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History of manufactured fuel gases	year committee made serious attempt get house commons pass bill empowering king grant charter boulton watt felt gaslight apparatus manufacturing business threatened mounted opposition allies parliament.although parliamentary committee recommended approval defeated third reading.the following year committee tried succeeding acquiescence boulton watt renounced powers manufacture apparatus sale.act required company raise £ could request charter condition took next two years fill.george iii granted charter .manufactured gas – manufactured gas england approximately manufactured gas predominantly english technology.
History of manufactured fuel gases	number new gas utilities founded serve london cities uk .liverpool exeter preston first .others soon followed town population without gaslight.five years later two towns without gaslight.in london growth gaslight rapid.new companies founded within years gas light coke company period intense competition followed companies competed consumers boundaries respective zones operations.
History of manufactured fuel gases	frederick accum various editions book gaslight gives good sense rapidly technology spread capital.wrote lamps city served miles km mains.raised estimate lamps miles km mains.likewise two gasworks london seven companies.government regulate industry whole act parliament created post inspector gasworks first holder sir william congreve.
History of manufactured fuel gases	even laws passed regulating entire industry although bill proposed failed due opposition gas companies.charters approved parliament however contain various regulations companies could break pavement etc.manufactured gas europe north america frances first gas company also promoted frederick winsor flee england due unpaid debts tried found another gas company paris failed .government also interested promoting industry commissioned chabrol de volvic study technology build prototype plant also paris.plant provided gas lighting hôpital saint louis experiment judged successful.
History of manufactured fuel gases	king louis xviii decided give impulse development french industry sending people england study situation install gaslight number prestigious buildings opera building national library etc.public company created purpose .private companies soon followed government moved regulate industry four operation capital.regulations passed prevented companies competing paris effectively divided various companies operating monopolies zones.gaslight spread european countries.company founded brussels p. j. meeusvan der maelen began operating following year.
History of manufactured fuel gases	companies amsterdam rotterdam using english technology.germany gaslight used small scale onwards first gaslight utility founded english engineers capital.imperial continental gas association founded london establish gas utilities countries.sir william congreve nd baronet one leaders signed agreement government hanover gas lamps used streets first time .gaslight first introduced us baltimore rembrandt rubens peale lit museum gaslight seen trip europe.brothers convinced group wealthy people back larger enterprise.
History of manufactured fuel gases	local government passed law allowing peales associates lay mains light streets.company incorporated purpose .difficulties apparatus financial problems company hired english engineer experience gaslight.began flourish company supplying gas domestic customers street lamps.companies cities followed second boston gas light new york gas light company .
History of manufactured fuel gases	gas works built philadelphia .manufactured gas australia australian gas light company established opened first gasworks australia millers point sydney .legal regulatory environmental health safety aspects gas manufacture gas lighting one debated technologies first industrial revolution.paris early controversy forced government devise safety standards fressoz .residues produced distilled coal often either drained rivers stored basins polluted still pollute soil.
History of manufactured fuel gases	one early exception edinburgh gas works residues carted later piped bonnington chemical works processed valuable products.case law uk us clearly held though construction operation gasworks creation public nuisance se due reputation gasworks highly undesirable neighbors noxious pollution known issue especially early days manufactured gas gasworks extremely short notice courts detectable contamination outside grounds – especially residential districts – would severely frowned upon.indeed many actions abatement nuisances brought courts result unfavorable verdicts gas manufacturers – one study early environmental law actions nuisance involving gasworks resulted findings plaintiffs time compared overall plaintiff victory rate .industrial nuisance cases.injunctions preliminary permanent could often issued cases involving gas works.example ill reputation gasworks became well known city cleveland vs. citizens gas light co. n. j. eq.court went far enjoin future gasworks yet even built – preventing causing annoying offensive vapours odors first place.
History of manufactured fuel gases	injunction regulated gas manufacturing process – forbidding use lime purification – also provided nuisances sort issue works – permanent injunction forbidding production gas would issue court.indeed master rolls lord langdale remarked opinion haines v. taylor beavan rather astonished hear effects gas works treated nothing...every man days must sufficient experience enable come conclusion whether nuisance gas manufactory disagreeable thing.nobody doubt volatile products arise distillation coal extremely offensive.quite contrary common experience say so...every man knows it.however time went gasworks began seen doubleedged sword – eventually positive good former nuisances abated technological improvements full benefits gas became clear.several major impetuses drove phenomenonregulation pollution gasworks case uk passage gasworks clauses act increased cost pollution previously near zero leading development technologies abated ongoing pollution nuisances many cases turning discarded former pollutants profitable byproductsthe rise smoke nuisance brought domestic commercial use coal many cities metropolises direct combustion coal particularly notorious source pollution widespread use gas could abate especially commencement using gas purposes illuminating cooking heating dwellinghouses making domestic hot water raising steam industrial chemical purposes stationary internal combustion enginedriving purposes – previously met employing coalthe development highpressure gas mains compressors capable efficiently transporting gas long distances allowing one manufactured gas plant supply relatively large area – leading concentration gasmanufacturing operations instead geographic distribution resulted gasworks able located away residential commercial districts presence could result discomfort concern inhabitants thereofboth era consolidation gasworks highpressure distribution systems s–s end era manufactured gas – saw gasworks shut due redundancies.
History of manufactured fuel gases	brought end manufactured gas pipelines began built bring natural gas directly well gas distribution systems.natural gas superior manufactured gas time cheaper – extracted wells rather manufactured gasworks – user friendly – coming well requiring little purification – safer – due lack carbon monoxide distributed product.upon shut former manufactured gas plant sites brought acceptable level environmental cleanliness allow reuse least contemporary standards.fact many literally abandoned place process wastes left situ never adequately disposed of.as wastes produced former manufactured gas plants persistent nature often still contaminate site former manufactured gas plants waste causing concern today primarily coal tar mixed longchain aromatic aliphatic hydrocarbons byproduct coal carbonization blue billy noxious byproduct lime purification contaminated cyanides well lime coal tar residues regarded lesser though significant environmental hazards.former manufactured gas plants owned gas utilities today often effort prevent contaminated land falling public use inadvertently causing release wastes therein contained.
History of manufactured fuel gases	others fallen public use without proper reclamation caused – often severe – health hazards users.necessary former manufactured gas plants subject environmental remediation laws subject legally mandated cleanups.appliances machinery historic gasworks basic design gaslight apparatus established boulton watt samuel clegg period –.improvements made gas light coke company well growing number gas engineers john malam thomas peckston .boulton watt contributed basic design retort condenser gasometer clegg improved gasometer introduced lime purification hydraulic main another purifier.
