolism ritual exchange weapons armour.
England in the Middle Ages	freemen called churls formed next level society often holding land right controlling businesses towns.geburs peasants worked land belonging thegn formed lower class still.lowest class slaves could bought sold held minimal rights.the balance power different groups changed time.early period kings elected members late kings council primogeniture rapidly became norm succession.kings bolstered status adopting christian ceremonies nomenclature introducing ecclesiastical coronations th century terming christs deputy th century.
England in the Middle Ages	huge estates initially built king bishops monasteries thegns th th centuries slowly broken consequence inheritance arrangements marriage settlements church purchases.th century royal position worsened ealdormen rapidly built huge new estates making collectively much powerful king—this contributed political instability final anglosaxon years.time went position churls deteriorated rights slowly eroded duties lords increased.the kingdom wessex eventually laid claim england whole evolved centralised royal administration.one part kings council witenagemot comprising senior clergy ealdormen important thegns council met advise king policy legal issues.royal household included officials thegns secretariat clergy travelled king conducting affairs government went.
England in the Middle Ages	danish kings bodyguard housecarls also accompanied court.regional level ealdormen played important part government defence taxation post sheriff emerged th century administering local shires behalf ealdorman.anglosaxon mints tightly controlled kings providing highquality currency whole country taxed using system called hidage.the anglosaxon kings built set written laws issued either statutes codes laws never written entirety always supplemented extensive oral tradition customary law.early part period local assemblies called moots gathered apply laws particular cases th century replaced hundred courts serving local areas shire moots dealing larger regions kingdom.many churchmen thegns also given permission king hold local courts.
England in the Middle Ages	legal system depended system oaths value different individuals swearing behalf plaintiff defendant varied according social status – word companion king example worth twelve times churl.fines imposed size similarly varied accord oathvalue individual.anglosaxon authorities struggled deal bloodfeuds families emerged following violent killings attempting use system weregild payment blood money way providing alternative longrunning vendettas.high middle ages – within twenty years norman conquest former anglosaxon elite replaced new class norman nobility around normans french settling england.new earls successors ealdermen sheriffs church seniors drawn ranks.
England in the Middle Ages	many areas society continuity normans adopted many anglosaxon governmental institutions including tax system mints centralisation lawmaking judicial matters initially sheriffs hundred courts continued function before.existing tax liabilities captured domesday book produced .changes areas soon began felt.method government conquest described feudal system new nobles held lands behalf king return promising provide military support taking oath allegiance called homage granted lands termed fief honour.major nobles turn granted lands smaller landowners return homage military support eventually peasantry held land return local labour services creating web loyalties resources enforced part new honorial courts.system used normandy concentrated power king upper elite former anglosaxon system government.
England in the Middle Ages	practice slavery declined years conquest normans considered practice backward contrary teachings church.prosperous peasants however lost influence power normans made holding land dependent providing labour services local lord.sank economic hierarchy swelling numbers unfree villeins serfs forbidden leave manor seek alternative employment.at centre power kings employed succession clergy chancellors responsible running royal chancery familia regis military household emerged act bodyguard military staff.englands bishops continued form important part local administration alongside nobility.henry henry ii implemented significant legal reforms extending widening scope centralised royal law basis future english common law largely established standing law court westminster—an early common bench—and travelling judges conducting eyres around country.
England in the Middle Ages	king john extended royal role delivering justice extent appropriate royal intervention one issues addressed magna carta .emerging legal system reinvigorated institution serfdom th century drawing increasingly sharp distinction freemen villeins.many tensions existed within system government.royal landownings wealth stretched across england placed king privileged position even powerful noble elite.successive kings though still needed resources pay military campaigns conduct building programmes reward followers meant exercising feudal rights interfere landholdings nobles.contentious frequent issue complaint growing belief land held hereditary right favour king.
England in the Middle Ages	property wealth became increasingly focused hands subset nobility great magnates expense wider baronage encouraging breakdown aspects local feudalism.time went norman nobility intermarried many great anglosaxon families links duchy began weaken.late th century mobilising english barons fight continent proving difficult johns attempts ended civil war.civil strife reemerged henry iii rebel barons – demanding widespread reforms early version parliament summoned represent rebel interests.late middle ages – becoming king edward reestablished royal power overhauling royal finances appealing broader english elite using parliament authorise raising new taxes hear petitions concerning abuses local governance.
