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History of Shanghai	peter richards founded richards hotel first western hotel china.would later become astor house.first englishlanguage newspaper shanghai north china herald launched.the taiping rebellion largest number widespread rebellions hugely unpopular qing regime.shanghai occupied triad offshoot rebels called small swords society.fighting devastated much countryside left foreign settlements untouched.in group western businessmen met formed shanghai municipal council organise road repairs refuse clearance tax collection across concessions.
History of Shanghai	american concession land fronting huangpu river northeast suzhou creek officially joined british settlement stretching yangchingpang creek suzhou creek become shanghai international settlement.waterfront became internationally famous bund.french concession west old town remained independent chinese retained control original walled city area surrounding foreign enclaves.lates shanghais official governing body practically transferred individual concessions shanghai municipal council.international settlement wholly foreigncontrolled british holding largest number seats council heading municipal departments.
History of Shanghai	chinese residing international settlement permitted join council .jardines attempt construct woosung road railway – chinas first – proved initially successful death soldier tracks prompted chinese government demand nationalization.upon last payment local viceroy ordered profitable railway dismantled removed taiwan.telegraph strung along line railway – also chinas first – however allowed remain operation.by mids shanghai municipal council practical monopoly large part citys services.bought local gassuppliers electricity producers watercompanies.early th century took control nonprivate rickshaws settlement tramways.
History of Shanghai	also regulated opium sales prostitution banning respectively.the treaty shimonoseki ended first sinojapanese war saw japan emerge additional foreign power shanghai.japan built first factories shanghai soon followed foreign powers.chinese defeat also spurred reformers within qing government modernize quickly leading reëstablishment songhu railway expansion shanghai–nanjing railway.republic china xinhai revolution spurred part actions nativeowned railways around shanghai led establishment republic china.time shanghai became focal point many activities would eventually shape modern china.in shanghai one largest cities world million inhabitants.
History of Shanghai	european origin controlled half city unequal treaties provided extraterritoriality .many white russians fled china revolution – trickling shanghai along s. number people russian origins well exceeding number people european origin.shanghai russians sometimes poorly regarded westerners general poverty led take jobs considered unsuitable europeans including prostitution.however among russian emigration layered also including several welltodo members.russian artists dominated shanghais artistic life almost singlehandedly.
History of Shanghai	many jews fled nazi germany arrived s.the city thus divided european western half traditionally chinese eastern half.new inventions like electricity trams quickly introduced westerners helped transform shanghai metropolis.british american businessmen made great deal money trade finance germans used shanghai base investing china.shanghai accounted half imports exports china.western part shanghai grew size four times larger chinese part early th century.european american inhabitants shanghai called shanghailanders.
History of Shanghai	problems initial years public garden north bund – chinas first public park todays huangpu park – decades reserved foreign nationals forbidden chinese natives.international settlement built british style large racetrack site todays peoples square.new class emerged compradors mixed local landlords form new class chinese bourgeoisie.compradors indispensable mediators western companies.many compradors leading edge movement modernize china.
History of Shanghai	shanghai biggest financial city east asia.chinese society chinese society divided native place associations provincial guilds.guilds defended interests traders shared hometowns.dress codes subcultures.chinese government hardly organized foreign governments controlled economy.
History of Shanghai	instead society controlled native place associations.guangdong native place associations represented skilled workers shanghai.native place associations belonged top shanghainese society.ningbo jiangsu native place associations numerous.represented common workers.
History of Shanghai	came north china.bottom rung social ladder.many forced work seasonal workers even mobsters shanghai grand shanghai became known paris east new york west.shanghai made special city municipality may .citys industrial financial power increased merchants control city rest china divided among warlords.artistically shanghai became hub three new art forms chinese cinema chinese animation chinese popular music.
History of Shanghai	forms entertainment included lianhuanhua comic books.architectural style time modeled british american designs.many grandestscale buildings bund – shanghai club asia building hsbc building – constructed renovated time.city created distinct image separated chinese cities come it.bizarre advertising displays everyday reality ... though sometimes wonder everyday reality one element missing city british novelist j.g.ballard born raised shanghai era recalled autobiography.
History of Shanghai	would see something strange mysterious treat normal ... anything possible everything could bought sold.experience inspired much later fiction.economic achievements include city becoming commercial center east asia attracting banks world.movies literature depict golden days bygone shanghai generally associated era.power struggle city also center national international opium smuggling s. great world amusement palace place opium prostitution gambling came together leadership gangster huang jinrong also known pockmarked huang.huang highestranked chinese detective french concession police fcp employed green gang qing bang leader du yuesheng gambling opium enforcer.
History of Shanghai	green gang became major influence shanghai international settlement commissioner shanghai municipal police reporting corruption associated trade affected large proportion force.extensive crackdown simply displaced focus trade neighboring french concession.meanwhile traditional division society native place associations falling apart.new working classes prepared listen bosses native place associations s. resentment foreign presence shanghai rose among entrepreneurs workers shanghai.protests may fourth movement treaty versailles led rise new group philosophers like chen duxiu hu shih challenged chinese traditionalism new ideologies.books like new youth disseminated new school thought crime warlord banditry convinced many existing government largely ineffective.
History of Shanghai	atmosphere communist party china founded shanghai .the nationalist leader chiang kaishek shanghailanders entered informal alliance green gang acted communists organized labor unions.nationalists cooperated gang leaders since revolution.although sporadic fighting gangsters communists occurred previously many communists killed major surprise attack april incident chineseadministered part shanghai.suspected leftists shot sight many – including zhou enlai – fled city.in late early large residential areas built north foreign concessions.residential areas modern good roads parking lots automobiles.
