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OPINION
HERNANDEZ, Judge.
Plaintiffs’ automobile was partially destroyed after a collision with a cow. The case was first brought in the Torrance County magistrate court where a judgment was entered in favor of the plaintiffs. On appeal to the Torrance County district court a trial de novo resulted in affirming the judgment in favor of plaintiffs. The defendants bring this appeal asserting only one assignment of error: that the court erred in ruling that the doctrine of res ipsa loquitur was applicable to the facts of this case.
We reverse.
The essential facts of the accident are undisputed. Plaintiff’s son was driving home from a football game around 9:30 p. m. accompanied by his sister and a friend. As they were traveling north on state highway 41 a cow, owned by the defendants, appeared on the roadway directly in front of the car. The driver was unable to take any action to avoid hitting the animal.
The defendants own the ranch which bounds highway 41 on both sides of the road for a considerable distance in both directions from the scene of the accident. The evidence developed as to the condition of the gates and fences in the vicinity showed that they were in a good state of repair. Plaintiff’s son had been a passenger in a car driven over the same route earlier that evening and had seen no livestock on the highway.
The trial court made the following findings of fact relevant to the res ipsa loquitur doctrine:
“14. The evidence fails to establish how the cow struck by the plaintiff’s vehicle escaped from the fenced enclosures or gates and how long said cow had been upon the roadway prior to the accident.
“15. The accident in this case was of a kind which ordinarily does not occur in the absence of negligence on the part of the defendants who were in exclusive management and control of the said cow.
“16. The defendants negligently permitted their cow to wander upon the highway.”
The finding of negligence in # 16 is based on res ipsa loquitur. The issue in this appeal is whether there is evidence to support the factual basis for res ipsa loquitur in finding #15. No claim of negligence separate from res ipsa loquitur was raised or decided by the trial court.
Our Supreme Court has made it clear that the doctrine of res ipsa loquitur is not automatically applicable in every situation : “ * * * more than the happening of an accident is required to set the doctrine * * * in operation.” Renfro v. J. D. Coggins Company, 71 N.M. 310, 378 P.2d 130 (1963). In order to apply the doctrine of res ipsa two elements must exist: “(1) that the accident be of the kind which ordinarily does not occur in the absence of someone’s negligence; (2) that it must be caused by an agency or instrumentality within the • exclusive control and management of defendant.” Renfro v. J. D. Coggins Company, supra. Since defendants concede that the cow, the instrumentality in this case, was within their exclusive control, we need only examine the evidence on the first element of the doctrine.
The burden of proving the presence of both elements rests on the plaintiff. Mitchell v. Ridgway, 77 N.M. 249, 421 P.2d 778 (1966). Plaintiffs here had the burden of proving that this particular accident does not ordinarily occur in the' absence of someone’s negligence. The evidence submitted on this point can be summarized in one sentence: Defendants’ cow was on highway 41 where it was struck by plaintiffs’ automobile. Our decision can likewise be stated in one sentence: Plaintiff has not sustained his burden of proof on the first element of the res ipsa loquitur doctrine. The only evidence in this case is that cows might get out of a fenced pasture if chased by men or animals; that cows have been known to jump fences; and that they will do just about anything you would expect them not to do. Thus, the only evidence is that this accident is of the kind which occurs in the absence of negligence. Terry v. Dunlap, 84 N.M. 86, 499 P.2d 1008 (Ct.App.1972); Tapia v. McKenzie, 83 N.M. 116, 489 P.2d 181 (Ct.App.1971).
Inasmuch as this evidence does not show that the accident was of .the kind which ordinarily does not occur in the absence of someone’s negligence we are obliged to reverse the judgment of the trial court.
It is so ordered.
WOOD, C. J., and LOPEZ, J., concur. | [
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OPINION
MONTOYA, Justice.
The parties hereto were married in 1946, and in June 1968, while residing in the State of Oklahoma plaintiff-appellant (appellant) and defendant-appellee (appellee) were separated. Subsequently, appellant assumed residency in New Mexico, while appellee remained in Oklahoma.
Thereafter, in February 1969, appellee procured a divorce from appellant in Ciudad Juarez, Chihuahua, Mexico. The Mexican decree provided various support and property settlement provisions.
In November 1970, appellant brought suit in the courts of New Mexico against appellee, seeking a divorce, child support, division of community property, support and alimony, and attorney’s fees.
Appellee answered, asserting that the complaint failed to state a claim and submitted the defense that appellant had previously acquiesced in a divorce procured in Mexico and was bound thereby.
At the close of the evidence presented by appellant, appellee moved to dismiss the complaint, which motion was granted by the court. Apparently this dismissal was entered pursuant to § 21-1-1(41) (b), N. M.S.A., 1953 Comp., though there is no direct citation to that effect in the record.
In ruling on a motion to dismiss made at the close of appellant’s case, the trial court is not required to view appel lant’s evidence in its most favorable light, but rather to weigh all evidence and give it the weight it deserves. Komadina v. Edmondson, 81 N.M. 467, 468 P.2d 632 (1970). However, evidence which is unimpeached and uncontradicted may not be disregarded, and findings diametrically opposed thereto lack support. Frederick v. Younger Van Lines, 74 N.M. 320, 393 P.2d 438 (1964).
Appellant argues that the trial court did in fact disregard evidence which is unimpeached and uncontradicted and that the judgment is not supported by substantial evidence.
Those findings challenged on appeal are summarized as follows:
That the husband continued to reside in McAlester, Oklahoma from the date of separation until December 17, 1968, when he acquired a residence in Ciudad Juarez and, on December 27, 1968, filed a petition for divorce in Mexico against the plaintiff, which was served upon her on January 9, 1969.
That a decree of divorce was entered in Mexico setting forth provisions of support payments for the children, awarding the New Mexico real estate to the wife, and stating that the particulars of the divorce decree have been complied with.
That the wife has earned in excess of $200 per month since the separation, sold the real estate, and has retained the funds for her own use, has no physical impairment and is physically able to maintain gainful employment, and the court then listed certain community property and determined what had happened to it.
That prior to the filing of the complaint in 1970 in this cause, the husband remarried and the wife had knowledge of the remarriage.
Appellant also challenges the conclusions of the trial court that the Mexican divorce decree is entitled to “full faith and credit” in the State of New Mexico; that appellee at the time of the Mexican decree was a bona fide resident of Mexico; that appellant, by acquiescing in the Mexican decree, is estopped or has allowed “laches” to bar her from asserting the invalidity of the Mexican decree; and that she is not entitled to alimony, has received 100% of the community property, and should pay her own attorney’s fees.
We are faced with two questions: (1) Whether recognition should be given to the decree of divorce granted by a Mexican court, when attacked on the ground that one or both parties were not domiciled in the country granting the divorce; and (2) whether the decree should be recognized under the doctrines of estoppel, laches, unclean hands, or like equitable principles.
In the Annot. 13 A.L.R.3d 1419 entitled “Domestic Recognition of Divorce Decree Obtained in Foreign Country and Attacked for Lack of Domicil or Jurisdiction of Parties,” the general rule is stated at 1425:
“Regardless of its validity in the nation awarding it, the courts of this country will not generally recognize a judgment of divorce rendered by the courts of a foreign nation as valid to terminate the existence of the marriage unless, by the standards of the jurisdiction in which recognition is sought, at least one of the spouses was a good-faith domiciliary in the foreign nation at the time the decree was rendered.”
See cases cited therein.
This is the rule adhered to in Golden v. Golden, 41 N.M. 356, 68 P.2d 928 (1937), and recognized in Ferret v. Ferret, 55 N.M. 565, 237 P.2d 594 (1951).
In Golden, supra, a divorce was obtained in Mexico by both spouses on a one-day trip to that country. The husband subsequently remarried. Sometime later the wife sued for a divorce in New Mexico1, contending that the Mexican decree was invalid. The court therein held, rejecting the husband’s arguments that the Mexican divorce was valid, or that the wife was es-topped by her conduct from attacking the validity of that divorce, that (1) neither party had established a “residence” in Mexico under any known definition of residence; (2) that the first essential for the validity of a decree of divorce is that it should be pronounced by a competent court of jurisdiction with at least one of the parties being a bona fide subject of that jurisdiction; (3) that, therefore the Mexican decree was wholly invalid, and to give it recognition and effect would be contrary to New Mexico’s public policy; and (4) that although the husband had remarried, the wife had received no material benefit under the purported Mexican divorce and, under equitable principles, she should not be estopped to challenge its validity.
Though Golden, supra, concerned a bilateral divorce decree, an ex parte divorce, based on the petitioning spouse’s physical presence in the divorcing nation and notice to, or constructive service upon an absent defendant spouse are within the rule denying recognition to foreign divorce decrees procured without a showing of domicile by at least one spouse. See Wells v. Wells, 230 Ala. 430, 161 So. 794 (1935); Estate of Nolan, 56 Ariz. 361, 108 P.2d 388 (1940) ; Bethune v. Bethune, 192 Ark. 811, 94 S.W.2d 1043, 105 A.L.R. 814 (1936), and Sohnlein v. Winchell, 230 Cal.App.2d 508, 41 Cal.Rptr. 145 (1964).
In the instant case, the court found that appellee acquired a residence in Ciudad Juarez, Chihuahua, Mexico, on December 17, 1968, and resided there until December 27, 1968, when he filed a petition for divorce against the appellant, a copy of which was served upon the appellant on January 9, 1969, in Raton, New Mexico. A decree of divorce was entered in the Mexican court on February 20, 1969, the provisions of which have apparently been complied with by appellee.
However, the record in this case with respect to the residence of the appellee, as reflected by his own testimony, reveals that he lived in McAlester, Oklahoma; was employed by the federal government as a coal mine inspector; that he flew from Oklahoma to Mexico, rented lodging for the period of two weeks, which was also a vacation, and listed his attorney’s address as his own. The following excerpts from testimony by appellee are significant under questioning by appellant’s counsel:
“Q. You didn’t actually intend to change your American residence to that of a Mexican residence, did you?
“A. I had thoughts along that line.
“Q. But you didn’t do so, did you?
“A. No.
“Q. You didn’t quit your job up here?
“A. No, sir.
«* * *
“Q. You traveled there and back in one trip or more than one trip ?
“A. In one trip.
“Q. Did you take a vacation when you went down there ?
“A. Yes, sir.
"Q. For two weeks?
“A. Yes.
« * * *
“Q. In fact Mr. Lorenzo, the purpose of your going to Mexico was just to get a divorce as quickly as possible, wasn’t it.
“A. It was part of the reason, yes, sir.
“Q. You didn’t intend to give up your American or Oklahoma residency in order to do that, did you ?
“A. I had thoughts qlong that line, sir.
“Q. But you didn’t do it, did you ?
“A. No, sir.”
As heretofore pointed out, the trial court found that appellee had acquired a bona fide legal residence in Mexico and concluded, as a matter of law, that the Mexican divorce decree was final and binding upon the parties and entitled to full faith and credit in New Mexico. In resolving the attack being made herein upon the validity of the Mexican decree, we need only to look at our decision in Golden v. Golden, supra, where we said (41 N.M. 364, 68 P.2d 932):
“Jurisdiction over the subject-matter of divorce rests upon domicile. This is not only the law as established by the great weight of authority in the United States (note, 39 A.L.R. 677), but is the law in the state of Chihuahua, Mex., as clearly appears from article 22, supra.
“We are not here concerned with the ‘full faith and credit’ clause of the Constitution of the United States (art. 4, § 1), for that provision is not applicable to judgments of foreign countries nor is our attention called to any treaty existing between the United States and Mexico dealing with questions of divorce. A decree of divorce rendered in one state may be impeached and denied recognition in another upon the ground that neither of the parties had such domicile or residence at the divorce forum; and this, notwithstanding the recitals in the decree or record from the other state or country of the jurisdictional fact of domicile or residence. Cases in note, 39 A.L.R. 677. * * *”
We also quoted approvingly from an early Wisconsin case as follows (41 N.M. 366-67; 68 P.2d 934) :
“ ‘It is conceded by both parties that the only question for determination is whether that decree of divorce is valid, and operated as a legal separation of Adolph and Elise at the time it was rendered.
“ ‘In this country it is prescribed by constitutional compact that full faith and credit must be given in each state to the public acts, records, and judicial proceedings of every other state; and yet it is well settled that the record of a judgment rendered in another state may be contradicted as to the facts necessary to give the court jurisdiction, and, if want of' jurisdiction appear upon the face of the record, or is shown either as to the subject-matter or the person, or, in proceedings in rem, as to the thing, the record will be regarded as a nullity. [Citations omitted.] The rule is certainly as strong, if not stronger, when applied to a judgment rendered in a court of a foreign country, towards which no such duty is enjoined, and especially where the jurisprudence of such foreign country is in no sense based upon the common law. * * * In speaking of the residence in this state essential to give the court jurisdiction, Ryan, C. J., aptly said: “No mere pretense of residence, no passing visit, no temporary presence, no assumption of residence here pro hac vice only, nothing short of actual abode here, with intention of permanent residence, will fill the letter or the spirit of the statute.” [Citations omitted.] “The legislature was legislating for the citizens of this state, not for others.” [Citation omitted.] These propositions are still more significant when applied to any statute, law, or custom of any foreign country like Sweden.’ [Citation omitted.]”
We have, as recently as 1967, followed the rule announced in Golden, supra, regarding the question of jurisdiction to grant a decree. In Heckathorn v. Heckathorn, 77 N.M. 369, 423 P.2d 410 (1967), we quoted from Golden as follows (77 N. M. 373, 423 P.2d 412):
“Golden v. Golden, supra, refers to ‘the solicitude of the state of New Mexico for the marriage status.’ The opinion says:
“ ‘ * * *. The state of New Mexico, the children, and the parties to the marriage are all equally concerned in the marriage status. The parties cannot throw off their marital ties as they would a worn out pair of shoes. Proper machinery of the court is set up to sever the marital bonds when they become beyond endurance, and even then only on certain statutory grounds. * * *
“ ‘That the state is a party interested in the legality of the dissolution of the marriage status of its citizens is well supported by competent authority.’ ”
We recognize that in this review of the record, to determine if the findings made by the trial court are supported by substantial evidence, we must view the evidence in its most favorable light to support the court’s findings. However, we are also mindful of the test that is applicable when weighing uncontradicted testimony which is set forth at length in Medler v. Henry, 44 N.M. 275, 101 P.2d 398 (1940). Again, in Frederick v. Younger Van Lines, supra, we stated as follows (74 N.M. 325, 393 P. 2d 441):
“ * * *. We think it clear, however, that evidence which is unimpeached and uncontradicted, either by direct testimony, contradictory testimony, suspicious circumstances, or adverse inferences may not be unceremoniously cast aside and disregarded, and findings diametrically opposed thereto lack support. [Citations omitted.]”
As we previously stated in Golden, supra, jurisdiction over the subject matter of divorce rests upon domicile. In the past this court has sometimes used the words “residence” and “domicile” interchangeably for the purpose of divorce jurisdiction, but the test has always been domicile and not residence. In Allen v. Allen, 52 N.M. 174, 178, 194 P.2d 270, 273 (1948), we made the real distinction between the two terms for purposes of divorce jurisdiction as follows :
“ * * *. ‘Actual resident in good faith’ as used in our statute is very much the same language as used in the statutes of other states concerning divorces, and we are therefore not without a construction of the expression by the highest courts of such states. In Hamill v. Talbott, 81 Mo.App. 210, 215, the court said: ‘The statutory terms “resident or residence” as used in divorce statutes, contemplate, as we think, an actual residence with substantially the same attributes as are intended when the term “domicile” is used. They do not mean the place where the defendant in fact resides for the time being. They mean a residence of a permanent and fixed character, a domicile.’ ”
Therefore, using the foregoing rule in testing the evidence supplied by appellee himself, which was the only testimony submitted in support of the Mexican court’s jurisdiction, we must hold that the findings of the trial court as to residence, much less domicile, have no support in the evidence.
In view of the foregoing, particularly appellee’s own uncontradicted testimony, as well as the legal conclusion arrived at by the trial court that the Mexican decree was entitled to full faith and credit, we hold that the trial court was in error and that the Mexican decree in this case is void for lack of jurisdiction. We are not prepared, as appellee would have us do, to depart from the rule announced in Golden, supra, and the public policy as to the requirements for the dissolution of marriages as announced therein.
Appellee also urges that appellant has no right to assert the claim she advanced below to invalidate the Mexican divorce decree, contending that estoppel, laches, unclean hands, or inequitable conduct, is a sufficient foundation to validate the judgment below. It is asserted that since she received a deed to the property decreed to her by the Mexican divorce court and later sold it, this does not permit the perfection of her claim. It is to be noted that in the instant case, although appellant was served with a copy of the Mexican divorce complaint, she did not appear at any stage of the proceedings held there. Appellant voluntarily deeded the New Mexico property to her, even though the deed was prepared by appellant’s attorney. In the letter forwarding the deed to appellee for signature, her attorney questioned the validity of the Mexican decree.
We believe that Golden v. Golden, supra, and Heckathorn v. Heckathorn, supra, answer all of the contentions advanced by appellee in trying to sustain the lower court’s judgment. Heckathorn, supra, in citing Golden, supra, with approval, held that estoppel does not validate a void de cree and that the doctrine was not applicable because the divorce decree is void. We also said in Heckathorn, supra, that a delay in asserting the invalidity of the decree from March 1963, until November 1965, was not a basis for applying laches, reasoning that there is no time limitation on asserting that a judgment is void.
Accordingly, we reverse the judgment of the trial court and remand the case for such proceedings as are consistent with the views expressed herein, to grant the appellee a divorce, determine the community rights of the parties, custody and child support, and including an award of attorney’s fees to the appellant for legal services rendered in all of the proceedings, including this appeal.
It is so ordered.
OMAN and STEPHENSON, JJ., concur. | [
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OPINION
WOOD, Chief Judge.
The trial court denied defendant’s motion for post-conviction relief; defendant appeals. Section 21-1-1(93), N.M.S.A.1953 (Repl.Vol. 4).
1. Jones v. State, 81 N.M. 568, 469 P.2d 717 (1970) points out: (a) that “Post conviction proceedings are not a method of obtaining consideration of questions which might have been raised on appeal . . .;” (b) that post-conviction review is not available “. . . where the facts submitted were known or available to the petitioner at the time of his trial . . .;” and (c) the foregoing limitations on post-conviction review apply to constitutional issues. See Apodaca v. State, 84 N.M. 172, 500 P.2d 742 (Ct.App.1972); State v. Beachum, 83 N.M. 526, 494 P.2d 188 (Ct.App.1972).
The record discloses that each of the matters asserted by defendant in this ap peal are based on matters occurring at trial and, thus, based on facts known to defendant at trial. The issues raised here could have been raised on appeal. They were not. Defendant may not obtain review of these issues in a post-conviction proceeding. Jones v. State, supra.
2. Defendant did not appeal from his conviction of armed robbery. Section 40A-16-2, N.M.S.A. 1953 (2d Repl. Vol. 6). Instead, he filed his motion for post-conviction relief. One reason given by the trial court in denying the motion was that “ . . . Defendant had not exhausted the remedies afforded him by appeal. . . .” The only basis for this ruling, in the record, is that the time for appeal had not expired when the motion was filed. This situation is the opposite of that in State v. Reyes, 79 N.M. 632, 447 P.2d 512 (1968) where it was held that a post-conviction motion does not affect the right to a direct appeal.
Paragraph 1 of this opinion points out that post-conviction issues do not include matters which could be raised on direct appeal. Section 21-1-1(93), supra, does not require there to have been an appeal before a post-conviction motion may be considered. Thus, the trial court was incorrect in reasoning that a post-conviction motion should be denied because the time for a direct appeal had not expired.
3. The trial court also denied the post-conviction motion after “having reviewed the file” and concluding the motion was "not well taken.” Defendant does not assert, in this appeal, that any claims made in the post-conviction motion are a basis for post-conviction relief, or that an evidentiary hearing was required in connection with those claims. The issues presented in this appeal, referred to in Paragraph 1 of this opinion, are not asserted in the post-conviction motion, but are raised for the first time on appeal. Specifically, defendant does not attack the trial court’s ruling on the basis that the files and records, fail to conclusively show that he is not entitled to relief. See § 21-1-1(93) (b), supra.
There being no contention that any claims asserted in the motion entitled defendant to post-conviction relief, and the issues raised on appeal not being matters reviewable in a post-conviction proceeding, the order denying the motion for post-conviction relief is affirmed.
It is so ordered.
SUTIN and HERNANDEZ, JJ., concur. | [
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Original Proceeding on Certiorari
Ordered that petition for writ of certiorari be and the same is hereby denied.
Further ordered that the record in Court of Appeals Cause No. 1081, 85 N.M. 191, 510 P.2d 515, be and the same is hereby returned to the Clerk of the Court of Appeals. | [
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OPINION
SUTIN, Judge.
Plaintiff’s claim for personal injuries, suffered in an automobile accident, received an adverse verdict of the jury. Plaintiff appeals from the judgment entered for defendant.
We reverse.
Three points are raised on appeal, (1) whether plaintiff’s accident report introduced in evidence by stipulation estopped plaintiff from explaining or denying the correctness of the document; (2) whether defendant can introduce in evidence her own answers to interrogatories propounded by plaintiff; and (3) whether a deposition, not read or signed by the witness, is admissible in evidence where the parties have not waived the examination, reading and signing of the deposition by the witness.
(1) Plaintiffs Accident Report Introduced in Evidence by Stipulation did not Estop Plaintiff from Explaining or Denying the Correctness of the Document.
On September 15, 1971, the parties stipulated that the “statement of the plaintiff, . . . designated as ‘Claimant’s Report of Accident’ dated May 7, 1969 may, at the election of either party be introduced into evidence.” [Emphasis added]
On December 7, 1971, more than a month before trial, the trial court entered an order, including within it, the binding effect of the stipulation. It reads in part: * * * * * *
IT IS FURTHER ORDERED that the plaintiff is estopped from denying the effect of the Stipulation and is therefore bound thereby with respect to claimant’s report of accident dated May 7, 1969 and is estopped from claiming that language was added to said report after plaintiff signed and initialed it, and to which action and ruling of the court the plaintiff excepts.
On January 17, 1972, the day before trial, a pre-trial order was signed by court and counsel pursuant to § 21-1-1(16), N. M.S.A. 1953 (Repl. Vol. 4). One of the contested issues of law stated was:
1. The binding effect of plaintiff’s stipulation to allow the introduction of an ex parte statement, entitled “CLAIMANT’S REPORT OF ACCIDENT”.
Under Proposed Exhibits and Objections, it is stated:
2. Ex parte statement of plaintiff, entitled, “CLAIMANT’S REPORT OF ACCIDENT”. (Plaintiff insists upon his right to explain the same in detail.) (Requests permission to tender testimony for the record.)
These issues were preserved for review, Mantz v. Follingstad, 505 P.2d 68 (Ct. App.) decided November 22, 1972, and they were properly challenged.
The above stipulation must be given a fair and reasonable construction in order to effect the intent of the parties. To seek the intention of the parties, the language should not be so construed as to give it the effect of an admission of a fact obviously intended to be controverted. Neither should it be so construed as to constitute a waiver of a right not plainly intended to be relinquished. Alldredge v. Alldredge, 20 N.M. 472, 151 P. 311 (1915); In re Quantius’ Will, 58 N.M. 807, 277 P. 2d 306 (1954); Griego v. Hogan, 71 N.M. 280, 377 P.2d 953 (1963); Southern Union Gas Co. v. Cantrell, 57 N.M. 612, 261 P.2d 645 (1953). Compare, Caranta v. Pioneer Home Improvements, Inc., 81 N.M. 393, 467 P.2d 719 (1970).
In Atchison, Topeka and Santa Fe Railway Company v. Rodgers, 16 N.M. 120, 113 P. 805 (1911), a stipulation was entered into by the parties “ . . that the paper hereto attached is an exact copy of the instrument in writing, . . . and that the said contract, Exhibit A, may be used in evidence in this case the same as if the representatives of the defendant, . . ., were here present and testified to the fact of the signing of said instrument in writing by said parties.’ ”
The court said:
The circumstances surrounding the execution of this stipulation, and, indeed, its very terms, show that it was intended to •stipulate only to the genuineness of the instrument and its use by plaintiff for transportation, thus relieving defendant from the necessity of bringing to the trial the two witnesses named in it. It would be a strange and utterly unreason able construction of this agreement to hold that the plaintiff assented thereby to the validity of the contract as limiting his recovery and thus practically stipulating away his whole case. While stipulations fairly made between counsel ought to be enforced, they are not to be given effect beyond their terms.
We believe the same legal principle applies to the instant case.
The defendant introduced the stipulation and accident report in evidence. The stipulation did not state the attendant facts and circumstances surrounding the execution and initialing of the report.
