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Eland armoured car	squadron.the rhodesian armoured car regiment rhacr originally formed part british empires war effort reactivated equipped ferret scout cars.however ferrets delipidated condition inherited rhodesia british forces aden seeing several years hard use aden emergency.ferret design also lacked firepower truly effective hardened ground targets dugin insurgents armed single generalpurpose machine gun.following failed project increase ferrets firepower addition mm autocannon rhodesian government turned south africa offered supply rhacr elands.first sixteen elands delivered regiment .
Eland armoured car	elands successively donated loaned rhacr earlier eland mks replaced mks.estimates total number elands service rhodesian army late range .eventually four composite eland ferret squadrons formed b c squadrons strictly reserve formations squadron regular unit.reserve squadrons attached independent companies rhodesia regiment ad hoc basis first mobilised crossborder raids insurgents external base camps neighbouring mozambique.for part rhacr elands utilised internal security convoy escort role.armoured cars deployed army roadblocks frequently patrolled borders deter insurgent infiltrators.
Eland armoured car	event conventional conflict elands used secondary role conventional reconnaissance vehicles.light armour protection always concern rhodesian crews particularly trials proved elands hull could penetrated armourpiercing .×mm rounds.problems clutches also encountered led rhacrs elands retrofitted new clutches adopted armys land rover utility vehicles.all elands supplied rhodesia fitted number plates registered south african police presence rhodesias northern border.measure initiated maintain form deniability keep south africas role arming rhodesian security forces covert.however rhodesians abandoned façade last south african police officers recalled country .
Eland armoured car	another south african condition made unenforceable departure police elands deployed outside rhodesia routinely ignored vehicles used external operations needed.operation miracle rhodesian elands spearheaded assault monte cassino heavily fortified zanla complex new chimoio mozambique.mozambicans responded counterattacking tank company supported mechanised infantry btr armoured personnel carriers.rhodesian forces managed disperse tanks artillery air strikes without committing armoured cars.zimbabwe rhodesian hopes eminent victory bush war quickly faded wake operation miracle government acceded constitutional conference mediated united kingdom senior insurgent leadership.
Eland armoured car	conference concluded fortyseven plenary sessions agreements phased political transition constitutional conference including insurgent factions ceasefire december .recognising rhodesian allies politically moribund south african government began withdrawing support.also demanded return eland armoured cars hundreds fn mag machine guns supplied rhodesia ostensibly permanent loan.senior general officer rhodesian army appointed make necessary arrangements.prior countrys elections stu elands driven directly across border.
Eland armoured car	rhacr elands loaded onto tank transporters trucked back south africa well.however process yet completed political transition period ended rhodesia obtained internationally recognised sovereignty zimbabwe new regime dominated former insurgent leadership.repatriation armoured cars abruptly terminated leaving handful elands possession fledgling zimbabwe national army zna.number elands inherited zna disputed sources citing sixteen others twentyeight.the sadf desire leave elands hands potentially hostile regime implicated plot destroy armoured cars.sadf intelligence operatives sabotaged fuel tanks elands number vehicles parked king george vi barracks harare timed explosive devices december .
Eland armoured car	explosives discovered two detonated prematurely becoming saturated petrol.zna engineers disarmed removed remaining devices albeit difficulty elands turrets removed access fuel tanks.zimbabwe ravaged interfactional clashes exzanla zipra militants .relatively neutral dispute former rhodesian armoured car regiment seen prime candidate restoring order.january troop four elands manned national serviceman led sergeant skippy devine dispatched keep peace bulawayo rival zanla zipra units encamped pending integration national armys th infantry battalion.following month zipra troops across bulawayo revolted became known entumbane uprising.
Eland armoured car	february armoured cars charged mutineers camp glenville overran little resistance.three days later zipra reinforcements form motorized column led btr armoured vehicles possibly including tanks spotted approaching bulawayo.devine ordered intercept destroy them.elands promptly identified knocked btr outlying intersection.taking positions high ground overlooking selborne avenue stayed place two btrs attacked firing indiscriminately dshk machine guns.
Eland armoured car	destroyed mm shells two hundred metres.devines elands knocked fourth btr mere hours later.zipra tanks later found abandoned near road none fighting condition.devine awarded bronze cross zimbabwe actions entumbane.after former rhodesian armoured car regiment part zimbabwe armoured corps reduced single regular squadron elands.zimbabwean ministry defence wanted bring regiment pre strength four squadrons one complement znas four infantry brigades.
Eland armoured car	onwards eland largely superseded frontline service heavier sixwheeled ee cascavel adopted sufficient numbers form three additional armoured car squadrons.proposal retrofit zna elands upgraded mm guns turrets discussed never reached fruition.zimbabwean service armoured cars suffered dwindling supply spare parts erratic maintenance.still service late second congo war remaining elands believed destroyed otherwise lost attrition.western sahara war prior outbreak western sahara war royal moroccan armed forces far received relatively little modern armament particularly nonfrancophone states.
Eland armoured car	meanwhile polisario front intent waging armed struggle sahrawi independence stockpiled weapons algeria seized additional equipment raids moroccan forces.hardware attrition rate spiralled upwards madrid accords quickly became apparent new suppliers needed fill bulk fars needs.gradual arms buildup sahara began .financial assistance saudi arabia allowed rabat tap broad supply network weaponry obtained far abroad iran west germany belgium.orders panhard amls placed france although arrive secondhand condition panhard long closed production line referred morocco south africa.
Eland armoured car	first eland mks imported .others appeared ratels far .accompanied eight south african instructors training moroccan crews though personnel expressly forbidden approach them.morocco grew concerned successive far setback september general ahmed dlimi adopted new strategy consolidating forces spread across western sahara.individual garrisons mustered tactical groups massed search destroy operations polisario guerrillas menacing dakhla zag tarfaya.fars elands first sighted operation imam one attempt break encirclement zag.