History of Shanghai	new chinese port built could compete shanghailanders ports.chiang kaishek continuously demanded large amounts money financial world shanghai.bankers merchants willing invest army stopped .chiang responded nationalizing enterprises.t. v. soong chiangs brotherinlaw chastised erstwhile relative writing better strengthen party economy well instead focusing army.supported progressive native place associations chiang kaisheks rule turned increasingly autocratic.
History of Shanghai	power gangsters rose early especially power green gang leader du yuesheng started native place association.chiang kaishek chose cooperate gangsters order maintain grip chinese society.meant gangsters remained middlemen rule nationalists controlling society frequently organizing strikes.mobsters stormed shanghai stock exchange gain control it.one interfered police dominated mobsters since shanghailanders internal chinese affair nationalists trying break power entrepreneurs.
History of Shanghai	entrepreneurs forced make deal second raid.greater shanghai plan government nationalist government republic china drew plan develop land north east city adjacent huangpu river.area also earmarked sun yatsen founder chinese republic center chinas development plans view shanghai becoming global commercial centre.new shanghai special city government approved started work greater shanghai plan utilising ideas drawn british expert ebenezer howards book garden cities tomorrow.grid layout new area also followed contemporary trends european american urban planning.
History of Shanghai	end old shanghai – world war ii japanese occupation japanese navy bombed shanghai january nominally crush chinese student protests japanese occupation manchuria.chinese fought back known january incident.two sides fought standstill ceasefire brokered may.during second sinojapanese war chinesecontrolled parts city fell battle shanghai known china battle songhu.foreign concessions remained largely intact entered became known solitary island period — enclave prosperity surrounded war zones — attracting chinese refugees years.tensions within city led wave assassinations chinese officials worked japanese authorities january february projapanese officials businessmen assassinated chinese resistance organizations.
History of Shanghai	beginning pacific war foreign concessions occupied japan december .shanghai suffered less many cities world war ii japanese occupiers attempted maintain many aspects life before.shanghai race club reopened soon occupation continued host races throughout war even british american shanghai residents interned.races continued late august .during world war ii extraterritoriality foreign concessions provided visaless european refugees.along francos spain location world unconditionally open jews time.however pressure ally germany japanese removed jews late became known shanghai ghetto hunger infectious diseases dysentery became rife.
History of Shanghai	foreign population rose jewish immigration .japanese still harsher belligerent nationals britons americans dutch.slowly lost privileges wear letters – b n – walking public places villas turned brothels gambling houses.finally interned concentration camps notably lunghua civilian assembly center .whole shanghai remained japanese occupation surrender japan august .
History of Shanghai	end foreign concessions following attack pearl harbor japanese ended foreign concessions shanghai except french.state affairs conceded anglochinese friendship treaty .french ceded privileges following end world war ii.tightened communist rule –s communist transition may shanghai came communist control.one first actions taken communist party kill people considered counterrevolutionaries.places canidrome transformed elegant ballrooms mass execution facilities.
History of Shanghai	reality largely censored despite numerous western texts describing hostile takeover following arrival peoples liberation army.most foreign firms moved offices shanghai hong kong specifically north point whose eastern district became known little shanghai.home leftism shanghai along beijing former roc municipality merged neighboring provinces next decade.shanghai underwent series changes boundaries subdivisions.during shanghai became industrial center center revolutionary leftism.city stagnated economically maoist era.shanghai remained largest contributor tax revenue central government came cost severely crippling shanghais infrastructure capital artistic development.
History of Shanghai	also initially denied economic freedoms city later available southern provinces guangdong.mids guangdong province paid nearly taxes central government thus perceived fiscally expendable.guangdong would benefit economic reform deng xiaoping shanghai would wait another decade .economic cultural rebound s–present although political power shanghai traditionally seen stepping stone higher positions within prc central government citys modern transformation really begin third generation general secretary communist party china jiang zemin came power .along premier zhu rongji jiang represented politically rightofcenter shanghai clique began reducing tax burden shanghai.
History of Shanghai	encouraging foreign domestic investment sought promote city – particularly lujiazui area pudong – economic hub east asia gateway chinese interior.since time shanghai led chinas overall development experienced continuous economic growth – annually – arguably expense hong kong.shanghai chinas largest greatest commercial industrial city..land area country supplies municipal revenue handles quarter total trade passing chinas ports.year population according chinas latest census .
History of Shanghai	million represented increase .million census.the average size family shanghai declined fewer three people clear shanghais population growth driven migration rather natural factors based high birth fertility rates.shanghai many years lowest birth rate china rate lower large american cities new york.as cities china shanghai overbounded administrative territory.city year composed districts one county together occupying .square kilometers .
History of Shanghai	sq mi land area.chongming contains substantial rural land number rural residents continue farm livelihood.city highest population density firstorder administrative units china .km² .sq mi .owing continued growth industrial commercial development shanghai also highest index urbanization among chinas first order administrative units .official population .
History of Shanghai	million classified urban.the amount building activity shanghai fueled government investment expenditures continues astounding.since shanghais economy shifted gross domestic product secondary sector manufacturing balanced sectoral distribution industry services .employment manufacturing reached almost declined steadily since employment tertiary sector grown .the rapid growth population factories motor vehicles generated environmental issues.experts say chief problems involve air water pollution accumulation solid wastes.see also timeline shanghai historythe shanghai document documentary film portraying shanghai early notes references citations sources reading arkaraprasertkul non.
History of Shanghai	power politics making shanghai.journal planning history .since balfour alan zheng zhiling shanghai chichester .bergère marieclaire.shanghai chinas gateway modernity stanford university press .ppbickers robert.