On November 8, 1971, a month before the order was entered, plaintiff filed an affidavit in response to defendant’s motion for summary judgment in which he explained the attendant circumstances. He attached an executed copy of the.accident report with a portion “blanked out.” The portion “blanked out” was the claimed version of the facts of the accident written in by the person procuring the report. Plaintiff insisted on his right to explain this portion of the accident report with testimony in support thereof.
Plaintiff had this right to explain to the jury his recollection of the facts and circumstances surrounding the execution and initialing of the accident report. The validity or correctness of the report would then become an issue for the jury to determine.
The sole fact stipulated was that either party, if he desired, could introduce plaintiff’s accident report in evidence without objection. There was no provision that the accident report, if introduced in evidence, was a true, correct and voluntary admission of all the facts set forth therein. There was no language that the accident report could be introduced in evidence with such limitations and restrictions that plaintiff could not correct or explain its contents. We find nothing to indicate that plaintiff intended to waive his rights or that he was guilty of conduct, oral or written, which would give rise to estoppel. Certainly, plaintiff did not so stipulate.
The trial court erred in its order in which it estopped plaintiff from the right of explanation of the accident report or its correctness.
(2) Defendant Cannot Introduce in Evidence her Answers to Interrogatories Propounded by Plaintiff if Defendant was Unable to Attend and Testify Because of Illness Under the Circumstances of this case.
On August 16, 1971, defendant filed her answers to interrogatories propounded by plaintiff.
On January 17, 1972, the day before trial, the pre-trial order was executed by court and counsel. Under the subject of “IDENTIFICATION OF WITNESSES,” plaintiff stated:
Mrs. Lavon Mary Measday, Deming, New Mexico, (Adverse witness, under rule 43(b), in person and/or by interrogatories).
Defendant stated:
Mrs. Lavon Measday, Deming, New Mexico.
No statement was made under “IDENTIFICATION OF WITNESSES” or “UNUSUAL QUESTIONS OF EVIDENCE,” that defendant was ill and would seek to use her answers to interrogatories as her only evidence to establish her defense.
On the morning of trial, plaintiff was advised that defendant was ill and would not appear to testify, but defendant did not request a continuance. Defendant’s physician submitted a letter to the trial court that defendant was under his “care for treatment of a long-standing disease condition which has some psychological and emotional aspects,” [Emphasis added] and that she should not appear in court, but if she does, she should not be expected to testify.
Defendant’s attorney offered in evidence defendant’s answers to interrogatories propounded by plaintiff. Plaintiff objected because it was not mentioned, presumably in the pre-trial order, and interrogatories cannot be self-serving declarations. The objection was overruled.
Rule 33 of the Rules of Civil Procedure [§ 21-1-1(33), N.M.S.A.1953 (Repl. Vol. 4)] provides in part that “the answers maybe used to the same extent as provided in Rule 26(d) for the use of the deposition of a party.”
Rule 26(d) [§ 21-1-1(26) (d), N.M.S.A. 1953 (Repl. Vol. 4)] provides in part:
At the trial . . ., any part or all of a deposition, so far as admissible under the rules of evidence, may be used against any party who was present or represented at the taking of the deposition . . ., in accordance with any one of the following provisions:
Hi ‡ # Hí H* H*
(3) The deposition of a witness, whether or not a party, may be used by any party for any purpose if the court finds: ... 3, that the witness is unable to attend or testify because of . . sickness, infirmity, . . .; 5, upon application and notice, that such exceptional circumstances exist as to make it desirable, in the interest of justice and with due regard to the importance of presenting the testimony of witnesses orally in open court, to allow the deposi-, tion to be used. [Emphasis added]
The trial court heard no testimony and made no findings.
This is a matter of first impression in New Mexico. Effective July 1, 1970, Rules 26 and 33 of the Federal Rules of Civil Procedure were amended, but no substantive change occurred in the rules applicable to the question under consideration. The New Mexico Rules have not been amended. The issue yet remains whether under “rules of evidence,” the person interrogated may use his answers to interrogatories to establish his defense —to have his day in court.
It is generally held in federal and state courts that answers to interrogatories are inadmissible if offered on behalf of the party making answers, who does not attend or testify, because answers are self-serving declarations not subject to cross-examination. Callaway v. Perdue, 238 Ark. 652, 385 S.W.2d 4 (1965), 13 A.L.R.3d 1300; Great Plains Supply Co. v. Mobil Oil Company, 172 N.W.2d 241 (N.D.1969); Rosenthal v. Poland, 337 F.Supp. 1161 (U.S.D.C.N.Y.1972); American Colonial Insurance Company v. Mabry, 245 Ark. 288, 432 S.W.2d 15 (1968); In re Estate of Horman, 265 Cal.App.2d 796, 71 Cal.Rptr. 780 (1968); Giesler v. Berman, 6 Cal.App.3d 919, 86 Cal.Rptr. 205 (1970); Haskell Plumbing & Heating Co. v. Weeks, 237 F.2d 263, 16 Alaska 436 (9th Cir.1956). Annot. 13 A.L.R.3d 1312; 23 Am.Jur.2d Depositions and Discovery, § 292 ; 4A Moore’s Federal Practice, § 33.29.
The basic reason for the rule is that answers to interrogatories are no more than affidavits of interested persons containing self-serving facts. In the absence of statutory permission, an affidavit is not competent evidence. In re Estate of Horman, supra. See McKnight v. El Paso Brick Co., 16 N.M. 721, 120 P. 694 (1911), Ann.Cas.1912D, 1309, rev. on other grounds, 233 U.S. 250, 34 S.Ct. 498, 58 L.Ed. 943, L.R.A.1915A 113; if this practice were approved, it would discourage the use of discovery procedures and thwart the purpose of the rules. In re Estate of Horman, supra.
On the other side of the fence, Treharne v. Callahan, 426 F.2d 58 (3rd Cir.1970), relied on by the defendant, puts admissibility of answers to written interrogatories within the- discretion of the trial court; that the loss of plaintiff’s cross-examination must be weighed against the loss of defendant’s day in court. However, the court said:
We emphasize that all we decide is that Rule 43 [see, § 21-1-1(43), N.M.S. A.1953 (Repl. Vol. 4)] permits the use here of the established equity rule that in case of death of a witness prior to cross-examination the district judge is permitted to exercise discretion as to whether to admit the testimony given. [Emphasis added]
It is interesting to note that the Court of Appeals, nevertheless, granted plaintiff a new trial because it was fundamental error not to charge the jury with a cautionary instruction concerning lack of cross-examination. If this rule were followed, plaintiff, in the instant case, would be entitled to a new trial.
The view of Rule 43, supra, applicable to this case, is stated in Ennen v. Southwest Potash Company, 65 N.M. 307, 336 P.2d 1062 (1959). The court said:
It would not require the citation of authority to support the proposition that a witness may not give testimony in a cause unless he is placed under oath and the other party is given an opportunity to cross-examine him. Counsel cite 1953 Comp., § 21-1-1(43), reading:
“In all trials the testimony of witnesses shall be taken orally in open court, unless otherwise provided by these rules * *
See, International M. & C. Corp. v. Employment Sec. Com’n, 78 N.M. 272, 430 P.2d 769 (1967).
A party who uses Rule 33, supra, is not bound the day of trial by the opposite party’s answers to written interrogatories.
Rule 26(d), supra, contemplates- examination and cross-examination of the witness. It was never intended to apply to discovery procedures used by a party to search for information.
When Rules 26(d), 33 and 43, supra, are analyzed, logic and justice dictate that answers to written interrogatories may be used by a party against the party who made the answers, or admissions in those answers-may be used against the party answering. The answers cannot be used by the party making them to establish an affirmative claim or defense because they are not subject to cross-examination. Confrontation and cross-examination are basic ingredients of a fair trial. Greene v. McElroy, 360 U.S. 474, 79 S.Ct. 1400, 3 L. Ed.2d 1377 (1959). It is a valuable right and cannot be so restricted as to wholly deprive a party of the opportunity to test the credibility of a witness. State v. Talamante, 50 N.M. 6, 165 P.2d 812 (1946).
The trial court erred in admitting in evidence defendant’s answers to interrogatories.
(3) A Deposition, not Signed by the Witness Deposed, is hot Admissible in Evidence Unless Signature is Waived. ■.
Defendant served plaintiff with notice of the taking of Dr. Louis Breck’s deposition in El Paso, Texas, on September 30, 1971. In lieu of appearance at the deposition, plaintiff submitted 40 written interrogatories to be answered by Dr. Breck under Rule 30(c) [§ 21-1-1(30) (c), N.M.S.A. 1953 (Repl. Vol. 4)].
In the absence of plaintiff and his attorney, Dr. Breck waived his signature to the transcribed deposition before defendant’s oral examination began. At the conclusion of the answers to written interrogatories, Dr. Breck waived presentation of the transcript for reading and signature.
At the time of taking the deposition of Dr. Baxter, attorneys for the parties stipulated that reading and signature were waived. Plaintiff’s attorney refused such stipulation for the deposition of Dr. Feil. Attorneys for both parties were familiar with the rules requiring signature and waiver thereof by stipulation.
In the pre-trial order executed the day before trial, defendant identified Dr. Breck as a witness, but no mention was made of use of the deposition. Plaintiff’s attorney stated that during the pre-trial conference, held on the day before trial, the envelope which contained Breck’s deposition was opened, and that night it was learned that the deposition was not signed.
The following appears in the record. It evidently occurred at the commencement of the trial.
COURT: Let’s see, is the Defendant going to have all the witnesses listed here testify?
MR. TRIVIZ: We agreed by stipulation to the deposition of Doctor Fiel [sic], Doctor Breck’s deposition may be read.
MR. MARTIN: Doctor Breck’s deposition, when it is offered, Your Honor, we will object to it being offered now. We will object because there is a failure to comply with the rules of procedure in that the deposition is not signed by the witness and there is no waiver or stipulation waiving the witness’ signature on file in this cause. The rules of civil procedure require this before it’s admissible. [Emphasis added]
The trial court overruled the objection. It agreed that the rule requires the signature but because plaintiff did not buy a copy of the deposition and ask to open it up and look at it within the last six months, the objections were overruled. The deposition of Dr. Breck was read in its entirety over the objection of plaintiff’s attorney.
This is a matter of first impression in New Mexico.
Rule 30(e) [§ 21-1-1(30) (e), N.M.S.A. 1953 (Repl. Vol. 4)] reads in part as follows:
When the testimony is fully transcribed the deposition shall be submitted to the witness for examination and shall be read to or by him, unless such examination and reading are waived by the witness and by the parties. The deposition shall ■ then be signed by the witness, unless the parties by stipulation waive the signing or the witness is ill or cannot be found or refuses to sign. If the deposition is not signed by the witness, the officer shall sign it and state on the record the fact of the waiver or of the illness or absence of the witness or the fact of the refusal to sign together with the reason, if any, given therefor; and the deposition may then be used as fully as though signed, unless on motion to suppress under Rule 32(d) the court holds that the reasons given for the refusal to sign require rejection of the deposition in whole or in part. [Emphasis added]
Rule 32(d) [§ 21-1-1(32) (d), N.M.S.A. 1953 (Repl. Vol. 4) ] reads as follows:
Errors and irregularities in the manner in which the testimony is transcribed or the deposition is prepared, signed, certified, sealed, endorsed, transmitted, filed, or otherwise dealt with by the officer under Rules 30 and 31, are waived unless a motion to suppress the deposition or some part thereof is made with reasonable promptness after such defect is, or with due diligence might have been, ascertained. [Emphasis added]
Rule 26(g) [§ 21-1-1(26) (g), N.M.S.A. 1953 (Repl. Vol. 4)] provides in part:
The officer taking such testimony shall administer the proper oath to each witness, shall cause the testimony to be reduced to writing and signed by the witness, unless such signature is expressly waived by stipulation in writing filed in the case, . . . [Emphasis added]
Where the word “shall” is used in Rules 30(e) and 26(g), supra, it is mandatory. Section 1-2-2(I), N.M.S.A.1953 (Repl. Vol. 1); Voorheis v. HawthorneMichaels Co., 151 Cal.App.2d 688, 312 P.2d 51 (1957). The rule requires signing unless signature is waived or the reasons for no signature are stated as provided in the rule.
The objections made to the use of Dr. Breck’s deposition were made with reasonable promptness and due diligence within the meaning of Rule 32(d), supra. Plaintiff had no duty before trial to take steps to open the deposition and inspect it. Tuttle v. Tomasino, 336 S.W.2d 683 (Mo.1960); In re Fite, 285 Ala. 666; 235 So.2d 809 (1970); Bernstein v. Brenner, 51 F.R.D. 9 (D.C.1970). See, Valdez v. United States, 326 F.2d 598 (9th Cir.1963).
Depositions are not admissible in evidence where the witness has not signed the deposition and the signature of the witness has not been waived by the party objecting to the deposition, or the provisions for use of the deposition where it is not signed have been met. Tuttle v. Tomasino, supra; In re Fite, supra; Smith v. Insurance Company of North America, 30 F.R.D. 534 (M.D.Tenn.1962); Mortensen v. Honduras Shipping Company, 18 F.R.D. 510 (S.D.N. Y.1955); Porter v. Seas Shipping Company, 20 F.R.D. 108 (S.D.N.Y.1956). See, Moore v. Phillips Petroleum Co., 36 N.M. 153, 9 P.2d 692 (1932). Compare, Bernstein v. Brenner, supra, and Bankers Multiple Line Insurance Co. v. Gordon, 422 S.W.2d 244 (Tex.Civ.App.1967), where a motion to suppress was filed before trial. Nor does mere physical presence alone of opposing counsel constitute a waiver of signature. Bernstein v. Brenner, supra. Here, the attorney for plaintiff was not present at the taking of the deposition.
We find nothing of record that indicates that the parties by stipulation waived the signature of Dr. Breck.
The trial court erred in admitting the deposition in evidence because signature was not waived and because the provisions of the rule for use of a deposition in the absence of signature have not been shown to exist.
Reversed.
It is so ordered.
WOOD, C. J., and HERNANDEZ, J., concur. | [
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] |
OPINION
WOOD, Chief Judge.
Defendant pled guilty to burglary. Section 40A-16-3, N.M.S.A.1953 (2nd Repl. Vol. 6). Appealing, he attacks the procedure followed by the trial court in accepting the plea. Because of this asserted defective procedure he claims his plea is void. The appeal is frivolous.
Defendant was indicted January 19, 1972. He entered a plea of not guilty on January 24, 1972. On April 27, 1972, while represented by counsel, he changed his plea to guilty. After questioning defendant, the trial court accepted the guilty plea. On April 27, 1972, the trial court sentenced defendant to the penitentiary for sixty days for examination and evaluation. At the conclusion of the sixty day period he was returned to San Juan County. On July 5, 1972, the statutory sentence for burglary was imposed.
On July 14, 1972, defendant, by motion, attacked the voluntariness of his guilty plea. An evidentiary hearing was held on July 19, 1972. After this hearing the motion was denied.
This appeal does not involve the post-conviction proceedings, that is, the proceedings which occurred subsequent to July 5, 1972. Defendant does not claim, in this direct appeal from the sentence imposed July 5, 1972, that his guilty plea was involuntary. His only claim is that when his guilty plea was accepted the trial court’s procedure was defective.
No such issue was raised in the trial court; it cannot be raised here for the first time. State v. Martinez, (Ct.App.) 84 N.M. 766, 508 P.2d 36 decided March 9, 1973; State v. Colvin, 82 N.M. 287, 480 P.2d 401 (Ct.App.1971); State v. Tafoya, 81 N.M. 686, 472 P.2d 651 (Ct.App.1970).
In Boykin v. Alabama, 395 U.S. 238, 89 S.Ct. 1709, 23 L.Ed.2d 274 (1969) the issue was the voluntariness of a plea. In decid ing that question, consideration was given to the procedure followed in accepting the plea. Here, there is no issue as to voluntariness. Further, in questioning defendant before accepting the guilty plea, the record affirmatively shows the trial court went beyond the requirements of Boykin v. Alabama, supra. There is no basis in the record for the procedural issue defendant seeks to raise.
The judgment and sentence is affirmed.
It is so ordered.
SUTIN and LOPEZ, JJ., concur. | [
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OPINION
OMAN, Justice.
This cause is before us on a writ of certiorari directed to the New Mexico Court of Appeals;
Petitioner, defendant below, issued to respondent, plaintiff below, on March 7, 1953, five • cashier’s checks in the amount of $1,000.00 each. Respondent deposited these checks to his credit in a Mexican bank on September 23, 1968. Petitioner refused to honor the checks on September 30, 1968. Respondent brought suit for damages claiming the dishonor was wrongful. The trial court rendered judgment in favor of respondent for $5,000.00. Petitioner appealed and respondent cross-appealed to the New Mexico Court of Appeals.
By a majority opinion, the Court of Appeals affirmed the judgment for $5,000.00 in favor of respondent and remanded the cause to the trial court for a determination of the amount of consequential damages to which the Court of Appeals held respondent was entitled. Allison v. First National Bank In Albuquerque, 85 N.M. 283, 511 P.2d 769 (Ct.App.1973). We reverse the Court of Appeals.
We agree with ’and adopt the reasoning of the dissenting opinion of Joe W. Wood, Chief Judge of the Court of Appeals. Clearly the provisions of the Uniform Commercial Code, as adopted by New Mexico in 1961, are not applicable to this case. However, as shown by the dissenting opinion of Chief Judge Wood, our six year statute of limitations [§ 23-1-3, N.M. S.A.1953] would be applicable and the result the same under our Uniform Commercial Code.
The decision of the Court of Appeals and the judgment of the trial court must be reversed and the cause remanded for the entry of judgment by the trial court dismissing respondent’s complaint.
It is so ordered.
McMANUS, C. J., and STEPHENSON, MONTOYA and MARTINEZ, JJ., concur. | [
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] |
OPINION
MARTINEZ, Justice.
Plaintiff brought this suit in the District Court of Curry County to obtain an accounting for renewal commissions on life insurance policies sold, amended or converted through his efforts and for judgment for any unpaid commissions due him. Plaintiff’s complaint was based on a letter agreement dated October 15, 1965, providing for 7y2% of lifetime vested renewals on particular policies that he sold, amended, or converted.
Defendant raised only the affirmative defenses of res judicata and that all the monies and accountings had been paid or made.
Judgment for the plaintiff was entered on October 2, 1972 and defendant appealed.
The defendant life insurance company contends that the agreement to pay and the payment of renewal commissions on these policies beyond ten years from the date- of each policy is illegal. This contention is based completely on the testimony of its president and it purports to show that the superintendent of insurance had ordered the defendant to discontinue its payment of commissions beginning with the eleventh year of each questioned policy.
The defendant did not affirmatively plead illegality as a defense in its answer as required by Rule 8(c) [§ 21-1-1(8) (c), N.M.S.A.] nor did the defendant at any time during or after the hearing move to amend its answer to include this affirmative defense as provided by Rule 15(b) [§ 21-1-1(15) (b), N.M.S.A.]. In spite of this, the testimony of , defendant’s president at trial raised the issue of illegality and was litigated without objection and specifically ruled upon by the trial court. Therefore, the defendant’s failure to affirmatively plead or move to amend at trial does not become an issue on appeal.
The defendant attacks as erroneous three specific findings of fact made by the trial court.
“6. The plaintiff has not been paid for various policies in which he has a vested lifetime renewal for the period of January 1, 1970, to May, 1972, resulting in commissions due him for said period in the amount of $2,586.99.
7. The plaintiff has earned commissions due him by defendant for all subject policies on which premiums have been paid since May 1, 1972, and is entitled to such commissions as long as the subject policies are in force and effect.
8. The defendant did not affirmatively plead, nor did it prove, the defense that said contract was ultra vires or illegal.” (T.R. 32)
The defendant relied exclusively upon the testimony of its president in attempting to prove its defense of illegality. The defendant failed to prove any official ruling by the superintendent of insurance which would declare illegal the payment of commissions, as required by the contract between the parties. It also failed to prove that any directive was issued by the insurance commissioner ordering any termination of such payments. It is the trial court’s responsibility, as fact-finder, to determine the weight and credibility of the testimony of a witness. Moreover, it is this court’s policy that findings of fact which are supported by substantial evidence will not be disturbed on appeal. Forsyth v. Joseph, 80 N.M. 27, 450 P.2d 627 (1968); Armijo v. Via Development Corporation, 81 N.M. 262, 466 P.2d 108 (1970).
Therefore, because the defendant failed to prove its defense of illegality, the judgment is affirmed.
It is so ordered.
McMANUS, C. J., and MONTOYA, J., concur. | [
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OPINION
WOOD, Chief Judge.
The issue in this automobile accident case is the sufficiency of the evidence to support the trial court’s findings as to: (1)decedent’s negligence as the proximate cause of the accident and (2) plaintiff’s contributory negligence.
Additional issues are asserted but these are simply alternative statements of the evidentiary issue. It is claimed that the trial court erred in refusing certain requested findings. It is not error to refuse requested findings which are contrary to the findings made if the findings made are supported by substantial evidence. Clem v. Bowman Lumber Co., 83 N.M. 659, 495 P. 2d 1106 (Ct.App.1972).
It is claimed that the record does not support the trial court’s conclusions of law on the question of liability. A trial court’s conclusion as to liability must be supported by one or more findings of fact. Langdon v. Jaramillo, 80 N.M. 255, 454 P. 2d 269 (1969). In this case, the conclusion as to liability is based on findings of the trial court.
It is claimed that the trial court erred in not granting a defense motion, either to non-suit the plaintiff or enter judgment for defendants on the basis that plaintiff failed in his burden of proof. If there is substantial evidence to support the findings made, it was not error to deny the motion. See Lea County Fair Ass’n v. Elkan, 52 N.M. 250, 197 P.2d 228 (1948).
Thus, all the contentions raise but one issue — the sufficiency of the evidence.
The car in which plaintiff was a passenger struck the rear of the car driven by Katherine Muse. Plaintiff sued the captioned defendants for injuries resulting from the accident. The judgment in favor of plaintiff is against Sims, as administrator of the estate of Katherine Muse, deceased. Hancock and the administrator appeal. There being no judgment against Hancock and nothing indicating Hancock is an aggrieved party [see § 21-2-1(5) (1), N.M.S.A.1953 (Repl. Vol. 4)], we do not consider Hancock’s appeal.
The administrator’s appeal sets forth selected portions of the evidence which tend to support his position. He does not set forth all the evidence bearing on the evidentiary question. However, plaintiff has called our attention to additional evidence. Section 21-2-1(15) (6), N.M.S.A.1953 (Repl. Vol. 4).
In light of the evidence brought to our attention by plaintiff, the administrator’s challenge to the sufficiency of the evidence appears as a challenge to the credibility of the witnesses. It is the function of the fact finder to weigh the evidence and decide on the credibility of witnesses. Aetna Casualty & Surety Co. v. Woolley, 83 N.M. 397, 492 P.2d 1260 (Ct.App.1972).
This court neither weighs the evidence nor passes on the credibility of witnesses. This court “* * * views the evidence in its most favorable light in support of the trial court’s findings. * * * ” Platero v. Jones, 83 N.M. 261, 490 P.2d 1234 (Ct.App.1971); see Martinez v. Trujillo, 81 N.M. 382, 467 P.2d 398 (1970).
Decedent’s negligence as the proximate cause.
There is evidence that decedent, at night, either stopped, or moving very slowly, was attempting a left turn from the lane of travel of the car in which plaintiff was a passenger without giving any turn signal. See § 64-18-24, N.M.S.A.1953 (2d Repl. Vol. 9, pt. 2). There is evidence that the driver of the car in which plaintiff was riding applied his brakes and left 67 feet of skid marks prior to the collision. There is evidence that the accident happened so quickly that the driver of plain tiff’s car was unable to take successful evasive action. This evidence substantially supports the finding that decedent was negligent and that this negligence was the proximate and sole cause of the accident.
Plaintiffs contributory negligence.
There is evidence that plaintiff, the passenger, had consumed six beers in a six and one-half hour period prior to the accident. Compare Lopez v. Maes, 81 N.M. 693, 472 P.2d 658 (Ct.App.1970). A witness who helped plaintiff from the car stated: “ T could not smell any liquor on the man.’ ” There is evidence that Martinez, the driver of the car in which plaintiff was a passenger, was driving in a proper manner; that after 67 feet of skid marks the car’s speed was 50 miles per hour; that plaintiff had nothing to do with the control or operation of the car; that nothing in Martinez’ operation of the car gave plaintiff any concern.