Eland armoured car	moroccan crews proceeded narrow valley counsel south african instructors correctly suspected polisario ambush.large guerrilla force able trap cut column armoured cars valley.elands captured failed offensive destroyed.domestic markings censored prior export vehicles identified afrikaans inscription intact fill caps.elands remained notable feature el aaiúns anniversary parades several years come.
Eland armoured car	conflicts south africa supplied elands unknown designation ugandan peoples defence force mids along buffel mineprotected troop carriers.armoured cars likely entered service second congo war may seen action ugandan armour kisangani.later deployed lords resistance army.local media also published reports nelson mandelas administration offered elands pascal lissouba loyalists defeated angolan invaders republic congo civil war.claims could independently verified.
Eland armoured car	another source maintains original congo order placed one delivered.at least elands elands emptied sandf surplus handed belgian defence contractor sabiex resale.september emerged president idriss déby chad negotiating purchase.first delivered via france march soon blooded fighting rebel faction encroaching adré.belgium reported deal united nations register conventional arms neglected offer details regarding chad.sabiex could neither confirm deny sale amnesty international.
Eland armoured car	wallonia directorate arms licences merely recalled authorising export buyer france without restrictions sales transfers.chad since used elands routine patrols near sudanese border islamic radicals northern mali.because eland regarded cheap alternative improvised technicals areas climate terrain lack support infrastructure technical skill forestall operation large heavy armour forces remained popular subsaharan armies insurgent groups.description eland hulls constructed welded homogenous steel provides moderate protection grenade fragments antipersonnel mines light weapons.driver seated front vehicle provided onepiece hatch cover swings right.total three integral periscopes may replaced passive infrared night vision equipment driving darkness.
Eland armoured car	turret centre hull two crew members alternatively seated variant.rear power plant completely enclosed hull air intake exhaust openings safeguarded ballistic grille conceding unrestricted air passage.an elands gearbox one reverse six forward gears.crosswise coupled sides bevel pinion.drive transmitted gearbox two lateral transfer boxes via pinions rear wheels drive shafts follow hull front wheels.shafts extra universal joints beneath turret.
Eland armoured car	shaft drives second cam type differential bar either two wheel pairs exerting speed radically different other.respect elands less likely experience transmission fouls tyre wear armoured cars single central differential.panhard electric clutch major stumbling block inexperienced drivers replaced concurrent hydraulic system easier maintenance reduced crew training time.also noteworthy independent suspension consisting coil springs hydropneumatic shock absorbers trailing arms wheel mechanism south africa later adopted design rooikat.four wheels split rim type fitted dunlop .x tyres.two hydraulic braking systems one front one rear.
Eland armoured car	external squat four wheeled vehicle eland slopes downwards front less prominently rear.large semicircular wheel arches obscured storage bins adjacent rear wheel.sand channels stowed across front hull headlamps located either side towing shackle beneath channels.three periscopes drivers position.turrets shallow rounded sloping sides prominent sighting periscope right.
Eland armoured car	domed cupola commanders hatch.variants eland modelled panhards aml eland first eland variant enter service.armed twin .mm machine guns left single mm mortar right.unlike french predecessor one machine gun mounted coaxially turret.second typically carried pintle antiaircraft use.
Eland armoured car	mortar elevation ° depression °.single type mortar available hotckissbrandt cma produced licence model k. fired flat trajectory effective metres direct role metres indirect role.rounds mm rounds .mm ammunition carried.south african crews usually stored mortar bombs per vehicle.elands rounded turret large dualpiece hatch cover opening front rear.eland modelled panhards aml h eland functioned fire support platform assault gun.
Eland armoured car	role easy underestimate.combat tanks biggest edge superior mobility although diminished somewhat lack stabilised cannon.armoured cars often decisively outranged angolan tanks inability fire move resulted poor rate engagement.elands equipped denel gt mm gun coaxial .mm machine gun also mounted left main armament.gt elevation ° depression °.
Eland armoured car	turret rotation manual takes approximately twenty seconds.gunner seated right onepiece hatch cover.loader commander left gun single hatch cover provided commander.total ammunition capacity rounds mm rounds .mm.when needed elands could accommodate two entac ss.missiles slide external rails launched.
Eland armoured car	eland eland base ratels turret atop eland chassis.fitted .mm machine gun mm gi f autocannon offering elevation ° depression °.mm cannon cyclic rate fire rounds per minute.required another .mm machine gun mounted turret roof.destined export elands marketed primarily morocco.least irelands amls also upgraded standard south africa redesignated aml h. variants eland showcased turbocharged diesel fourcylinder powerpack developing hp rpm.
Eland armoured car	mounted sliding frame facilitate easier engine removal maintenance.apart new engine changes made enhance performance tropical climates.included modified air conditioning cooling systems.reumech omc—then subsidiary vickers—marketed design eland mk diesel turbocharged simply eland mk dt.estimated mks haggled sandf diesel conversion.mechanology design bureau another south african firm proposed removing elands turret altogether replacing giant cupola.
Eland armoured car	relieves ground pressure considerably allowing installation specialised electronic reconnaissance suite.similar upgrade proposed eland although latter retains original turret.several foreign companies currently offer extensive rebuild overhaul programmes eland particularly regards improving engine performance reliability.saymar israeli firm proposed modified eland twolitre toyota diesel engine developing kw hp.another upgrade programme marketed belgiums sabiex international includes complete refurbishment vehicles transmission electrical system drive train.various demonstrators built sandf school armour utilising eland drive train suspension chassis.examples include armoured personnel carrier resembling panhard x rooikat prototype.