History of manufactured fuel gases	retort bench retort bench construction retorts located carbonization synonymous pyrolysis coal feedstock evolution coal gas.years manufactured gas production advances made turned retortbench little coalcontaining iron vessels open fire massive highly efficient partially automated industrialscale capitalintensive plant carbonization large amounts coal.several retort benches usually located single retort house least one every gas works.initially retort benches many different configurations due lack long use scientific practical understanding carbonization coal.early retorts little iron vessels filled coal thrust upon coal fire pipes attached top ends.though practical earliest gas works quickly changed early gasworks served customers.
History of manufactured fuel gases	size vessels grew – need became apparent efficiency refilling retorts – apparent filling oneended vertical retorts easy removing coke residues carbonization coal far difficult.hence gas retorts transitioned vertical vessels horizontal tubular vessels.retorts usually made cast iron early days.early gas engineers experimented extensively best shape size setting.one form retort dominated many different crosssections remained use.retorts generally became made fire clay due greater heat retention greater durability positive qualities.
History of manufactured fuel gases	castiron retorts used small gas works due compatibility demands castiron retorts lower cost ability heat quickly meet transient demand plug play replacement capabilities.outweighed disadvantages shorter life lower temperature margins lack ability manufactured noncylindrical shapes.also general gasworks practice following switch fireclay retorts favored retorts shaped like turned degrees left sometimes slightly pitched bottom section.with introduction fireclay retort higher heats could held retort benches leading faster complete carbonization coal.higher heats became possible advanced methods retort bench firing introduced catalyzed development open hearth furnace siemens circa – leading revolution gasworks efficiency.specifically two major advances werethe introduction indirectly fired retort bench.early directly fired retort bench consisted retorts suspended coke fire heated retorts drove carbonization coal within coke evolution gas.
History of manufactured fuel gases	introduction indirect firing changed this.instead retorts heated directly fire – fire placed ways one side retorts brought high heat air supply reduced small amount steam introduced.instead evolving large quantities heat directly heat retorts fire evolved heated gasses – specifically carbon monoxide due steam small amount hydrogen well highly combustible.gasses rise fire channel brings tuyeres – small holes similar nostrils located adjacent retorts shoot furnacegasses them.adjacent tuyeres emit large amount secondary air preheated air upon mixing furnace gasses causes ignite burst flame bathe exterior retorts heat.the introduction heat recuperation preheating air primary secondary combustion.
History of manufactured fuel gases	causing exhaust retortbench pass maze refractory brickwork substantial quantities heat extracted it.side exhaust channels channels passage air combustion.bricks thus transfer heat exhaust air combustion preheating it.provides much greater degree thermal efficiency retortbench causing able use far less coke since air preheated waste heat already hot enters fire burnt tuyere fuel secondary combustion.these two advances turned old directly fired retort bench advanced indirectly fired regenerative generative retort bench lead coke usage within retort benches larger works drop upwards coke made retorts factors low coke made retorts leading improvement efficiency order magnitude.improvements imparted additional capital cost retort bench caused slowly incorporated smaller gasworks incorporated all.further increases efficiency safety seen introduction retort door front rear.
History of manufactured fuel gases	provided greater efficiency safety loading unloading retorts laborintensive often dangerous process.coal could pushed retort – rather pulled retort.one interesting modification retort inclined retort – coming heyday – retort set moderate incline coal poured one end retort sealed following pyrolysis bottom opened coke poured gravity.adopted gasworks savings labor often offset uneven distribution pyrolysis coal well clumping problems leading failure coal pour bottom following pyrolysis exacerbated certain coal types.inclined retorts rendered obsolescent later advances including retorthandling machine vertical retort system.several advanced retorthouse appliances introduced improved efficiency convenience.
History of manufactured fuel gases	compressedair steamdriven clinkering pick found especially useful removing clinker primary combustion area indirectly fired benches – previously clinkering arduous timeconsuming process used large amounts retort house labor.another class appliances introduced apparatuses – ultimately machines – retort loading unloading.retorts generally loaded using elongated scoop coal loaded – gang men would lift scoop ram retort.coal would raked men layer even thickness retort sealed.gas production would ensue – – hours later retort would opened coal would either pulled case stopended retorts pushed case retorts retort.
History of manufactured fuel gases	thus retort house heavy manpower requirements – many men often required bear coalcontaining scoop load retort.gasworks facilities retort gas would first pass tarwater trap similar trap plumbing called hydraulic main considerable fraction coal tar given gas significantly cooled.would pass main retort house atmospheric watercooled condenser would cooled temperature atmosphere water used.point enters exhauster house passes exhauster air pump maintains hydraulic mains consequently retorts negative pressure zero pressure atmospheric.would washed washer bubbling water extract remaining tars.
History of manufactured fuel gases	would enter purifier.gas would ready distribution pass gasholder storage.hydraulic main within retorthouse retort benches would lined next one another long row.retort loading unloading door.affixed door ascension pipe carry gas evolved coal within.
History of manufactured fuel gases	pipes would rise top bench would terminate inverted u leg u disappearing long troughshaped structure covered top made cast iron called hydraulic main placed atop row benches near front edge.ran continuously along row benches within retort house ascension pipe retort descended it.the hydraulic main level liquid mixture initially water following use also coal tar ammoniacal liquor.retort ascension pipe dropped water level least small amount perhaps inch often considerably earlier days gas manufacture.gas evolved retort would thus bubble liquid emerge void liquid would mix gas evolved retorts drawn foul main condenser.there two purposes liquid seal first draw tar liquor gas retort laden tar hydraulic main could rid gas certain degree tar removal would take place condenser washerscrubber tar extractor.still would less tar deal later.
History of manufactured fuel gases	second liquid seal also provided defense air drawn hydraulic main main liquid within retort left open pipe shut air combine gas main could explode along nearby benches.however early years gas research proved deep excessive seal hydraulic main threw backpressure upon retorts coal within gasifying deleterious consequences carbon would likely deposit onto insides retorts ascension pipes bottom layer tar gas would travel deeply sealed main robbed gas illuminating value.hydraulic mains run around inch seal more.later retort systems many types vertical retorts especially ones continuous operation antioxygen safeguards check valves etc.well larger retorts often omitted hydraulic main entirely went straight condensers – apparatus buildings could used tar extraction main unnecessary systems.condenser air cooled condenserscondensers either air cooled water cooled.air cooled condensers often made odd lengths pipe connections.
History of manufactured fuel gases	main varieties common use classified followsa horizontal types b vertical typesc annular types battery condenser.the horizontal condenser extended foul main pipe zigzag pattern end end one retorthouse walls.flange connections essential blockages naphthalene pitchy deposits likely occur.condensed liquids flowed sloping pipes direction gas.long gas flow slow effective method removal naphthalene.vertical air condensers gas tar outlets.the annular atmospheric condenser easier control respect cooling rates.