The foregoing evidence, together with the evidence referred to in discussing decedent’s negligence, substantially supports findings: (a) that the beer which plaintiff imbibed was not sufficient to charge plaintiff with negligence “ * * * which in any way proximately contributed to cause the accident;” (b) that plaintiff was not contributorily negligent in failing to admonish Martinez regarding speed, lookout or control; and (c) that there was no negligence on plaintiff’s part which proximately contributed to cause the accident. See Trujillo v. Chavez, 76 N.M. 703, 417 P.2d 893 (1966); Schall v. Mondragon, 74 N.M. 348, 393 P.2d 457 (1964); Ford v. Etheridge, 71 N.M. 204, 377 P.2d 386 (1962) ; Paddock v. Schuelke, 81 N.M. 759, 473 P.2d 373 (Ct.App.1970).
The judgment against the administrator is affirmed.
It is so ordered.
HENDLEY and LOPEZ, JJ„ concur. | [
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] |
OPINION
WOOD, Chief Judge.
The issue is whether the trial court erred in denying defendant’s motion to withdraw his plea of guilty after sentence was imposed. Defendant claims denial of the motion deprived him of due process.
Defendant was charged with aggravated battery in violation of § 40A-3-5(C), N. M.S.A.1953 (2d Repl.Vol. 6). When arraigned, he pled not guilty. On the day set for trial, defendant changed his plea to guilty. Sentencing was postponed until a pre-sentence report could be obtained. ■
The proceedings at which the guilty plea was accepted, together with defendant’s affidavit, and his attorney’s certification as to his explanation of the contents of the affidavit to defendant, affirmatively show the plea of guilty was voluntary. Defendant does not claim to the contrary.
The pre-sentence report from the probation officer recommended a deferred sentence. At sentencing, both the defense attorney and the district attorney requested a deferred sentence. The district attorney informed the trial court that his sentencing request was part of a “plea bargain.”
The trial court announced that it usually followed the sentencing recommendations of the district attorney and the probation office, but would not do so in this case because of the offense involved — cutting the victim with a knife. The trial court imposed the statutory penitentiary sentence for a third degree felony. It suspended all of the sentence except for thirty days to be served in the county jail and placed defendant on probation for three years from the date of his release from jail.
Defendant then moved to withdraw his guilty plea because there had been plea bargaining and because of the assumption that the trial court would follow the recommendations for a deferred sentence. The motion was denied; defendant appeals.
This is not a case of an unkept plea bargain. The district attorney agreed to recommend a deferred sentence; he kept that bargain. Thus, cases involving unkept promises on the part of the State are not in point. See Santobello v. New York, 404 U.S. 257, 92 S.Ct. 495, 30 L.Ed.2d 427 (1971); State ex rel. Plant v. Sceresse, 84 N.M. 312, 502 P.2d 1002 (1972); State v. Ortiz, 77 N.M. 751, 427 P.2d 264 (1967).
Defendant’s claim is based on the following from United States ex rel. Culbreath v. Rundle, 466 F.2d 730 (3rd Cir.1972):
“ . . . if the judge ultimately determines that the interest of justice would not be served by accepting the Government’s recommendation made pursuant to such agreement the defendant should be permitted to withdraw his guilty plea, particularly where, as here, there is no Government claim of prejudice or harm.”
In Culbreath, supra, the court based its view on the concept of fundamental fairness. Thus, Culbreath, supra, involves the concept of due process. See State ex rel. Plant v. Sceresse, supra.
Is it fundamentally unfair to hold defendant to his guilty plea when the only basis asserted for withdrawal of the plea is that the trial court refused to follow the sentencing recommendation of the district attorney? In answering this question in the affirmative, Culbreath, supra, seems to rely on the fact that the motion to withdraw the plea was made prior to imposition of sentence. See also, concurring opinion of Justice Marshall in Santobello v. New York, supra. We need not consider whether the motion to withdraw is made before or after imposition of sentence.
The due process concept as announced in Santobello v. New York, supra, is_: “ . . . .to insure the defendant what is reasonably due in ' the circumstances. Those circumstances will vary, but a constant factor is that when a plea rests in any significant degree on a promise or agreement of the prosecutor, so that it can be said to be part of the inducement or consideration, such promise must be fulfilled.”
It is undisputed that the district attorney kept his bargain in recommending a deferred sentence. The circumstances here do not show that any expectation by defendant for a deferred sentence was the district attorney’s doing. The record is to the contrary. In arguing the motion to withdraw the plea, counsel for defendant stated:
“ . . . And, although I explained to him [defendant] that the Court was not bound by the recommendation, I knew what the recommendation of the District Attorney’s Office would be and I told him that I felt like that the Court would follow it. . ”
Also:
“ . . . I don’t want the court to think, well, we gambled and after the Court announced sentence then we wanted to back up, but that is exactly the case, judge. . . . ”
Under the above circumstances, “ . . . [t]his is a case of defendant being fully aware of his rights and the consequences of his acts and not getting the desired result.” [citation omitted] Stafford v. State, 82 N.M. 365, 482 P.2d 68 (Ct.App.1971). We hold there was no denial of due process.
The judgment and sentence is affirmed.
It is so ordered.
LOPEZ, J., concurs.
SUTIN, J., dissents. | [
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] |
OPINION
WOOD, Chief Judge.
Defendant appeals his conviction of burglary. Section 40A-16-3, N.M.S.A.1953 (2d Repl.Vol. 6). There are two issues: (1)permitting a witness to testify after the witness violated the court’s order not to discuss the case and (2) instructing the jury concerning a confession.
Permitting witness to testify after the witness violated court’s order not to discuss the case.
The rule for exclusion of witnesses from the courtroom was invoked. In so advising the witnesses, the trial court stated: "* * * While you are outside the Courtroom, don’t talk to anyone about the case except the attorneys. * * *” The witness Souder, in denying that she had discussed the case with other witnesses prior to testifying, admitted discussing whether defendant “* * * was the person, his hair was cut and stuff like that.” She was permitted to testify over defendant’s objection. Souder’s testimony did not positively identify defendant as the person she saw near the victim’s house. She said: “I think so. I am not sure. His hair was long, and he had a beard.” At another point, she said: “I can’t tell.”
Defendant claims the court erred in permitting Souder to testify. We disagree.
The exclusion of witnesses from the courtroom is a matter within the discretion of the trial court. State v. Romero, 69 N.M. 187, 365 P.2d 58 (1961); State v. Carrillo, 82 N.M. 257, 479 P.2d 537 (Ct.App.1970). Permitting a witness to testify who has remained in the courtroom in violation of the exclusion rule is also within the court’s discretion. State v. Warner, 83 N.M. 642, 495 P.2d 1089 (Ct.App.1972).
Similarly, permitting a witness to testify who has violated the court’s instruction not to discuss the case with other than the attorneys is within the trial court’s discretion. Easley v. United States, 261 F.2d 276 (5th Cir. 1958); Ward v. State, 15 Ala.App. 174, 72 So. 754 (1916); Bulliner et al v. People, 95 Ill. 394 (1880); State v. Kelly, 237 La. 991, 112 So.2d 687 (1959); Woolridge v. State, 93 Okl.Cr. 245, 225 P. 2d 1028 (1950).
Here, there is nothing showing an abuse of discretion; rather, the equivocal nature of Souder’s testimony negates abuse.
Instructing the jury concerning a confession.
The jury was instructed as to how it was to consider a confession. There is no issue as to the contents of the instruction. Defendant claims the instruction should not have been given because “ * * * there is no confession before the Jury in this case. * * *”
A written confession was excluded by the trial court. However, evidence was admitted as to oral statements made by defendant. Defendant claims these statements were admissions against interest, but do not amount to a confession.
Defendant’s oral statements, according to the evidence, were that he had broken into the house; that he pointed in the direction of the victim’s house; that he had returned some of the items to the owner (the victim). “* * * [H]e said he broke a window, that he went inside and picked up some wine which he drank already and a stereo, and he said he walked out the door.” There is nothing indicating these statements were other than voluntary and nothing indicating a lack of advice as to defendant’s constitutional rights.
The foregoing statements contain more than the statements held to be admissions in State v. Victorian, 84 N.M. 491, 505 P. 2d 436 (1973) and State v. Reid, 79 N.M. 213, 441 P.2d 742 (1968). State v. Lucero, 70 N.M. 268, 372 P.2d 837 (1962) states that a confession is an acknowledgment of guilt in express terms. In holding that statements, similar to those in this case, were properly admitted, Lucero, supra, held they were admissions, but not a confession. Lucero, supra, did not involve the propriety of an instruction informing the jury as to how it was to consider a confession.
Defendant claims the confession instruction should not have been given because his statements contain nothing concerning his authority to enter the house or his intent when he entered. However, inferences from his statements cover these items. He “ ‘broke into’ ” the house, “broke a window,” took some wine and a stereo, and returned the stereo to the “owner.”
We hold that defendant’s statements in this case, freely and voluntarily admitting a forced entry into another’s house and the taking of another’s property, are sufficiently close to an express acknowledgment of guilt that the trial court did not err in giving the confession instruction. State v. Cunningkin, 261 S.W.2d 85 (Mo.1953); Fouse v. State, 83 Neb. 258, 119 N.W. 478 (1909).
The judgment and sentence is affirmed.
It is so ordered.
HENDLEY and HERNANDEZ, JJ., concur. | [
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OPINION
WOOD, Chief Judge.
Dona Ana (Dona Ana Title and Abstract Company, a New Mexico Corporation) contracted with Title Guaranty (Title Guaranty and Insurance Company, a New Mexico Corporation). Under the contract, Title Guaranty purchased the tangible assets of Dona Ana. Sterling (Sterling Title Company of Taos) is the corporate successor to Title Guaranty. Dona Ana owed certain taxes. The Commissioner of Revenue made demand upon Sterling for the payment of these taxes, § 72-13-76, N.M.S.A.1953 (Repl.Vol. 10, pt. 2, Supp.1971), and reminded Sterling of the remedies available to the Commissioner under § 72-13-77, N.M.S.A.1953 (Repl.Vol. 10, pt. 2, Supp.1971). Sterling protested that it was not liable for Dona Ana’s taxes. After a formal hearing, the protest was denied. Sterling appeals directly to this Court. The issue is the applicability of § 72-13-74, N.M.S.A.1953 (Repl.Vol. 10, pt. 2, Supp.1971). Sterling contends: (1) Dona Ana was not a business on the date of the contract and (2) Sterling was not a successor in business to Dona Ana.
No claim is made that the taxes involved are other than the taxes identified in § 72-13-74(A), supra. The appeal involves § 72-13-74(B) and (C), supra. These paragraphs read:
“B. The tangible and intangible property used in any business remain subject to liability for payment of the tax due on account of that business to the extent stated herein, even though the business changes hands.
“C. If any person liable for any amount of tax sells out his business, the purchaser shall withhold and place in a trust account sufficient of the purchase price to cover such amount until the commissioner issues a certificate stating that no amount is due, and he shall pay over the amount to the bureau upon proper demand therefor by the commissioner.”
Sterling claims Dona Ana did not sell out its business when the contract was signed because Dona Ana was not engaged in business on that date. Sterling also claims that it was not a successor in business to Dona Ana because it did not purchase any business — only the tangible assets of Dona Ana. There is evidence supporting the view that Dona Ana was not an active business at the time of the contract. There is evidence that Sterling did not purchase Dona Ana’s stock, and did not acquire any accounts receivable or pending orders because there were none.
Thus, Sterling’s appeal is based on the view that the business which changed hands must have been an active business for the provisions of § 72-13-74, supra, to apply. This is inGorrect.
Section 72-16A-3(E), N.M.S.A.1953 (Repl.Vol. 10, pt. 2, Supp.1971) defines “engaging in business” for the purposes of gross receipts and compensation tax. This definition is in terms of “carrying on” an activity. Section 72-13-74, supra, does not refer to engaging, or carrying on, a business. By its terms, § 72-13-74, supra, does not require an active business.
Jackling v. State Tax Commission, 40 N.M. 241, 58 P.2d 1167 (1936) indicates “business” is that which occupies the time, attention and labor of a person for the purpose of livelihood, profit or improvement; that which is a person’s concern or intent. Jackling, supra, states it would be too narrow a view to hold that if appellant’s intelligence, skill and labor is employed in New Mexico, he is not carrying on a business, trade or profession in this State. See State v. Old Abe Co., 43 N.M. 367, 94 P.2d 105, 124 A.L.R. 1085 (1939).
Under statutes similar to § 72-13-74, supra, it has been held that the taking over of assets of an insolvent or defunct business was sufficient to meet the statutory requirements. See Knudsen Dairy Products Co. v. State Board of Equalization, 12 Cal.App.3d 47, 90 Cal.Rptr. 533 (1970); Tri-Financial Corp. v. Department of Revenue, 6 Wash.App. 637, 495 P.2d 690 (1972). Thus, the fact that Dona Ana may not have been actively engaged in business does not bar the application of § 72-13-74, supra, to Sterling.
Whether Dona Ana sold out its business and whether Sterling purchased that business is a question of fact. Higgins v. Commissioner of Internal Revenue, 312 U.S. 212, 61 S.Ct. 475, 85 L.Ed. 783 (1941); Stanton v. C. I. R., 399 F.2d 326 (5th Cir. 1968). Accordingly, we examine the facts. In doing so we view the evidence in the light most favorable to the Commissioner’s decision. Westland Corporation v. Commissioner of Revenue, 84 N.M. 327, 503 P.2d 151 (Ct.App.1972).
By the contract dated September 23, 1967, Dona Ana sold its title plant [§ 70-2-8, N.M.S.A.1953 (Repl.Vol. 10, pt. 2, Supp.1971)], and certain furniture, fixtures and equipment. It agreed to assign its lease to Sterling. Mary Lou Alvarez, one of the sellers and a party to the contract, agreed to work for the buyer (Sterling) on a part-time basis for the first year following execution of the contract. An addendum to the contract provided that Sterling would assume a note owed by the sellers to a third party. The addendum also provided the buyer would assume responsibility for rent, utilities and a pro rata share of property taxes and telephone expense as of October 1, 1967. The buyer started operations as of October 1st. In order to start business, it was necessary either to purchase or build a title plant.
At the time of purchase, Sterling did riot inquire of the Bureau whether there was any tax liability due from Dona Ana; it did not .request a certificate that no tax was due from Dona Ana; it did not withhold any money for the purpose of paying any tax liability of Dona Ana.
The foregoing evidence is substantial and supports the Commissioner’s decision that Sterling purchased the business of Dona Ana and that Sterling is subject to the provisions of § 72-13-74, supra. Knudsen Dairy Products Co. v. State Board of Equalization, supra.
The Commissioner’s decision and order is affirmed.
It is so ordered.
HENDLEY, J., concurs.
SUTIN, J., specially concurring. | [
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] |
OPINION
McMANUS, Chief Justice.
Appellee is a municipal corporation and, in that capacity, disapproved the application of appellant Sanchez for transfer of ownership of a dispenser’s liquor license to his name, and transfer of its location from a point 2i/£ miles west of Santa Rosa to an address within the city limits. Despite the disapproval of the City, appellant Carlos L. Jaramillo (hereinafter called Director), in his capacity as Director of the New Mexico Department of Alcoholic Beverage Control, approved the transfer of ownership and location.
On September 2, 1971 appellee instituted a suit for an alternative writ of mandamus compelling the Director to cancel the license, and to set aside his action transferring the ownership of the license and transferring the location of this license to appellant Sanchez. The District Court of Santa Fe County granted appellee the relief sought.
The trial court held that it had jurisdiction over the parties and the subject-matter of this action, and that the City of Santa Rosa had standing to maintain the action. We agree.
Although the facts of this case are substantially the same as those presented in City of Truth or Consequences v. State, Dept. of Al. Bev. Con., 84 N.M. 589, 506 P.2d 333 (1973), the outcome need not be the same. We there held that the district court did not have jurisdiction to entertain an appeal by the City because no statute allows such an appeal from the director’s action in transferring a liquor license. See §§ 46-4-9, 46-5-16, 46-6-6, N.M.S.A.1953 (Repl.Vol. 7, 1966); Crowe v. State ex rel. McCulloch, 82 N.M. 296, 480 P.2d 691 (1971); Taggader v. Montoya, 54 N.M. 18, 212 P.2d 1049 (1949). However, the fact that a city has no right to an appeal does not mean that it cannot bring an action for a writ of mandamus. In other words, the City in Truth or Consequences, supra, merely misconstrued its remedy.
Appellants contend that the City does not have standing to bring this action. We cannot agree with this contention because the sale of liquor within the municipality affects the welfare and morals of the community. As stated in § 46-5-1, N.M. S.A.1953 (Repl.Vol. 7, 1966):
“ * * * [T]he sale of all alcoholic liquors in the state of New Mexico shall be licensed, regulated and controlled so as to protect the public health, safety and morals of every community in this state; * * *.”
In a case which is substantially similar to this one, State v. Cochran, 112 So.2d 1, 5 (Fla.1959), it was stated:
“Where the object is the enforcement of a public right the people are regarded as the real party, and the relator [Santa Rosa] need not show that [it] has any legal interest in the result. * * * It seems clear to us that the act of the respondent [Director] so affects the relator municipality and all citizens thereof as to characterize it as an act of public nature. It cannot be doubted that the sale of liquor within the municipality may affect the welfare and morals of the community. * * * To the extent that the issuance [or transfer] of liquor licenses is authorized by the statute the municipality cannot complain of the issuance thereof for use within its boundaries, but the municipality and all its citizens, have a common public right to secure cancellation of the issuance [or transfer] of such a license for use within its boundaries where not authorised under the statute. The right may be enforced by mandamus brought by the municipality as a legal entity.” (Emphasis added.)
Also see City of Albuquerque v. Burrell, 64 N.M. 204, 326 P.2d 1088 (1958); 56 Am. Jur.2d Municipal Corporations, § 863 at 843 (1971).
When a municipality is not given a right to appeal and thus has no plain, speedy, or adequate remedy at law to enforce its rights to protect the health, safety, welfare and morals of its residents, these rights may be enforced by mandamus. See § 22-12-5, N.M.S.A.1953. Furthermore, mandamus is the proper remedy to compel performance of an official act by a public officer. Laumbach v. Board of County Commissioners, 60 N.M. 226, 290 P.2d 1067 (1955); Heron v. Garcia, 48 N.M. 507, 153 P.2d 514 (1944).
The district court also held that the liquor control act does not authorize the transfer of a liquor license from a location within five miles of the corporate limits of Santa Rosa to a location within the city limits and, therefore, the Director had no authority to grant the transfer application. In Baca v. Grisolano, 57 N.M. 176, 185, 256 P.2d 792, 798 (1953), it is stated that the Director “ * * * has only such powers as are granted by the legislature. His powers are specifically described and limited.”
Section 46-5-24(b), N.M.S.A.1953 (Repl. Vol. 7, 1966), provides, in part:
“[N]o new or additional license shall be issued in unincorporated areas or transfers approved for locations or premises situate within five [5] miles of the corporate limits of any municipality, except that transfer of a license already within the five [5] mile zone may be made:
(1) to another location within the zone; and
(2) from the municipality to a location within the zone.”
There is nothing in this language which states either directly or indirectly that a license within the 5-mile zone may be transferred to a location within the municipality.
The age-old Latin phrase inclusio unius est exclusio alterius is applicable here. It means the inclusion of one thing is the ex- elusion of the other. The legislature did not see fit to include it in the statute, therefore it is excluded. As stated in State ex rel. Barela v. New Mexico State Bd. of Ed., 80 N.M. 220, 222, 453 P.2d 583, 585 (1969), “We are not permitted to read into a statute language which is not there, particularly if it makes sense as written.”
Several Attorney General opinions [the most recent being 62-144 Op. Att’y Gen. 518, 520 (1962)] have stated that a transfer from within the 5-mile zone to a location within the municipality is proper. However, as this court stated in First Thrift and Loan Association v. State, 62 N.M. 61, 70, 304 P.2d 582, 588 (1956):
“We are not bound by them [Attorney General opinions] in any event, giving them such weight only as we deem they merit and no more. If we think them .right, we follow and approve, and if convinced they are wrong, * * * we reject and decline to feel ourselves bound.”
See also Perea v. Board of Torrance County Commissioners, 77 N.M. 543, 425 P.2d 308 (1967); Hanagan v. Board of County Commissioners, 64 N.M. 103, 325 P.2d 282 (1958).
In the case now before us, we indeed decline to feel ourselves bound and we reject the aforementioned Attorney General opinions. We therefore hold that the Director lacks authority to make transfers from within the 5-mile zone to a location within the municipality.
The district court also found that the Director has a clear and present legal duty to cancel the liquor license in question because of non use in compliance with § 46-6-1, N.M.S.A.1953 (Repl.Vol. 7, 1966). The trial court found that appellant Sanchez’s predecessor in interest ceased operating a business under his license on or about June 14, 1970; that the Department of Alcoholic Beverage Control authorized suspension of operations under the license for a period of ninety days beginning September 15, 1970, and again for an additional period of ninety days ending on March 12, 1971. Appellant Sanchez did not begin operation of his liquor business until July 6, 1971.
Section 46-6-1 (C), supra, provides that no more than two 90-day temporary suspensions may be granted in any one license year (i.e., from July 1 to June 30), and that the license of any person failing to comply with this section shall be cancelled. In the present case, two 90-day suspensions had already been granted within one license year and, absent other facts (which the district court did not find present), the Director should have cancelled the license.
However, we held in Crowe v. State, 82 N.M. 296, 297, 480 P.2d 691, 692 (1971), that:
“[To cancel a license by operation of law, i.e., not by director mandate] * * * would be to relieve the Chief of Division of his duties to make a determination of facts authorizing the cancellation and to effect the cancellation pursuant thereto, and, in the case now before us, would be to give the court power to declare a license cancelled by operation of law without giving the licensee an opportunity to be heard, since the licensee was not made a party to this suit.” (Emphasis added.)
This evil of cancellation by the court without giving the licensee an opportunity to be heard is not present here. The licensee was made a party to the lawsuit and given an opportunity to be heard. Furthermore, in Crowe, supra, two 90-day suspensions had not been granted, petitioners merely asserting general non-use. In the case at bar there are really no facts for the Director to determine. Section 46-6-1, supra, specifically states that the license shall be cancelled upon the running of two 90-day suspensions. As stated supra, it was found by the district court (and admitted by the Director) that such suspensions had run. Thus the Director had no discretionary matters left to determine. As stated in State v. Town of Shelbyville, 192 Tenn. 194, 206, 240 S.W.2d 239, 244 (1951) :
“Where the discretion is as to the existence of facts entitling the relator to the thing demanded, if facts are clea'rly proved or admitted, mandamus will lie to compel action according to law, for in such case the act to be done becomes purely ministerial and the duty to perform it is absolute.”
Also see State v. Philpot, 364 Mo. 735, 266 S.W.2d 704 (1954); Riesland v. Bailey, 146 Or. 574, 31 P.2d 183 (1934); Sansom v. Mercer, 68 Tex. 488, 5 S.W. 62 (1887).
Thus, on the facts presented, the Director was required to follow the statute. He not only had the power and right to cancel the license, but he also had the duty to so do. In addition, the district court itself is not cancelling the license here, but is merely commanding the Director to cancel the license by way of mandamus.
Affirmed. It is so ordered.
OMAN, STEPHENSON, and MARTINEZ, JJ., concur.
MONTOYA, J., not participating. | [
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OPINION
HERNANDEZ, Judge.
Defendants were charged by indictment with violation of § 40A-19-3(F), N.M.S.A. 1953 (2d Repl.Vol. 6). Defendants’ motion to quash the indictment was granted and the State appeals pursuant to Supreme Court rule 5(4) (§ 21-2-1(5) (4), N.M.S.A. 1953 (Repl.Vol. 1970)).
The trial court order quashing the indictment held that § 40A-19-3, supra, was unconstitutional and found, in part:
“1. That Section 40A-19-3(E) [N.M. S.A. 1953 (2d Repl.Vol. 6)] proscribes as a felony the activities defined as a petty misdemeanor in Section 40-19-2(D), and by virtue thereof, there exists unconstitutional uncertainty as to the punishment of violation of either.
“2. That the Defendants are charged with violation of Section 40-19-3 (F) which attempts to impose felony punishment of activity fundamentally identical to the activities proscribed as a petty misdemeanor in Section 40A-19^1(B), and as such there exists an unconstitu tional vagueness and uncertainty regarding punishment for the commission of that activity.
“3. That the total intent of the legislature in regulating general gambling activity throughout the state can not be carried out by severing any section of N.M.S.A.Comp. Section 40A-19-3, and by reason thereof, no sub-section of such statute is severable from the remainder of such statute.”
We hold that the trial court’s finding number 2 with respect to the constitutionality of § 40A-19-3(F), supra, is in error. Section 40A-19-3(F), supra, provides in part:
“Commercial gambling consists of either:
ifi ift j}: jf:
“F. setting up for use, for the purpose of gambling or collecting the proceeds of, any gambling device.”