Eland armoured car	armament ammunition modular design eland weapon systems allowed sandockaustral update downgrade armament ease according prospective clients wishes.ranging manual elands assisted nonstabilised optical fire control system.like aml eland equipped twoperson turret.original eland unusual combination mm k mortar two medium one heavy machine guns combination inspired french experiences algerian war.mortar weighs kg .metres long.
Eland armoured car	maximum effective range k produced denel land systems stated metres.eland always present every south african support troop due effectiveness illumination bombs night operations.it saac first recommended aml heavier armament looking fire support platform complement alvis saracen.due parts compatibility alvis saladin obvious initial choice.nevertheless aml licence already purchased obvious advantages filling role existing vehicle.panhards response aml h.the mm denel gt gun fires finstabilised highexplosive highexplosive antitank heat projectiles heavier mounted saladin provides eland potent form armament considering small size speed.
Eland armoured car	weighs kg double baffle muzzle brake.muzzle brake measures .metres length.lowangled rifling used barrel.breech gun semiautomatic fitted vertical sliding wedge breech block.
Eland armoured car	firing mechanism utilises mechanical firing pin prone sticking malfunction dusty climates.also recoil control mechanism consisting single cylinder constant stress spring hydropneumatic recuperator designed return gt original firing position.process entailed releasing oil nitrogen reservoir gun recoiled upon firing.oil levels nitrogen pressure monitored frequently neither sufficient turret crews forced physically manhandle gun back position.recoil systems elands modified allow gun fired directions fully traversing turret without risk knocking extremely lightweight armoured car over.
Eland armoured car	theory modifications also permitted gun fired vehicle forward motion although crews prohibited due likelihood transmission damage.south africa began producing mm ammunition large quantities french highexplosive rounds blamed causing stoppages elands operation reindeer.maximum effective range denel gt stated metres he.heatt round penetrate mm armour zero angle incidence mm armour ° angle incidence.locally manufactured finstabilised shaped charged projectile also development .complete round weighs kg projectile weighs .kg.
Eland armoured car	complete round mm length projectile mm length.round mv ms maximum velocity ms effective range given metres.doctrine elands first combat deployment caprivi strip revealed major flaws south african armour doctrine.firstly saac learned significant swathes namibian angolan terrain ideal conditions military vehicles.caprivi thick bush restricted movement turret traverse visibility.
Eland armoured car	also confounded textbook formations.second eland crews trained arid flats bloemfontein walvis bay.conditions encountered quite unlike anything sadf prepared for.much learned elands performance operation savannah.ability move swiftly tar packed gravel surprised fapla multiple occasions.also rather silent quiet petrol engine enabled stealth ambush evasive manoeuvres.
Eland armoured car	furthermore eland proved powerful enough defeat heaviest armour ranged soviet t. savannah saacs first experience mobile warfare angolan bush creating laboratory new tactics could tested.according south african military college voortrekkerhoogte clearly recognised elands weakness attrition warfare sadf doctrine based hold ground create design battle way would lure enemy killing ground superiority fire movement would kill completely.factors rapid movement striking flank surprise confusing enemy continuous manoeuvring thus became integral components new saac.voortrekkerhoogte worried elands light construction apparent.subsequently issued requirement heavy armoured car grafted support infantry existing squadrons deal threat posed rpgs.due lack space eland accommodate support troops infantry mobility vehicles called for.
Eland armoured car	sadf experimented land rovers bedford rls unimog trucks united nations security council resolution limited choices.logistical incentives adopting panhard shared many interchangeable parts elands notion rejected pretoria wanted true mrap.dozens trials modifications buffel finally born.eland squadrons operated troop platoon level operational areas one assigned virtually every major settlement i.e.rucana ondangwa eenhana katima mulilo etc.. four elands troop bravo car alpha car charlie car delta car.alpha charlie troop sergeant leader respectively.
Eland armoured car	bravo always eland.delta additional option either second eland support infantry buffel.provided excellent mix direct indirect fire troop commanders.bravo could release illumination bombs night attacks create smokescreen.charlie alpha laid suppressive fire.
Eland armoured car	present delta infantry debussed attacked foot nine oclock position.communication troop essential fire lifted delta moved target.the armoured car troop expected operate independently.crews carried repair recovery limited resources.operations dictated amount fuel ammunition water ration could carried per vehicle.elands easy maintenance allowed operate makeshift repairs field seven days hunting swapo cadres day forming open laagers night.one first major breakthroughs late development ratel.
Eland armoured car	three years springfieldbussing built first prototype magnus malan reported parliament ratel successfully industrialised.ratels replaced buffels support troops armoured car regiments retrained depend mechanised infantry conventional operations.second watershed came twelve junior officers senior noncoms underwent training tank commanders israeli defense forces amassed considerable experience mobile mechanised warfare.officers attended courses idf combat school included later commanders mechanised including gert van zyl ep van lill.acquired expertise armour tactics implemented saac curricula manuals replacing archaic british doctrine world war ii.
Eland armoured car	commands became concise emphasis shifted reaction speed evaluation methods improved substantially.nevertheless saac defeated purpose israeli tank drills applying directly armoured cars setting trend continued throughout border war.throughout elands played supporting role ratelmounted mechanised combat groups.specific infantry battalions mechanised also held generic platoons elands ratels antitank reserve.latter preferred elands experienced difficulty observing forces thick bush.spotting tanks particular problem.
Eland armoured car	crews even chance noticing fapla ts also low profiles.poor visibility vegetation also complicated command control frustrating driver troop leader end.for decades elands widely deployed lieu tanks saac.main danger policy crews commanders often forced use angolan cuban tanks.whenever ts appeared battlefield caused anxious moments eland.tanks carried stabilised cannon could fire move whereas eland needed come stop discharging main gun.