England in the Middle Ages	political balance collapsed edward ii savage civil wars broke s. edward iii restored order help majority nobility exercising power exchequer common bench royal household.government better organised larger scale ever th century kings formerly peripatetic chancery take permanent residence westminster.edward used parliament even predecessors handle general administration legislate raise necessary taxes pay wars france.royal lands—and incomes them—had diminished years increasingly frequent taxation required support royal initiatives.edward held elaborate chivalric events effort unite supporters around symbols knighthood.
England in the Middle Ages	ideal chivalry continued develop throughout th century reflected growth knightly orders including order garter grand tournaments round table events.society government england early th century challenged great famine black death.economic demographic crisis created sudden surplus land undermining ability landowners exert feudal rights causing collapse incomes rented lands.wages soared employers competed scarce workforce.statute labourers introduced limit wages prevent consumption luxury goods lower classes prosecutions coming take legal systems energy time.poll tax introduced spread costs war france widely across whole population.
England in the Middle Ages	tensions spilled violence summer form peasants revolt violent retribution followed many alleged rebels executed.new class gentry emerged result changes renting land major nobility farm profit.legal system continued expand th century dealing everwider set complex problems.by time richard ii deposed power major noble magnates grown considerably powerful rulers henry iv would contain minority henry vi controlled country.magnates depended upon income rent trade allow maintain groups paid armed retainers often sporting controversial livery buy support amongst wider gentry system dubbed bastard feudalism.influence exerted house lords parliament kings council.
England in the Middle Ages	gentry wealthier townsmen exercised increasing influence house commons opposing raising taxes pay french wars.english government major financial difficulties leading crisis popular revolt leadership jack cade.law order deteriorated crown unable intervene factional fighting different nobles followers.resulting wars roses saw savage escalation violence noble leaderships sides captured enemies executed family lands attainted.time henry vii took throne englands governmental social structures substantially weakened whole noble lines extinguished.
England in the Middle Ages	women society medieval england patriarchal society lives women heavily influenced contemporary beliefs gender authority.however position women varied considerably according various factors including social class whether unmarried married widowed remarried part country lived.significant gender inequities persisted throughout period women typically limited lifechoices access employment trade legal rights men.in anglosaxon society noblewomen enjoyed considerable rights status although society still firmly patriarchal.exercised power abbesses exerting widespread influence across early english church although wealth authority diminished monastic reforms th century.anglosaxon queens began hold lands right th century households contributed running kingdom.
England in the Middle Ages	although women could lead military forces absence husbands noblewomen led defence manors towns.anglosaxon women however worked land part agricultural community brewers bakers.after norman invasion position women society changed.rights roles women became sharply defined part result development feudal system expansion english legal system women benefited others lost out.rights widows formally laid law end th century clarifying right free women property necessarily prevent women forcibly remarried wishes.growth governmental institutions succession bishops reduced role queens households formal government.
England in the Middle Ages	married widowed noblewomen remained significant cultural religious patrons played important part political military events even chroniclers uncertain appropriate behaviour.earlier centuries women worked agriculture roles became clearly gendered ploughing managing fields defined mens work example dairy production becoming dominated women.the years black death left many women widows wider economy labour short supply land suddenly readily available.rural areas peasant women could enjoy better standard living ever amount work done women may increased.many women travelled towns cities point outnumbered men settlements.worked husbands limited number occupations including spinning making clothes victualling servants.
England in the Middle Ages	women became fulltime ale brewers pushed business maledominated beer industry th century.higher status jobs apprenticeships however remained closed women.earlier times noblewomen exercised power estates husbands absence necessary defended sieges skirmishes.wealthy widows could successfully claim rightful share late husbands property could live powerful members community right.identity english cultural identity first emerged interaction germanic immigrants th th centuries indigenous romanobritish inhabitants.
England in the Middle Ages	although early medieval chroniclers described immigrants angles saxons came much wider area across northern europe represented range different ethnic groups.th century however different groups began coalesce stratified societies across england roughly corresponding later angle saxon kingdoms recorded bede th century.th century term angelcynn officially used refer single english people promoted propaganda purposes chroniclers kings inspire resistance danish invasions.the normans french arrived conquest saw different english.close family economic links duchy normandy spoke norman french distinctive culture.many years english associated military failure serfdom.