The section further provides that a violation of this subsection is a fourth degree felony. Section 40A-19-4(B), N.M.S.A. 1953 (2d Repl.Vol. 6) provides in part:
“Permitting premises to be used for gambling consists of:
íjí >}C 5j£ ifí i{i
“B. knowingly permitting a gambling device to be set up for use for the purpose of gambling in a place under his control.”
Defendants’ contention that § 40A-19-3(F), supra, is void for vagueness and uncertainty is without merit. A statute violates due process if it “. is so vague that persons of common intelligence must necessarily guess at its meaning.” State v. Orzen, 83 N.M. 458, 493 P.2d 768 (Ct.App.1972). The vagueness doctrine is based on notice and applies when a potential actor is exposed to criminal sanctions without a fair warning as to the nature of the proscribed activity. Papachristou v. Jacksonville, 405 U.S. 156, 92 S.Ct. 839, 31 L.Ed.2d 110 (1972).
A common sense reading of the two statutes demonstrates to us that § 40A-19-3(F), supra, requires a positive act by an accused relating to. commercial gambling, whilé § 40A-19-4(B), supra, connotes mere passive acquiescence in permitting a “ . . . gambling device to be set up for use for the purpose of gambling in a place under his control.” Each statute relates to a different activity. Permitting a gambling device to be set up and to set up a gambling device are not identical acts; an individual could not be held accountable under both sections for the same act. See State v. Gleason, 80 N.M. 382, 456 P.2d 215 (Ct.App.1969).
Defendants further contend that the term “gambling device” as defined in § 40A-19-1 (C), N.M.S.A.1953 (2d Repl.Vol. 6) is vague. That section states:
“C. “Gambling device” means a contrivance which, for a consideration, affords the player an opportunity to obtain anything of value, the award of which is determined by change, even though accompanied by some skill and whether or not the prize is automatically paid by the device; . . . ”
Defendants argue that since gambling is not defined, a television set or a gun could be in “the category of gambling devices.” We disagree. Words used in a statute are to be given their ordinary and usual meaning unless a different intent is clearly indicated. State v. Orzen, supra. No contrary intent appearing in the statute, the ordinary and usual meaning is clear, that is, those devices which are normally associated with gambling. Gambling device is defined with acceptable clarity, given the legislative dilemma of drafting criminal statutes general enough to escape legalistic evasion while specific enough to give fair warning of proscribed conduct. Colten v. Kentucky, 407 U.S. 104, 92 S.Ct. 1953, 32 L.Ed.2d 584 (1972) and Giomi v. Chase, 47 N.M. 22, 132 P.2d 715 (1942).
We did not consider defendants’ arguments that §§ 40A-19-3(F), supra, and 40A-19-4(B), supra, are void for vagueness because they provide different punishment for the same act since we have previously determined the two statutes don’t relate to the same activity.
Because the trial court’s finding number 2 indicates and the briefs of both parties concede that defendants were charged with a violation of § 40A-19-3(F), supra, we conclude that defendants have no standing to challenge § 40A-19-3(E), supra, and § 40A-19-2(D), supra. The trial court’s conclusion that these two subsections are unconstitutionally vague was erroneous because of the defendants’ lack of standing. Defendants may not challenge the constitutionality of a statute or a portion of a statute under which they have not been charged. We do not review hypothetical or academic questions. The constitutionality of a legislative act is open to attack only by a person whose rights are affected thereby. State v. Hines, 78 N.M. 471, 432 P.2d 827 (1967); State v. Klantchnek, 59 N.M. 284, 283 P.2d 619 (1955).
Having ruled on the trial court's findings numbers one and two as we have, we need not reach the issue of the severability of the statute.
Reversed and remanded with directions to set aside the trial court’s order to quash the indictment and reinstate the matter on the trial docket.
It is so ordered.
HENDLEY, J., concurs.
SUTIN, J., specially concurring. | [
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] |
OPINION
SUTIN, Judge.
Defendant was convicted of unlawful possession of a stolen vehicle. Section 64-9-5, N.M.S.A.1953 (2d Repl. Vol. 9, pt. 2). Defendant appeals. We affirm.
Section 64-9-5, supra, reads as follows:
Any person who, with intent to procure or pass title to a vehicle which he knows or has reason to believe has been stolen or unlawfully taken, receives, or transfers possession of the same from or to another, or who has in his possession any vehicle which he knows or has reason to believe has been stolen or unlawfully taken, and who is not an officer of the law engaged at the time in the performance of his duty as such officer, is guilty of a felony. [Emphasis added]
This statute defines two separate crimes: (1) taking, receiving, or transferring possession of a vehicle with knowledge or reason to believe it is stolen and with intent to procure or pass title, and (2) unlawful possession of a stolen vehicle. Defendant was charged with violation of the latter criminal offense which does not include the phrase, “with intent to procure or pass title to a vehicle”.
Defendant misconstrues the statute. He contends “The statute is specific in requiring that the vehicle must have been re ceived or possessed by the accused with the intent to procure or pass title to it”; that the statute defines only one crime. Defendant submitted two requested instructions, the first consisting of a verbatim recital of § 69-9-5, supra. The first part of this section dealing with intent to procure or pass title is, of course, not applicable and to have given it might have misled the jury. State v. Beal, 55 N.M. 382, 234 P.2d 331 (1951); State v. Vasquez, 83 N.M. 388, 492 P.2d 1005 (Ct.App.1971).
We have reviewed the instructions given. The trial court instructed in the language of the statute. That was sufficient. State v. Gunzelman, 85 N.M. 295, 512 P.2d 55 (1973).
Defendant claimed a lack of substantial evidence to sustain a verdict of guilty. The stolen car was found in defendant’s garage. This is evidence of possession. The defendant furnished some of the purchase money for the car, and the purchaser knew it was stolen. Throughout the negotiations and sale of the car, defendant was present. The purchase price of the stolen car, because of its condition, was very low. The thief lived on defendant’s property for a time. This is sufficient circumstantial evidence that defendant knew or had reason to believe the car had been stolen or unlawfully taken. State v. Otero, 84 N.M. 257, 501 P.2d 1077 (Ct.App.1972); State v. Lee, 83 N.M. 522, 494 P.2d 184 (Ct.App.1972).
Finally, defendant contends it was error to permit the jury to find defendant guilty as an accessory when the information charged defendant only as a principal. This claim was not presented in the trial court and is not subject to review. Section 21-2-1 (20) (1), N.M.S.A.1953 (Repl. Vol. 4).
Affirmed.
It is so ordered.
HENDLEY and HERNANDEZ, JJ., concur. | [
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] |
OPINION
LOPEZ, Judge.
This action arose from the alleged malpractice of the defendants. Plaintiffs introduced evidence that, after surgery, a f-ube was allowed to slip into Peggy West-brook’s abdomen. The theory of liability against the hospital was that a nurse, employed by the hospital, was present when the incident occurred but failed to report the incident. Plaintiffs called the nurse as a witness. The nurse denied that she saw the tube incident. The court held that plaintiffs were bound by the nurse’s testimony and announced to the jury that Lea General Hospital had been dismissed from the case. Only the case against the physicians was submitted to the jury. It awarded Peggy $189.00 and her husband $120.00. Plaintiffs unsuccessfully moved for an additur or in the alternative, a new trial.
Plaintiffs raise two points for reversal: (1) that the contradictory evidence concerning the tube was not binding thus making the dismissal of the hospital improper; (2) that the motion for additur or a new trial was erroneously denied.
We affirm in part and reverse in part.
(1) Dismissal of Lea, General Hospital was erroneous.
Two procedural matters require discussion before reaching the merits.
First, there is a question as to whether a final judgment was entered as to the hospital. Since appeals lie only from a formal written order or judgment signed by the judge, Bouldin v. Bruce M. Bernard, Inc., 78 N.M. 188, 429 P.2d 647 (1967), the oral dismissal by the trial court is an insufficient basis for an appeal.
The “final judgment” entered by the trial court does not expressly state that the hospital is dismissed. However, that judgment does recite that the hospital “. . . was . . . released on motion. . . .” “The particular form of judgment, order or decision is of no consequence, so long as it can be ascertained therefrom what rights, if any, of the re-' spective parties have been determined thereby. . . .” Garver v. Public Service Company of New Mexico, 77 N.M. 262, 421 P.2d 788 (1966). Where the language of a judgment is clear and unambiguous, it must be enforced as it speaks. But when the meaning is obscure or ambiguous, the entire record may be resorted to for the purpose of construing the judgment. Hollingsworth v. Hicks, 57 N.M. 336, 258 P.2d 724 (1953).
It can be ascertained from the judgment what rights have been determined. Plaintiffs’ claim against the hospital has been dismissed. An ambiguity occurs, however, because the wording “was released” may be taken as referring to the oral dismissal or may be taken as a dismissal in the judgment itself. Accordingly, we construe the judgment to be a dismissal of plaintiffs’ claim against the hospital; this construction is supported by the record. We hold there is a final judgment in favor of the hospital.
Second, plaintiffs’ notice of appeal is asserted to be insufficient. This argument is addressed to the language in the notice of appeal which states: “. Plaintiffs herewith give notice that they also appeal the ruling . . . wherein Lea General Hospital, was released on motion during the progress of the trial. . . .” The hospital contends this language does not give notice of appeal from the judgment which was entered, but from the trial court’s oral ruling. The intent to appeal from the dismissal in favor of the hospital clearly appears. We hold the notice of appeal is sufficient. Nevarez v. State Armory Board, 84 N.M. 262, 502 P.2d 287 (1972).
In this case the plaintiffs were not bound by the testimony of their own witness however damaging the testimony might have been. The plaintiffs’ testimony contradicted the testimony of the nurse.
Plaintiffs in a negligence action are bound by their own evidence. Romero v. Turnell, 68 N.M. 362, 362 P.2d 515 (1961); Harless v. Ewing, 81 N.M. 541, 469 P.2d 520 (Ct.App.1970). However, if the evidence is contradictory and inconsistent, as in the present case, it is the function of the jury to decide where the truth lies and not the function of the court to decide such issues as a matter of law. Durrett v. Petritsis, 82 N.M. 1, 474 P.2d 487 (1970).
The hospital asserts the dismissal of plaintiffs’ claim against it was correct even though the reason given by the trial court is incorrect. On this basis it urges the dismissal should be affirmed.
We disagree. The points argued are: (1) the evidence is insufficient to show the hospital breached any duty to plaintiffs; (2) plaintiffs’ damages were not caused by any breach of duty by the hospital; (3) plaintiffs were contributorily negligent. Each of these three points are presented as a matter of law. These points may not be disposed of as a matter of law because under the evidence presented by plaintiffs, these are factual matters to be decided by the jury. See Lujan v. Reed, 78 N.M. 556, 434 P.2d 378 (1967).
The hospital also contends that no useful purpose would be served by a reversal. It asserts that once the damages assessed against the doctor defendants have been paid, plaintiffs would be precluded from any additional recovery as it is contrary to the policy of the law for any person to collect duplicate damages for the same injury.
While duplication of damages would not be proper, Industrial Supply Company v. Goen, 58 N.M. 738, 276 P.2d 509 (1954), we cannot say, as a matter of law, that any award of damages against the hospital would duplicate the award made against the doctor defendants. A defendant can only be liable for damages that the particular defendant caused. Martin v. Darwin, 77 N.M. 200, 420 P.2d 782 (1966). If the hospital is found to be liable to plaintiffs, the hospital can only be liable for such damages as it caused. While plaintiffs could not recover a second time for the damages awarded against the doctor defendants, under the evidence, a jury could award damages against the hospital which it did not assess against the doctor defendants.
The dismissal of plaintiffs’ claim against the hospital is erroneous.
(2) The trial court did not err in deny-' ing plaintiffs’ motion in the alternative for additur or new trial based on the ground that the damages awarded were so grossly inadequate as to conclude that such verdict was rendered by the jury in total disregard of its duty to render a fair and impartial verdict.
The plaintiffs contend that the amounts awarded by the jury which were $189.00 to Peggy and $120.00 to her husband were a result of its being motivated by passion, prejudice or partiality against the plaintiffs and that the awards should shock the conscience of this court. Plaintiffs base their contentions on the ground that on the third day of the trial, just prior to the defendants’ introducing their witnesses and commencing their defense, the court made the following announcement to the jury:
“THE COURT: Ladies and Gentlemen of the jury, after hearing arguments yesterday afternoon and again this morning, I have dismissed the defendant Lea General Hospital from the lawsuit. Your consideration now will be as to Dr. J. G. Strance and Dr. Charles H. Hargreaves. Proceed for Dr. Strance.”
The plaintiffs contend that the hospital’s dismissal from the suit had the effect of telling the jury that the testimony of the plaintiffs throughout the trial was unreliable and insufficient. One of plaintiffs’ witnesses was a nurse from the hospital who testified contrary to Peggy’s testimony regarding the tube slipping into her abdomen.
The case was tried against the physicians and submitted to the jury on three theories:
“(1) Defendant Doctor Strance failed to properly inform Plaintiff ■ Peggy Westbrook of the probable risk inherent in the surgical procedures which he was to perform on her and Plaintiff Peggy Westbrook would not have submitted herself to the surgical procedures had she been properly advised of such inherent risk.
“(2) Defendant Doctor Strance negligently removed the gallbladder.
“(3) Defendant doctors failed to remove a drainage tube from the abdomen of Plaintiff Peggy Westbrook.”
The case was tried against the hospital up until its dismissal on the theory that its agent, the nurse, failed to inform the hospital authorities of the physicians’ alleged negligence in allowing the tube to slip into Peggy’s abdomen and to remain there. The theory of negligence against the hospital was different from the theories of negligence against the physicians. Therefore, the dismissal of the hospital and the announcement of the court to the jury of such action was not prejudicial to the plaintiffs’ case against the physicians. The jury found in favor of the physicians on all the issues with the exception of the tube' and the monetary award. In effect, the jury found that the physicians were not guilty of malpractice relative to the re moval of the gallbladder and in the alleged failure of the physicians to inform Peggy of the risk involved in the operation.
There was testimony that $35.00 was a sufficient amount to remove the tube from Peggy’s abdomen. Certainly there was conflict in the testimony by the plaintiffs and the physicians regarding the matter of the tube and its effect on Peggy.
Our Supreme Court and this court have said time and time again that only the trier of facts may weigh the testimony, determine the credibility of witnesses, reconcile inconsistent or contradictory statements and determine where the truth lies. Durrett v. Petritsis, supra. The fact that there may have been contrary evidence which may have supported a different verdict does not permit this court to weigh the evidence.
We hold that the awards by the jury were supported by substantial evidence. We have viewed the evidence in the light most favorable to sustain the awards. Schrib v. Seidenberg, 80 N.M. 573, 458 P.2d 825 (Ct.App.1969); Sweitzer v. Sanchez, 80 N.M. 408, 456 P.2d 882 (Ct.App.1969).
The matter of adequacy of monetary awards in a negligence case is a matter particularly within the province of the trier of facts and its decision will not be disturbed except in extreme cases. Powers v. Campbell, 79 N.M. 302, 442 P.2d 792 (1968); Chavez v. Atchison, Topeka and Santa Fe Railway Co., 77 N.M. 346, 423 P.2d 34 (1967). In Powers v. Campbell, supra, the court stated:
“The guideline for setting aside awards of trial courts is set out in Hammond v. Blackwell, 77 N.M. 209, 421 P.2d 124, which states:
“ ‘. . . An [alleged] inadequate award will not be disturbed on appeal unless it appears to have resulted from passion, prejudice, partiality, undue influence or some corrupt cause or motive, where there has been palpable error or the measure of damage has been mistaken.’ ”
The case before us is not extreme and does not come within the above rule. A review of the record in the present case reveals that the awards by the jury to the plaintiffs were not a result of any partiality, passion, or prejudice. Schrib v. Seidenberg, supra.
The dismissal of plaintiffs’ claim against Lea General Hospital is reversed and this cause is remanded for proceedings consistent with this opinion. The judgment of the lower court with respect to the two physicians, Dr. Strance and Dr. Hargreaves is affirmed.
It is so ordered.
WOOD, C. J., and SUTIN, J., concur. | [
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OPINION
McMANUS, Chief Justice.
This action was brought in the District Court of Santa Fe County to recover a debt for construction work on a trailer park and to recover upon a third-party beneficiary contract whereby the debt was allegedly assumed by defendant Thomas H. Lynch (“Thomas”). The case was tried without a jury and judgment was entered jointly and severally against both defendants in the amount of $6,043.53. Plaintiff cross-appeals. We affirm in part and reverse in part.
In September, 1966 plaintiff finished installing sewer and water lines, road grading and graveling, as well as other work on a trailer park owned by defendant Henry P. Lynch (“Henry”). Henry failed to pay for the work, but plaintiff did not bring suit on their oral contract until November, 1970, more than four years after the debt became due. One of Henry’s defenses at trial was the four-year statute of limitations established by § 23-1-4, N.M.S. A.1953.
Plaintiff, however, did not rest all his hopes for payment on the oral contract between himself and Henry. In 1969, when Henry sold the trailer park to his brother Thomas, Henry and Thomas entered into a written contract which stated, in part:
“I Henry P. Lynch agree to sell and I Thomas Hugh Lynch agree to purchase ± 17.5 acres in Santa Fe County New Mexico for $6500.00 cash and the assuming of the debt to J. L. Kennedy for the work done on the Trailer Park.”
Because plaintiff was a creditor of promisee Henry, and because this contract called for a performance by promisor Thomas in satisfaction of the obligation, plaintiff was a third-party beneficiary who had an enforceable right against promisor Thomas. McKinney v. Davis, 84 N.M. 352, 503 P.2d 332 (1972). Thus, plaintiffs suit of November, 1970 included both Henry and Thomas as defendants.
Three determinations were made by the trial court which form the grounds for appeal by defendants. First, the court decided that plaintiff’s claim against Henry was not barred by the four-year statute of limitations, supra. This conclusion was based on plaintiff’s proof that Henry was out of the state for much of the four years in question and that according to § 23-1-9, N.M.S.A.1953, the statute of limitations is tolled for the duration of a debtor’s absence from the state. On appeal, Henry claims that plaintiff also had the burden of proving that Henry could not have been served under the “long arm” provisions of § 21-3-16, N.M.S.A.1953, while he was out of the state. We agree.
51 Am.Jur.2d, Limitation of Actions, § 485, at 940 (1970), states:
“* * * [W]hen a party claims the benefit of an exception from the operation of the statute, the burden is on him to show that he is entitled to it. All presumptions are against him since his claim to exemption is against the current of the law and is founded upon exceptions.” (Emphasis added.)
Therefore, when the plaintiff relies upon exceptions to prevent the running of the statutory period, he must prove that he is entitled to the benefit of all these exceptions. First, when the plaintiff relies upon the defendant’s absence as interrupting the running of the statute, it is necessary for him to show such absence on the part of the defendant. Second, the plaintiff must show that it is not possible to serve process on the defendant. This second exception must be proved because “it is obvious that the purpose of the tolling statute was to prevent injustice by stopping the operation of the statute of limitations where there could be no service of process.” Benally v. Pigman, 78 N.M. 189, 429 P.2d 648 (1967). Plaintiff failed to prove that it was not possible to serve process on the defendant. For this reason, we feel that the action against Henry is barred by the four-year statute of limitations and the trial court’s decision regarding him should be reversed.
The second ground upon which the appeal is based involves the “best evidence rule.” Defendants claim that the best evidence rule required plaintiff to produce either his original license or a certified copy of it in order to prove he was a duly licensed contractor when the alleged cause of action arose. We disagree.
At the time the complaint in this cause was filed, the applicable licensing statute, § 67-16-14, N.M.S.A.1953, stated in part:
“No contractor as defined by section 3 of this act shall act as agent or bring or maintain any action in any court of the state for the collection of compensation for the performance of any act for which a license is required by this act .without alleging and proving that such contractor was a duly licensed contractor at the time the alleged cause of action arose.” (Emphasis added.)
Rule 1002, New Mexico Rules of Evidence, states:
“To prove the content of a writing, recording, or photograph, the original writing, recording, or photograph is re quired, except as otherwise provided in these rules or by statute.” (Emphasis added.)
Even though this rule was not in effect at the material time, it basically codifies the best evidence rule as it previously existed. In this particular case, it is the plaintiffs licensed status which must be proved and not the contents of a particular document. Therefore, the “best evidence rule” as stated above does not apply. The trial court accepted as evidence certain receipts and decals issued by the licensing authority to plaintiff along with plaintiff’s own testimony that he was licensed. This constitutes acceptable evidence, especially when it is joined with testimony from an official of the New Mexico Construction Industries Commission, the agency which now licenses contractors, that plaintiff had been licensed at all pertinent times.
The third determination by the trial court from which defendant appeals concerns the amount of the debt which Henry owed to plaintiff and which Thomas contracted to pay. Thomas claimed that the word “debt” in the written contract referred to an amount not to exceed $4,000, and that therefore the trial court committed error in ignoring the “uncontroverted” testimony of Thomas to that effect. According to the record, however, Thomas testified that at various times he was ready to pay, or believed he had an obligation to pay, $1,500, $2,500, $3,000, $4,000, and approximately $6,000. Therefore, according to this uncontroverted testimony the exact amount appears to have been left in doubt. We cannot say the trial court erred in this regard.
Plaintiff, in his cross-appeal, claims he should have been "awarded interest from November, 1966 instead of April, 1969. Because the amount owed by defendants was rather uncertain until fixed by the judgment below, we believe the rule adopted in O’Meara v. Commercial Insurance Company, 71 N.M. 145, 152, 376 P.2d 486 (1962), requires the matter of interest to be left within the trial court’s discretion.
Affirmed as to Thomas Lynch and reversed as to Henry P. Lynch.
It is so ordered.
OMAN and STEPHENSON, JJ., concur. | [
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] |
OPINION
HERNANDEZ, Judge.
This is an appeal, taken pursuant to Section 21-10-2.1 subd. A (3), N.M.S.A.1953 (1972 Interim Supp.), from an interlocutory order denying defendant’s motion to suppress certain evidence. Defendant alleges two points of error: (1) there was not probable cause for the issuance of the search warrant by which the evidence was discovered, and (2) the search warrant was rendered a nullity for failure to properly execute and return it.
The affidavit upon which the search warrant was issued reads in part as follows:
“The undersigned, being duly sworn, on his oath, states that he has reason to believe that on the person of GAVINO PEREA; on the premises described . .- . there is now being concealed certain property, namely: Heroin. ...” “and that the facts tending to establish the foregoing grounds for issuance of a Search Warrant are as follows : Officer P. J. Herrera has maintained a periodic surveillance of said residence for a period of approximately two months. During that time Officer Herrera has stopped' numerous vehicles and persons coming and going from said residence. They are all known narcotic users and several had fresh needle marks on their arms. Among the subjects stopped were: PETER ANAYA, DOB: 7/4/31, of 2S27-A Indian School Rd. NW; GERALD STEVEN DAVIDSON, DOB: 1/19/53; FABIAN VIVIAN GARCIA, DOB; 7/3/47: MARCEL-LINO GUTIERREZ, DOB: 2/6/38; CHARLES McGUINNES, DOB: 6/17/46; ROBERT C. ARMIJO, DOB: 6/1/34; AMY MARIE BOTHEL, Age: 21, Add: 314 Cornell SE; JOHN HERRERA, DOB: 12/9/44; HORACIO SANCHEZ, DOB: 7/14/34. These subjects and numerous others were stopped and checked by Officer Herrera. Several of the subjects indicated that they had purchased narcotics at said residence from the indicated subject. Based on the information affiants set up surveillance of the said residence which was conducted in conjunction with the activities of Officer Herrera. Affiants did notice a large amount of traffic coming and going from said residence. This traffic was specially heavy in the morning hours. Based on the foregoing information, affiants respectfully request a search warrant be issued for the described structure and the persons living thereon. Affiants are members of the Albuquerque Metro Squad and are sworn police officers. They are registered voters in the State of New Mexico. Surveillance has been made by officers of the Albuquerque Metro Squad during the past 24 hours and numerous people have been observed coming and going from said residence. All known narcotic users and pushers.
s/ Joseph Parra s/Abenicio Cordova, Jr.
Signature of Affiant
Detectives_
Official Title”
The fourth amendment of the United States Constitution and Article II, Section 10 of the New Mexico Constitution both require that search warrants be issued only-after a finding of probable cause, “supported by oath or affirmation.” These constitutional mandates have been further elaborated upon in Rule 17, sections (a) through (f) of the New Mexico Rules of Criminal Procedure. Section (f) which pertains to the probable cause requirement reads in part as follows :
. . ‘probable cause’ shall be based upon substantial evidence, which may be hearsay in whole or in part, provided there is a substantial basis for believing the source of the hearsay to be credible and for believing that there is a factual basis for the information furnished. Before ruling on a request for a warrant the court may require the affiant to appear personally and may examine under oath the affiant and any witnesses he may produce, provided that such additional evidence shall be reduced to writing and supported by oath or affirmation.”