Eland armoured car	firing mm gt forward motion theoretically possible disrupted recoil procedure risked catastrophic damage vehicles transmission.inferior armament optics meant elands close tank eliminate demanded considerable skill.possible gunners aimed rear flank vulnerable margin beneath turret front.naturally tank would also turn avoid exposing thinner armour expert manoeuvring required could get behind destroy there.eland troops always identified one tank priority target.chance came elands fired simultaneously—knocking tank.
Eland armoured car	avoid hit volleys keep moving.protocol derived sadf experience fighting ts later applied ts.armoured car commanders believed wouldnt fared well ts.elands struggled big dense bushes attempting carry usual tactic operation askari hereafter deemed unfit high intensity campaigns.survivors south africa formally retired eland fleet .
Eland armoured car	however least one reserve armoured unit continued operate elands late .still accounted remained reserve storage .statistic released department defence confirmed elands valued excess .million rand scrapped.october sandfs remaining elands offered sale.
Eland armoured car	tenders elands still available .in january two elands south african national museum military history repossessed impounded sandf.seizure vehicles justified grounds marked disposal armys inventory time prior sandf officials record transfer museum.elands exhibited museum without sandfs apparent knowledge remains mystery.disputed elands eventually acquired denel overhauled expense returned museum july .both south african armour museum bloemfontein sandstone estates ficksburg preserved least one eland eland apiece.others survive sandf bases gate guardians.
Eland armoured car	four armoured units known retained individual elands ceremonial purposes special service battalion umvoti mounted rifles regiment mooirivier regiment oranjerivier.vehicles participate parades public exhibitions fire gun salutes special occasions anniversary south african armoured corps.turretless elands modified ringmounted handrails still used transporting sandf dignitaries parade grounds official inspections.an eland sold private auction portola valley united states july – .another eland sold jordanian government unidentified supplier united kingdom following year exhibition royal tank museum aqaba.foreign museums known possess elands collections include gweru military museum zimbabwe sahrawi peoples liberation army museum algeria.for several decades eland captured fapla operation savannah publicly displayed square near centre luanda.
Eland armoured car	vehicle undergone least one restoration resides angolan museum armed forces.operators benin beninese army elands supplied unidentified source .beninese crews trained er rhp france.burkina faso burkinabe army elands supplied unidentified source .chad chadian ground forces refurbished elands purchased belgian firm .
Eland armoured car	gabon gabonese army elands elands service presidential guard.ivory coast ivorian gendarmerie malawi malawian army elands purchased sandf .morocco moroccan army elands elands delivered provided instructors training moroccan crews.sahrawi arab democratic republic polisario front presumably captured morocco.senegal senegalese army elands purchased sandf .
Eland armoured car	uganda ugandan land forces elands purchased prior second congo war.zimbabwe zimbabwe national army elands inherited rhodesian army .former operators south africa south african army elands elands active service .south africa south west africa south west african territorial force least elands provided sadf deployed exclusively brigade.rhodesia rhodesian army rhodesian air force elands elands donated south africa semipermanent loan.
Eland armoured car	portugal portuguese army least eland loaned south africa use angola mozambique.popular culture elands painted unita markings make appearance call duty black ops ii fictitious engagement operation alpha centauri.number armoured cars knocked fapla tanks outside jamba protagonists first mission pyrrhic victory.eland armoured cars feature prominently larry bond novel vortex depicts hypothetical sadf invasion newly independent namibia early s. elands pressed frontline service complement rooikat reconnaissance fire support role sadf equipped relatively newer armoured cars novels time frame.a mercenary unit surreptitiously acquires several mothballed elands sandfs reserve stores connivance two corrupt south african armour officers liberators tom kratman.armoured cars subsequently used destroy several tanks coup détat attempt.gallery notes references reading dunstan simon .
History of the Netherlands	panhard armoured car aml aml eland.haynes manuals.isbn .external links photo gallery primeportal.netphoto gallery sa transportrhodesian armoured cars july south african military history societyselected short stories billy reminiscences eland commandersentinel projects personal accounts military service sadf border wareland armoured noddy car mechanised battalion group veterans associationrecords begin four centuries region formed militarized border zone roman empire.came increasing pressure germanic peoples moving westwards.roman power collapsed middle ages began three dominant germanic peoples coalesced area frisians north coastal areas low saxons northeast franks south.during middle ages descendants carolingian dynasty came dominate area extended rule large part western europe.region nowadays corresponding netherlands therefore became part lower lotharingia within frankish holy roman empire.several centuries lordships brabant holland zeeland friesland guelders others held changing patchwork territories.
History of the Netherlands	unified equivalent modern netherlands.by duke burgundy assumed control lowlands territories lower lotharingia created burgundian netherlands included modern netherlands belgium luxembourg part france.the catholic kings spain took strong measures protestantism polarised peoples presentday belgium netherlands.subsequent dutch revolt led splitting burgundian netherlands catholic french dutchspeaking spanish netherlands approximately corresponding modern belgium luxembourg northern united provinces dutch republic spoke dutch predominantly protestant.latter entity became modern netherlands.in dutch golden age zenith around flowering trade industry sciences.rich worldwide dutch empire developed dutch east india company became one earliest important national mercantile companies based invasion colonialism extraction outside resources.during eighteenth century power wealth influence netherlands declined.series wars powerful british french neighbours weakened it.
History of the Netherlands	english seized north american colony new amsterdam renamed new york.growing unrest conflict orangists patriots.french revolution spilled profrench batavian republic established –.napoleon made satellite state kingdom holland – later simply french imperial province.after defeat napoleon – expanded united kingdom netherlands created house orange monarchs also ruling belgium luxembourg.king imposed unpopular protestant reforms belgium revolted became independent .