England in the Middle Ages	th century divisions english normans began dissolve result intermarriage cohabitation.end th century possibly early contemporary commentators believed two peoples blending loss duchy reinforced trend.resulting society still prized wider french cultural values however french remained language court business international affairs even parisians mocked english poor pronunciation.th century however french increasingly formally taught rather learnt naturally home although aristocracy would typically spend many years lives france remained entirely comfortable working french.during th th centuries english began consider superior welsh scots bretons.english perceived civilised economically prosperous properly christian celtic fringe considered lazy barbarous backward.
England in the Middle Ages	following invasion ireland late th century similar feelings expressed irish distinctions clarified reinforced thcentury english legislation.english also felt strongly foreign traders lived special enclaves london late middle ages position jews described italian baltic traders also regarded aliens frequently targets violence economic downturns.even within england different identities abounded sense status importance.regional identities could important – men women yorkshire example clear identity within english society professional groups distinct identity lawyers engaged open fighting others cities london.jews jewish community played important role england throughout much period.
England in the Middle Ages	first jews arrived england aftermath norman invasion william conqueror brought wealthy members rouen community normandy settle london.jewish community expanded across england provided essential moneylending banking services otherwise banned usury laws.th century jewish financial community grew richer still operating royal protection providing king source ready credit.major towns jewish centres even smaller towns saw visits travelling jewish merchants.towards end henry iis reign however king ceased borrow jewish community instead turned extracting money arbitrary taxation fines.
England in the Middle Ages	jews became vilified accusations made conducted ritual child murder encouraging pogroms carried jewish communities reign richard i. initially peaceful start johns reign king began extort money jewish community breakdown order jews subject fresh attacks.henry iii restored protection jewish moneylending began recover.despite jewish community became increasingly impoverished finally expelled england edward replaced foreign merchants.religion rise christianity christianity official imperial religion roman empire first churches built england second half th century overseen hierarchy bishops priests.many existing pagan shrines converted christian use pagan sites still operated th century.
England in the Middle Ages	collapse roman system late th century however brought end formal christian religion east england new germanic immigrants arrived polytheistic gods including woden thunor tiw still reflected various english place names.despite resurgence paganism england christian communities still survived western areas gloucestershire somerset.the movement towards christianity began late th th centuries helped conversion franks northern france carried considerable influence england.pope gregory sent team missionaries convert king æthelberht kent household starting process converting kent.augustine became first archbishop canterbury started build new churches across southeast reusing existing pagan shrines.oswald oswiu kings northumbria converted wave change carried middle th century across kingdoms mercia south saxons isle wight.
England in the Middle Ages	process largely complete end th century left confusing disparate array local practices religious ceremonies.new christianity reflected existing military culture anglosaxons kings began convert th th centuries conversion began used justification war remaining pagan kingdoms example christian saints imbued martial properties.the viking invasions th th centuries reintroduced paganism northeast england leading turn another wave conversion.indigenous scandinavian beliefs similar germanic groups pantheon gods including odin thor ullr combined belief final apocalyptic battle called ragnarok.norse settlers england converted relatively quickly assimilating beliefs christianity decades following occupation york archbishop survived.process largely complete early th century enabled englands leading churchmen negotiate warlords.
England in the Middle Ages	norse mainland scandinavia started convert many mainland rulers recruited missionaries england assist process.religious institutions conversion much england th th centuries explosion local church building.english monasteries formed main basis church however often sponsored local rulers taking various forms including mixed communities headed abbesses bishopled communities monks others formed around married priests families.cathedrals constructed staffed either secular canons european tradition uniquely england chapters monks.institutions badly affected th century viking raids predatory annexations nobility.
England in the Middle Ages	start th century monastic lands financial resources quality monasteries religious work much diminished.reforms followed kings wessex promoted benedictine rule popular continent.reformed network around monastic institutions across south east england protection king helped reestablish royal control reconquered danelaw.the norman conquest brought new set norman french churchmen power adopted embraced aspects former anglosaxon religious system others introduced practices normandy.extensive english lands granted monasteries normandy allowing create daughter priories monastic cells across kingdom.monasteries brought firmly web feudal relations holding land linked provision military support crown.