The rules, which the drafters of Rule 41-23-17(f), supra, obviously had in mind, for evaluating supporting affidavits for probable cause are well established. United States v. Harris, 403 U.S. 573, 91 S.Ct. 2075, 29 L.Ed.2d 723 (1971); United States v. Ventresca, 380 U.S. 102, 85 S.Ct. 741, 13 L.Ed.2d 684 (1965); Aguilar v. Texas, 378 U.S. 108, 84 S.Ct. 1509, 12 L.Ed.2d 723 (1964); Rugendorf v. United States, 376 U.S. 528, 84 S.Ct. 825, 11 L.Ed.2d 887 (1964); Jones v. United States, 362 U.S. 257, 80 S.Ct. 725, 4 L.Ed.2d 697 (1960).
1.The affidavits are normally drafted by non-lawyers usually in the midst and haste of a criminal investigation, therefore, technical requirements of elaborate specificity have no proper place in a court’s evaluation. United States v. Ventresca, supra; State v. Torres, 81 N.M. 521, 469 P.2d 166 (Ct.App.1970).
2. The determination of whether probable cause exists must be made by the magistrate and not by the police officer; any inferences to be drawn from the statements of the affiants must be drawn by the magistrate. Aguilar v. Texas, supra.
3. Affidavits will be tested by much less rigorous standards than those governing admissibility of evidence at trial. Probable cause may be determined on the basis of evidence which at trial would not be legally competent. Thus, hearsay information, even from an undisclosed informant may form the basis for a probable cause determination so long as there is some reason for believing such information. United States v. Ventresca, supra; State v. Torres, supra.
4. An unsupported statement by an affiant that he believed an informant to be truthful will not, in itself, provide a factual basis for believing the report of an unnamed informant. The affidavit must set forth some of the underlying circumstances supporting the affiants’ conclusions and beliefs that the information is credible or that his information is reliable. Aguilar v. Texas, supra; Jones v. United States, supra; United States v. Harris, supra; State v. Lewis, 80 N.M. 274, 454 P.2d 360 (Ct.App. 1969).
The facts in United States v. Ventresca, supra, and United States v. Harris, supra, are particularly analogous to my decision. The Ventresca affidavit described seven different occasions when an automobile, sometimes heavily loaded with sugar and at other times loaded with empty tin cans, was driven into defendant’s yard by two other men named in the affidavit. The two men had also been observed loading the car at defendant’s house and later unloading full five-gallon cans at another house. Unnamed “investigators” also smelled fermenting mash, heard metallic noises and motor or pump noises coming from defendant’s house. The affidavit concluded: “The foregoing information is based upon personal knowledge and information which has been obtained from Investigators of the Alcohol and Tobacco Tax Division, Internal Revenue Service, who have been assigned to this investigation.”
The Ventresca affidavit did not specify what part of this information was derived from the personal observations of the affiant and what part was received from other unnamed investigators. The Supreme Court nevertheless found the affidavit sufficient because it “sets forth not merely ‘some of the underlying circumstances’ supporting the officer’s belief but a good many of them.” The federal court of appeals had held the affidavit insufficient because it failed to distinguish which of the alleged facts were within the affiant’s own knowledge and which were provided by the other investigators and because the affidavit did not state precisely how the officers obtained their information. The Supreme Court discounted this distinction, however, and pointed out that:
“. . . the detailed observations recounted . . . cannot fairly be regarded as having been made in any significant part by persons other than full-time Investigators of the Internal Revenue Service. Observations of fellow officers of the Government engaged in a common investigation are plainly a reliable basis for a warrant applied for by one of their number.” [Emphasis mine]
The affidavit in Harris reads as follows :
“ ‘Roosevelt Harris has had a reputation with me for over 4 years as being a trafficker of non-taxpaid distilled spirits, and over this period I have received numerous information [sic] from all types of persons as to his activities. Constable Howard Johnson located a sizeable stash of illicit whiskey in an abandoned house under Harris’ control during this period of time. This date, I have received information from a person who fears for their [sic] life and property should their name be revealed. I have interviewed this person, found this person to be a prudent person, and have, under a sworn verbal statement, gained the following information: This person has personal knowledge of and has purchased illicit whiskey from within the residence described, for a period of more than 2 years, and most recently within the past 2 weeks, has knowledge of a person who purchased illicit whiskey within the past two days from the house, has personal knowledge that the illicit whiskey is consumed by purchasers in the outbuilding known as and utilized as the 'dance hall,’ and has seen Roosevelt Harris go to the other outbuilding, located about 50 yards from the residence, on numerous occasions, to obtain the whiskey for this person and other persons’.”
The Court upheld the affidavit because it
“. . . contains an ample factual basis for believing the informant which, when coupled with affiant’s own knowledge of the respondent’s background, afforded a basis upon which a magistrate would reasonably issue a warrant. The accusation by the informant was plainly a declaration against interest since it could readily warrant a prosecution and could sustain a conviction against the informant himself." [Emphasis mine]
The Court went on to point out that when an informant gives information that not only provides the basis for an accusation against a third party but also indicates that the informant himself is guilty of some misconduct, this admission carries its “own indicia of credibility — sufficient at least to support a finding of probable cause to search.” See State v. Archuleta, 85 N.M. 146, 509 P.2d 1341 (Ct.App.1973).
Applying these rules to the instant case where we have an affidavit that contains :
1. The personal observations of Officer Herrera, made over a two month period, of numerous known narcotic users coming and going from the premises.
2. His stopping and checking some of these persons and observing fresh needle marks on their arms.
3. The admission by some of them that they had purchased narcotics from the defendant.
4. The personal observations of the affiants of numerous known narcotic users coming and going from the premises.
I conclude that this affidavit provided substantial evidence from which the judge could have determined that there was probable cause for the issuance of the warrant.
Defendant bases his allegation of lack of probable cause for the issuance of the search warrant on the ground that Rule 41-23-17(f), supra, permits hearsay but it makes no provision for hearsay upon hearsay o.r “double hearsay”. Because this specific question has not been decided in prior New Mexico appellate decisions, I feel obliged to consider it.
Under § 41 — 23—17(f), supra, the issue is whether there is a substantial basis for determining credibility and for determining that a factual basis exists. These tests are to be applied regardless of whether the affidavit identifies “double hearsay”, and the presence of “double hearsay”, in itself, does not render the affidavit legally insufficient. United States v. Smith, 462 F.2d 456 (8th Cir. 1972) states:
“. . . when a magistrate receives an affidavit which contains hearsay upon hearsay, he need not categorically reject this double hearsay information. Rather, he is called upon to evaluate this information as well as all other information in the affidavit in order to determine whether it can be reasonably inferred ‘that the informant had gained his information in a reliable way.’ . The magistrate must canvass the affidavit and the informer’s tip as a whole . . . to assess its probative value.” See also Dawson v. State, 11 Md.App. 694, 276 A.2d 680, n.3 (1971).
Defendant’s second point on appeal is that the return of the search warrant was not properly executed or filed and as a result the warrant was rendered a nullity. He calls my attention to Rule 17(e), New Mexico Rules of Criminal Procedure which provides that a return shall be made promptly within three days after execution of the warrant; that an inventory taken in the presence of the person searched shall be subscribed by an officer; and that the court “shall upon request deliver a copy of the inventory to the person [searched].” He also cites Rule 17(b) New Mexico Rules of Criminal Procedure which provides that the search warrant shall direct a “full-time salaried state or . . . municipal police officer” to conduct the search.
The search warrant in question was signed by District Judge Maloney on July 12th, filed with the district court clerk on July 13th and directed to “any officer authorized to execute this warrant.” The return attached to the warrant was filed with the court clerk on July 13th and was signed by one “R. Polio” over the signature line labeled “Officer.” The return recited that on July 13th Polio had searched the person and premises described, had taken an inventory in the presence of “B. Pounders and H. Lucero” and that a copy of the warrant along with a receipt had been given to the defendant. The jurat on the form had not been completed.
Defendant contends that there is no showing that Polio, Pounders, or Lucero were persons authorized by Rule 17(b), supra, to execute warrants. Defendant also argues that no copy of the inventory was delivered by the court to the defendant, as required by Rule 17(e), and that the warrant was not substantially in the form approved by the court administrator.
Absent a showing of prejudice I will not set aside an otherwise valid search warrant because of defects in the return of the warrant. Those matters of procedure relating to the return of a search warrant have consistently been held to be ministerial acts which, even if defective or erroneous, do not require a search warrant to be held invalid unless prejudice is shown. United States v. Moore, 452 F.2d 569 (6th Cir. 1971), cert. denied, 407 U.S. 910, 92 S.Ct. 2435, 32 L.Ed.2d 684 (1972); United States v. Kennedy, 457 F.2d 63 (10th Cir. 1972); Evans v. United States, 242 F.2d 534 (6th Cir.), cert. denied, 353 U.S. 976, 77 S.Ct. 1059, 1 L.Ed.2d 1137 (1957); People v. Schmidt, 172 Colo. 285, 473 P.2d 698 (1970).
As a final. matter since I have decided that the subject matter of this appeal — the sufficiency of the search warrant affidavit —was properly ruled on by the court below, I do not reach the state’s contention that the order allowing this appeal was inappropriately entered.
Affirmed.
It is so ordered. | [
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Original Proceeding on Certiorari
Now, therefore, it is ordered that the Writ of Certiorari issued herein on December 1, 1972 be and the same is hereby quashed as having been improvidently issued.
Further ordered that the record in Court of Appeals Cause No. 923, 84 N.M. 369, 503 P.2d 652, be and the same is hereby returned to the Clerk of the Court of Appeals. | [
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Original Proceeding on Certiorari
Ordered that petition for writ of certiorari be and the same is hereby denied.
Further ordered that the record in Court of Appeals Cause No. 1018, 85 N.M. 87, 509 P.2d 562 be and the same is hereby returned to the Clerk of the Court of Appeals. | [
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] |
OPINION
OMAN, Justice.
This suit was brought by Petitioner in district court pursuant to § 14-20-7, N.M. S.A.1953 (Repl.Vol. 3, 1968). Petitioner sought reversal of a decision of Respondents, the zoning authority of the City of Santa Fe, by which the zoning classification of a portion of a tract of land owned by Intervenor was changed f-rom RM-2 [multiple family residential] to C-2 [general commercial planned unit development]. The court decided the issues in favor of the validity of the rezoning and entered a judgment and decree dismissing the writ of certiorari previously granted. Petitioner has appealed therefrom. We affirm.
Intervenor requested Respondents to rezone from RM-2 to C-2, a tract of land containing 3.659 acres, more or less, owned by him. A public hearing, pursuant to notice thereof, was held on this request as required by § 14-20-4, N.M.S.A.1953 (Repl. Vol. 3, 1968). Petitioner, who owned 20% or more of the land within 100 ft. of the tract proposed to be rezoned, excluding the public right of way of St. Francis Drive, which lies between Petitioner’s property and the tract sought to be rezoned, filed a protest to Intervenor’s request.
At the public hearing, Intervenor eliminated from his original rezoning request a tract 100 ft. in depth along St. Francis Drive and directly across from Petitioner’s property. Thereupon Respondents approved Intervenor’s request and rezoned the remaining 2.774 acres from RM-2 to C-2 by a five to four vote of the Respondents. The zoning of the 100 ft. strip along St. Michael’s Drive, which contained about .885 acres, remained RM-2.
It was the position of Respondents, as well as that of the district court, that by excluding the tract 100 ft. in depth from the rezoning request, Petitioner was no longer the owner of 20% of the land lying within 100 ft. of the tract sought to be rezoned and, therefore, the requirement of a three-fourths vote of all members of the governing body of the City [Respondents] was not required to accomplish the change in zoning as provided in § 14 — 20-4(C), N.M. S.A.1953 (Repl.Vol. 3, 1968). Both the Respondents and the district court also took the position that it was not necessary to conduct another public hearing pursuant to another notice thereof because of the changed or amended petition to rezone only the 2.774 acre tract.
Petitioner first contends the rezoning of the 2.774 acres was void because of its failure to gain a three-fourths vote of Respondents as required by § 14-20-4 (C), supra. We disagree, and agree with Respondents and the district court.
No question is raised as to the validity of the provisions of § 14-20-4(C), supra. The issue here is the applicability of those provisions to the facts of this case. Petitioner obviously was not the owner of any land lying within 100 ft. of the 2.774 acre tract which was rezoned, and no one else with property so located in relation to Intervenor’s property protested the proposed rezoning of the entire 3.659 acre tract.
However, Petitioner contends it was in some way suddenly and improperly deprived of its right to protest and have the rezoning of the 2.774 acre tract accomplished only by a three-fourths vote of all Respondents as provided in § 14-20-4(C), supra. It relies primarily upon the case of Kelly v. City of Philadelphia, 382 Pa. 459, 115 A.2d 238 (1955). The ordinance changing the zoning in that case was clearly held invalid because of the failure of the City to give fifteen days notice of the public hearing. It gave but eight days notice. It is true the court also stated that the failure to comply with the requirement of a three-fourths vote by the council would also render the ordinance invalid. However, this was clearly dictum in that it was not relied upon for reversal of the lower court. In any event, we are not persuaded by this statement of the Pennsylvania court.
A contrary view, and the one we choose to follow, finds support in Heaton v. City of Charlotte, 277 N.C. 506, 178 S.E.2d 352 (1971); Armstrong v. McInnis, 264 N.C. 616, 142 S.E.2d 670 (1965); Penny v. City of Durham, 249 N.C. 596, 107 S.E.2d 72 (1959); Montebello Land Co. v. Frank Novak Realty Co., 167 Md. 185, 172 A. 911 (1934); Miner v. City of Yonkers, 19 Misc.2d 321, 189 N.Y.S.2d 762 (1959), aff’d 9 A.D.2d 907, 195 N.Y.S.2d 242 (1959); Radnor, Ithan & St. David’s Civic Assn. Appeal, 5 D. & C.2d 156, 41 Del. 396 (Pa. Quar.Sess.1954); 1 Rathkopf, The Law of Zoning and Planning, 28-11 (1972), wherein it is stated:
“ * * * where an applicant for a zoning change seeks to avoid the necessity of a larger than majority vote by creating a buffer zone of 100 feet between that portion of his property sought to be rezoned, and the lands of adjacent property owners, such action is valid and avoids the requirement of such larger vote.”
Petitioner next urges invalidity of the rezoning of the 2.774 acres in that the mandate of § 14-20-4(B), N.M.S.A.1953 (Repl.Vol. 3, 1968), requiring publication of notice of public hearing at least fifteen days prior thereto, was not met. Its contention is that the trial court erred in concluding the initial notice was sufficiently broad to give notice of the accomplished change in zoning, since the accomplished change affected a portion of the area originally sought to be rezoned. Petitioner contends a new notice should have been given and another public hearing should have been held upon Intervenor’s amended petition to rezone only 2.774 acres, rather than the entire 3.659 acre tract.
We agree with Petitioner that “the purpose of requiring notice is to provide the opportunity to all interested persons to protest if desired.” However, proper notice was given of the requested change in zoning of the entire 3.659 acre tract and of the public hearing thereon. The rezoning change ultimately effected varied from the request only to the extent that a lesser amount of Intervenor’s land was rezoned than was originally requested. We fail to see how this could be said to be a deviation of such importance or materiality as to amount to a change in fundamental character. It stands to reason that a zoning commission may effect some changes in a proposal without having to again go through the entire statutory procedure of giving notice and conducting a public hearing. If it were not so, the result would often be to effect, in the interest of saving time, effort and expense, proposed zoning changes not entirely desirable; to keep zoning classifications static long after these classifications had served their purposes in particular areas; or to delay desirable zoning changes to the detriment of the public as well as to the owners of property which might be far better utilized under another zoning classification.
We believe the rule governing the sufficiency of the original notice or the need for additional notice, when changes are made by a zoning commission in a rezoning request, is set forth in 1 Anderson, American Law of Zoning, 179 (1968), as follows:
“If the change is so fundamental that it is no longer within reach of the notice of hearing, it will be necessary to publish a new notice. * * * If, however, the change is not substantial, a second hearing will be unnecessary. The problem was concisely summarized by a Florida court in the following language: 'As a general rule the notice must apprise the public of the suggested changes, and the zoning amendment must conform substantially to the proposed changes. Some deviation, however, may be immaterial where the variance is a liberalization of the proposed amendment rather than an enlarged restraint on the property involved. * * * A change may, of course, be “substantial” where an amendment makes a greater or more significant change-than that requested.’ ”
In 1 Rathkopf, The Law of Zoning and Planning, 165-6 (Supp.1972), the principle governing the sufficiency of the original notice to embrace changes made in proposals is stated as follows:
“The true test (as to adequacy of notice) is whether the notice as published fairly apprised the average citizen reading it with the general purpose of what is contemplated.
“The final form of a proposed amendment may differ from the draft submitted to the public hearing. Changes may be made in passage if they are not of fundamental character.” (Citing Leventhal v. Buehler, 346 Mass. 185, 191 N.E. 2d 128 (1963).
See also Heaton v. City of Charlotte, supra; Naylor v. Salt Lake City Corporation, 17 Utah 2d 300, 410 P.2d 764 (1966); McGee v. City of Cocoa, 168 So.2d 766 (Fla.App.1964).
Petitioner could gain no advantage, other than delay, by requiring another notice and another public hearing. It received notice and it participated in the public hearing. It has not been legally prejudiced by the change in the zoning request and in the reduction of the area rezoned below that contained in the original request. It has no legal right, by reason of Intervenor’s amendment of his request and the rezoning of the lesser area, to be served with another notice and participate in another public hearing.
Petitioner also claims error on the part of the trial court in holding Petitioner es-topped from complaining about the passage of the ordinance accomplishing the rezoning of the 2.774 acre tract. It is not necessary for us to consider or decide this question, and we do not do so.
The judgment and decree should be affirmed.
It is so ordered.
McMANUS, C. J., and MONTOYA, J., concur. | [
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OPINION
SUTIN, Judge.
Plaintiff appeals from a summary judgment granted Chevron Oil Company (Chevron) arising out of a claim for dam ages for wrongful death caused by alleged negligence of defendant Sharp, the lessee and operator of a Chevron oil station.
We reverse.
Chevron did business as Standard Oil Company of Texas (Standard).
On June 15, 1968, Standard, lessor, leased the service station and premises, located at 845 Juan Tabo Blvd., N.E., Albuquerque, New Mexico, to defendant, Leland A. Sharp. This was entitled “Dealer Lease.” It did not authorize Sharp to make necessary repairs to vehicles owned by the public, but it did not deny Sharp this right.
On June 15, 1968, Standard, as Seller, entered into a “Sales Agreement” with Sharp as Buyer, in which Standard agreed to sell and deliver gasoline, motor fuel, lubricating oil and petroleum products to Sharp, and Sharp agreed to purchase and sell.
The “Dealer Lease” provided in part that Sharp was “ * * * engaged in an independent business, and nothing herein contained shall be construed as granting to [Standard] any right to control [Sharp’s] business or operations, or the manner in which the same shall be conducted.”
The Sales Agreement, in addition, provided in part that Standard “ * * * has no right to exercise any control over any of [Sharp’s] employees, all of whom are entirely under the control and direction of [Sharp], who shall be responsible for their actions and omissions. * * * ”
Sharp, by deposition, testified that as far as he knew he was an independent contractor operating on his own and not for someone else.
While the Dealer Lease and Sales Agreement were in effect, the plaintiff’s Toyota had been entrusted to Sharp for maintenance and repairs. The accident, which resulted in the fatality of plaintiff’s wife, occurred when the brakes failed and the right front wheel of the Toyota came off.
The trial court found:
* * * [T]here is no genuine issue as to any material fact and as grounds therefor the Court relies upon the decision of the New Mexico Supreme Court in the case of Shaver v. Bell, et al., 74 N.M. 700 [397 P.2d 723], and the authorities cited in the movant’s Memorandum Brief, there being an absence of fact which would support a conclusion that Chevron Oil Company exercised_ or had the right of control over the operations of the station by the lessee, Sharp, or his employee, Buss. [Emphasis added]
The issue on this appeal is: Was there an absence of fact which would support a conclusion that Chevron exercised or had the right of control over the operation of Sharp’s Chevron Service Station?
We believe the trial court erred in two respects: (1) There is a genuine issue of fact whether Chevron exercised or had the right to exercise control over the operation of the station by Sharp or his employee, Buss; (2) “control” is not the exclusive method of determining liability of Chevron for the negligence of Sharp and Buss.
(1) There is a Genuine Issue of Fact Whether Chevron Exercised or had the Right to Exercise Control.
A. The Private Agreement Between Chevron and Sharp is not Binding on the Public.
The first point, to determine is whether an innocent member of the public who deals with a nationally known service station operation is bound by the private agreements between Chevron and Sharp. We say “no.” .
The “Dealer Lease” created a landlord-tenant relationship between Chevron and Sharp. The “Sales Agreement” created a purchase agreement between Chevron and Sharp. These agreements are secret, private documents which establish the legal relationship between these parties. They govern their respective rights and duties and determine the liability of each party to the other arising out of litigation in which each party seeks relief from the other.
The motoring public is not aware of the existence of these documents, have no notice of the existence of these documents, nor any knowledge of their contents.
First, it has long been the rule that a third person who deals with an agent is not bound by any secret or private instructions given to an agent by the principal. South Second Livestock Auction, Inc. v. Roberts, 69 N.M. 155, 364 P.2d 859 (1961); Sterling v. B. & E. Constructors, Inc., 74 N.M. 708, 397 P.2d 729 (1961); Douglass v. Mutual Ben. Health & Accident Ass’n, 42 N.M. 190, 76 P.2d 453 (1937); Echols v. N. C. Ribble Company, 85 N.M. 240, 511 P.2d 566 decided March 2, 1973.
Sutton believed that Sharp and Buss were agents and servants of Chevron. He was not bound by the provisions of the documents that Sharp was engaged in an independent business, not subject to any control by Chevron.
Second, it is a matter of common and general knowledge that Chevron, under various names, owns, possesses and operates service stations throughout the United States, including the State of New Mexico and the City of Albuquerque; that it engages in substantial national advertising; that it issues Chevron credit cards, sells Chevron products, uses Chevron uniforms, insignia, signs; that its station operators perform services on automobiles; that the purpose of owning, possessing and operating service stations is to encourage the patronage of the motoring public for the benefit of other stations supplied by Chevron. It invites the motoring public to use the facilities of its service stations and it knows the public will make use of its premises, its operators, and seek the services of its operators as well as make purchases of its products, without knowledge of the legal relationship between the parties.
Third, the motoring public has no duty to inquire about the legal relationship between Chevron and Sharp, or to determine whether a master-servant, principal-agent, landlord-tenant or independent business relationship exists, or to request the production of all written documents for inspection, nor any duty to request the presence of Chevron personnel for examination, nor any duty to obtain an oral or written opinion from Chevron that it has no control over Sharp, and is not liable for the negligence of Sharp. The motoring public relies upon the integrity, the reliability, and the economic and financial status of Chevron. The legal relationship is usually discovered after injury has occurred or litigation has begun.
Fourth, we weigh the balance between the value of the private documents of Chevron, and Chevron’s duty to the motoring public. We believe the burden rests on Chevron to make known to the public at each -service station that the possessor is engaged in an independent business; that Chevron has no right to exercise any control over any of the possessor’s business operations and employees; that all of the business operations of the possessor are under his control and direction, and the possessor, not Chevron, is responsible for its actions and omissions.
Fifth, the written agreement between Chevron and Sharp does not determine the issue of control. Jackson v. Standard Oil Company of California, 8 Wash.App. 83, 505 P.2d 139 (1972). After stating contract provisions, identical with those in this case, Judge Pearson wrote:
It is manifest, however, from what we have already said, that a written contract provision disclaiming control is not determinative on the question of control. The relationship of the parties, as amplified by the operating manual, the nature of the undertaking itself, and the amount of control actually exercised in performance of the undertaking, are the determinative factors.
We, therefore, rule that the “Dealer Lease” and “Sales Agreement” cannot be used by Chevron as an escape from liability to a third person as a matter of law. These agreements govern the rights and duties of Chevron and Sharp in their business operations. See, Lommori v. Milner Hotels, 63 N.M. 342, 319 P.2d 949 (1957).
B. There was an Issue of Fact over Chevron’s Right of Control.
The facts most favorable to plaintiff show the following:
Plaintiff was the owner of a Toyota. He entrusted the Toyota to defendant Sharp for maintenance and repairs. Defendant Buss was an employee of Sharp. In connection with the regular service station, Sharp operated a “Four Wheel Drive Center” in which he specialized in repairing four wheel drive vehicles. But Sharp considered himself to be just a service station. His jeep had painted on its side, “Four Wheel Drive Center, Lee Sharp Chevron, Albuquerque, New Miexico.” He had calling cards advertising “Lee Sharp Chevron” and “Four Wheel Drive Equipment.” He had one telephone number for both operations and one set of books and accounts.