History of Shanghai	shanghailanders formation identity british settler community shanghai .past present .jstorbracken gregory.treaty ports china genesis development influence.journal urban history vol.
History of Shanghai	issue pp .onlinecarter james.champions day end old shanghai w.w. norton .abstract november chen xiangming.shanghai rising state power local transformations global megacity excerpt text searchdenison e. guan yu ren.
History of Shanghai	building shanghai story chinas gateway wileyacademy dillon nara jean oi eds.crossroads empires middlemen social networks statebuilding republican shanghai excerpt text searchfung ka‐iu yan et al.“shanghai china’s world city.” yue‐man yeung xu‐wei hu eds.china’s coastal cities catalysts modernization university hawaii press gamble jos.shanghai transition changing perspectives social contours chinese metropolis excerpthoresh niv.
History of Shanghai	location everything reassessing shanghai’s rise ss.provincial china ..onlinehoresh niv.shanghai past present concise socioeconomic history – sussex academic .ji zhaojin.
History of Shanghai	history modern shanghai banking rise decline chinas financial capitalism johnson linda.shanghai market town treaty port stanford university press keller wolfgang ben li carol h. shiue.shanghais trade chinas growth continuity recovery change since opium wars.imf economic review .covers s. online many tables graphs.king a. h. ed.
History of Shanghai	eastern banking essays history hongkong shanghai banking corporation onlinelee leo oufan oufan li.shanghai modern flowering new urban culture china harvard university press .lu hanchao.beyond neon lights everyday shanghai early twentieth century u california press wasserstrom jeffrey n. new approaches old shanghai.journal interdisciplinary history .online review lumurphey rhoades.
History of Shanghai	shanghai key modern china harvard university press nield robert.china coast trade first treaty ports.hong kong joint publishing co .tian gang.shanghai’s role economic development china reform foreign trade development praeger wakeman jr. frederic.policing shanghai excerptwalker kathryn.
History of Shanghai	shanghai pp middle schools.onlinewasserstrom jeffrey n. global shanghai history fragments excerpt text searchxu xiaoqun.chinese professionals republican state rise professional associations shanghai – cambridge university press yan jin.shanghai studies evolving academic field history compass october e historiography recent scholarship.onlineyeh wenhsin.
History of Shanghai	shanghai splendor cultural history yeh wenhsin.corporate space communal time everyday life shanghais bank china.american historical review .online.yeung y.m.sung yun‐wing eds.shanghai transformation modernization china’s open policy hong kong chinese university press .
History of Shanghai	historiography jin yan.shanghai studies evolving academic field.history compass .e httpsdoi.org.hic.wasserstrom jeffrey n. global shanghai good think thoughts comparative history postsocialist cities.journal world history .wasserstrom jeffrey n. new approaches old shanghai.
History of Shanghai	journal interdisciplinary history .online review lu primary sources historical accounts written shanghaicharles m. dyce .personal reminiscences thirty years residence model settlement shanghai .london chapman hall ltd. p. .retrieved march .j.
History of Shanghai	d. clark .sketches around shanghai etc.shanghai printed shanghai mercury celestial empire offices.p. .retrieved march .arnold wright twentieth century impressions hongkong shanghai treaty ports china history people commerce industries resources .
Eland armoured car	onlinedesigned built longrange reconnaissance mounts either mm .breechloading mortar denel mm .gun compact chassis.although lightly armoured vehicles permanent x drive makes faster flat terrain many tanks.eland developed south african defence force sadf south africas first major arms programme since world war ii prototypes completed .examples built home export prominent foreign operators included morocco zimbabwe.
Eland armoured car	local overhauls incorporating lessons internal operations resulted vehicle capable withstanding unforgiving southern african environment highly mobile operational style sadf.development history background many years standard armoured car south african defence force daimler ferret developed late armed single generalpurpose machine gun.mid ferret spares becoming difficult obtain armament considered less adequate.south africa accordingly secured similar platform much wider range armament installations french panhard aml.july south african military delegation headed minister defence jim fouché commandantgeneral pieter grobbelaar chief sadf went france negotiate licensing agreement panhard.
Eland armoured car	aml favoured sadfs priorities time fighting possible counterinsurgency campaign unconventional bush war basic requirements light armoured vehicles greatest mobility simplified maintenance.one hundred amls purchased presumably preliminary evaluation purposes well enough turrets engines associated parts later assembly another south africa.panhard also approved licence domestic production aml chassis south african plants.separate licence obtained french governments direction technique des armements terrestres dtat manufacture aml turrets armament.result va vehicle mk first offered sadfs armoured car regiments reconnaissance commands .bids accepted four local companies manufacture amls working armament along another turretless demonstrators contract claimed sandockaustral land systems omc.
Eland armoured car	production lines set technical assistance henschel engineering firm based federal republic germany.panhard subcontracted project henschel rather carrying work anxious avoid criticism potential clients african states.sandock vas initially fared rather poorly models furbished rejected south african army.extensive rebuild programme followed panhards returned manufacturer completely disassembled restructured trialled again.new vehicles claimed local content forty per cent remained heavily bolstered components imported france .upon undergoing several upgrades steering mk brakes mk vehicle also equipped custom fuel system electric clutches concurrently replaced conventional pressure plate clutches mk.
Eland armoured car	south africas amls remained externally similar french counterparts twothirds parts local origin main part balance new water cooled inline cylinder petrol engine installed mk.subsequent models officially designated eland.panhards initial licensing contract south african government extended local assembly manufacture amls.furthermore vehicles produced terms licence could reexported written permission french minister defence.unclear whether restrictions extended second generation elands produced wholly south african parts components beginning .south africa may renewed original panhard licence part larger agreement france concerning transfer arms defence technology around january another elands manufactured .