History of manufactured fuel gases	gas tall vertical cylinders annular form allowed inside outside surface exposed cooling air.diagonal side pipes conveyed warm gas upper ends annular cylinder.butterfly valves dampers fitted top vertical air pipe amount cooling could regulated.the battery condenser long narrow box divided internally baffleplates cause gas take circuitous course.width box usually feet small tubes passed side side form chief cooling surface.ends tubes left open allow air pass through.
History of manufactured fuel gases	obstruction caused tubes played role breaking throwing tars suspended gas.typically plants using castiron mains apparatus allowed square feet superficial area per cubic feet gas made per day.could slightly reduced wrought iron mild steel used.water cooled condenserswater cooled condensers mainly constructed riveted mild steel plates form outer shell steel wroughtiron tubes.two distinct types used multitubular condensers.b watertube condensers.unless cooling water exceptionally clean watertube condenser preferred.major difference multitubular watertube condenser former water passed outside around tubes carry hot gas latter type opposite case.
History of manufactured fuel gases	thus muddy water pumped rivers canals available watertube condenser used.incoming gas particularly dirty contained undesirable quantity heavy tar outer chamber liable obstruction cause.the hot gas saturated water vapor accounted largest portion total work condensation.water vapor lose large quantities heat liquefiable hydrocarbon.total work condensation accounted removing water vapor remainder used cool permanent gases condensing liquefiable hydrocarbon.as extremely finely divided particles also suspended gas impossible separate particulate matter solely reduction vapor pressure.gas underwent processes remove traces solid liquid matter reached wet purification plant.
History of manufactured fuel gases	centrifugal separators colman cyclone apparatus utilized process plants.the hydrocarbon condensates removed order heavy tars medium tars finally light tars oil fog.tars would deposited hydraulic main.tar heavy tars.medium tars condensed passage products hydraulic condenser.lighter tars oil fog would travel considerably further.in general temperature gas hydraulic main varies f. constituents liable lost benzene toluene extent xylene important effect ultimate illuminating power gas.
History of manufactured fuel gases	tars detrimental illuminating power isolated gas rapidly possible.exhauster maintained hydraulic main condenser negative pressure.there several types exhaustersthe steam ejectoraspirator type exhauster used substantial steam jetventuri maintain negative pressure hydraulic main condenser.type exhauster mechanically simple moving parts thus virtually potential fail.however consumed comparatively large amount steam.often used backup exhauster role continued reliable backup end age manufactured gas.reciprocating exhausters various types.
History of manufactured fuel gases	steam enginedriven exhauster used cylinder pump pump gas.relatively reliable inefficient using large quantities steam less ejector type exhauster.used early days exhausters quickly obsoleted.blowertype exhausterturboexhauster washer–scrubber final extractions minor deleterious fractions.scrubbers utilized water designed years foundation industry.discovered removal ammonia gas depended upon way gas purified contacted water.
History of manufactured fuel gases	found best performed tower scrubber.scrubber consisted tall cylindrical vessel contained trays bricks supported grids.water weak gas liquor trickled trays thereby keeping exposed surfaces thoroughly wetted.gas purified run tower contacted liquid.george lowe patented device revolving perforated pipes supplying water purifying liquor.
History of manufactured fuel gases	later date rotary washer scrubber introduced paddon used brighton .prototype machine followed others improved construction notably kirkham hulett chandler introduced wellknown standard washer scrubber holmes huddersfield others.tower scrubber rotary washer scrubber made possible completely remove ammonia gas.purifier coal gas coming directly bench noxious soup chemicals removal deleterious fractions important improving quality gas preventing damage equipment premises recovering revenues sale extracted chemicals.several offensive fractions present distributed gas might lead problems – tar distributed gas might gum pipes could sold good price ammoniacal vapours gas might lead corrosion problems extracted ammonium sulfate decent fertilizer naphthalene vapours gas might stop gasmains even carbon dioxide gas known decrease illumination thus various facilities within gasworks tasked removal deleterious effluents.
History of manufactured fuel gases	compare hazardous contaminant raw coal gas sulfuret hydrogen hydrogen sulfide hs.regarded unacceptable several reasonsthe gas would smell rotten eggs burntthe gasworks adjacent district would smell rotten eggs gasworks producing gasthe gas upon burning would form sulfur dioxide would quickly oxidized sulfur trioxide subsequently would react water vapor produced combustion form sulfuric acid vapour.dwellinghouse could lead formation irritating poisonous corrosive atmospheres burnt.manufactured gas originally distributed affluent consumers known possess silver goods varying sorts.exposed sulfurous atmosphere silver tarnishes sulfurous atmosphere would present house lit sulfuretted gas.as removal sulfuret hydrogen given highest level priority gasworks.special facility existed extract sulfuret hydrogen – known purifier.
History of manufactured fuel gases	purifier important facility gasworks retortbench included.originally purifiers simple tanks limewater also known cream milk lime raw gas retort bench bubbled remove sulfuret hydrogen.original process purification known wet lime process.lime residue left wet lime process one first true toxic wastes material called blue billy.originally waste purifier house flushed nearby body water river canal.however fish kills nauseating way made rivers stink truly horrendous stench caused exposure residuals river running low public clamoured better means disposal.
History of manufactured fuel gases	thus piled heaps disposal.enterprising gas entrepreneurs tried sell weedkiller people wanted nothing generally regarded waste smelly poisonous gasworks could little except bury.end blue billy burying rain would often fall upon burial site leach poison stench buried waste could drain fields streams.following countless fiascoes blue billy contaminating environment furious public aided courts juries judges masters chancery often willing demand gasworks seek methods purification – even pay damages caused old methods purification.this led development dry lime purification process less effective wet lime process less toxic consequences.still quite noxious.
History of manufactured fuel gases	slaked lime calcium hydroxide placed thick layers trays inserted square cylindershaped purifier tower gas passed bottom top.charge slaked lime lost absorption effectiveness purifier shut flow gas either opened air piped in.immediately sulfurimpregnated slaked lime would react air liberate large concentrations sulfuretted hydrogen would billow purifier house make gasworks district stink sulfuretted hydrogen.though toxic sufficient concentrations long exposures sulfuret generally nauseating short exposures moderate concentrations merely health hazard compared outright danger blue billy gasworks employees neighbors gasworks.sulfuretted lime toxic greatly wanted slightly stinking odor sulfuret spread low grade fertilizer impregnated ammonia degree.