Chevron personnel cautioned Sharp about keeping the place clean, but never questioned Sharp about the “Four Wheel Drive Center” operation. A reasonable inference can be drawn that Chevron knew about this operation. But Chevron never protested, nor did Chevron prohibit Sharp from using the premises for maintenance and repair of four wheel drive vehicles for public patrons, nor did Chevron contend it was a violation of the “Dealer Lease” agreement. Chevron ratified the acts of Sharp. Grandi v. LeSage, 74 N.M. 799, 399 P.2d 285 (1965); Terry v. Humphreys, 27 N.M. 564, 203 P. 539 (1922).
Prior to authorizing Chevron and Sharp to repair his Toyota, Sutton relied on statements made to him that Chevron had more skillful repairmen, was superior, and specialized in servicing and repair work on vehicles of his kind, the Toyota; that Sharp and Buss were agents and employees of Chevron. In addition to signs, uniforms, credit cards and credit privileges, Sutton relied on Chevron advertising in the classified section of the Albuquerque telephone directory. Here, Chevron states:
At the Sign of the Chevron, we take better care of your car with famous Chevron Gasolines and Motor Oils. Also Atlas Tires, Batteries, and Accessories sold on the Chevron Easy-Payment Plan.
“WHERE TO GET SERVICE”
Dealers [Emphasis added].
Below are listed a large number of Chevron service station operations among which are included those which perform auto repairs, tune-ups, brakes, American and foreign car repair, and other forms of service. It advertises “A Mechanic on Duty.” This advertising can'lead the public to believe Chevron exercises control over its service stations.
Chevron owned the premises of Sharp’s Chevron station. It exercised some control over the premises. It dealt directly with Sharp on the sales of Chevron products. Sharp had a duty to diligently promote the sale of Chevron products, to give those products prominent and convenient positions, to keep the premises open for Chevron’s benefit, to keep the premises, buildings and equipment in good appearance, clean and orderly to avoid an adverse effect on the motoring public’s patronage of other stations supplied by Chevron. There were other miscellaneous restraints on Sharp as well as rights reserved to Chevron.
There is a genuine issue of fact to support a conclusion that Chevron exercised or had the right of control over the operations of the Chevron service station by Sharp and his employee, Buss. McCauley v. Ray, 80 N.M. 171, 453 P.2d 192 (1968); Jackson, supra.
Chevron relies strongly on Shaver v. Bell, 74 N.M. 700, 397 P.2d 723 (1964). This case does not clothe Chevron with a cloak of immunity from liability.
Bell had leased the premises from an estate, sublet the premises to Cosden Petroleum Corporation (Cosden), which in turn orally sublet the premises to Bell, and Bell in turn placed others in possession of the property to operate the station. Bell was an intermediate party. Cosden had no direct interest in the premises, never sent its personnel to check the premises, nor did it deal directly with the operator of the station on sales of its products. "Cosden placed no restraints on Bell as sublessee and had no control of any sort over his use of the premises.”
After citation of authority, Justice Moise said [p. 705, 397 P.2d p. 727]:
We would call attention to [two Texas cases], which serve to emphasize that even in the same jurisdiction slight changes in facts may result in different conclusions as to the presence of an issue for determination by the jury. A great number of cases dealing with this subject are annotated [citations]. A study of these cases will reveal that although each case may be used to point out the view courts have taken on specific indicia of control, every case must ultimately be decided on its unique facts. . [Emphasis added]
In a special concurring opinion in Platco Corporation v. Shaw, 78 N.M. 36, 38, 428 P.2d 10, 12 (1967), Justice Moise said:
However, control is not the exclusive qualification [in determining whether a given individual is an employee or independent contractor].
We agree because apparent authority, estoppel, public use of premises may be other indicia which determine whether an individual is a servant or independent contractor. These rules of law were not discussed in Shaver, supra.
The facts in the present case differ in some respects from those in Shaver, supra, and Shaver is not controlling.
(2) “Control" is not the Exclusive Method of Determining Chevron’s Liability.
Although “control” is one method of determining whether a station operator is an employee of an oil company or an independent contractor, Shaver v. Bell, supra, it is not the exclusive method of determination.
A. Apparent Authority
Chevron may be liable to plaintiff for the apparent authority with which Chevron has clothed Sharp. Douglass, supra; Raulie v. Jackson-Horne Grocery, 48 N.M. 556, 154 P.2d 231 (1944); McNutt Oil & Refining Co. v. Mimbres Valley Bank, 174 F.2d 311 (10th Cir. 1949).
This principle of law has been applied to service station operations. Gizzi v. Texaco, Inc., 437 F.2d 308 (3rd Cir. 1971), cert. den. 404 U.S. 829, 92 S.Ct. 65, 30 L.Ed.2d 57; Clark v. Texaco, Inc., 382 S.W.2d 953 (Civ.App.Tex.1964); Standard Oil Co. v. Gentry, 241 Ala. 62, 1 So.2d 29 (1941). Possession of the service station by an operator is prima facie evidence that the operator is the agent of the oil company and is not an independent contractor. Cooper v. Graham, 231 S.C. 404, 98 S.E.2d 843 (1957). Apparent authority is a question of fact for the jury.
From the facts set forth above, we believe apparent authority is an issue of fact for the jury.
B. Dangerous Activity
There is evidence that Sharp was engaged in an independent business free from control by Chevron. Nevertheless, one who employs an independent contractor may be liable for his negligence when the work is intrinsically and inherently dangerous. Pendergrass v. Lovelace, 57 N.M. 661, 262 P.2d 231 (1953). In fact, there are many exceptions to the general rule of non-liability for the negligence of an independent contractor. Srader v. Pecos Construction Company, 71 N.M. 320, 378 P.2d 364 (1963).
A landlord-tenant relationship existed between Chevron and Sharp. Nevertheless, there are exceptions to non-liability of the landlord for injuries to third persons when the injury occurs off the premises. The landlord continues liable for or dinary negligence to third persons arising from dangerous activities carried on by the tenant. Lommori v. Milner Hotels, supra.
In the instant case, the claimed negligence of Sharp and Buss was their failure to detect, inspect, discover, properly repair or replace a broken spindle on Sutton’s Toyota automobile, or to warn Sutton or the decedent, his wife, of that dangerous condition which resulted in the death of decedent.
An issue of fact exists whether the work performed was a dangerous activity or inherently dangerous. Jackson, supra.
We made the preceding analysis to meet Chevron’s contentions of non-liability based on lack of control over the operations of the station by Sharp. To avoid confusion over the liability of national oil companies for negligent acts of station operators, we desire to move forward in the spirit of the Supreme Court of this state to establish a new basis for liability regardless of whether the relationship of principal and agent, master and servant exist. The Supreme Court adopted the doctrine of strict liability in Stang v. Hertz Corporation, 83 N.M. 730, 497 P.2d 732 (1972).
C. Chevron is Strictly Liable Under the Doctrine of Administration of Risk.
In Stang, supra, the Supreme Court set forth the historical development of strict liability in tort as applied to products liability cases. It extended the doctrine to apply to the lessor of an automobile. It held the Hertz Corporation strictly liable in tort for the death and injuries resulting from an automobile accident which occurred when a tire blew out on the rented vehicle even though the manufacturer of the tire was exonerated by verdict of the jury.
The philosophical basis of the rule rested on the conditions and needs of the times whch made it appropriate to effect changes. It also followed this principle:
The basis of risk distribution was that the loss should be placed on those most able to bear it and they could then distribute the risk loss to users of the product in the form of higher prices.
The demands of public policy applicable to sellers of a defective product is stated in Restatement of Torts (2nd), § 402A, Comment (c). It provides in part:
* * * [P]ublic policy demands that the burden of accidental injuries caused by products intended for consumption be placed upon those who market them, and be treated as a cost of production against which liability insurance can be obtained; and that the consumer of such products is entitled to the maximum of protection at the hands of someone, and the proper persons to afford it are those who market the product.
The same public policy should apply to oil companies “for their station operators’ torts regardless of whether the relationship of master and servant exist.” Lackey, Liability of Oil Company for its Lessee’s Torts, U of 111. Law Forum, 1965, p. 915. The author said [pp. 919-20] :
The most persuasive of these (reasons) fall within what has been called the administration of risk. That term includes risk prevention, risk shifting, and risk distribution.
In defining the “risk” terminology, the author transplants public policy from the doctrine of strict liablity to administration of risk. We agree.
The lessor-lessee strict liability doctrine in Stang, supra, was applied to Shell Oil Company because it was a “Commercial Lessor.” Price v. Shell Oil Company, 2 Cal.3d 245, 85 Cal.Rptr. 178, 466 P.2d 722 (1970). The court said:
We hold in this case that the doctrine of strict liability in tort which we have heretofore made applicable to sellers of personal property is also applicable to bailors and lessors of such property.
For further protection of the consumer, the Supreme Court of California extended the doctrine of strict liability in Cronin v. J.B.E. Olson Corporation, 8 Cal.3d 121, 104 Cal.Rptr. 433, 501 P.2d 1153 (1972); Luque v. McLean, 8 Cal.3d 136, 104 Cal.Rptr. 443, 501 P.2d 1163 (1972).
The doctrine of strict liability began with the manufacturer of a product. It was extended to seller, bailor and lessor. The burden of establishing a claim for relief was lessened for the consumer, but the burden of maintaining an adequate defense was. increased for the commercial interests.
In Jackson, supra, the doctrine of strict liability was extended further against Standard Oil Company in the distribution of its oil products. Standard Oil sold its unadulterated oil to a wholesale distributor under contract. A corporation carried out the wholesale distributorship contract with Standard Oil. An employee of the latter corporation delivered the oil in a gasoline truck to a storage tank owned by a state agency. At the time the oil was poured into the tank, it became adulterated with gasoline in the hose. Subsequently, the residue in the tank was drained for repairs. During repair work the tank exploded causing the death of the repairman. Standard Oil was held strictly liable because it “retained the right to control purity of the product until delivered to the customer (DNR).” Jackson erased from the doctrine of strict liability the essential ingredient that the “defect” must exist at the time the product left the hands of Standard Oil. “Control” was substituted for original place of defect. Strict liability became derivative liability.
This rule leads us into the doctrine of strict liability for defects which result from risks in the administration of service stations. It is' comparable to strict liability in the distribution of its products through independent agencies. Both are administrative processes, the risks of which are imposed on the oil companies for the protection of the public.
In the instant case, there is evidence to support a genuine issue of fact that (1) a defect of brakes (2) existed at the time the Toyota was under the control of Standard Oil (3) which was not contemplated by decedent (4) rendered the automobile unreasonably dangerous and unsafe to decedent, and (5) that the defect was the proximate cause of decedent’s death.
Oil companies which lease or operate service stations fall within the strict liability doctrine as developed. For the protection of the motoring public, they have a duty to supervise station operators, exercise care in the selection of lessees, insure greater safety and promote accident prevention. . Liability risk must be shifted from lessee to the oil company because it is more able than the lessee to bear the costs of accidents or distribute the cost of liability insurance and protect the public from judgment-proof lessees. The distribution of oil products is a part of the business of oil companies, and the costs should be borne by them. “Oil companies should not be permitted to sever this part of their business to avoid the responsibility for injuries resulting in the conduct of that business.” Lackey, supra.
We hold that Chevron is strictly liable for the torts of Sharp and Buss regardless of the legal relationship created by Chevron. This responsibility is placed on Chevron for the protection of the motoring public who consumes the product or uses the services of the station operator.
The summary judgment is reversed.
It is so ordered.
LOPEZ, J., concurs.
HERNANDEZ, J., specially concurring. | [
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OPINION
STEPHENSON, Justice.
This suit was brought in the District Court of Bernalillo County to foreclose a mechanic’s and materialmen’s lien against a Mr. Daniels. Other mechanics and materialmen and Mortgage Investment Com pany of El Paso, a mortgagee, were joined as defendants to resolve lien priorities. The pleadings and party situation then becomes exceedingly complex, replete with third party claims, interventions, counterclaims, cross claims and perhaps others. For purposes of this appeal, suffice it to say that the mentioned mortgagee (Appellant) is aligned against several claimants of mechanic’s and materialmen’s liens (Appellees). The case was tried to the district court, without a jury, upon stipulated facts. Judgment was entered partially in favor of the appellees. Mortgagee appeals.
On June 2, 1970 the appellant took a promissory note and construction loan mortgage from Mr. Daniels and his wife to furnish construction financing for a house on real estate in Albuquerque. The mortgage was recorded in the Bernalillo County Clerk’s office on June 3, 1970. Appellees commenced work and the delivery of materials after the mortgage was recorded. Appellant made advances of funds to Daniels as construction progressed on the premises. All of these advances were made after work had commenced. Construction was substantially completed in September, 1970, when appllant had advanced $29,500.00, the face amount of the note. Thereafter appellees filed mechanic’s and materialmen’s liens on the premises. From November 19, 1970 to April, 1971, appellant continued to advance funds in order to preserve, finish and repair the constructed house. The total amount advanced by appellant was $32,366.19. The case was submitted to the district court on stipulated facts. The note and mortgage, and the deposition of Mr. Wilson, an official of appellant, to determine the priorities of the various mechanic’s liens and the mortgage. Final judgment was entered by awarding priority according to the date of each advance by the appellant.
The court’s conclusion of law around which argument centers here is :
“II. That the mortgage of the defendant, . MORTGAGE INVESTMENT COMPANY OF EL PASO, TEXAS, provided for optional rather than obligatory advances.
“That the optional mortgage of the defendant, MORTGAGE INVESTMENT COMPANY OF EL PASO, TEXAS, attached as a lien upon the premises not from the date of its recording, but from the date of each advance and to the extent of each advance thereupon.”
The court then proceeded to assign priorities on that basis.
Inasmuch as the mortgage was recorded prior to commencement of any work or the delivery of any materials to the construction site, absent any other facts the mortgage lien would clearly prevail over the materialmen’s liens by reason of § 61-2-5, N.M.S.A. (1953) which provides :
“The liens provided for in this article [i. e. mechanics’ and materialmen’s liens] are preferred to any lien, mortgage or other encumbrance which may have attached subsequent to the time when the building, improvement or structure was commenced, work done, or materials were commenced to be furnished; also to any lien, mortgage, or other encumbrance of which the lienholder had no notice, and which was unrecorded at the time the building, improvement or structure was commenced, work done, or the materials were commenced to be furnished.”
Although the statute in terms prefers mechanic’s and materialmen’s liens, we have construed its language to protect mortgage liens recorded prior to commencement of work. Stearns-Roger Co. v. Aztec Co., 14 N.M. 300, 93 P. 706 (1908).
Appellees seek to avoid this result by asserting that all funds under the note were not advanced at the time the mortgage was recorded; that advances by the mortgagee were optional rather than obligatory; and that the priority of the mortgage lien commences only from the date of the advance, not from the date of its recording. The cornerstone of their argument is Heller v. Gate City Building And Loan Association, 75 N.M. 596, 408 P.2d 753 (1965).
In Heller the dispute involved priority between two mortgagees. Pursuant to the terms of the first mortgage, the mortgagee advanced money for taxes, insurance premiums and repairs for the property. The mortgage made these advances discretionary with the mortgagee. The advances exceeded the fixed sum of the mortgage and resulted in extending its maturity date. Although the first mortgagee was aware of the subsequent lien, there was no attempt to obtain consent for the advances. A default occurred in the second mortgage and foreclosure proceedings were instituted. The only issue concerned the priority of advances made by the first mortgagee. As to the specific sum stated in the first mortgage, the second mortgagee conceded priority. Several criteria were set forth by the court in determining priorities for mortgages intended to secure future advances.
The court finally stated at 600, 408 P.2d at 755:
“There is an overwhelming agreement among the courts in this country that a first mortgagee making future advances, which are optional and not obligatory under the first mortgage, with actual knowledge of an intervening lien, cannot obtain priority for subsequent advances over the intervening lien.”
Since advances for taxes, insurance premiums and repairs were wholly discretionary with the mortgagee, the court awarded priority to the second mortgagee to the extent of these optional advances.
Heller, although obviously distinguishable on the facts, is the only New Mexico case which even lays down the general principle which we have quoted. Cases from other jurisdictions dealing with the fact situation which confronts us here vary radically as to both result and rationale. Study of an annotation at 80 A.L.R.2d 179 entitled “Priority between mechanics’ liens and advances made under previously executed mortgage” indicates to us that the general rule stated in Heller has gained wide acceptance in our present fact situation. The annotator at 80 A.L.R.2d 191 states:
“One factor given much weight by many courts seeking to determine whether advances made after the giving of a mortgage shall receive priority over intervening mechanics’ liens is whether the mortgagee or beneficiary under a deed of trust is under an obligation, pursuant to the terms of his agreement with the mortgagor, to advance the sum or sums called for by the instrument. Thus, many courts have recognized that where the making of the advances is obligatory upon the mortgagee or beneficiary, the lien of a mortgage or trust deed receives priority over mechanics’ liens when the mortgage or deed has been recorded before the mechanic’s lien attaches, despite the fact that advances are actually given subsequently to this time.”
The underlying reasoning of the general statement from Heller and the more specific one from the annotation commends itself to us. We adopt it here and turn to its application to the facts of this case. This requires a decision as to whether the advances were discretionary or obligatory. Appellant contends, and appellees deny that they were obligatory. Appellant concedes that advances over the face amount of the note take ■ precedence only from the time made.
We have quoted the key conclusion of law made by the court. -A conclusion of law must find support in the findings of fact. Goldie v. Yaker, 78 N.M. 485, 432 P.2d 841 (1967). We discern no finding of fact which supports conclusion II. The court found the mortgage to exist and it incorporates the note. These documents are included in the stipulated facts. The findings make reference to Mr. Wilson’s deposition, in effect adopting and giving full credence to it, specifying it as the source of the dates and amounts of appel lant’s advances and admitting it into evidence.
The mortgage is labeled “construction loan mortgage” and the note is captioned “construction real estate mortgage note.” It is for a term of only two hundred seventy days and contains references to construction work on the encumbered premises. It requires “any money advanced under this construction loan” to be used for construction of improvements on the real estate. The note concludes with a statement that if it becomes immediately due and payable (as a result of an event of default) the appellant “will be under no obligation to advance any additional portion of this note and shall incur no liability” for refusing to do so. The inference to be drawn from this final clause of the note is that if there were no events of default, the mortgagee was obligated to continue making advances under the note.
Certainly there is nothing here to indicate that advances are optional and all the inferences are to the contrary. It is difficult to imagine how or why the parties to the note and mortgage would have embarked on the venture or why the $29,500.-00 note was given in the form that it was if appellant had no obligation to make advances. We are concerned solely with the intention of the parties to the note and mortgage. Maxwell Lumber Co. et al. v. Connelly et al., 34 N.M. 562, 287 P. 64 (1930).
Mr. Wilson’s deposition is clear and straightforward to the effect that the arrangement with Mr. Daniels was that advancements would be made pursuant to a certain schedule during the course of construction. This is undisputed. Having been adopted in the findings of fact we feel free to consider it.
Where evidence consists of documents and stipulated facts, this court is in as good a position as was the trial court to determine the facts and we are not bound by the trial court’s findings. State Ex Rel. State Highway Commission v. Trujillo, 82 N.M. 694, 487 P.2d 122 (1971); Atlantic Refining Company v. Beach, 78 N.M. 634, 436 P.2d 107 (1968). Conclusion II is unsupported by any finding. If it was, such finding would be unsupported by substantial evidence and contrary to the undisputed evidence.
We hold that notwithstanding the paucity of the documentation, advances under the note were obligatory.
Finally appellees point to a provision in the mortgage to the effect that if “any lien or claim of lien arises or is assessed, imposed or filed against the real estate” appellant will not be under obligation to advance additional funds on the note. They say that although the liens were not filed until after the advances with which we are concerned, nevertheless when filed they become effective from the date the lien claimant’s work commenced or materials were furnished and that any advancements made subsequent to the last mentioned date would not have priority over the lien claimant.
No findings or conclusions were requested or made which would support this theory. Again the query is as to the intention of the parties to the note and mortgage. We would think it virtually irrational for them to have intended that the priority of sums advanced for construction would be defeated in this fashion. In any case, under the rule we have cited from State Ex Rel. State Highway Commission v. Trujillo, supra, and Atlantic Refining Company v. Beach, supra, we are not persuaded that such was their intention.
The judgment of the trial court is reversed. The case is remanded to the District Court of Bernalillo County with directions to proceed in accordance with the views we have expressed. The appellant’s claim should be given priority over those of the lien claimants for the face amount of the note plus costs, expenses and attorneys’ fees as specified in the note and mortgage. The judgment should also fix and determine the priority of the lien claimants and advances of the appellant over and above the face amount of the mortgage.
It is so ordered.
McMANUS, C. J., and MARTINEZ, J., concur. | [
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OPINION
SUTIN, Judge.
Defendant was convicted on two counts for fraudulent use of a credit card. Section 40A-16-33, subd. A(3), N.M.S.A.1953 (2d Repl.Vol. 6). He appeals. We affirm.
On November 10, 1971, defendant purchased merchandise from Miller’s Ltd. and charged it on an American Express card issued to Ray B. Christianson. Defendant signed the sales slip “Ray B. Christianson”. On November 11, 1971, defendant attempted to make additional purchases from the same establishment. When asked for further identification, defendant said he left his driver’s license in his car. Defendant left the store ostensibly to get his driver’s license. He did not return. The purchases and credit card remained in the store. Christianson died of an apparent heart attack on November 6, 1971, and his wallet was inexplicably missing from his personal effects.
Defendant contends that the admission of testimony of the November 11, 1971 event was erroneous because proof of a distinct criminal offense, independent of the offense with which the accused is being tried, is prejudicial error. See State v. Garcia, 83 N.M. 51, 487 P.2d 1356 (Ct.App.1971). Defendant’s contention is answered in State v. Lord, 42 N.M. 638, 651, 84 P.2d 80 (1938). There are several exceptions to the general rule that evidence of offenses and crimes, other than that for which the defendant is on trial, cannot be introduced. Among these exceptions are proof of motive, intent, absence of a mistake or accident, a common scheme or plan, or the identity of the person charged with the commission of the crime.
The November 11 incident is strong evidence of defendant’s intent and his plan. The concurrence of time, place and modus operandi also tends to establish the identity of the accused.
Furthermore, defendant’s actions in the November 11 incident aided in establishing his fraudulent intent.
Secondly, defendant contends it was error to allow Miller’s Ltd. employee, who dealt with defendant, to express his opinion on whether he had reason to believe that defendant intended to defraud Miller’s Ltd. Defendant objected because it called for a conclusion and the employee was not an expert witness.
The defendant’s objection was valid and his motion should have been sustained. It was within the province of the jury to draw inferences and form opinions. There are certain situations where a non-expert opinion can be received. This was not one of them. See State v. Cooley, 19 N.M. 91, 140 P. 111, 52 L.R.A. (N.S.) 230 (1914); Bunton v. Hull, 51 N.M. 5, 177 P.2d 168 (1947) ; Rule 701, Supreme Court Rules of Evidence. However, this error was not prejudicial. Considering the strong evidence in this record, there was no reasonable probability that the layman’s opinion contributed to defendant’s conviction. The substantial rights of the defendant were not affected. Section 21-2-1(17) (10), N. M.S.A.1953 (Repl.Vol. 4); Jewell v. Seidenberg, 82 N.M. 120, 477 P.2d 296 (1970).
Thirdly, defendant claims the right to a directed verdict. The motion for a directed verdict was made at the close of the State’s case, but not at the close of all the evidence. It is not subject to review. The defendant waived his motion by introducing evidence on his behalf without renewing his motion at the close of the whole case. State v. Sandoval, 83 N.M. 599, 495 P.2d 379 (Ct.App.1972). Nevertheless, the evidence has been reviewed and is sufficient to sustain the conviction. State v. Hunt, 83 N.M. 546, 494 P.2d 624 (Ct.App.1972).
Fourthly, defendant claims error for failure to give an instruction that the jury must first find that defendant “did not have the consent to use the card by the person to whom it was issued.” Consent is not an essential element of the crime with which defendant was charged. See § 40A-16-33, subd. A (3), supra.
Affirmed.
It is so ordered.
HERNANDEZ and LOPEZ, JJ., concur. | [
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] |
OPINION
HENDLEY, Judge.