Eland armoured car	production reached two hundred vehicles year.surplus parts manufactured eland well original aml series according general jannie geldenhuys panhard actually fulfilled orders older aml parts longer produced sourcing south africa.operated crew three eland built small remarkably lightweight x chassis height .metres length .metres weight metric tons.eland maximum range kilometres mileage kilometres per litre.
Eland armoured car	south africa primarily interested light patrol vehicle armed counterinsurgency purposes elands armed mm brandt mle cma gunmortar better known south african manufacturing code k also designated sadf service well two .mm browning machine guns.known eland.the second common variant designed specifically fulfill south african requirement gunarmed armoured car capable furnishing mobile fire support mounted units undertaking aggressive reconnaissance needed.sadf organised along lines commonwealth doctrine general british doctrine particular wanted vehicle capable filling role alvis saladin.although saladin evaluated favourably since shared interchangeable parts armys alvis saracen armoured personnel carriers aml licence already purchased advantage fulfilling requirement another preexisting vehicle type.negotiations purchase saladins united kingdom also stalled election harold wilson incoming labour party government took harder line arms sales south africa.in response sadf inquiries concerning aml similar saladin terms armament panhard produced aml.
Eland armoured car	substantially firepower new variant mm lowpressure rifled cannon range metres enabled knock heaviest contemporary tanks.evolved eland south african service.service life elands formed mainstay south african armoured corps nearly three decades although early sadf officials discussing replacement supplementation something suited countering tank warfare prospect conventional military conflict southern africa became increasingly likely.year armoured corps undertook feasibility study replacing eland larger mobile heavily armed wheeled vehicle.acknowledging eland sufficient border patrol counterinsurgency south african strategists also concerned unsuited conventional battlefields.
Eland armoured car	wargaming exercise designed simulate foreign invasion south west africa sadf found eland suffered three major disadvantages trenchcrossing ability offroad mobility limited due four wheels high ground pressure mm cannon ineffective enemy armour long range.south african officials proposed fitting existing fleet entac wireguided antitank guided missiles atgms.never implemented advantages atgm capability armoured car regiments recognised means compensate mediocre range elands main armament.another proposal eland variant armed autocannon appeared .armoured corps evaluated several elands armed mm mm autocannons finally settled hispanosuiza hs.
Eland armoured car	armament choice.known eland adopted sadf.in south african army operating elands various marks another order.fleet consisted elands elands.followed eland mk programme entailed older models upgraded mk standards.army eland mks mks service.
Eland armoured car	eland first tested combat year cuban peoples armed forces liberation angola fapla forces operation savannah.reports pt tanks fielded fapla angolan civil war perturbed south african military advisers involved training faplas rivals national union total independence angola unita armed wing.advisers reported unitas antitank capabilities next nonexistent requested squadron sadf armoured cars along crews help turn tide fapla.twentytwo elands flown unitas headquarters silva porto midoctober soon clashed fapla armour.elands acquire fearsome combat reputation angola earned moniker red ants due unorthodox effective crew tactics lack equivalent cuban fapla vehicles.
Eland armoured car	less two months later cuban general abelardo colomé ibarra cited inability counter elands superior manoeuvrability one greatest tactical challenges facing cubanfapla coalition angola.nevertheless onset angolan rainy season wheeled vehicles increasingly hampered mud crews found fighting capability constrained operating terrain better suited tracked vehicles.criticised lowness hull well made sighting difficult thick bush.elands reliability also somewhat called question nearly half armoured cars squadron rendered unserviceable one time another due engine failures.limitations emphasised need development new mark eland modified southern african conditions.the eland continued enjoy distinction sadf service especially special service battalion mechanised infantry battalion group.
Eland armoured car	operation protea operation askari respectively elands proved capable eliminating cuban fapla tanks close range.sadf began gradually retire elands beginning mids replacing larger notably dependable ratel ratel infantry fighting vehicles could carry armament also squad infantry.once envisaged scout car eland auspiciously doubled role assault gun ersatz tank destroyer—but obsolescence highlighted several factors namely flammable petrol engine especially vulnerable rocketpropelled grenades mine explosions limited offroad mobility.effectiveness lowpressure mm gun modern tanks also questionable operation askari elands highexplosive antitank shells rarely penetrated enemy ts without multiple hits.although remained relatively popular armoured corps elands wellregarded mechanised infantry due several unsuccessful attempts integrate ratelmounted combat teams.eland simply lacked range mobility keep pace ratels firefight prone technical malfunctions bush.squat compact vehicles often ridiculed noddy cars infantrymen due quaint profile small size compared much heavier ratel.
Eland armoured car	derisive nickname may also reference elands tendency rock axles firing main gun.another train thought resembled vehicle childhood book character named noddy oversized tires.nevertheless later adopted affectionate pride eland crews.the final variant enter production eland mk introduced .possessed new power brakes modified transmission lengthier hull accommodating taller south african crewmen.domed cupola vision blocks also added commanders hatch.
Eland armoured car	hard lessons driven home operation savannah ensured new elands also designed operating long distances supply logistical centres maximum ease maintenance field.example engine mounted rail frame could removed replaced forty minutes.eland mk kept production another eight years basic technology become quite dated despite continuous upgrades.south african armoured corps retired elands combat service late utilising primarily training ratel crews.october south africa unveiled new indigenous armoured car known rooikat.