History of manufactured fuel gases	outrageous stinks many gasworks led many citizens regard public nuisances attracted eye regulators neighbors courts.the gas nuisance finally solved iron ore process.enterprising gasworks engineers discovered bog iron ore could used remove sulfuretted hydrogen gas could used could used purifier exposed air whence would rejuvenated without emitting noxious sulfuretted hydrogen gas sulfur retained iron ore. could reinserted purifier reused rejuvenated multiple times thoroughly embedded sulfur.could sold sulfuric acid works small profit.lime sometimes still used iron ore thoroughly removed sulfuret hydrogen remove carbonic acid carbon dioxide co bisulfuret carbon carbon disulfide cs ammonia still aeroform travels works.made noxious usually could fetch decent rate fertilizer impregnated ammonia.
History of manufactured fuel gases	finally solved greatest pollution nuisances gasworks still lesser problems remained – purifier house could solve though.purifier designs also went different stages throughout years.gasholder gasholders constructed variety materials brick stone concrete steel wrought iron.holder floating vessel storage reservoir gas serves purpose equalizing distribution gas pressure ensures continuity supply gas remains holder.cylindrical like inverted beaker work tank.order maintain true vertical position vessel rollers work guiderails attached tank sides columns surrounding holder.
History of manufactured fuel gases	gasholders may either single telescopic two lifts.made telescopic form capacity could increased much four times capacity singlelift holder equal dimensions tank.telescopic versions found useful conserved ground space capital.minor incidental coal gasworks facilities gasworks numerous small appertunances facilities aid divers gas management tasks auxiliary services.boilers years went boilers raising steam became extremely common gasworks small size smaller works often used gaspowered internal combustion engines tasks steam performed larger workings.steam use many areas gasworks includingfor operation exhausterfor scouring pyrolysis char slag retorts clinkering producer benchfor operation engines used conveying compressing air charging hydraulics driving dynamos generators producing electric currentto injected grate producer indirectly fired bench prevent formation clinker aid watergas shift reaction ensuring highquality secondary combustionas reactant carburetted water gas plant well driving equipment thereof numerous blowers used process well oil spray carburettorfor operation fire water liquid liquor tar pumpsfor operation engines driving coal coke conveyorbeltsfor clearing chemical obstructions pipes including naphthalene tar well general cleaning equipmentfor heating cold buildings works maintaining temperature process piping preventing freezing water gasholder congealment various chemical tanks wells.heat recovery appliances could also classed boilers.
History of manufactured fuel gases	gas industry applied scientific rational design principles equipment importance thermal management capture processes became common.even small gasworks began use heatrecovery generators fair amount steam could generated free simply capturing process thermal waste using waterfilled metal tubing inserted strategic flue.dynamosgenerators electric age came gasworks began use electricity – generated site – many smaller plant functions previously performed steam gaspowered engines impractical inefficient small subhorsepower uses without complex failureprone mechanical linkages.benefits electric illumination became known sometimes progressive gasworks diversified electric generation well coke steamraising could onsite low prices boilers already works.coal storage according meade gasworks early th century generally kept hand several weeks coal.
History of manufactured fuel gases	amount coal could cause major problems coal liable spontaneous combustion large piles especially rained upon due protective dust coating coal washed exposing full porous surface area coal slightly highly activated carbon heavy pile poor heat transfer characteristics heat generated could lead ignition.storage airentrained confined spaces highly looked upon either residual heat removal would difficult fighting fire started could result formation highly toxic carbon monoxide watergas reaction caused allowing water pass extremely hot carbon ho c h co would dangerous outside deadly confined space.coal storage designed alleviate problem.two methods storage generally used underwater outdoor covered facilities.outdoor covered pile sometimes cooling appurtenances applied well example means allow circulation air depths pile carrying heat.amounts storage varied often due local conditions.
History of manufactured fuel gases	works areas industrial strife often stored coal.variables included national security instance gasworks tegel berlin million tons coal months supply gigantic underwater bunker facilities half mile long meade e p. .coal stoking machine stoking machine stoking power stoking used replace labor minimize disruptions due labor disputes.retort typically required two sets three stokers.two stokers required lift point scoop retort third would push turn over.
History of manufactured fuel gases	coal would introduced side retort.coke produced would removed sides also.gangs stokers worked hour shifts although labor continuous.work also seasonal extra help required winter time.machine stoking required uniform placement retorts.
History of manufactured fuel gases	increasing cost labor increased profit margin experimenting instituting machine stoking.tarliquor storage chemical industries demanded coal tar gasworks could provide coal tar stored site large underground tanks.rule single wall metal tanks – porous masonry.days underground tar leaks seen merely waste tar sight truly mind leaks generally addressed loss revenue leaking tar wells sometimes called exceeded cost repairing leak.ammoniacal liquor stored site well similar tanks.
History of manufactured fuel gases	sometimes gasworks would ammonium sulfate plant convert liquor fertilizer sold farmers.station meter largescale gas meter precisely measured gas issued works mains.utmost importance gasworks balanced account issued gas versus amount paid gas strived detect varied one another.often coupled dynamic regulator keep pressure constant even modulate pressure specified times series rapid pressure spikes sometimes used appropriately equipped streetlamps automatically ignite extinguish remotely.antinaphthalene minor carburettor device injected fine mist naphtha outgoing gas avoid crystallization naphthalene mains consequent blockage.
History of manufactured fuel gases	naphtha found rather effective solvent purposes even small concentrations.troubles naphthalene developed occasionally even introduction minor carburettor team workers sent blow steam main dissolve blockage still prior introduction naphthalene major annoyance gasworks.highpressure distribution booster pump steam gas engine powered device compressed gas injection highpressure mains early began used convey gas greater distances individual low pressure mains served endusers.allowed works serve larger area achieve economies scale.types historically manufactured fuel gases see also blau gaspintsch gasindustrial gasgas light coke company references hatheway allen w. literature manufactured gas.
Mappila Muslims	retrieved may .muslims kerala make .population state religious group second largest group hindus .. mappilas share common language malayalam religious communities kerala.according scholars mappilas oldest settled native muslim community south asia.general mappila either descendant native convert islam mixed descendant middle eastern — arab non arab — individual.mappilas one among many communities form muslim population kerala.census report muslim communities mentioned separately also available.the mappila community originated primarily result west asian contacts kerala fundamentally based upon commerce spice trade.
Mappila Muslims	per local tradition islam reached malabar coast kerala state part early th century ad.overtaken europeans spice trade mappilas prosperous trading community settled mainly coastal urban centres kerala.continuous interaction mappilas middle east created profound impact life customs culture.resulted formation unique indoislamic synthesis — within large spectrum kerala culture — literature art food language music.most muslims kerala follow shāfiʿī school large minority follow movements salafism.much unlike parts south asia caste system exist among muslims kerala muslims allowed worship kerala mosques.