History of the Netherlands	initially conservative period following introduction constitution country became parliamentary democracy constitutional monarch.modernday luxembourg became officially independent netherlands personal union remained .since ruled another branch house nassau.the netherlands neutral first world war second world war invaded occupied nazi germany.nazis including many collaborators rounded killed almost countrys jewish population.dutch resistance increased nazis cut food supplies much country causing severe starvation –.
History of the Netherlands	dutch east indies conquered japan prior dutch destroyed oil wells japan desperate.indonesia proclaimed independence netherlands followed suriname .postwar years saw rapid economic recovery helped american marshall plan followed introduction welfare state era peace prosperity.netherlands formed new economic alliance belgium luxembourg benelux three became founding members european union nato.recent decades dutch economy closely linked germany highly prosperous.
History of the Netherlands	four countries adopted euro january along eight eu member states.prehistory bc historical changes landscape prehistory area netherlands largely shaped constantly shifting lowlying geography.earliest groups huntergatherers bc area netherlands inhabited early humans least years ago attested flint tools discovered woerden .fragment yearold neanderthal skull found sand dredged north sea floor coast zeeland.during last ice age netherlands tundra climate scarce vegetation inhabitants survived huntergatherers.end ice age various paleolithic groups inhabited area.
History of the Netherlands	known around bc mesolithic tribe resided near burgumer mar friesland.another group residing elsewhere known made canoes.oldest recovered canoe world pesse canoe.according c dating analysis constructed somewhere bc bc.canoe exhibited drents museum assen.autochthonous huntergatherers swifterbant culture attested around bc onwards.
History of the Netherlands	strongly linked rivers open water related southern scandinavian ertebølle culture – bc.west tribes might built hunting camps hunt winter game including seals.arrival farming around – bc agriculture arrived netherlands somewhere around bc linear pottery culture probably central european farmers.agriculture practiced loess plateau south southern limburg even established permanently.farms develop rest netherlands.there also evidence small settlements rest country.
History of the Netherlands	people made switch animal husbandry sometime bc bc.dutch archaeologist leendert louwe kooijmans wrote becoming increasingly clear agricultural transformation prehistoric communities purely indigenous process took place gradually.transformation took place early bc– bc featured introduction grains small quantities traditional broadspectrum economy.funnelbeaker cultures around – bc funnelbeaker culture farming culture extending denmark northern germany northern netherlands.period dutch prehistory first notable remains erected dolmens large stone grave monuments.
History of the Netherlands	found drenthe probably built bc bc.to west vlaardingen culture around bc apparently primitive culture huntergatherers survived well neolithic period.corded ware bell beaker cultures around – bc around bce transition funnelbeaker farming culture corded ware pastoralist culture large archeological horizon appearing western central europe associated advance indoeuropean languages.transition probably caused developments eastern germany occurred within two generations.the bell beaker culture also present netherlands.the corded ware bell beaker cultures indigenous netherlands paneuropean nature extending across much northern central europe.the first evidence use wheel dates period bc.culture also experimented working copper.evidence including stone anvils copper knives copper spearhead found veluwe.
History of the Netherlands	copper finds show trade areas europe natural copper found dutch soil.bronze age around – bc bronze age probably started somewhere around bc lasted around bc.earliest bronze tools found grave bronze age individual called smith wageningen.bronze age objects later periods found epe drouwen elsewhere.broken bronze objects found voorschoten apparently destined recycling.
History of the Netherlands	indicates valuable bronze considered bronze age.typical bronze objects period included knives swords axes fibulae bracelets.most bronze age objects found netherlands found drenthe.one item shows trading networks period extended far distance.large bronze situlae buckets found drenthe manufactured somewhere eastern france switzerland.used mixing wine water romangreek custom.
History of the Netherlands	many finds drenthe rare valuable objects tinbead necklaces suggest drenthe trading centre netherlands bronze age.the bell beaker cultures – locally developed bronze age barbedwire beaker culture –.second millennium bc region boundary atlantic nordic horizons split northern southern region roughly divided course rhine.in north elp culture c. bc bronze age archaeological culture earthenware pottery low quality known kümmerkeramik grobkeramik marker.initial phase characterized tumuli – bc strongly tied contemporary tumuli northern germany scandinavia apparently related tumulus culture – bc central europe.phase followed subsequent change featuring urnfield cremation burial customs – bc.southern region became dominated hilversum culture – apparently inherited cultural ties britain previous barbedwire beaker culture.
History of the Netherlands	preroman period bc – bc iron age iron age brought measure prosperity people living area presentday netherlands.iron ore available throughout country including bog iron extracted ore peat bogs moeras ijzererts north natural ironbearing balls found veluwe red iron ore near rivers brabant.smiths travelled small settlement settlement bronze iron fabricating tools demand including axes knives pins arrowheads swords.evidence even suggests making damascus steel swords using advanced method forging combined flexibility iron strength steel.in oss grave dating around bc found burial mound metres wide thus largest kind western europe.dubbed kings grave vorstengraf oss contained extraordinary objects including iron sword inlay gold coral.in centuries arrival romans northern areas formerly occupied elp culture emerged probably germanic harpstedt culture southern parts influenced hallstatt culture assimilated celtic la tène culture.
History of the Netherlands	contemporary southern western migration germanic groups northern expansion hallstatt culture drew peoples others sphere influence.consistent caesars account rhine forming boundary celtic germanic tribes.arrival germanic groups germanic tribes originally inhabited southern scandinavia schleswigholstein hamburg subsequent iron age cultures region like wessenstedt – bc jastorf may also belonged grouping.the climate deteriorating scandinavia around bc bc later faster around bc might triggered migrations.archaeological evidence suggests around bc relatively uniform germanic people netherlands vistula southern scandinavia.west newcomers settled coastal floodplains first time since adjacent higher grounds population increased soil become exhausted.by time migration complete around bc general cultural linguistic groupings emerged.one grouping – labelled north sea germanic – inhabited northern part netherlands north great rivers extending along north sea jutland.