Eland armoured car	rooikat emerged original requirement larger effectively armed vehicle supplant eland series conventional battlefields much mobile carried sophisticated mm highvelocity cannon capable engaging armour longer standoff ranges.eland eland formally retired newly integrated south african national defence force sandf favour rooikat.combat history south african border war initial service south africas determination retain disputed territory south west africa governed essentially fifth province since world war resulted armed insurgency peoples liberation army namibia plan militant wing nationalist south west african peoples organisation swapo.insurgent activity took form ambushes selective target attacks particularly caprivi strip near zambian border.reflecting trend characteristic many anglophone commonwealth states local police initially granted responsibility managing counterinsurgency operations rather south african armed forces.
Eland armoured car	however security situation caprivi deteriorated point sadf forced deploy troop elands several companies infantry there.a year later plan began adopting mine warfare integral part attempts hinder mobility south african convoys limited road network.minelaying often used means throw convoys disarray prior ambush.tactic resulted heaviest sadf police casualties thus far evolved one defining features plans war effort next two decades.sadfs immediate solution utilise elands convoy escort purposes vehicles possessed capable surviving mine explosion also suppressing ambush.eland eland delegated lead convoy drivers continuing tracks.
Eland armoured car	however soon became clear practice effective countermeasure.armoured cars petrol engines vulnerable risk fire whenever detonated mine.plan also responded acquiring antitank mines namely soviet tms large quantities.on one occasion eland detonated two tms sent vehicle airborne hurled thirty metres away landed turret.although three crew members escaped serious injury incidents like demonstrated eland simply lacked mass absorb explosive force antitank mine.sadf police viable option adoption armoured personnel carriers mineproof hulls could move quickly roads little risk passengers even mine like tm encountered.
Eland armoured car	would trigger series experiments aimed producing new class military vehicle mine resistant ambush protected vehicle mrap.onward elands began replaced traditional role convoy escort specialised mineproofed vehicles.operation savannah collapse portuguese colonial rule south west africas northern neighbour angola led dramatic changes south african foreign defence policy.factional infighting three rival angolan nationalist movements pursuing separate strategies directed towards consolidating political power influence colonial state almost inevitable mid country degenerated outright civil war.south africa discreetly sponsored two three angolan factions national union total independence angola unita national liberation front angola fnla hopes eliciting cooperation sadf deny plan sanctuary angola project known operation savannah.
Eland armoured car	however unita fnla defeated driven angolan capital luanda third faction—peoples movement liberation angola mpla july.unlike fnla unita mpla possessed militant wing peoples armed forces liberation angola fapla wellequipped conventional warfare aided infusion arms soviet union cuban military advisers.instrumental capture luanda number secondhand soviet tanks likely manned welldrilled experienced cuban crews.neither fnla unita possessed antitank weaponry lightly armed troops match fapla armour.part covert intervention programme angola central intelligence agency able persuade zaire donate panhard amls recoilless rifles fnla unita exchange receiving modern american weaponry.south africa assembled advisory liaison team included six armour instructors train unita aml crews.
Eland armoured car	sadf advisers planned three crews trained several weeks afforded luxury fapla offensive already underway seize unitas headquarters nova lisboa.permission granted south african political leadership amls manned instructors time unita crews could trained minimal standard.unita sadf advisory team first clashed fapla armoured unit village norton de matos came heavy fire pt tanks.south africans attempted fight opponents amls entac antitank missiles forced withdraw fierce skirmish.the action norton de metos deeply shaken south africas confidence unitas ability win war fapla especially limited arsenal.meeting unita leader jonas savimbi heads advisory mission october sadf instructors argued would need better armour assets handful dilapidated amls possessed savimbi.
Eland armoured car	request approved condition extension sadfs operational capacities angola remain strictly covert.equipment weapons vehicles ammunition bound angolan front supplied nonconventional channels unmarked.sadf uniforms insignia explicitly prohibited.october squadron elands crews hurriedly deployed border ready airlifted deep angola five days later.personnel involved stripped identifiable equipment even dog tags reissued nondescript uniforms personal weapons impossible trace.
Eland armoured car	told pose mercenaries questioned.officials exempted elands ban south african weapons well known unita fnla operated externally identical aml regarded suitably anonymous.reinforce impression sadf crew members painted armoured cars unita markings.elands attached two separate composite battlegroups motorised infantry code named task force zulu task force foxbat respectively.objectives destroy fapla forces south luanda advance northwards seizing much territory could fnla unita angolas formal independence date november six weeks away.
Eland armoured car	intended eland troops merely support motorised infantry roads since armour available south africans deployed column spearheads.elands performed reconnaissance fire depending speed mobility carry potential ambushes.sadfs use light fastmoving elands backed truckmounted infantry advancing full speed allowed retain initiative keep fapla continually balance.task force zulu able cover ninety kilometres per day even rainy season slowed momentum.time fapla redeployed sufficient forces along southern front halt sadf advance zulu foxbat advanced kilometres captured eighteen major towns cities.fapla hastily established rough line defence norton de matos strategic railway junction catengue lay highway nova lisboa luanda.
Eland armoured car	unbeknownst sadf catengue situated near fapla training camp housed significant contingent cuban advisers.cubans planned elaborate defence catengue intending pin south african armoured cars road strip away supporting fnla foot soldiers composite battery mm mortars gradp mm rocket artillery.eland crews attempted redeploy suppress defenders fapla antitank section b recoilless rifles rpgs would finish off.although come halt return fire elands escaped destruction actual engagement rapidly manoeuvring firing positions.armoured cars laid suppressing fire mortar pits kept fapla troops preoccupied supporting sadf fnla infantrymen regrouped carried successful flanking attack.