Mappila Muslims	number different communities distant ethnic roots exist status groups kerala.etymology mappila muslims one among many communities form muslim population kerala.sometimes whole muslim community kerala known term mappila.portuguese writer duarte barbosa uses term moors mopulars muslims kerala.mappila originally meaning great child often used synonym soninlawbridegroom respectful honorific title given foreign visitors merchants immigrants malabar coast native hindus.muslims referred jonaka chonaka mappila yavanaka mappila distinguish nasrani mappila saint thomas christians juda mappila cochin jews.
Mappila Muslims	demographics distribution demographics according census onequarter keralas population .muslims.calculated muslim population kerala state .number muslims rural areas urban population .distribution number muslims particularly high northern kerala former malabar district.
Mappila Muslims	mappilas also found lakshadweep islands arabian sea.small number malayali muslims settled southern districts karnataka western parts tamil nadu scattered presence community major cities india also seen.british supremacy malabar district established many mappilas recruited employment plantations burma assam manual labor south east asian concerns british empire.diaspora groups mappilas also found pakistan malaysia.furthermore substantial proportion muslims left kerala seek employment middle east especially saudi arabia united arab emirates.according census india districtwise distribution muslim population shown portuguese distinctions muslims present kerala distinguished portuguese historians two groupsmouros da terra moors land.mouros da arabiamouros de meca moors arabiamecca.the latter also known paradesi muslims fact came islamic world.
Mappila Muslims	included arabs persians egyptians turks iraqis gujaratis khorasanis deccanis melakans sumatrans bengalis.muslims unsettled navigators settled kerala.malayali tamil muslim community whole considerably lower economic standing paradesi muslims.till th century noticed contemporary observers muslims settled mainly along coastal tracts kerala especially major kerala ports calicut kozhikode cannanore kannur tanore tanur funan ponnani cochin kochi quilon kollam.traditionally elite merchants part brisk foreign trade.well european period muslims almost exclusively concentrated port cities.
Mappila Muslims	middle eastern sailors rely lighterage kerala ports medieval period.led enter mutually beneficial relationships traditional sea fishermen community.large majority fishermen lowcaste hindus northern kerala follow islam.results portuguese dominance portuguese period muslim merchants forced turn inland malabar search alternative occupations commerce.acquired land became landowners became agricultural labourers.
Mappila Muslims	th th centuries collective mappila numbers increased rapidly malabar district chiefly conversion among lower outcaste hindu groups south malabar interior.peak muslim distribution kerala gradually shifted interior malabar district.william logan comparing census reports famously concluded within ten years people cheruma community former untouchables converted islam.muslim growth th century considerably outpaced general kerala population due higher birth rates.british distinctions british period socalled mappila outbreaks c. – led officials make maintain distinction interior mappilas respectable mappila traders coastal cities calicut.
Mappila Muslims	two regional groupings highstatus muslim families cannanore north malabar — arguably converts high caste hindus — muslims travancore cochin.colonial administrates also kept distinction coastal inland mappilas south malabar.thangals sayyids – top aristrocratic tangals sayyids claim descent family prophet muhammed.arabis thangals arabis mostly coastal towns people tracing origin west asian intermarriage malayali women.landed aristocracy arabis followed landed aristocracy centred cannanore north malabar arguably converts high caste hindus.lastly converts backward scheduled hindu castes south malabar interior mappilas pusalarspuyislans ossans.history arrival islam kerala lakshadweep kerala major spice exporter since bce according sumerian records still referred garden spices spice garden india.keralas spices attracted ancient arabs babylonians assyrians egyptians malabar coast rd nd millennia bce.phoenicians established trade kerala period.
Mappila Muslims	arabs phoenicians first enter malabar coast trade spices.arabs coasts yemen oman persian gulf must made first long voyage kerala eastern countries.must brought cinnamon kerala middle east.greek historian herodotus th century bce records time cinnamon spice industry monopolized egyptians phoenicians.islam arrived malabar coast part larger indian ocean rim via spice silk traders middle east.generally agreed among scholars middle eastern merchants frequented malabar coast link west ports east asia even islam established arabia.
Mappila Muslims	western coast india chief centre middle eastern trading activities right least th century ad th century ad several west asian merchants taken permanent residence port cities malabar coast.according popular tradition islam brought lakshadweep situated west malabar coast ubaidullah ce.grave believed located island andrott.number foreign accounts mentioned presence considerable muslim population coastal towns kerala.arab writers masudi baghdad – ad idrisi ad abulfida ad aldimishqi ad mentions muslim communities kerala.
Mappila Muslims	historians assume mappilas considered first native settled islamic community south asia.the southwestern coast india known malabar mixture tamil malai arabic persian barr probably west asians.persian scholar albiruni – ad appears first call region name.masudi baghdad – ad speaks contacts malabar arabia.authors ibn khurdad beh – ad ahmad al baladhuri ad abu zayd ziraf ad mentions malabar ports works.scholar c. n. ahammad moulavi mentioned seen irikkalur near valapattanam tombstone bearing date adhijra seems tombstone lost.
Mappila Muslims	inscriptions found tombstone beach outside jumah mosque panthalayani kollam record death one abu ibn udthorman hijra .mosque contains two medieval royal charters one block granite built steps mosque tank another one loose stone lying outside kodungallur chera king bhaskara ravi manukuladitya – ad.position royal chera charter old malayalam inside mosque suggests city belonged muslims included came possession later stage.umayyad – ad coins discovered kothamangalam eastern part ernakulam district.the earliest major epigraphic evidence muslim merchants kerala royal charter ayyan atikal powerful governor kollam chera king kodungallur.quilon syrian copper plate c. ad tabula quilonensis written old malayalam vatteluttu script concludes number signatures kufic arabic middle persian pahlavi script judaeopersian.
Mappila Muslims	charter shows atikal presence royal representative kodungallur prince kota ravi vijayaraga regional civil military officials granting land serfs tarisapalli built mar sapir iso conferring privileges anchuvannam manigramam.attestation copper plates kufic script reads witness maymun ibn ibrahim muhammad ibn manih sulh salih ibn ali uthaman ibn almarzuban muhammad ibn yahya amr ibn ibrahim ibrahim ibn altayy bakr ibn mansur alqasim ibn hamid mansur ibn isa ismail ibn yaqub.presence nonchristian signatures names found charter prove associates mar sapir iso included jews muslims too.muslim arabs persians must formed permanent settlements kollam period.charter gives proof status privileges trading guilds kerala.