This is an appeal from a decision and order of the Commissioner of Revenue. (§ 72-13-39(A), N.M.S.A. 1953 (Repl.Vol. 1961, pt. 2, Supp.1971)). By the challenged order the Commissioner seeks to tax a contract entered into by the taxpayer on April 7, 1969, at the higher rate of tax effective July 1, 1969, rather than at the lower rate in effect prior to that date.
This case involves the interpretation of § 66, Chap. 144, Laws 1969, which reads as follows:
“Section 66. Temporary Provision.— By regulation, the commissioner shall provide a system for the registration of contracts entered into prior to the passage of this act which do not permit an increase in price to cover an increase in the gross receipts and compensating tax rate or the elimination of an exemption or deduction allowed in the Gross Receipts and Compensating Tax Act. Receipts from contracts registered with the commissioner shall be taxed according to the laws existent prior to the effective date of this act. Receipts from the sale of services or materials incorporated into a construction project, the contract for which is registered with the commissioner, shall be treated as receipts from sales made under the law as it existed prior to the effective date of this act.”
Pursuant to § 66, supra, the Bureau of Revenue promulgated G.R.Reg. 66-1 (1969), which provides, in relevant part:
“G.R. Regulation 66-1 — REGISTRATION AND TAX TREATMENT OF PRIME' CONSTRUCTION CONTRACTS ENTERED INTO PRIOR TO APRIL 1, 1969 — ISSUED AND EFFECTIVE JUNE 25, 1969—
“1. Registration. Prime construction contractors may, but are not required to, register with the Commissioner of the Bureau of Revenue prime construction contracts entered into prior to April 1, 1969, if the contracts do not permit an increase in price to cover any increase in the gross receipts and compensating tax rate or any increase in tax resulting from the elimination of an exemption or deduction that was allowed in the Gross Receipts and Compensating Tax Act effective prior to July 1, 1969. * * * ”
The Bureau’s reason for selecting April 1, 1969, as the cutoff date before which a contract must have been entered into in order to obtain the favorable tax treatment provided for in § 66, supra, is that it was on that date that the Governor signed the bill.
As stated above, the contract which is the source of the present controversy was entered into by taxpayer on April 7, 1969. Taxpayer made no attempt to register this contract with the Bureau as provided in G.R.Reg. 66-1, supra. Its stated reason was that it “had no reason to believe that the contract would be accepted by the Bureau * * * while the Bureau’s regulation announces that contracts dated later than April 1, 1969 would not be eligible.” It is the Bureau’s position that the interpretation of § 66, supra, contained in G.R. Reg. 66-1, supra, is a valid exercise of the Commissioner’s statutory authority to interpret the tax laws. (§ 72-13-23(A), N. M.S.A.1953 (Repl.Vol.1961, pt. 2, Supp. 1971)). We disagree.
The determinative question on the issue of the correctness of G.R.Reg. 66-1, supra, is the meaning of the phrase “ * * * passage of this act * * *” as used in § 66, supra. If that phrase refers, as the Bureau contends, to the date on which the Governor signed the bill then G.R.Reg. 66-1, supra, is a correct interpretation. If, on the other hand, the phrase refers to the date on which the bill became law then G. R.Reg. 66-1, supra, is incorrect to the extent that it cuts off the right to register a contract entered into prior to July 1, 1969, but after April 1, 1969.
We begin our discussion of the meaning of the phrase “ * * * passage of this act * * * ” with a consideration of Art. IV, § 23 of the New Mexico Constitution, which states:
“Laws shall go into effect ninety days after the adjournment of the legislature enacting them, except general appropriation laws, which shall go into effect immediately upon their passage and approval. Any act necessary for the preservation of the public peace, health or safety, shall take effect immediately upon its passage and approval, provided it be passed by two-thirds vote of each house and such necessity be stated in a separate section.”
This provision has been construed to mean that the legislature may provide that legislative enactments should go into effect more than ninety days after their enactment, but that the legislature cannot make non-emergency legislation effective less than ninety days after enactment. State ex rel. New Mexico State Bank v. Montoya, 22 N.M. 215, 160 P. 359 (1916).
Provisions similar to Art. IV, § 23, supra, are cited by the author of the annotation at 132 A.L.R. 1048 (1941) as one of the major reasons why phrases such as that presently under consideration are given a technical meaning.
“In the greater number of cases the term ‘passage of this act’ appearing in the body of a legislative enactment as describing the time element which brings facts or condititons within or without its operation has been construed as designating or referring to the time when the act goes into effect rather than to the time of its enactment or approval.
“ * * *
“Among the reasons advanced in support of construing the word ‘passage’ in its technical rather than in its natural sense are * * * that to construe such term so as to bring within the operation of the act something that occurred before the act took effect would be violative of constitutional provisions prescribing the time at which legislative enactments shall go into effect.” 132 A.L. R. at 1051,1052.
We are of the opinion that to interpret the phrase “ * * * passage of this act * * * ” to refer to any date prior to July 1, 1969, would violate Art. IV, § 23 of the New Mexico Constitution. State ex rel. New Mexico State Bank v. Montoya, supra. Accordingly, we hold that that phrase is used in its technical sense in § 66, supra, and refers to July 1, 1969. See State v. Southern Pac. Co., 34 N.M. 306, 281 P. 29 (1929). There can, of course, be no doubt that the Commissioner cannot do by regulation what the legislature cannot do by statute.
In view of the foregoing discussion we find it unnecessary to consider the Commissioner’s other arguments relating to the interpretation of § 66, supra.
The Bureau also argues that taxpayer has waived its right to have the present contract taxed at the old rate because of the admitted failure to register the contract in accordance with G.R.Reg. 66-1, supra. This argument is without merit. By its very terms G.R.Reg. 66-1, supra, only permits registration of contracts entered into prior to April 1, 1969. Having drafted the regulation in these terms the Bureau cannot argue that by failing to comply with the terms of a regulation, which on its face does not apply to taxpayer, that taxpayer waived its rights under the statute as enacted. Compare Rainbo Baking Co. of El Paso v. Commissioner of Rev., 84 N.M. 303, 502 P.2d 406 (Ct.App.1972).
The decision of the Commissioner is reversed and the cause is remanded for proceedings consistent with this opinion.
It is so ordered.
SUTIN and HERNANDEZ, JJ., concur. | [
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OPINION
WOOD, Chief Judge.
This automobile accident case involves New Mexico’s “guest” statute. Section 64-24-1, N.M.S.A.1953 (2d Repl.Vol. 9, pt. 2). While driving, defendant’s car was involved in a collision with another vehicle. Plaintiff was an occupant of the car driven by defendant. Plaintiff was being transported in a car owned by defendant without payment for the transportation. No claim is made that defendant’s conduct was other than ordinary negligence. Plaintiff’s suit for personal injuries named the captioned defendants. All' were dismissed except Kipkemei. No issue is raised as to these dismissals. Summary judgment in favor of Kipkemei was granted on the basis of § 64-24—1, supra. Plaintiff appeals from the summary judgment, asserting: (1) the statute is unconstitutional and (2) plaintiff was not a guest.
Constitutionality.
Various contentions are presented as to why the statute is unconstitutional. We consider only the constitutional claims presented to the trial court. In Re Reilly’s Estate, 63 N.M. 352, 319 P.2d 1069 (1957); Saiz v. City of Albuquerque, 82 N.M. 746, 487 P.2d 174 (Ct.App.1971).. Thus, we do not consider the claim based on § 64-24-2, N.M.S.A.1953 (2d Repl.Vol. 9, pt, 2); the doctrine of respondeat superior; the meaning of “injury” and “loss” in § 64-24-1, supra; the meaning of “releasing” and “injuries” in the title of the act; and the contention that since our statute was taken from Connecticut, and Connecticut repealed its statute, that somehow this made New Mexico’s statute unconstitutional.
The claims of unconstitutionality presented to the trial court, and which we consider, are: (a) the title to § 64—24-1, supra, violates N.M.Const. Art. -IV, § 16, and (b) § 64-24—1, supra, is void for vagueness because the word “guest” is not defined. These constitutional claims differ from the constitutional attacks made in other cases. See Gallegos v. Wallace, 74 N.M. 760, 398 P.2d 982 (1964); Cortez v. Martinez, 79 N.M. 506, 445 P.2d 383 (1968); Romero v. Tilton, 78 N.M. 696, 437 P.2d 157 (Ct.App.1967).
(a) Title.
The title to the law which enacted § 64-24-1, supra, reads :
“An act releasing owners of motor vehicles from responsibility for injuries to passengers therein.”
Section 64-24—1, supra, reads.:
“No person transported by the. owner or operator of a motor vehicle as his guest without payment for such transportation shall have a cause of action for damages against such owner or operator for injury, death or loss, in case of accident, unless such accident shall have been intentional on the part of said owner or operator or caused by his heedlessness or his reckless disregard of the rights of others.”
Prior decisions have held that § 64—24-1, supra, applies only to owners. Gallegos v. Wallace, supra; Cortez v. Martinez, supra; Lopez v. Barreras, 77 N.M. 52, 419 P.2d 251 (1966); Romero v. Tilton, supra; Dahl v. Turner, 80 N.M. 564, 458 P.2d 816, 39 A.L.R.3d 207 (Ct.App.1969). Thus, the references to “operator” in § 64—24—1, supra, have been eliminated from the statute.
Section 64-24-1, supra, refers to a guest. The title, quoted above, refers to passengers. Plaintiff contends the reference to “guest” is in violation of N.M.Const. Art. IV, § 16. Plaintiff’s position is that N.M. Const. Art. IV, § 16 requires the subject of every bill to be expressed in the title; that “guest” is not referred to in the title; that the reference to “passengers” in the title does not give reasonable notice of the references to “guest” in the body of the statute.
“ * * * [T]he details of a statute must be germane or related to the sub ject matter expressed in the title.” City of Albuquerque v. Garcia, 84 N.M. 776, 508 P.2d 585 (1973). The title need not be an index of everything in the act, but need only give notice of the subject matter of the legislation. Gallegos v. Wallace, supra.
The portion of the title with which we are concerned is “passengers [in motor vehicles].” Plaintiff gives several examples of “passengers” who are not guests; he does not show how a guest in an automobile is not a passenger. Obviously, a passenger in an automobile can include a person in the automobile as a guest. See Davis v. Hartley, 69 N.M. 91, 364 P.2d 349 (1961); Hobbs v. Irwin, 60 N.M. 479, 292 P.2d 779 (1956). The word “guest” is germane to the subject “passengers.” Section 64-24-1, supra, does not violate N.M.Const. Art. IV, § 16.
(b) Asserted vagueness.
Section 64-24 — 1, supra, does not define the words it uses. Because “guest” is not defined, plaintiff asserts the statute is “ * * * unconstitutional as being vague and ambiguous and constituting an unconstitutional delegation of a legislative function to the Courts.” The claim of vagueness is based on the fact that New Mexico Uniform Jury Instructions, Civil, do not define “guest” and the committee that drafted the instructions was unable to agree on a definition. See N.M. U.J.I. 9.8, committee comment. The claim of an unconstitutional delegation of legislative function is that “guest” is the “heart” of § 64 — 24—1, supra, and, therefore, it was the responsibility of the Legislature to define that term.
The answer to plaintiff’s claims is that statutory words are presumed to be used in their ordinary and usual sense. Bettini v. City of Las Cruces, 82 N.M. 633, 485 P.2d 967 (1971). The words used are to be given their ordinary meaning unless a different intent is clearly indicated. Winston v. New Mexico State Police Board, 80 N.M. 310, 454 P.2d 967 (1969). No intent is indicated in § 64-24-1, supra, that other than ordinary meaning is to be given to the word “guest.”
Here, not only do we give “guest” its ordinary meaning, but we give an ordinary meaning to the word as it is used in the statute. Section 64 — 24—1, supra, refers to a person transported as “ * * * guest without payment for such transportation. * * * ” Thus, “payment” is not part of the meaning of “guest.” See Archie v. Smith, 78 N.M. 548, 434 P.2d 73 (Ct.App.1967). With payment eliminated, “guest” is simply one to whom hospitality is extended; the “guest” in § 64 — 24—1, supra, is the person who accepts the transportation without payment. Webster’s Third New International Dictionary (1966).
“Guest” in § 64-24-1, supra, is not unconstitutionally vague. The Legislature did not unconstitutionally delegate its legislative function in using that word.
Whether plaintiff was a guest.
Plaintiff and Kipkemei were foreign students at New Mexico State University. The Foreign Student Office of the University arranges for newly arriving students to be met. Kipkemei was sent to meet plaintiff when he arrived in El Paso on the day of the accident. Kipkemei met plaintiff and took him to the Foreign Student Office. There is a conflict in the deposition testimony as to whether Kipkemei, after the check-in at the Foreign Student Office, was to “settle” plaintiff for the weekend. Whether it was Foreign Student Office instructions or plaintifff’s individual desire, plaintiff went to Kipkemei’s trailer where he had supper. It was on a sight-seeing trip after supper that the accident occurred.
Section 64-24-1, supra, refers to “his” guest; that is, the-guest of the owner of the car. Plaintiff contends he was not the guest of Kipkemei but, under the above facts, the guest of the University. Plaintiff presents this as an either-or proposition ; that is, that he could not be the guest of the University and also be the guest of Kipkemei.
The applicability of § 64-24-1, supra, depends on whether plaintiff was the guest of Kipkemei. The uncontroverted showing in the depositions of Kipkemei and Twala, another occupant of the car on the sightseeing drive, was that plaintiff was being transported in Kipkemei’s car as KipkeT mei’s guest. Whether plaintiff may also have been the University’s guest is immaterial to plaintiff’s suit against Kipkemei. Once plaintiff was shown to have been Kipkemei’s guest, § 64 — 24-1, supra, was applicable to plaintiff’s suit against Kipkemei.
The summary judgment is affirmed.
It is so ordered.
HERNANDEZ and LOPEZ, JJ., concur. | [
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OPINION
STEPHENSON, Justice.
Defendant-Appellant (defendant) was charged and convicted of the first degree murder of Mr. Joe Cardón.
An appeal was not timely taken and diverse proceedings were had in respect to defendant’s efforts to appeal in the court below, and in the United States District Court for the District of New Mexico. It is unnecessary to detail these matters inasmuch as we consider the appeal on its merits.
On an evening in December, 1970, defendant entered the liquor store owned by Mr. Cardón in Las Cruces. Mr. Cardon’s wife, his son, Bobby, then fourteen years of age, and a six year old daughter were also present. Mrs. Cardón noticed defendant come into the store. She got up to wait on him, but was told by her husband that he would do it. She sat down and took no further notice until she heard a loud slam and saw the defendant back of the counter, with a drawn gun, opening the cash register. She testified that the defendant told them all to stand back and that “this is a stick up” or words to that effect. While he was rifling the cash register, Mr. Cardón grabbed him and a struggle ensued, during which both parties fell to the floor. Several shots were fired wildly about the store from the defendant’s pistol, one narrowly missing Bobby Car-don. One of the bullets struck Mr. Cardón and fatally wounded him. During the struggle the defendant was shot in the chest by Bobby Cardón with his father’s pistol. Mr. Cardón was pronounced dead on arrival at the hospital.
Defendant entered a plea of not guilty by reason of insanity. His witness in support of his plea was Dr. James Lewis, a neurologist who is Director of the Convulsive Disorder Epilepsy Clinic at the University of New Mexico. Dr. Lewis testified that on the basis of his examination he was of the opinion that the defendant suffered from psychomotor epilepsy; that if the defendant was suffering from such a seizure at the time of the shooting he would not be in control of his faculties and would be unable to appreciate the nature and consequences of his acts. He also testified that, in his opinion, there was a fifty percent probability that Wilson was suffering from such seizure at the time of the shooting.
Dr. Lewis’ testimony was qualified in certain aspects, if' not impeached, upon cross examination. The state offered various rebuttal witnesses to show that the defendant may have been faking a seizure. There was also testimony from Dr. Welsh, a Las Cruces psychiatrist, that he did not think the defendant was suffering from any kind of epileptic seizure at the time of the shooting.
Defendant first contends that the trial court erred in refusing to give a tendered instruction on insanity. The argument centers upon whether the state had the burden of proof on the issue of insanity.
The defendant’s tendered instruction was as follows:
“I instruct you that the defendant in this case has entered a plea of not guilty, and under this plea, the defendant can defend on the basis of an insane state of mind of the defendant existing at the time of the commission of the alleged offense herein. This crime involves a guilty intent and cannot be successfully prosecuted against said defendant who is insane at the time of the commission of said alleged crime because an insane person does not have the capacity to form a mental intent.
“In connection with said defense of insanity, the defendant has produced evidence that he was insane at the time of the alleged crime. While ordinarily, it is presumed that every person is sane, in this case, you cannot rely on this pre sumption because the defendant has' introduced sufficient evidence of insanity to rebut said presumption. Consequently I instruct you that the burden of proof is upon the State to prove beyond a reasonable doubt that at the time of the alleged offense, the defendant was sane, and if the State fails to do so, then the defendant is entitled to an acquittal by reason of insanity as to the crime charged against him. Also, if upon a consideration of the whole evidence, there is a reasonable doubt as to whether the defendant was sane or insane at the time of the act charged against him, then the defendant is entitled to the benefit of the doubt and I instruct you to acquit him on the grounds of insanity as to the crime charged against him.”
Defendant made proper objection to the court’s failure to so charge the jury.
The court instructed the jury that it was the sole judge of the facts; that it should not single out one instruction alone as stating the law, but must consider the instructions as a whole; that the state had the burden of establishing the defendant’s guilt beyond a reasonable doubt; that the defendant was presumed to be innocent which presumption remains with him throughout the trial until his guilt is established beyond a reasonable doubt; that they must find the defendant sane as a prerequisite to a verdict that he was guilty of murder in the first degree and, among other instructions normal to such cases, instructed upon the defense of insanity.
The jury was provided with a form of verdict appropriate to finding the defendant insane at the time of the commission of the acts charged and declaring him acquitted upon the ground of such insanity.
Defendant made no objection to any instruction given by the court and we will hence not detail them further.
A number of New Mexico cases have dealt with the defense of insanity vis-a-vis applicable presumptions and burdens. Typical of such cases and those to which we ■ will make reference are State v. Torres, 82 N.M. 422, 483 P.2d 303 (1971); State v. Moore, 42 N.M. 135, 76 P.2d 19 (1938); State v. Roy, 40 N.M. 397, 60 P.2d 646, 110 A.L.R. 1 (1936), and State v. James, 83 N.M. 263, 490 P.2d 1336 (Ct.App.1971).
Roy, supra, 40 N.M. at 404, 60 P.2d at 650, mentions the presumption of sanity, and is clear authority for the proposition that:
“ * * * the burden of proof is upon the state to prove that the defendant is sane beyond a reasonable doubt.”
In Moore, supra, this court speaking through Justice Zinn, who had authored Roy, supra, as well, spoke of the procedural aspects of the defense of insanity in the following terms :
“The law on the subject in issue has already been enunciated in this jurisdiction. See Faulkner v. Territory, 6 N.M. 464, 30 P. 905; Territory v. McNabb, 16 N.M. 625, 120 P. 907. We said in the case of State v. Roy, 40 N.M. 397, 60 P.2d 646, 650, 110 A.L.R. 1, as follows: ‘When the defendant has put in evidence reasonably tending to show him insane, the problem is then to determine whether it is sufficient to take the case to the jury. This is a question for the court to determine. Therefore, when all the evidence is in, if there has been adduced competent evidence reasonably tending to support the fact of insanity urged by the defendant as a defensive issue in the case, it is the duty of the court to instruct on the question of insanity.’ It is clear that in this jurisdiction the presumption, that one accused of crime was sane at the time the alleged crime was committed, serves merely the function of casting upon the defendant the necessity of going forward with evidence tending to show that he was insane at the time the alleged crime was committed. If the state has offered evidence which tends to show that the defendant was insane at that time, the defendant is even relieved of that burden. Until evidence is offered and received at the trial which tends to show that the defendant was in sane at the time of the alleged crime, the state may rely upon the presumption of sanity and need not offer evidence to establish that fact [Emphasis added]. In the absence of evidence, sanity is assumed to exist without evidence of its existence. When, however, evidence is received which tends to show that the accused was insane at the time of the alleged offense, then, and in such case, an issue is raised as to the mental condition of the accused, and it becomes the duty of the jury to determine such issue from the evidence independent of the presumption of sanity. If the jury, however, disbelieves the evidence, then the presumption stands. The court fully understood the law and instructed the jury accordingly.” State v. Moore, supra, 42 N.M. at 154, 155, 76 P.2d at 30, 31.
We agree with Justice Zinn’s analysis but recognize that the mode of expression in the emphasized portion has engendered argument.
Except in a case where the evidence of insanity is so clear as to require a directed verdict, i. e., the presumption of sanity is rebutted as a matter of law, the presumption abides with the state throughout the case and continues even after the defendant has made a sufficient showing to procure insanity instructions. For this reason we do not entirely agree with the statement that is emphasized because it could be inferred from it that the presumption ceases to operate when evidence tending to show insanity is received. Justice Zinn’s assertion that “if the jury disbelieves the evidence [evidence tending to show accused was insane at the time of the alleged offense], then the presumption stands,” clearly suggests that the presumption of sanity does not disappear and is not extinguished by evidence tending to show insanity.
In this jurisdiction a defendant, who claims to have been insane at the time of the commission of the offense with which he is charged, must offer evidence tending to show his insanity at the time in order to create a jury question upon this issue, unless a jury question on this issue is raised by evidence adduced by the state which tends to show such insanity. This was what Justice Zinn meant when he said that the presumption of sanity casts upon the defendant the necessity of going forward with the evidence tending to show insanity, and that “if the state has offered evidence which tends to show that he was insane at that time, the defendant is even relieved of that burden.” The state, if it chose to do so as a matter of trial tactics and perhaps at some risk of losing the lawsuit, could decline to introduce evidence of sanity in rebuttal to the defendant’s evidence of the want thereof. The ultimate decision on the matter is for the jury under proper instructions. State v. Lopez, 80 N.M. 599, 458 P.2d 851 (Ct.App.1969).
This was what we had in mind in Torres, supra, 82 N.M. at 424, 483 P.2d at 305, when we said:
“The instructions tendered by the defendant are wrong in that they would place the burden as to the defendant’s sanity on the State.”
We meant that the state was not required to affirmatively prove sanity but could rather rely on the presumption.. But the quoted statement from Torres, supra, as written, is wrong and is overruled. Otherwise Torres, supra, would be irreconcilable with James, supra, notwithstanding the statement of the author of the latter case to the contrary. We have no quarrel with what is said in James, supra, although it fails to make clear that the presumption of sanity continues through the case.
If error is to be claimed concerning a court’s failure to give a requested instruction to a jury, such instruction must be a proper statement of the law. State v. Williams, 76 N.M. 578, 417 P.2d 62 (1966). The tendered instruction here was erroneous in that it would have told the jury that the presumption of sanity could not be relied upon because the defendant had introduced evidence of insanity.
Defendant’s next point has to do with a written statement by Mary Lou Cardón, decedent’s sister. The witness testified that she had made a statement a few days after the crime; that she had not had an opportunity to look at the statement before she testified; and that she had not used it to refresh her memory.
The following then occurred:
“By Mr. Moyers: Your Honor, at this time I would request an opportunity to look at the statement of Mary Lou Car-don that was taken by the police.
“By Mr. Williams: Your Honor, I don’t have a written statement of Mary Lou Cardón and I have not seen it.
“By the Court: If he hasn’t got it, he hasn’t seen it, that is the District Attorney.
“By Mr. Moyers: Your Honor, I have one more question.
“By the Court: Very well.”
Defendant argues that the trial court erred in failing “to make further inquiry as to the whereabouts of the statement and to require its production by the police officer or other person who has it for the examination by the defense counsel.”
We know of no obligation on the part of the court to seek out the statement. It was the obligation of the defendant to pursue the matter. From the quoted colloquy, one would suppose that the matter of the statement had been abandoned, and such an assumption on the part of the trial judge would have been entirely justified. Since defense counsel made no further request for the production of the alleged statement from anyone who might have possession, we can say that no objection or precise ruling was made on the matter involved and, therefore, the trial judge did not err with respect to the non-production of the statement. State v. Miller, 79 N.M. 117, 440 P.2d 792 (1968); State v. Reynolds, 79 N.M. 195, 441 P.2d 235 (Ct.App.1968); Supreme Court Rule 20(1) (2) .[§ 21-2-1(20) (1) (2), N.M.S.A.1953].