Eland armoured car	defenders routed.four cubans died battle catengue seven wounded another thirteen listed missing action.unaware catengue fallen several companies cuban fapla infantry armoured reconnaissance platoon advanced south reinforce junction.elands took positions alongside narrow highway ambushed approaching fapla vehicles one time destroying them.meanwhile revelation cuban advisers engaged south african regulars armour prompted president fidel castro approve request fapla direct military assistance.following weeks cuban combat troops began arriving luanda sea air.
Eland armoured car	upon arrival supplied tanks hundreds shipped directly luanda soviet union avoid transshipment delays havana.the next major engagement cubans south african armour occur november .one last settlements sadf needed capture could reach within striking distance luanda porto amboim.slow sadfs advance cuban sappers destroyed bridges cuvo river south porto amboim.undeterred south african battlegroups began searching alternative routes towards east.cuban units redeployed block advance quibala town sat astride highway luanda.
Eland armoured car	reconnoitering potential routes attack quibala east foxbat encountered intact bridge mabassa river near village ebo.defenders anticipated sadf might attempt cross river laid ambush recoilless rifles bm grads zis antitank gun.south african armoured cars began crossing bridge cubans opened fire.first eland bridge immediately knocked rpg recoilless rifle round followed rapid succession three more.surviving elands opposite bank found difficult take evasive action due inability manoeuvre thick mud another three destroyed.
Eland armoured car	futile attempts made recover armoured cars several hours foxbat withdrew.fapla later extricated damaged wrecked elands site towed away propaganda purposes.with advance stymied time sadf continued search alternative routes quibala discovered another surviving bridge nhia river damaged thoroughly demolished cuban sappers.known informally bridge .south african army engineers began repair bridge cover darkness december allowing accompanying elands launch surprise attack across dawn.cuban mortar crews antitank platoons armed malyutka missiles begun deploy ambush positions beyond bridge however several wiped sadf took precaution shelling opposite riverbank artillery.
Eland armoured car	advanced eland crews also avoided centre bridge cubans trained missiles.taken surprise defending cuban fapla units began disorderly withdrawal.regrouped village catofe sixteen kilometres south quibala reinforced company tanks prepared make final stand.foxbats elands approached within five kilometres catofe advance owing concerns overextended lines.while campaign south quibala progress two new battle groups modelled foxbat zulu codenamed xray orange respectively formed silva porto fight cubanfapla alliance eastern angola.orange dispatched northwards capture malanje xray moved east secure railway line benguela.
Eland armoured car	december first armourtoarmour engagement south africa cuba occurred troop elands attached battle group orange reconnoitring potential river crossings east bridge encountered three ts opposite bank.elands opened fire destroying lead tank forcing others withdraw.south africas decision terminate operation savannah face heavy international opposition increasingly formidable cuban troop presence made around january last sadf forces departed angola march.detailed study elands advantages shortcomings campaign subsequently undertaken south african armoured corps.much lessons learned angolan operations could also readily applied northern south west africa characteristics annual rainy season compounded dense vegetation muddy terrain quite similar.eland crews found density bush impeded mobility line vision traversing angle turrets.
Eland armoured car	region also prone dry flood plains filled marshlike oshanas rainy season posed notoriously difficult obstacle fourwheeled armoured cars.elands brought bear enormous firepower possessed limited ammunition stowage capacity.operation savannah uncommon eland expend stored ammunition firefight withdraw rear resupply.fourthly eland designed troopcarrying vehicle.possessed interior space accommodate infantry section forcing attached sadf infantrymen proceed foot ride unarmoured trucks offered minimal protection ambushes.
Eland armoured car	issues highlighted need dedicated infantry fighting vehicle sadf service soon emerged form ratel.operations reindeer sceptic elands mobilised sadf operation reindeer may coordinated strike three suspected plan training complexes angola.purposes operation sadf experimented integrated combat team consisting mechanised infantry mounted new ratels backed attached elands providing fire support needed.three combat teams ratels elands created assault heavily fortified plan camp known dombondola complex also code named objective vietnam.one troop elands would follow ratels attack two redeploy nearby highway linking cuamato chetequera could intercept stragglers potential guerrilla reinforcements.
Eland armoured car	combat teams backed rear echelon included battery towed bl .inch medium guns logistics vehicles carrying enough fuel ammunition journey escorted elands supporting role.during course operation reindeer numerous elands repeatedly stalled mud even loose sand leaving alternative tow much heavier ratels.speed combat team able cover ground negatively affected elands poor momentum broken terrain.petrol engines also issue since factor necessitated separate logistics apparatus ratels.attack vietnam began elands deployed static formation began firing plan defenders.would prove fatal error close proximity elands crews failure exploit mobility allowed guerrillas concentrate mortars antitank weapons lightly armoured vehicles.
Eland armoured car	also limited arcs fire.due poor visibility battlefield turret crews inclined leave hatches open maximum situational awareness.open hatches resulted injuries deaths due mortar fragments.additionally crews raised complaints mm ammunition difficult load resulted stoppages due inefficient plastic components.as result lessons incorporated operation reindeer sadf sandockaustral made several changes eland main armament.latest mark eland introduced incorporated raised commanders cupola vision blocks similar ratel.
Eland armoured car	improved crew commanders observation capacity without compromising protection afforded turret armour.furthermore use mm ammunition sourced france discontinued production local mm ammunition optimised eland accelerated.finally armoured corps acknowledged composite mechanised infantry group eland suited fight tandem ratel.formers fire support potential useful mobility inferior ratel need maintain separate logistics apparatus separate vehicle type especially one petrol engine deemed economical.concerns addressed short run mating ratel chassis elands turret mm gun creating ratel.