Mappila Muslims	anjuvannam mentioned copper plate merchant association composed christians jews muslims.in keeping kodungallurs significant role spice trade legends kerala christians jews muslims depict port city focal point spread respective faiths.according legend cheraman perumal per one version first indian mosque built ad kodungallur mandate last ruler cheraman perumal chera dynasty converted islam lifetime prophet muhammad c. –.perumals proselytisers led malik ibn dinar established series mosques kingdom north thus facilitating expansion islam kerala.assumed first recorded version legend arabic manuscript anonymous authorship known qissat shakarwati farmad.concrete historical evidence tradition little doubt early muslim presence religious tolerance based economic imperatives malabar coast.
Mappila Muslims	account conversion islam cheraman perumal generally considered apocryphal mainstream scholars.first mosques malabar according qissat shakarwati farmadaccording qissat first mosque built malik ibn dinar kodungallur rest mosques founded malik ibn habib.it believed malik dinar died thalangara kasaragod town.koyilandy jumuah mosque contains old malayalam inscription written mixture vatteluttu grantha scripts dates back th century ce.rare surviving document recording patronage hindu king bhaskara ravi muslims kerala.arabic inscription copper slab within madayi mosque records foundation year hijra ad.mosque heart old chera capital kodungallur mosque granite foundation exhibiting th–th century architectural style.
Mappila Muslims	growth islam kerala middle eastern muslim traders kerala mercantile community went long period peaceful intercultural growth till arrival portuguese explorers early th century.quilon kollam south kerala southernmost kerala ports associated black pepper.served regions gateway eastern indian ocean.east southeast asia primary markets keralas main export spices least c. th century.seems ming court first learned existence malacca one pepper merchant muslim believed come malabar coast.moroccan traveller ibn battutah th century recorded considerably huge presence muslim merchants settlements sojourning traders ports kerala.
Mappila Muslims	immigration intermarriage missionary activityconversion — secured common interest spice trade — helped development.monopoly overseas spice trade arabian sea safe arab persian shipping magnates malabar coast.fortunes merchants depended political patronage native chiefs calicut kozhikode cannanore kannur cochin kochi quilon kollam.chiefs tiny kingdoms derived great part revenue taxing spice trade.th century granite inscription old malayalam arabic muchundi mosque calicut mentions donation king mosque.
Mappila Muslims	inscription surviving historical document recording royal endowment hindu ruler form grant muslim community kerala.by early decades th century travellers speak calicut kozhikode major port city kerala.important administrative positions kingdom calicut port commissioner held muslims.port commissioner shah bandar represented commercial interests muslim merchants.account ibn batttutah mentions shah bandars calicut quilon ibrahim shah bandar muhammed shah bandar.nakhudas merchant magnates owning ships spread shipping trading business interests across indian ocean.
Mappila Muslims	famous nakhuda mishkal possessed ships trade china yemen persia active calicut s. unlike regions indian ocean kerala seems nakhudas held positions commercial communal leadership.muslim line ali rajas arakkal near cannanore vassals kolathiri ruled lakshadweep.zayn aldin makhdum c. – estimates population malabar muslim midpoint th century ad.the middle eastern muslims controlled lucrative western arm overseas longdistance trade ports red sea persian gulf malabar coast.export items across arabian sea included spices pepper ginger cardamom transshipped textiles coconuts associated products.gold copper silver horses silk various aromatics imported kerala.
Mappila Muslims	native muslims dominated trade pegu mergui melaka myanmar malasia points east indian coastal trade canara malabar ceylon maldives coromandel coast bay bengal shores chettis coromandel coast.muslims gujarati vanias also took part trade ports gujarat.indian coastal trade included goods coconuts coir pepper cardamom cinnamon rice.rice major import item kerala canara coromandel coast.lowvalue highvolume trade foodstuffs passed gulf mannar also handled native muslims.
Mappila Muslims	european period past many muslim traders ports malabar.following discovery sea route europe kozhikode portuguese began expand territories ruled seas ormus malabar coast south ceylon.initially c. – portuguese traders successful reaching agreements local hindu chiefs native muslim mappila merchants kerala.major contradiction portuguese state arab persian traders kingdom calicut.big mappila traders cochin supplied large quantities southeast asian spices portuguese carracks.traders along syrian christians acted brokers intermediaries purchase spices sale goods brought europe.wealthy muslim merchants malabar coast – including mappilas – provided large credits portuguese.
Mappila Muslims	businessmen received large trading concessions stipends privileges return.interaction portuguese private traders mappila merchants also continued tolerated portuguese state.kingdom calicut whose shipping increasingly looted portuguese evolved centre muslim resistance.sooner rather later tensions arose wealthy mappila traders cannanore portuguese state.ships cannanore mappilas fell prey portuguese sailors coast maldives important point southeast asia red sea.interests portuguese casado moradores cochin planning capture spice trade gulf mannar sri lanka came conflict mappilas tamil maraikkayars.
Mappila Muslims	narrow gulf held key trade bengal especially chittagong.open confrontations portuguese mappilas ramanathapuram thoothukudi northern kerala western sri lanka became common occurrence.mappila traders actively worked even island sri lanka oppose portuguese.portuguese maintained patrolling squadrons kerala ports continued raids departing muslim fleets calicut quilon.series naval battles powerful mappila chief finally forced sue peace portuguese .
Mappila Muslims	peace soon broken assassination qazi cannanore abu bakr ali portuguese came hard mappilas.meantime portuguese also entered friendship leading middle eastern merchants residing malabar coast .mantle muslim resistance taken ali rajas cannanore even forced king calicut turn portuguese again.close th century ali rajas emerged figures much influence kerala kolathiri chirakkal raja himself.th century middle eastern muslims dominated economic social religious affairs kerala muslims.
Mappila Muslims	many merchants fled kerala course th century.vacuum created economic opportunities mappila traders also took greater role social religious affairs malabar.portuguese tried establish monopoly spice trade india using violent naval warfare.whenever formal war broke portuguese calicut rulers portuguese attacked plundered opportunity offered muslim ports kerala.small lightly armed highly mobile vessels mappilas remained major threat portuguese shipping along west coast india.
Mappila Muslims	mappila merchants controlling pepper trade calicut place west asian muslims drew mappila corsairs used transport spices past portuguese blockades.mappila traders even tried outwit portuguese reorienting trade western indian ports.chose overland route across western ghats export spices.end th century portuguese finally able deal mappila challenge.kunjali marakkar defeated killed help calicut ruler c. ad.
Mappila Muslims	ali rajas cannanore given permission send ships even red sea way ensuring cooperation.relentless battles led eventual decline muslim community kerala gradually lost control spice trade.muslims — depended solely commerce — reduced severe economic perplexity.traders turned inland south malabar search alternate occupations commerce.muslims kerala gradually became society small traders landless labourers poor fishermen.