England in the Middle Ages	normans adopted anglosaxon model monastic cathedral communities within seventy years majority english cathedrals controlled monks every english cathedral however rebuilt extent new rulers.englands bishops remained powerful temporal figures early thcentury raised armies scottish invaders built extensive holdings castles across country.new orders began introduced england.ties normandy waned french cluniac order became fashionable houses introduced england.augustinians spread quickly beginning th century onwards later century cistercians reached england creating houses austere interpretation monastic rules building great abbeys rievaulx fountains.monastic communities england new endowments slowed th century creating longterm financial problems many institutions.
England in the Middle Ages	dominican franciscan friars arrived england establishing friaries end th century mendicant orders rapidly became popular particularly towns heavily influenced local preaching.religious military orders became popular across europe th century onwards acquired possessions england including templars teutons hospitallers.church state heresy church close relationship english state throughout middle ages.bishops major monastic leaders played important part national government key roles kings council.bishops often oversaw towns cities managing local taxation government.
England in the Middle Ages	frequently became untenable viking incursions th century locations worcester local bishops came new accommodations local ealdormen exchanging authority revenue assistance defence.early english church racked disagreement doctrine addressed synod whitby issues resolved arguments archbishops canterbury york primacy across britain began shortly afterwards continued throughout medieval period.william conqueror acquired support church invasion england promising ecclesiastical reform.william promoted celibacy amongst clergy gave ecclesiastical courts power also reduced churchs direct links rome made accountable king.tensions arose practices reforming movement pope gregory vii advocated greater autonomy royal authority clergy condemned practice simony promoted greater influence papacy church matters.despite bishops continuing play major part royal government tensions emerged kings england key leaders within english church.
England in the Middle Ages	kings archbishops clashed rights appointment religious policy successive archbishops including anselm theobald bec thomas becket stephen langton variously forced exile arrested royal knights even killed.early th century however church largely argument independence answering almost entirely rome.in several challenges emerged traditional teachings church resulting teachings john wycliffe member oxford university.wycliffe argued scripture best guide understanding gods intentions superficial nature liturgy combined abuses wealth within church role senior churchmen government distracted study.loose movement included many members gentry pursued ideas wycliffes death attempted pass parliamentary bill movement rapidly condemned authorities termed lollardy.english bishops charged control counter trend disrupting lollard preachers enforcing teaching suitable sermons local churches.
England in the Middle Ages	early th century combating lollard teachings become key political issue championed henry iv lancastrian followers used powers church state combat heresy.pilgrimages crusades pilgrimages popular religious practice throughout middle ages england tradition dating back roman period.typically pilgrims would travel short distances shrine particular church either penance perceived sin seek relief illness condition.pilgrims travelled either distant sites within britain cases onto continent.during anglosaxon period many shrines built former pagan sites became popular pilgrimage destinations pilgrims visited prominent monasteries sites learning.senior nobles kings would travel rome popular destination th century onwards sometimes trips form convenient political exile.
England in the Middle Ages	normans religious institutions important shrines glastonbury canterbury winchester promoted pilgrimage destinations maximising value historic miracles associated sites.accumulating relics became important task ambitious institutions believed hold curative powers lent status site.indeed th century reports posthumous miracles local saints becoming increasingly common england adding attractiveness pilgrimages prominent relics.participation crusades also seen form pilgrimage indeed latin word peregrinatio sometimes applied activities.english participation first crusade limited england played prominent part second third fifth crusades next two centuries many crusaders leaving levant intervening years.idea undertaking pilgrimage jerusalem new england however idea religiously justified warfare went back anglosaxon times.
England in the Middle Ages	many took cross go crusade never actually left often individual lacked sufficient funds undertake journey.raising funds travel typically involved crusaders selling mortgaging lands possessions affected families times considerably affected economy whole.economy technology geography england diverse geography medieval period fenlands east anglia heavily wooded weald upland moors yorkshire.despite medieval england broadly formed two zones roughly divided rivers exe tees south east england lighter richer soils able support arable pastoral agriculture poorer soils colder climate north west produced predominantly pastoral economy.slightly land covered trees th century bears beavers wolves lived wild england bears hunted extinction th century beavers th.
England in the Middle Ages	miles roads built romans many remained use four particular strategic importance—the icknield way fosse way ermine street watling street—which crisscrossed entire country.road system adequate needs period although significantly cheaper transport goods water.major river networks formed key transport routes many english towns formed navigable inland ports.for much middle ages englands climate differed st century.th th centuries england went medieval warm period prolonged period warmer temperatures early th century example summers around °c warmer today climate slightly drier.warmer temperatures allowed poorer land brought cultivation grapevines cultivated relatively far north.