Eland armoured car	ratel seen ideal solution since simplified logistics compromise overall mobility mechanised combat team.six wheels longer operating range stowed rounds mm ammunition also considered much suitable mobile bush operations.in june sadf launched operation sceptic largest combined arms operation undertaken south african military force since world war ii.sceptic essentially identical reindeer terms objectives organisation three mechanised combat teams equipped ratels including new ratels sadf also attached fourth combat team consisting elands support infantry buffel armoured personnel carriers.also fifth sixth combat teams composed entirely paratroops functioned light infantry rear echelon.objective eliminate three plan training camps southern angola.
Eland armoured car	elands given task leading combat teams narrow width wheels made difficult follow wide tracks left ratels.south african strategists also recognised elands retained poorest momentum placed front column prevent separated ratels thick bush.consequence decision combat teams advanced maximum speed kmh.terrain became challenging advance slowed kmh.due limited operating range several elands ran fuel towed objective.
Eland armoured car	combat teams reached first plan facility stalled elands inadvertently towed ratels insurgent ambush.crews found unable support mechanised assault group fighting survival mm guns used extremely close range suppress counterattacking plan forces.operation protea swapo cadres angolan hosts undeterred preceding sadf campaigns.partisan recruitment continued earnest difficulties experienced storming smokeshell forced south african tacticians recognise conventional crossborder operations intricate affairs.nevertheless operation sceptic demonstrated pressure home front could relieved aggressive preemptive counterstrike strategy.
Eland armoured car	august four mechanised battlegroups staged operation protea converging swapo camps ongiva xangongo.least three equipped elands remainder force bolstered ratels elands seconded artillery troop.protea three objectives disrupt swapos logistical apparatus southern angola preempt infiltration south west africa capture destroy much military equipment possible.offensive destined encounter unexpectedly large presence angolan regular forces brought heavy armour offensive action first time.preparation potential encounters fapla tanks elements mechanised practised firebelt actions integrating mutual support specialised manoeuvres.
Eland armoured car	however stripped ratel antitank platoon protea necessitating greater dependence eland vehicle unable keep pace ratels rapid firebelts.south african forces advanced august cutting xangongo ongiva establishing blocking force near chicusse.stormed xangongo pm following day though late afternoon battle intensified.settlement garrisoned faplas th brigade included company mechanised squadron.although elands vulnerable ts mm gun vastly superior mobility experience sadf crews made considerable difference.three tanks demolished late afternoon.
Eland armoured car	elands also deployed blocking force main axis xangongocahama highway hoped speed tarred surfaces could better exploited.wait long.evening sizeable fapla convoy consisting armoured personnel carriers infantry artillery glimpsed fleeing towards cahama.upon identifying point vehicle brdm south african spotter ordered skiet hom met ‘n shoot mm.hit three rounds vehicle ignited.
Eland armoured car	number trailing btrs gazs bms also captured destroyed.the assault ongiva began air strike august artillery engaged knocking predetermined fapla swapo targets.angolan troops counterattacked least two occasions ts three annihilated concentrated fire ratel eland squadrons.hindsight tanks played relatively limited role defence.dug use static artillery firing entrenched positions near fapla camps installations.restricted trajectory.
Eland armoured car	moreover ts faced south crews thus unable counter south african armoured cars arriving north.operation askari end operation protea south africa captured tonnes ammunition overrun square kilometres angolan territory inflicted serious casualties swapo fapla.significantly sadf installed garrisons xangongo ongiva leaving behind two companies detached south west african territorial force swatf eland squadron special forces battalion.throughout elands common sight roads around xangongo deterring swapo reentering town.by fapla completed exhaustive twoyear retraining reequipment programme greatly increasing size sophistication competence eye soviet military advisors.luanda spending budget external defence mikoyan migs beginning disrupt traditional south african air force superiority.
Eland armoured car	within five months protea cuba committed another troops angola.also brought tanks formidable antiquated t.in april south africa began compiling intelligence swapo plans move additional guerrillas operational area using cunene rainy season cover.modelled protea operation askari began december headed insurgent staging areas identified aerial reconnaissance four battalionsized combat groups crossed angola.askari called single unit elands scraped together regiment mooirivier regiment molopo.unlike past operations crews predominantly reservists.
Eland armoured car	elands assigned task force victor acquire unfortunate reputation askaris poorest element.marshalled four fapla brigades stationed caiundo cuvelai mulondo cahama oneseventh angolan army.soviet commander valentin varennikov instrumental directing angolan defence confident given numerical strength armament brigades...would able repel south african attack.the sadf however intention making frontal attacks could costly lives resources.askari depended able keep fapla bay air strikes longdistance bombardment light probing.keeping principle task force victor marched east mongua harassing faplas th brigade cuvelai intended target.
Eland armoured car	angolan defenders responded heavy artillery.disappointed general constand viljoen warned major successes achieved december operation might continue.cuvelai identified key location swapos upcoming monsoon offensive neutralised victor could withdrawn.flurry new orders issued accordingly probing actions cease enemy attacked forcefully prior st. swapo camps near town objective south african officers confident neither angola two adjacent cuban battalions nearby would intervene.in line new directives victor commandant faan greyling instructed advance northeast.route barred cuvelai river flood complicated heaviest rains living memory.
Eland armoured car	predictably elands got stuck struggled muddy banks every stream.swapo waiting victor force behind artillery sixteen minefields zu antiaircraft guns.faulty intelligence also complicated attack fapla come swapos assistance tanks.men poorly equipped antitank weapons greylings elands bear brunt armoured thrust.inadequate low velocity cannon great difficulty ts often dispensing multiple shells penetrating tanks armour.