Mappila Muslims	affluent urban muslim population became predominantly rural kerala.the tuhfat ul mujahideen written zainuddin makhdoom ii born around ponnani thcentury ce firstever known book fully based history kerala written keralite.written arabic contains pieces information resistance put navy kunjali marakkar alongside zamorin calicut portuguese attempts colonize malabar coast.first printed published lisbon.copy edition preserved library alazhar university cairo.tuhfatul mujahideen also describes history mappila muslim community kerala well general condition malabar coast th century ce.the kingdom mysore ruled sultan haider ali invaded occupied northern kerala lateth century.
Mappila Muslims	following mysore rule malabar muslims favoured high caste hindu landlords.able obtain land rights administrative positions.sharp increase communitys growth especially conversions outcaste society.however measures mysore rulers widened communal imbalance malabar.east india company — taking advantage situation — allied hindu high castes fight occupied regime.
Mappila Muslims	british subsequently anglomysore war mysore ruler tipu sultan consequently malabar organised district madras presidency.the discriminatory land tenure system — tracing origins pre modern kerala — gave muslims kerala tenants labourers access land ownership.led series violent attacks high caste landlords colonial administration mappila outbreaks c. – – took form explosion known mappila uprising malabar rebellion.uprising — initially supported indian national congress leaders mohandas k. gandhi suppressed colonial government martial law temporarily instituted region leaders rebellion tried executed.postcolonial era muslim material strength — along extent modern education theological reform active participation democratic process — recovered slowly – uprising.muslim numbers provincial central government posts remained staggeringly low.
Mappila Muslims	mappila literacy rate .even taluk officers malabar region muslim.the community able produce number highregarded leaders following years.included mohammed abdur rahiman e. moidu moulavi congress party crucially inspirational k. m. seethi sahib –.although muslim league faded memory rest india remained serious political force state kerala leaders syed abdurrahiman bafaki tangal p. m. s. a. pukkoya tangal c. h. mohammed koya.k. o. ayesha bai member muslim community first muslim women rise public fame modern kerala became deputy speaker communist kerala assembly .active participation state elections gave rise psychology accommodation took muslims cooperate relationships hindus christians kerala.
Mappila Muslims	communistlead kerala government granted wish muslim league formation muslim majority district .university calicut former malabar district major catchment area established .calicut international airport currently twelfth busiest airport india inaugurated .indian institute management iim established kozhikode national institute technology .modern mappila theological revisions social reforms initiated wakkom maulavi – kollam.maulavi initially influenced muḥammad abduh rashīd riḍā degree ideas jamāl aldīn alafghānī muḥammad ibn abd alwahhāb.
Mappila Muslims	notably encouraged mappilas adopt english education.notable reformers k. m. seethi sahib – khatib muhammad k. m. maulavi – e. k. maulavi – m. k. haji carried work forward modern age.k. .maulavi tried spread new ideas southern kerala orthodox malabar region.c. o. t. kunyipakki sahib maulavi abussabah ahmedali died k. a. jaleel c. n. ahmad moulavi k. o. ayesha bai prominent social political reformers th century.
Mappila Muslims	organisation known muslim educational society mes founded p. k. abdul ghafoor friends also played role development community.aikya sangham founded kodungallur farook college founded also promoted higher education among muslims.a large number muslims kerala found extensive employment persian gulf countries following years beginning mids.widespread participation gulf rush produced huge economic social benefits community.great influx funds earnings mappilas employed followed.issues widespread poverty unemployment educational backwardness began change.
Mappila Muslims	mappila community considered section indian muslims marked recovery change positive involvement modern world.mappila women reluctant join professional vocations assuming leadership roles.per latest government data female literacy rate malappuram district center mappila distribution stood .census.lulu group chairman m. a. yusuf ali th richest man india richest malayali according forbes magazine .
Mappila Muslims	azad moopen chairman dubaiheadquartered aster dm healthcare another major muslim entrepreneur kerala.state visit saudi arabia indian prime minister narendra modi presented saudi king salman goldplated replica kodungallur mosque.ever since indian independence british overwhelming majority muslims former malabar district supported muslim league.south kerala community generally supported indian national congress north kerala small proportion vote communist left.politically muslims kerala exhibited unanimity major communities modern kerala.theological orientationsdenominations muslims kerala follow traditional shāfiʿī school religious law known kerala traditionalist sunnis large minority follow modern movements developed within sunni islam.
Mappila Muslims	latter section consists majority salafists mujahids minority islamists.the sunnis referred identified conventional beliefs practices adherence shāfiʿī madhhab theological orientations salafi mujahids constitute large majority seen modern reform movements within sunni islam.sunnis mujahids divided number subidentities.sunnī islamshāfiī—two factions.salafists mujahids—with different splinter factions varying degrees puritanism.kerala nadvathul mujahideen k. n. largest mujahid organisation kerala.islamists jamaatiislami india—representing political islam kerala.ḥanafīshīiah islam culture mappila literature mappila songspoems famous folklore tradition emerged c. th century.ballads compiled complex blend malayalamtamil arabic persianurdu modified arabic script.mappila songs distinct cultural identity sound mix ethos culture dravidian south india well west asia.
Mappila Muslims	deal themes romance satire religion politics.moyinkutty vaidyar – generally considered poet laureate mappila songs.as modern mappila literature developed – uprising religious publications dominated field.vaikom muhammad basheer – followed u. a. khader k. t. muhammed n. p. muhammed moidu padiyath leading mappila authors modern age.mappila periodical literature newspaper dailies — malayalam — also extensive critically read among muslims.newspaper known chandrika founded played significant role development mappila community.mappila folk arts oppana popular form social entertainment among muslims kerala.
Mappila Muslims	generally presented women numbering fifteen including musicians part wedding ceremonies day wedding day.bride dressed finery covered gold ornaments chief spectator sits peetham around singing dancing take place.women sing clap hands rhythmically move around bride steps.two three girls begin songs rest join chorus.kolkkali popular dance form among muslims kerala.played group people two sticks similar dandiya dance gujarat.duff muttu also called dubh muttu art form prevalent among muslims kerala using traditional duff daf also known tappitta.
Mappila Muslims	participants dance rhythm beat duff.mappila cuisine mappila cuisine blend traditional kerala persian yemenese arab food culture.confluence culinary cultures best seen preparation dishes.kallummakkaya mussels curry irachi puttu irachi meaning meat parottas soft flatbread pathiri type rice pancake ghee rice specialties.characteristic use spices hallmark mappila cuisine—black pepper cardamom clove used profusely.