History of the Netherlands	group also sometimes referred ingvaeones.included group peoples would later develop among others early frisians early saxons.a second grouping scholars subsequently dubbed weserrhine germanic rhineweser germanic extended along middle rhine weser inhabited southern part netherlands south great rivers.group also sometimes referred istvaeones consisted tribes would eventually develop salian franks.celts south celtic culture origins central european hallstatt culture c. – bc named rich grave finds hallstatt austria.later la tène period c. bc roman conquest celtic culture whether diffusion migration expanded wide range including southern area netherlands.
History of the Netherlands	would northern reach gauls.in march celtic coins found echt limburg.silver coins mixed copper gold date around bc ad.october hoard gold coins silver celtic coins found amby area maastricht.gold coins attributed eburones people.celtic objects also found area zutphen.although rare hoards found past decades loose celtic coins objects found throughout central eastern southern part netherlands.
History of the Netherlands	according archaeologists finds confirmed least meuse dutch maas river valley netherlands within influence la tène culture.dutch archaeologists even speculate zutphen lies centre country celtic area romans arrived germanic one all.scholars debate actual extent celtic influence.celtic influence contacts gaulish early germanic culture along rhine assumed source number celtic loanwords protogermanic.according belgian linguist luc van durme toponymic evidence former celtic presence low countries near utterly absent.although celts netherlands iron age innovations involve substantial celtic intrusions featured local development bronze age culture.
History of the Netherlands	nordwestblock theory scholars de laet gysseling hachmann kossack kuhn speculated separate ethnic identity neither germanic celtic survived netherlands roman period.see netherlands part iron age nordwestblock stretching somme weser.view culture language absorbed celts south germanic peoples east late immediate preroman period.roman era bc – ad native tribes gallic wars belgic area south oude rijn west rhine conquered roman forces julius caesar series campaigns bc bc.tribes located area netherlands time leave behind written records information known preroman period based romans greeks wrote them.
History of the Netherlands	one important caesars commentarii de bello gallico.two main tribes described living netherlands menapii eburones south caesar active.established principle rhine defined natural boundary gaul germania magna.rhine strong border made clear part belgic gaul many local tribes including eburones germani cisrhenani cases mixed origin.the menapii stretched south zeeland north brabant possibly south holland southeast gelderland.later roman times territory seems divided reduced became mainly contained western belgium.the eburones largest germani cisrhenani group covered large area including least part modern dutch limburg stretching east rhine germany also northwest delta giving border menapii.
History of the Netherlands	territory may stretched gelderland.in delta caesar makes passing comment insula batavorum island batavi rhine river without discussing lived there.later imperial times tribe called batavi became important region.much later tacitus wrote originally tribe chatti tribe germany never mentioned caesar.however archaeologists find evidence continuity suggest chattic group may small group moving preexisting possibly nongermanic people could even part known group eburones.the approximately years roman rule followed would profoundly change area would become netherlands.often involved largescale conflict free germanic tribes rhine.other tribes eventually inhabited islands delta roman times mentioned pliny elder cananefates south holland frisii covering modern netherlands north oude rijn frisiabones apparently stretched delta north north brabant marsacii stretched flemish coast delta sturii.caesar reported eliminated name eburones place texuandri inhabited north brabant modern province limburg maas running appears inhabited imperial times north south baetasii catualini sunuci tungri.
History of the Netherlands	tacitus reported tungri new name earlier germani cisrhenani.north old rhine apart frisii pliny reports chauci reached delta two tribes known eastern netherlands tuihanti tubantes twenthe overijssel chamavi hamaland northern gelderland became one first tribes named frankish see below.salians also franks probably originated salland overijssel moved empire forced saxons th century first batavia toxandria.roman settlements netherlands starting bc rhine netherlands came defended lower limes germanicus.series military actions rhine became fixed around ad romes northern frontier european mainland.number towns developments would arise along line.
History of the Netherlands	area south would integrated roman empire.first part gallia belgica area became part province germania inferior.tribes already within relocated area became part roman empire.area north rhine inhabited frisii chauci remained outside roman rule presence control.romans built military forts along limes germanicus number towns smaller settlements netherlands.notable roman towns nijmegen ulpia noviomagus batavorum voorburg forum hadriani.perhaps evocative roman ruin mysterious brittenburg emerged sand beach katwijk several centuries ago buried again.
History of the Netherlands	ruins part lugdunum batavorum.other roman settlements fortifications temples structures found alphen aan de rijn albaniana bodegraven cuijk elst overbetuwe ermelo esch heerlen houten kessel north brabant oss i.e.de lithse ham near marenkessel kesteren nederbetuwe leiden matilo maastricht meinerswijk part arnhem tiel utrecht traiectum valkenburg south holland praetorium agrippinae vechten fectio part bunnik velsen vleuten wijk bij duurstede levefanum woerden laurium laurum zwammerdam nigrum pullum.batavian revolt batavians cananefates border tribes held high regard soldiers throughout empire traditionally served roman cavalry.frontier culture influenced romans germanic people gauls.first centuries romes conquest gaul trade flourished.
History of the Netherlands	roman gaulish germanic material culture found combined region.however batavians rose romans batavian rebellion ad.leader revolt batavian gaius julius civilis.one causes rebellion romans taken young batavians slaves.number roman castella attacked burnt.roman soldiers xanten elsewhere auxiliary troops batavians canninefatae legions vitellius joined revolt thus splitting northern part roman army.