Eland armoured car	crew tactics encircle single tanks eland troop four cars keep shooting target burned.required intense coordination eland commanders directed radio able concentrate fire ts exposed side rear preferably turret pointed another direction.sensing opportunity disengage greyling called attack late.exhausted intensity firefight already demoralised repeated failures south africans retreated.headquarters demanded resume advance—greyling retorted would without coherent planning reconnaissance.eventually fell overworked mechanised complete objective.
Eland armoured car	due higher profile ratels could locate ts dense vegetation angolan gunners turn spotted advantage elands possess.armoured cars succeeded knocking least five tanks river captured retained inspection.south africa finally took left cuvelai january .later service mediocre performance improvised tank destroyers cuvelai convinced ep van lill commander mechanised men could longer asked fight tanks armoured cars.van lill informed general viljoen eland simply could stand heavier protection armament ts.
Eland armoured car	tank busting expended much mm ammunition fatigued recoil systems.demonstrated askari crew morale also affected ordered take ts vulnerable vehicles.contradicted south african armoured corps saac doctrine fight tanks tanks.a weeks later van lill vindicated squadron british centurions modified south africa olifant mk delivered mechanised base omuthiya.angola seen conventional threat south west africa retention tanks territory regarded costeffective olifant crews frequently rotated out.operations moduler hooper packer ratels used role tank destroyers.task force victors performance askari left much desired.
Eland armoured car	sadf review meetings reservists involved bluntly criticised worst battle group mechanised brigade.attention devoted improving reservist leadership morale.also noted antiquity eland beginning hinder operations.deployed angola sadf again.south west africa although elands gradually removed frontline service sadf relegated role training vehicles ratel crews large number continued deployed swatf internal counterinsurgency operations plan.
Eland armoured car	armoured cars frequently patrolled roads deter guerrilla raids escorted local convoys.south africa equipped swatf single regiment elands elands inception drawing crews local national servicemen.regiment rarely operated cohesive unit.rather squadrons attached rotating basis variety modular infantry battalions.concert supporting infantrymen eland crews carried search destroy operations manned road patrols road checkpoints guarded static installations.in august sadf launched operation moduler turn back major fapla offensive southern angola sparking battle cuito cuanavale.
Eland armoured car	moduler swatfs battalion ordered deploy far north ongiva prevent angolan units reoccupying settlement.purposes operation provided oversized squadron elands.infantrymen armed combination antitank rifle grenades rpgs event needed support elands fapla tanks.due shortage troopcarrying vehicles transported riding atop armoured cars.took concealed positions road ongiva xangongo october large fapla motorised contingent sighted approaching settlement consisting primarily truckmounted infantry btr btr armoured personnel carriers.
Eland armoured car	advance screened reconnaissance troop brdms blundered killzone engaged elands.taking evasive action one brdms drove road collided eland causing momentary confusion.fapla column destroyed ensuing firefight.following incident fapla began deploying heavily armed bmp infantry fighting vehicles convoy support purposes areas likely encounter south african armour.the ambush october mentioned official soviet fapla communiques.however angolan state bulletin dated september alludes unspecified attack sadf swatf troops specifically involving elands elands.
Eland armoured car	unclear whether reference action fapla claimed south african unit responsible battalion deployed near ongiva time equipped ratels.according bulletin four elands destroyed engagement.soviet sources reference least three elands knocked operation moduler operation hooper.first observed road near chambinga river crossing november apparently suffered catastrophic kill result impacted bm rocket.two reported destroyed faplas brigade december .
Eland armoured car	could swatf vehicles eland longer actively used sadf nevertheless appear among losses acknowledged result moduler hooper.swatf elands mobilised part operation hilti counter division cuban troops massing near south west african border mid .cuban forces believed possess brigadesized formation tanks swatf would find difficult deter outnumbered obsolete eland fleet.june swatf sadf retreated south clashing cuban tanks advancing cuamato north border.following day twelve elands deployed cuamato help battalion stop tanks.however anticipated cuban attack materialise armoured cars subsequently withdrawn without incident.
Eland armoured car	three detached safeguard hydroelectric dam calueque others returned south west africa.one destroyed air strike cuban mikoyangurevich migs outside calueque june.rhodesia rhodesia waged long bitter counterinsurgency campaign two rival insurgent armies zimbabwe african national liberation army zanla zimbabwe peoples revolutionary army zipra .beginning war rhodesian air force perturbed likelihood insurgent saboteurs disrupting fuel depots forward airfields installations vital operational capabilities.rhodesian air force security training unit stu established base security duties.
Eland armoured car	stu trained equipped south african government provided radios small arms ammunition basic weapons instruction.requests new equipment made liaison officer attached rhodesian special branch overheard airman demand perhaps jest dozen armoured cars please asked stu anything else could procure them.interpreted approved official request end year twelve elands delivered rail stu.deployment armoured cars subsequently became integral part units doctrine.the elands gave muchneeded mobility stu personnel allowed take part responding quickly insurgent raids particularly one wellplanned zanla assault grand reef air base .dug fixed revetments static guard duty also carried routine patrols aircraft landed.
Eland armoured car	one point standard practice new sarum least one eland crew circle airfield check suspicious activity irregularities aircraft landed.insurgent raid elands would emerge revetments intercept attackers providing muchneeded fire support firing illumination rounds pinpoint insurgents dismounted security personnel.the first stu eland crews underwent twelveweek training programme bloemfontein south african armoured corps subsequent intakes trained locally.armoured cars initially deployed single squadron new sarum air base crews mockingly referred “desert rats” reference popular nickname british tank crews serving th armoured division north africa world war ii.stu later embraced mascot adopted “desert mice” informal callsign eland squadron.motto “seek squeak” parodied “seek strike” maxim rhafs no.

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