VHS	malabar version biryani popularly known kuzhi mandi malayalam another popular item influence yemen.various varieties biriyanis like thalassery biriyani kannur biriyani kozhikode biriyani ponnani biriyani prepared mappila community.the snacks include unnakkaya deepfried boiled ripe banana paste covering mixture cashew raisins sugar pazham nirachathu ripe banana filled coconut grating molasses sugar muttamala made eggs chatti pathiri dessert made flour like baked layered chapati rich filling arikkadukka more.see also arabi malayalamarabi malayalam scriptbeary muslimsbeary languagetamil muslimsri lankan moorsnasrani mappila references reading s. muhammad hussain nainar tuhfatalmujahidin historical work arabic language university madras retrieved december english translation historic work tuhfat ul mujahideen written society kerala zainuddin makhdoom ii sixteenth century ce external links bbc hindi muslims keralatime expensive devices used professional environments television studios medical imaging fluoroscopy.videotape entered home use creating home video industry changing economics motion picture television businesses.television industry viewed videocassette recorders vcrs power disrupt business television users viewed vcr means take control viewing experiences.in later early format war home video industry.two standards vhs betamax received media exposure.vhs eventually war gaining north american market emerging dominant home video format throughout tape media period.optical disc formats later began offer better quality analog consumer video tape vhs svhs.
VHS	earliest formats laserdisc widely adopted across europe hugely popular japan minor success united states.introduction dvd format however market share vhs began decline.dvd rentals surpassed vhs united states dvd replaced vhs preferred lowend method distribution.last known company world manufacture vhs equipment vcrdvd combos funai japan ceased production july citing shrinking demand difficulties procuring parts.history prior vhs following several attempts companies first commercially successful vtr ampex vrx introduced ampex corporation.
VHS	price us equivalent us equivalent minute reel tape intended professional market.kenjiro takayanagi television broadcasting pioneer working jvc vice president saw need company produce vtrs japanese market affordable price.jvc developed twohead video tape recorder color version professional broadcasting.jvc released dv would companys standard vtr mids.in jvc collaborated sony corporation matsushita electric matsushita parent company panasonic known name also majority stockholder jvc building video recording standard japanese consumer.effort produced umatic format first cassette format become unified standard different companies.preceded reel reel eiaj format.the umatic format successful businesses broadcast applications television stations electronic newsgathering due cost limited recording time machines sold home use.soon sony matsushita broke away collaboration effort order work video recording formats own.
VHS	sony started working betamax matsushita started working vx.jvc released cr based umatic format.sony matsushita also produced umatic systems own.vhs development jvc engineers yuma shiraishi shizuo takano put together team develop consumerbased vtr.by end created internal diagram titled vhs development matrix established twelve objectives jvcs new vtrthe system must compatible ordinary television set.picture quality must similar normal air broadcast.the tape must least twohour recording capacity.tapes must interchangeable machines.the overall system versatile meaning scaled expanded connecting video camera dub two recorders.recorders affordable easy operate low maintenance costs.recorders must capable produced high volume parts must interchangeable must easy service.in early commercial video recording industry japan took financial hit.jvc cut budgets restructured video division shelving vhs project.
VHS	however despite lack funding takano shiraishi continued work project secret.two engineers produced functional prototype.competition betamax japanese ministry international trade industry miti desiring avoid consumer confusion attempted force japanese video industry standardize one home video recording format.later sony functional prototype betamax format close releasing finished product.prototype sony persuaded miti adopt betamax standard allow license technology companies.jvc believed open standard format shared among competitors without licensing technology better consumer.
VHS	prevent miti adopting betamax jvc worked convince companies particular matsushita japans largest electronics manufacturer time marketing products national brand territories panasonic brand north america jvcs majority stockholder accept vhs thereby work sony miti.matsushita agreed primarily concern sony might become leader field proprietary betamax format one allowed manufactured.matsushita also regarded betamaxs onehour recording time limit disadvantage.matsushitas backing jvc persuaded hitachi mitsubishi sharp back vhs standard well.sonys release betamax unit japanese market placed pressure miti side company.however collaboration jvc partners much stronger eventually led miti drop push industry standard.
VHS	jvc released first vhs machines japan late united states mid .sonys betamax competed vhs throughout late see videotape format war.betamaxs major advantages smaller cassette size theoretical higher video quality earlier availability shorter recording time proved major shortcoming.originally beta machines using ntsc television standard able record one hour programming standard tape speed .inches per second ips.first vhs machines could record two hours due slightly slower tape speed .ips significantly longer tape.
VHS	betamaxs smallersized cassette limited size reel tape could compete vhss twohour capability extending tape length.instead sony slow tape .ips beta ii order achieve two hours recording cassette size.sony eventually created beta iii speed .ips allowed ntsc betamax break twohour limit vhs already format battle.additionally vhs far less complex tape transport mechanism betamax vhs machines faster rewinding fastforwarding sony counterparts.initial releases vhsbased devices first vcr use vhs victor hr introduced president jvc japan september .
VHS	jvc started selling hr akihabara tokyo japan october .regionspecific versions jvc hr also distributed later hru united states hrek united kingdom january .united states received first vhsbased vcr – rca vbt august .rca unit designed matsushita first vhsbased vcr manufactured company jvc.also capable recording four hours lp long play mode.
VHS	united kingdom later received first vhsbased vcr – victor hrek .quasar general electric followedup vhsbased vcrs – designed matsushita.matsushita alone produced half japanese vcrs.tv vcr combos combining standard definition crt tv vhs mechanism crt also available purchase.technical details cassette tape design vhs cassette mm wide mm deep mm thick ⅜ × ⁄× inch plastic shell held together five phillips head screws.flipup cover allows players recorders access tape latch right side pushin toggle release bottom view image.
VHS	cassette antidespooling mechanism consisting several plastic parts spools near front cassette white black top view.spool latches released pushin lever within .mm ¼ inch hole bottom cassette mm ¾ inch edge label.tapes made prerecorded inserted cassettes cleanrooms ensure quality keep dust getting embedded tape interfering recording could cause signal dropoutsthere clear tape leader ends tape provide optical autostop vcr transport mechanism.vcr light source inserted cassette circular hole center underside two photodiodes left right sides tape exits cassette.
VHS	clear tape reaches one enough light pass tape photodiode trigger stop function vcrs automatically rewind tape trailing end detected.early vcrs used incandescent bulb light source bulb failed vcr would act tape present machine empty would detect blown bulb completely stop functioning.later designs use infrared led much longer life.the recording medium mylar magnetic tape .mm ½ inch wide coated metal oxide wound two spools.the tape speed standard play mode see .cms .
VHS	ips ntsc .cms .ips pal—or ..metres ft .

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