History of the Netherlands	april ad legions sent vespasianus commanded quintus petillius cerialis eventually defeated batavians negotiated surrender gaius julius civilis somewhere waal meuse dutch maas near noviomagus nijmegen probably called batavodurum batavians.batavians later merged tribes became part salian franks.dutch writers th th centuries saw rebellion independent freedomloving batavians mirroring dutch revolt spain forms tyranny.according nationalist view batavians true forefathers dutch explains recurring use name centuries.jakarta named batavia dutch .dutch republic created basis french revolutionary principles called batavian republic.
History of the Netherlands	even today batavian term sometimes used describe dutch people similar use gallic describe french teutonic describe germans.emergence franks modern scholars migration period agreement frankish identity emerged first half rd century various earlier smaller germanic groups including salii sicambri chamavi bructeri chatti chattuarii ampsivarii tencteri ubii batavi tungri inhabited lower middle rhine valley zuyder zee river lahn extended eastwards far weser densely settled around ijssel lippe sieg.frankish confederation probably began coalesce s.the franks eventually divided two groups ripuarian franks latin ripuari franks lived along middlerhine river roman era salian franks franks originated area netherlands.franks appear roman texts allies enemies laeti dediticii.franks region scheldt river present day west flanders southwest netherlands control raiding channel disrupting transportation britain.roman forces pacified region expel franks continued feared pirates along shores least time julian apostate salian franks allowed settle foederati toxandria according ammianus marcellinus.
History of the Netherlands	disappearance frisii three factors contributed probable disappearance frisii northern netherlands.first according panegyrici latini manuscript viii ancient frisii forced resettle within roman territory laeti i.e.romanera serfs c. .last reference ancient frisii historical record.happened however suggested archaeological record.
History of the Netherlands	discovery type earthenware unique thcentury frisia called terp tritzum shows unknown number resettled flanders kent likely laeti roman coercion.second environment lowlying coastal regions northwestern europe began lower c. gradually receded next years.tectonic subsidence rising water table storm surges combined flood areas marine transgressions.accelerated shift cooler wetter climate region.frisii left lower areas frisia would drowned.third collapse roman empire decline population roman activity stopped roman institutions withdrew.result three factors postulated frisii frisiaevones disappeared area leaving coastal lands largely unpopulated next two centuries.
History of the Netherlands	however recent excavations coastal dunes kennemerland show clear indication permanent habitation.early middle ages – frisians climatic conditions improved another mass migration germanic peoples area east.known migration period volksverhuizingen.northern netherlands received influx new migrants settlers mostly saxons also angles jutes.many migrants stay northern netherlands moved england known today anglosaxons.
History of the Netherlands	newcomers stayed northern netherlands would eventually referred frisians although descended ancient frisii.new frisians settled northern netherlands would become ancestors modern frisians.early frisians anglosaxons formed largely identical tribal confederacies respective languages similar.old frisian closely related language old english modern frisian dialects turn closest related languages contemporary english.end th century frisian territory northern netherlands expanded west north sea coast th century south dorestad.
History of the Netherlands	period northern netherlands known frisia.extended frisian territory sometimes referred frisia magna greater frisia.in th th centuries frankish chronologies mention area kingdom frisians.kingdom comprised coastal provinces netherlands german north sea coast.time frisian language spoken along entire southern north sea coast.thcentury frisian kingdom – king aldegisel king redbad centre power utrecht.dorestad largest settlement emporia northwestern europe.
History of the Netherlands	grown around former roman fortress.large flourishing trading place three kilometers long situated rivers rhine lek diverge southeast utrecht near modern town wijk bij duurstede.although inland north sea trading centre primarily handled goods middle rhineland.wine among major products traded dorestad likely vineyards south mainz.also widely known mint.
History of the Netherlands	around dorestad often fought frisians franks.franks roman government area collapsed franks expanded territories numerous small frankish kingdoms especially cologne tournai le mans cambrai.kings tournai eventually came subdue frankish kings.clovis conquered united frankish territories west meuse including southern netherlands.continued conquests gaul.after death clovis four sons partitioned kingdom amongst theuderic receiving lands become austrasia including southern netherlands.
History of the Netherlands	line kings descended theuderic ruled austrasia united frankish kingdoms chlothar inherited frankish realms .redivided frankish territory amongst four sons four kingdoms coalesced three death charibert .austrasia including southern netherlands given sigebert i. southern netherlands remained northern part austrasia rise carolingians.the franks expanded south gaul settled eventually adopted vulgar latin local population.however germanic language spoken second tongue public officials western austrasia neustria late s. completely disappeared spoken language regions th century.expansion south many frankish people remained north i.e.
History of the Netherlands	southern netherlands flanders small part northern france.widening cultural divide grew franks remaining north rulers far south france.salian franks continued reside original homeland area directly south speak original language old frankish th century evolved old dutch.dutchfrench language boundary came existence originally south today.maas rhine areas netherlands franks political trading centres especially nijmegen maastricht.
History of the Netherlands	franks remained contact frisians north especially places like dorestad utrecht.modern doubts traditional frisian frank saxon distinction late th century dutch historians believed franks frisians saxons original ancestors dutch people.went ascribing certain attributes values strengths various groups proposing reflected thcentury nationalist religious views.particular believed theory explained belgium southern netherlands i.e.franks become catholic northern netherlands frisians saxons become protestant.
History of the Netherlands	success theory partly due anthropological theories based tribal paradigm.politically geographically inclusive yet accounting diversity theory accordance need nationbuilding integration – period.theory taught dutch schools.however disadvantages historical interpretation became apparent.tribalbased theory suggested external borders weak nonexistent clearcut internal borders.origins myth provided historical premise especially second world war regional separatism annexation germany.