England in the Middle Ages	warm period followed several centuries much cooler temperatures termed little ice age th century spring temperatures dropped considerably reaching coldest s. cold end middle ages significantly affected english agriculture living conditions.even start middle ages english landscape shaped human occupation many centuries.much woodland new result fields reclaimed brush collapse roman empire.human intervention established wood pastures ancient system managing woods animals coppicing intensive approach managing woodlands.agricultural lands included arable fields pastorage parts country southwest waste moorland remained testament earlier overfarming bronze age.englands environment continued shaped throughout period building dykes drain marshes tree clearance largescale extraction peat.
England in the Middle Ages	managed parks hunting game including deer boars built status symbols nobility th century onwards earlier versions parks hays may originated early th century.economy demographics english economy fundamentally agricultural depending growing crops wheat barley oats open field system husbanding sheep cattle pigs.late anglosaxon period many peasants moved away living isolated hamlets instead came together form larger villages engaged arable cultivation.agricultural land became typically organised around manors divided fields landowner would manage directly called demesne land majority fields would cultivated local peasants.peasants would pay rent landowner either agricultural labour lords demesne fields rent form cash produce.
England in the Middle Ages	th century market economy flourishing across much england eastern southern towns heavily involved international trade.around watermills built grind flour freeing labour productive agricultural tasks.although norman invasion caused damage soldiers looted countryside land confiscated castle building english economy greatly affected.taxes increased however normans established extensive forests exploited natural resources protected royal laws.next two centuries saw huge growth english economy driven part increase population around .million million .
England in the Middle Ages	land much expense royal forests brought production feed growing population produce wool export europe.many hundreds new towns planned communities built across england supporting creation guilds charter fairs medieval institutions governed growing trade.jewish financiers played significant role funding growing economy along new cistercian augustinian religious orders emerged major players wool trade north.mining increased england silver boom th century helping fuel expansion money supply.economic growth began falter end th century owing combination overpopulation land shortages depleted soils.great famine shook english economy severely population growth ceased first outbreak black death killed around half english population.
England in the Middle Ages	agricultural sector shrank rapidly higher wages lower prices diminishing profits leading final demise old demesne system advent modern farming system centring charging cash rents lands.returns land fell many estates cases entire settlements simply abandoned nearly villages deserted period.new class gentry emerged rented farms major nobility.unsuccessful government attempts made regulate wages consumption largely collapsed decades following peasants revolt .the english cloth industry grew considerably start th century new class international english merchant emerged typically based london southwest prospering expense older shrinking economies eastern towns.new trading systems brought end many international fairs rise chartered company.
England in the Middle Ages	fishing north sea expanded deeper waters backed commercial investment major merchants.however europe entered recession england suffered great slump trade collapsed driving agricultural prices rents ultimately acceptable levels royal taxation.resulting tensions discontent played important part jack cades popular uprising subsequent wars roses.end middle ages economy begun recover considerable improvements made metalworking shipbuilding would shape early modern economy.technology science technology science england advanced considerably middle ages driven part greek islamic thinking reached england th century onwards.
England in the Middle Ages	many advances made scientific ideas including introduction arabic numerals sequence improvements units used measuring time.clocks first built england late th century first mechanical clocks certainly installed cathedrals abbeys s. astrology magic palm reading also considered important forms knowledge medieval england although doubted reliability.the period produced influential english scholars.roger bacon philosopher franciscan friar produced works natural philosophy astronomy alchemy work set theoretical basis future experimentation natural sciences.william ockham helped fuse latin greek islamic writing general theory logic ockhams razor one oftcited conclusions.english scholars since time bede believed world probably round johannes de sacrobosco estimated circumference earth th century.
England in the Middle Ages	despite limitations medieval medicine gilbertus anglicus published compendium medicinae one longest medical works ever written latin.prominent historical science texts began translated english first time second half th century including polychronicon travels sir john mandeville.universities oxford cambridge established th th centuries drawing model university paris.technological advances proceeded range areas.watermills grind grain existed anglosaxon period using horizontal mill designs th century many built eliminating use hand mills older horizontal mills gradually supplanted new vertical mill design.windmills began built late th century slowly became common.

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