History of the Netherlands	tribal paradigm lost appeal anthropological scholars historians.accuracy threetribe theme fundamentally questioned theory fell favour.due scarcity written sources knowledge period depends large degree interpretation archaeological data.traditional view clearcut division frisians north coast franks south saxons east proven historically problematic.archeological evidence suggests dramatically different models different regions demographic continuity parts country depopulation possible replacement parts notably coastal areas frisia holland.emergence dutch language language old dutch also sometimes called old west low franconian old low franconian old frankish arose unknown certainty thought language spoken salian franks.
History of the Netherlands	even though franks traditionally categorized weserrhine germanic dutch number ingvaeonic characteristics classified modern linguists ingvaeonic language.dutch also number old saxon characteristics.close relationship old dutch old saxon old english old frisian.texts written language spoken franks almost nonexistent old dutch texts scarce fragmentary much known development old dutch.old dutch made transition middle dutch around .
History of the Netherlands	christianization christianity arrived netherlands romans appears died completely maastricht least withdrawal romans .the franks became christians king clovis converted catholicism event traditionally set .christianity introduced north conquest friesland franks.saxons east converted conquest saxony became frankish allies.hibernoscottish anglosaxon missionaries particularly willibrord wulfram boniface played important role converting frankish frisian peoples christianity th century.boniface martyred frisians dokkum .frankish dominance incorporation holy roman empire early th century frisians came increasingly conflict franks south resulting series wars frankish empire eventually subjugated frisia.
History of the Netherlands	battle boarn frisians netherlands defeated franks thereby conquered area west lauwers.franks conquered area east lauwers charlemagne defeated widukind.the linguistic descendants franks modern dutch speakers netherlands flanders seem broken endonym frank around th century.time frankish identity changed ethnic identity national identity becoming localized confined modern franconia principally french province îledefrance.although people longer referred franks netherlands still part frankish empire charlemagne.indeed austrasian origins carolingians area rhine maas cities aachen maastricht liège nijmegen heart carolingian culture.charlemagne maintained palatium nijmegen least four times.the carolingian empire would eventually include france germany northern italy much western europe.
History of the Netherlands	frankish empire divided three parts giving rise west francia west east francia east middle francia centre.today netherlands became part middle francia flanders became part west francia.division important factor historical distinction flanders dutchspeaking areas.middle francia latin francia media ephemeral frankish kingdom historical ethnic identity bind varied peoples.created treaty verdun divided carolingian empire among sons louis pious.situated realms east west francia middle francia comprised frankish territory rivers rhine scheldt frisian coast north sea former kingdom burgundy except western portion later known bourgogne provence kingdom italy.middle francia fell lothair eldest son successor louis pious intermittent civil war younger brothers louis german charles bald.
History of the Netherlands	acknowledgement lothairs imperial title middle francia contained imperial cities aachen residence charlemagne well rome.deathbed prüm abbey emperor lothair partitioned realm amongst sons.lands north alps including netherlands passed lothair ii consecutively named lotharingia.lothair ii died lotharingia partitioned uncles louis german charles bald treaty meerssen .although netherlands come viking control technically became part east francia became holy roman empire .
History of the Netherlands	viking raids th th centuries vikings raided largely defenceless frisian frankish towns lying coast along rivers low countries.although vikings never settled large numbers areas set longterm bases even acknowledged lords cases.dutch frisian historical tradition trading centre dorestad declined viking raids however since convincing viking archaeological evidence found site doubts grown recent years.one important viking families low countries rorik dorestad based wieringen brother younger harald based walcheren thought nephews harald klak.around lothair acknowledged rorik ruler friesland.rorik received charles bald nijmegen became vassal.
History of the Netherlands	viking raids continued period.haralds son rodulf men killed people oostergo .rorik died sometime .buried viking treasures consisting mainly silver found low countries.two treasures found wieringen.large treasure found wieringen dates around thought perhaps connected rorik.
History of the Netherlands	burial valuable treasure seen indication permanent settlement wieringen.around godfrid arrived frisian lands head large force terrorised low countries.using ghent base ravaged ghent maastricht liège stavelot prüm cologne koblenz.controlling frisia death godfrid became known history godfrid duke frisia.lordship frisia acknowledged charles fat became vassal.godfried assassinated gerolf holland assumed lordship viking rule frisia came end.viking raids low countries continued century.
History of the Netherlands	remains viking attacks dating found zutphen deventer.king henry germany liberated utrecht.according number chronicles last attacks took place first decade th century directed tiel andor utrecht.these viking raids occurred time french german lords fighting supremacy middle empire included netherlands sway area weak.resistance vikings came local nobles gained stature result.high late middle ages – part holy roman empire german kings emperors ruled netherlands th th century assistance dukes lotharingia bishops utrecht liège.
History of the Netherlands	germany called holy roman empire coronation king otto great emperor.dutch city nijmegen used spot important domain german emperors.several german emperors born died including example byzantine empress theophanu died nijmegen.utrecht also important city trading port time.political disunity holy roman empire able maintain political unity.
History of the Netherlands	addition growing independence towns local rulers turned counties duchies private kingdoms felt little sense obligation emperor reigned large parts nation name only.large parts comprise netherlands governed count holland duke gelre duke brabant bishop utrecht.friesland groningen north maintained independence governed lower nobility.the various feudal states state almost continual war.gelre holland fought control utrecht.utrecht whose bishop ruled half today netherlands marginalised experienced continuing difficulty electing new bishops.
History of the Netherlands	time dynasties neighbouring states stable.groningen drenthe gelre used part utrecht became independent.brabant tried conquer neighbours successful.holland also tried assert zeeland friesland attempts failed.frisians language culture people lived area holland originally frisian.

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