Finally defendant contends that there was no substantial evidence to support the verdict of the jury that the defendant was sane at the time of the offense and that for this reason the trial court erred in denying defendant’s motion for directed verdict. We will not review all of the evidence bearing on the question of sanity. From what we have said at the outset of this opinion, it is clear that defendant’s sanity was a disputed issue of fact for the determination of the jury under proper instructions, and no error in the instructions was reserved for review. In State v. Rushing, 85 N.M. 540, 544, 514 P.2d 297, 301 (1973) we said, quoting from State v. Polsky, 82 N.M. 393, 398, 482 P.2d 257, 262 (Ct.App.1971):
“ ‘In determining whether there is substantial evidence to support a conviction, the appellate court must view the evidence in the light most favorable to the State, resolving all conflicts therein and indulging all permissible inferences therefrom in favor of the verdict. State v. Parker, 80 N.M. 551, 458 P.2d 803 (Ct.App.1969). Substantial evidence is such relevant evidence as a reasonable mind might accept as adequate support for.a conclusion. State v. Encee, 79 N.M. 23, 439 P.2d 240 (Ct.App.1968). The fact that there were conflicts in the evidence does not make the State’s evidence insubstantial. State v. Mora, 81 N.M. 631, 471 P.2d 201 (Ct.App.1970). The appellate court may not properly substitute its judgment for that of the jury as to credibility of the witnesses or the weight to be given the evidence. Gallegos v. Wilkerson, 79 N.M. 549, 445 P.2d 970 (1968); State v. McAfee, 78 N.M. 108, 428 P.2d 647 (1967); State v. Tafoya, 80 N.M. 494, 458 P.2d 98 (Ct.App.1969); Rein v. Dvoracek, 79 N.M. 410, 444 P.2d 595 (Ct.App.1968).’”
The judgment of the trial court is affirmed.
It is so ordered.
OMAN and MONTOYA, JJ., concur. | [
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OPINION
OMAN, Justice.
Plaintiff, an alleged pretermitted, illegimate son of Sven Gustafson, deceased, brought suit in the district court against decedent’s widow as the sole beneficiary under and the executrix of decedent’s last will and testament. He sought recovery of his claimed intestate share of decedent’s estate. The trial court entered summary judgment for defendant. Plaintiff appealed. We reverse.
Death of the testator occurred on January 27, 1967. His will was admitted to prohate in the probate court. On April 1, 1968, the prebate court entered a decree denominated “Decree Approving Final Account and Report, Determining Heirship and Directing Distribution,” which will hereinafter be referred to as the decree. Clearly heirship was not determined by the probate court in this decree and defendant so concedes. The final account and report of the executrix was approved, and all her acts as executrix were ratified and confirmed. It was also decreed that defendant, as executrix, “ * * * transfer, assign, pay over and distribute to herself, individually, all of the remaining assets of decedent’s estate.”
Plaintiff filed his suit on Decémber 10, 1971. It is apparent from the record that the trial court granted summary judgment for defendant upon the ground that plaintiff’s cause of action was barred either by the limitations provision of § 31-12-13, N.M.S.A.1953, or the limitations provision of § 23-1-4, N.M.S.A.1953, or by the limitations provisions of both such statutes.
Plaintiff’s claims that he is an illegitimate child of decedent, and was so recognized by decedent in writing in accordance with the provisions of § 29-1-18, N.M.S.A. 1953, are issues of fact which were in no way determined by the summary judgment. There is no doubt he was not named or provided for in the will. Thus, if his claims that he is a child of decedent, and was so recognized by the decedent in writing, are proven to be true and are not barred by the limitations provision of either § 23-1-4 or § 31-12-13, supra, he is entitled to inherit a child’s share of decedent’s estate just as if decedent had died intestate. See § 29-1-18, supra; § 30-1-7, N.M.S.A. 1953; In re Gossett’s Estate, 46 N.M. 344, 129 P.2d 56, 142 A.L.R. 1441 (1942).
Section 30-1-7, supra, provides:
“Children omitted from will — Receive intestate share. — If any person make his last will and die, leaving a child or children, or descendants of such child or children, in case of their death, not named or provided, for in such will, although born after the making of such will, every such testator, so far as shall regard such child or children, or their descendants not provided for, shall be deemed to die intestate; and such child or children, or their descendants, shall be entitled to such proportion of the estate of the testator, real and personal, as if he had died intestate; and the same shall be assigned to them, and all the other heirs, devisees, and legatees shall refund their proportional part.”
The language of this statute clearly provides, as to a pretermitted child, that a decedent shall be deemed to have died intestate. Insofar as such child is concerned, there is no will. Dunham v. Stitzberg, 53 N.M. 81, 98-99, 201 P.2d 1000; 83 A.L.R.2d 987 (1948). It follows logically therefrom that a pretermitted child’s interest does not pass to or through the executor or executrix of decedent’s will, and that the child’s interest in decedent’s estate in no way depends upon or is affected by the provisions of the will. Dunham v. Stitzberg, supra, at 89, 98-99, 201 P.2d 1000. We do not mean to suggest that the child’s interest is not subject to administration for the purpose of being reached for the payment of valid claims against the estate or a proper proportion of the costs of administration. However, these questions are not before us on this appeal, except to the extent hereinafter discussed.
Section 31-12-13, supra, which is one of the statutes relied upon by defendant and relied upon by the trial court as a basis for granting the summary judgment, provides:
“Determination of heirship — Limitation of actions. — No action or proceeding shall be brought in any court by any per son, or persons, claiming an interest in or to the estate of any deceased person contrary to any judgment or decree of any probate or district court of this state purporting to determine the heirship of such deceased person or title to either the real or personal property of such deceased person’s estate, or the distribution of any real or personal property pursuant to the last will and testament of such deceased person, which shall have heretofore been entered, or which may hereafter be entered, after due notice and hearing, as provided by statute, unless such action or proceeding shall be commenced within six [6] months from the time of entry of such judgment or decree, or, if entered before the effective date of this act, within six [6] months from the effective date hereof.”
As stated above, the probate court did not determine the heirship of decedent, and it did not determine title to either the real or personal property of decedent, except to the extent that such may be inferred from that portion of the decree which directed the executrix, after paying the remaining expenses of administration, attorney’s fees and taxes, to “ * * * ■ thereupon transfer, assign, pay over and distribute to herself, individually, all of the remaining assets of decedent’s estate.” Whatever authority the probate court had to determine title to the real or.personal property of decedent, or to distribute that property, this authority was obviously exercised in this case in accordance with and for the purpose of giving effect to the provisions of decedent’s will. This is apparent from the fact that heirship of decedent was not determined and from the court’s conclusion of law :
“That Marguerite Gustafson, who is also sometimes known as Ethel Marguerite Gustafson, decedent’s surviving spouse, is the sole devisee and legatee of decedent’s entire estate, and is the sole owner of and entitled to the distribution to her of all of the remaining assets of said estate, subject only to payment of the taxes, * * * and the remaining expenses of administration and attorneys fees * *
As above stated, plaintiff’s interest in decedent’s estate, if he is a pretermitted child of decedent, which is an issue of fact to be resolved at trial, did not pass to or through defendant as executrix of decedent’s will, did not in any way depend upon and was in no way affected by the will, and there is no will within the contemplation of the applicable law, insofar as he is concerned. Therefore, it necessarily follows that the decree, insofar as it purported to distribute the real and personal property of decedent’s estate “pursuant to the last will and testament of such deceased person,” as authorized and provided by § 31-12-13, supra, distributed unto defendant only that portion of the real and personal property of decedent’s estate which passed to her as the sole devisee and legatee under the will, and this did not and could not have included plaintiff’s interest therein, if in fact he has an interest. Consequently, the sixth month period of limitations provided in § 31-12-13, supra, is not applicable to plaintiff’s claims.
Sections 23-1-1 and 4, N.M.S.A.1953, which relate to the other period of limitations upon which defendant relied in seeking and the trial court relied in granting the summary judgment, provide:
“23-1-1. Limitation on time of bringing actions.■ — The following suits or actions may be brought within the time hereinafter limited, respectively, after their causes accrue, and not afterwards, except when otherwise specially provided.”
“23-1-4. Accounts — Unwritten contracts — Injuries to property — Conversion — Fraud — Unspecified actions — Four-year limitation. — Those founded upon accounts and unwritten contracts; those brought for injuries to property or for the conversion of personal property or for relief upon the ground of fraud, and all other actions not herein otherwise provided for and specified within four. [4] years.”
As shown above, whatever rights were acquired by defendant under the will did not include the rights acquired by plaintiff as a pretermitted heir. Here custody and control over the property was exercised in her representative capacity as executrix, until the assets were distributed to her in her individual capacity as the sole devisee and legatee under the will. The record before us fails to show any actual distribution to her pursuant to the decree. Any exercise by her of control over plaintiff’s property interests in the estate prior to distribution was ‘ only that control incident to her powers of administration over the entire estate.
As to the power of administration by an executor or executrix over the total assets of an estate, including the interests of pretermitted heirs, it is stated in Estate of Philippi, 71 Cal.App.2d 127, 133-134, 161 P.2d 1006, 1009 (1945):
“That the property of a deceased father vests in his pretermitted children upon his death, there being no other lineal heirs, is not an exact statement of the law. The estate vests, subject to his debts, expenses of last illness, funeral expenses and expenses of administration. Administration of an estate is necessary in order’ to determine the property remaining to be distributed to the heirs.
******
“It is true that pretermitted children do not take under the will but under the statute. It is also true that such children cannot contest the probate of such a will as they take adversely to it. In re Estate of Sankey, 199 Cal. 391, 249 P. 517; In re Estate of Grazzini, supra [31 Cal.App.2d 168, 87 P.2d 713], The pretermitted child may assert his right to the proper portion of his ancestor’s estate at the time of the hearing of a petition for its distribution * * * or by proceedings in equity * * *, but may not contest the probate of the will.”
At the time defendant undertook to distribute all the assets of the estate unto herself, if in fact she has done so in accordance with her interpretation of the decree, then, and only then, did she, if ever, unlawfully exercise dominion over plaintiff’s interests contrary to his right to have assigned to him that portion of the estate property to which he was entitled pursuant to § 30-1-7, supra.
The fact that plaintiff might properly have asserted his claim as a pretermitted heir in the probate proceedings prior to the entry of the decree, did not oblige him to do so. He was not obliged to contest the decree, which accomplished only a distribution to defendant of that portion of decedent’s estate acquired by her as the sole devisee and legatee under the will. He could properly anticipate that the executrix would administer the estate according to law, and this she has done, insofar as is shown by the record before us. She has not, however, been discharged as executrix and she has not distributed plaintiff’s portion of the estate unto him, if in fact he is a pretermitted heir as claimed by him. Until defendant asserted unlawful dominion over plaintiff’s property interest, which she must have done, if at all, after the entry of the decree, there was no dispute between them, and there was nothing over which they had reason to contest. Prior thereto she was unaware of his existence. Compare In re Martinez’ Will, 47 N.M. 6, 12, 132 P.2d 422 (1942).
The date of the. decree was April 1, 1968. The date plaintiff filed his suit was December 10, 1971. This was well within the four year period during which plaintiff was required to file his suit, if in fact defendant has asserted an unlawful claim of ownership to his interests in the estate since the entry of the decree.
It is unnecessary for us to decide and we do not decide the other issues presented on this appeal.
The summary judgment should be reversed and the cause remanded for further proceedings consistent with this opinion.
It is so ordered.
STEPHENSON, MONTOYA and MARTINEZ, JJ., concur. .
McMANUS, C. J., dissenting. | [
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OPINION
STEPHENSON, Justice.
Plaintiff-Appellant sued, alleging breach of fiducial obligations owed him as a result of a partnership of which he had been a member.
The trial court’s decision included findings of fact consistent with honesty and fair dealing on the part of the defendants-appellees and inconsistent with appellant’s factual predicate. It also denied findings of fact requested by appellant which were essential to his case.
In attempting to attack these actions of the trial court, appellant’s brief falls far short of compliance with the second paragraph of Supreme Court Rule 15(6) [§ 21-2-1(15) (6), N.M.S.A.1953]. Compliance with portions of Supreme Court Rule 15 (16) (b) and (c) [§ 21-2-1 (15) (16) (b & c), N.M.S.A.1953] ranges from slight to none.
We will accordingly consider the matter no further. The judgment from which the appeal is taken is affirmed.
It is so ordered.
McMANUS, C. J., and MONTOYA, J., concur. | [
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OPINION
WOOD, Chief Judge.
After a formal hearing, the Commissioner of Revenue denied the protest of taxpayer (New Mexico Sheriffs and Police Association) as to its liability for gross receipts and municipal tax, penalty and interest from July 1, 1969, to January 31, 1972. Taxpayer’s appeal raises questions concerning: (1) license or franchise; (2) the deduction provided by § 72-16A-14.18, N. M.S.A. 1953 (Repl.Vol. 10, pt. 2, Supp. 1971); and (3) double taxation.
License or franchise.
Section 72-16A-3(I), N.M.S.A.1953 (Repl.Vol. 10, pt. 2, Supp.1971) defines property to include “licenses” and “franchises.” Section 72-16A-3(F), supra, defines gross receipts to include the total amount of money received from selling property in New Mexico. The tax assessment involved concerns a contract between taxpayer and Gene Shaffer. The issue is whether that contract amounts to a license or franchise.
Under the contract, taxpayer granted to Shaffer “ . . . the sole and exclusive right to publish the official magazine of the New Mexico Sheriff [sic] and Police Association. ’. . .” The contracting parties agreed that the magazine was taxpayer’s “official publication,” that the name to be used was “ ‘NEW MEXICO LAW MAN’ ” and that this name was the property of taxpayer. The contract contains details as to publication dates, contents, distribution and controls in taxpayer concerning the solicitation and sale of advertising.
Under the contract, Shaffer bears the cost of publication. Taxpayer received from Shaffer “ . . .a royalty of sixteen per cent (16) of the gross sales of advertising.” The tax assessment involved is based on receipts to taxpayer under this provision.
Taxpayer contends the contract does not amount to either a license or franchise. We do not consider the meaning of “franchise.” The contract is a license.
“License” is not defined in the statutes. Accordingly, “license” is to be given its ordinary meaning unless a different intent is clearly indicated. Albuquerque Nat. Bank v. Commissioner of Revenue, 82 N.M. 232, 478 P.2d 560 (Ct.App.1970); Reed v. Jones, 81 N.M. 481, 468 P.2d 882 (Ct.App.1970).
Webster’s Third New International Dictionary (1966) defines “license” in terms of “to accord permission or consent;” “allow;” “authorize;” “permission to act.” Under the heading “Constitutional Law and Law of Contracts,” Black’s Law Dictionary (1951) defines “license” as: “A permission, by a competent authority to do some act which without such authorization would be illegal, or would be a trespass or a tort. . . .” See Fed. Land Bank v. Kiowa County, 368 U.S. 146, 82 S.Ct. 282, 7 L.Ed.2d 199 (1961), n. 23; Galvan v. Superior Court, 70 Cal.2d 851, 76 Cal.Rptr. 642, 452 P.2d 930 (1969); compare Beckett v. Tax Commr., 7 Ohio App.2d 181, 219 N.E.2d 305 (1965). Adams v. Heisen, 77 N.M. 374, 423 P.2d 414 (1967) states: “The essential element in the creation of a license is the permission or consent of the licensor. . . .” Compare State v. Mauney, 76 N.M. 36, 411 P.2d 1009 (1966).
The ordinary meaning of license being “permission to act,” the contract in question was a license from taxpayer to Shaffer to publish the magazine. Taxpayer’s argument that this permission cannot be a license unless the permission comes from some government authority is without merit. The following cases demonstrate that the concept of license is not so limited. Adams v. Heisen, supra; Jellison v. Gleason, 77 N.M. 445, 423 P.2d 876 (1967); Mozert v. Noeding, 76 N.M. 396, 415 P.2d 364 (1966); Bogart v. Hester, 66 N.M. 311, 347 P.2d 327 (1959).
Deduction provided by § 72-16A-14.18, supra.
This section states that receipts from publishing magazines, except from selling advertising space, may be deducted from gross receipts. Taxpayer claims he is entitled to this deduction. We disagree.
No such claim was raised at the hearing before the Commissioner. Section 72 — 13— 39, N.M.S.A.1953 (Repl.Vol. 10, pt. 2, Supp.1971) provides the appeal to this Court is “ . . . only to the same extent and upon the same theory as was asserted in the hearing before the commissioner ..” The claim is not before us for review. Till v. Jones, 83 N.M. 743, 497 P.2d 745 (Ct.App.1972). In addition, the record is undisputed that taxpayer’s receipts are a royalty paid to it from Shaffer’s advertising revenues and are not receipts from publishing the magazine.
Double taxation.
Taxpayer claims the Commissioner’s decision is arbitrary and capricious, see § 72-13-39(C), supra, because taxation of its receipts “smacks of double taxation.” This contention is that Shaffer has paid the tax on his gross receipts (which is not established in this record) and, therefore, the taxation of receipts to taxpayer is double taxation.
There are two answers. First, if there were double taxation, such would not necessarily be arbitrary or capricious. See New Mexico State Board of Public Account. v. Grant, 61 N.M. 287, 299 P.2d 464 (1956). Second, there is no double taxation, as that concept is defined in State v. Ingalls, 18 N.M. 211, 135 P. 1177 (1913). The tax is on the taxpayer’s receipts. The only other tax involved is the tax asserted to have been paid by Shaffer on his receipts. There is no factual basis for the double taxation claim. Czarnikow-Rionda Company v. United States, 328 F.Supp. 487 (Customs Ct.1971); Aragon v. Empire Gold Mining & Milling Co., 47 N.M. 299, 142 P.2d 539 (1943); see House of Carpets, Inc. v. Bureau of Revenue, 84 N.M. 747, 507 P.2d 1078 (Ct.App.1973); Rust Tractor Co. v. Bureau of Revenue, 82 N.M. 82, 475 P.2d 779 (Ct.App.1970).
The Commissioner’s decision and order is affirmed.
It is so ordered.
HENDLEY and LOPEZ, JJ., concur. | [
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] |
OPINION
OMAN, Justice.
Petitioners sought and secured from the District Court of Eddy County a preliminary writ of prohibition directed to Respondent, the magistrate for division I of said county. The writ commanded Respondent, who was conducting a preliminary hearing upon third degree felony charges pending against Petitioners, to desist and refrain from additional action in said criminal proceedings until the further order of the district court and until that court should hear the petition for a permanent writ of prohibition upon its merits.
The matter was heard, on the merits on December 18, 1972. Although a copy thereof does not appear in the transcript of the record before us on this appeal, the parties have asserted that on February 14, 1973 the district court entered an “Order Dismissing and Quashing the Preliminary Writ of Prohibition.” We accept this assertion as true. A decision of the district court entered February 15, 1972, consisting of findings of fact and conclusions of law, which does appear in the record before us, supports such an order. We affirm that order.
Except for additional facts recited hereinafter incident to our disposition of the individual points relied upon for reversal, the facts essential to an jmderstanding of the issues raised on this appeal are:
(1) Petitioners were charged in the magistrate court over which Respondent presides with having committed the crime of aggravated battery, which is a third degree felony. Magistrate courts have no trial jurisdiction over such offense, but do have authority to conduct preliminary examinations upon charges therefor. Section 36-3-4, N.M.S.A.1953 (2nd Repl.Vol. 6, 1972).
(2) Attorneys were appointed to represent Petitioners under the Indigent Defense Act, §§ 41-22-1 through 10, N.M.S. A.1953 (2nd Repl.Vol. 6, 1972).
(3) Prior to the commencement of the preliminary examination before Respondent upon the charges against Petitioners, the attorneys appointed to represent Petitioners requested of Respondent on behalf of Petitioners that the preliminary hearing be stenographically reported and transcribed, and that Petitioners be furnished a certified copy of the transcript at the State’s expense. This request was denied.
(4) Pursuant to instructions from the State Court Administrator addressed to all district judges and magistrates, Respondent offered to have the proceedings recorded on a tape by a Norelco Carry-Corder portable tape recorder which had been furnished by the State for that purpose and to make the tape and a recorder available for the use of Petitioners and their attorneys should Petitioners be bound over to the district court to stand trial on the charges against them.
(5) Thereupon the attorneys moved the district judge who had appointed them to be allowed to withdraw as attorneys for Petitioners. Their stated reason therefor was that they had had many years experience in the practice of criminal law before all the courts of the State of New Mexico, and that they could not adequately and competently represent Petitioners unless furnished with a certified written transcription of the records and proceedings in the magistrate court, including the preliminary hearing. The motion was denied and the attorneys were instructed to continue their representation of Petitioners.
(6) The district judge who heard the petition for writ of prohibition upon its merits made the following pertinent findings:
(a) “That the Respondent is the Magistrate of a Magistrate Court, has jurisdiction to hold preliminary hearings of the defendants [Petitioners] and his actions in denying a written transcript requested by the attorneys in the preliminary hearing herein was done by authority of law and has not deprived defendant Petitioners herein of the right to due process of law and of equal protection of the laws.
(b) “Respondent’s refusal to allow a written transcript does not violate Section 41-22-3, N.M.S.A., 1953 Comp., the Indigent Defense Act, in that no evidence has been presented showing that the representation of the Petitioners has not been ‘to the same extent as a person having his own counsel.’
(c) “That the denial to the Petitioners of a certified written transcript does not deprive them of a proper record upon which to base their cross examination of prosecution witnesses and impeachment of such witnesses at the trial so long as they are provided with a recording as is allowed under Section 41-23-55, N.M.S. A., 1953 Comp. (1972 P.S.).
(d) “That the tape recording offered to the Petitioners is admissible in evidence at the trial for impeachment and other purposes.
(e) “That the tape recording offered the Petitioners will furnish the Petitioners the opportunity to-be prepared to challenge any contradiction by the witness at the trial.
(f)' “That the granting of a tape recording provides the Petitioners with adequate facilities for discovery and for trial preparation.
(g) “That the providing of a tape recording for the Petitioners provides them with adequate facilities for the purpose of appeal.
(h) “That the Petitioners have failed to show that a written transcript is in any way inherently a better form of preservation of testimony than that provided by a tape recording.
(i) “That a transcription from a stenographic tape recording can be changed by the person transcribing the shorthand tape.
(j) “That the state legislature has not appropriated funds to pay for written transcripts for indigent defendants.
(k) “That the attorney or attorneys representing the defendant [Petitioners] if he is [they are] bound over for trial to the district court will have the opportunity to listen to a sound recording and will not have to .rely upon a written record for the purpose of impeachment or examining witnesses.
(l) “That the Petitioners have been offered the use of a proper machine on which to play the tape recording record of the preliminary hearing.”
We shall consider the three points relied upon for reversal in a slightly different order from that in which they are presented in the brief in chief. We first consider the contention that the district “COURT COMMITTED ERROR IN HOLDING THAT A NORELCO CARRY-CORDER PORTABLE CASSETTE TAPE PROVIDES AN ADEQUATE RECORD OF THE PRELIMINARY HEARING.”
Petitioners particularly contend their attorneys were not furnished with the proper tools with which to represent them at trial or on appeal, should they be convicted. Their claim is that a tape recording of the proceedings in the preliminary hearing, together with a proper machine on which to play this recording, are inadequate tools for these purposes, and that the only adequate tool is a typewritten copy of a court reporter’s transcription of stenographic notes of the proceedings, which the report er has certified to be an accurate report of the proceedings.
In addition to the findings of fact by the district court above quoted and which are pertinent 'to this issue, none of which has been directly attacked as being unsupported by substantial evidence, the district court concluded: (1) “There is no inherent difference between a written transcript and an electronically recorded transcript”; (2) “Ability to pay costs of written transcripts might make representation for a paying defendant more convenient, but there is no inherent difference in that the spoken word is captured in both cases”; (3) “There was no evidence of sufficient nature presented to show that there is an inherent advantage between a written transcript and one that is electronically recorded.”
We appreciate there seems to be confusion of fact and law in some of the findings and conclusions, but we agree with the district court that the record clearly supports the ultimate fact that a tape recording of the proceedings at the preliminary hearing would be an adequate record of these proceedings for the purposes of preparation for trial, for use at trial and on appeal, should an appeal prove necessary.
We fully recognize that it has long been the practice in New Mexico for attorneys to use certified, typewritten transcriptions of prior testimony of witnesses as a basic tool for trial preparation and cross-examination of these witnesses if called to testify at a trial. However, certified written reports of prior testimony, or written prior statements of witnesses, are not alone useable or admissible in evidence for these purposes, and we do not understand Petitioners to so contend. See State v. Gonzales, 77 N.M. 583, 425 P.2d 810 (1967); Franklin’s Earth-Moving, Inc. v. Loma Linda Park, Inc., 74 N.M. 530, 395 P.2d 454 (1964); Brown v. General Insurance Company of America, 70 N.M. 46, 369 P.2d 968 (1962); Kirchner v. Laughlin, 6 N.M. 300, 28 P. 505 (1892); State v. Carlton, 82 N.M. 537, 484 P.2d 757 (Ct.App.1971), cert. denied, 82 N.M. 534, 484 P.2d 754 (1971); 3 & 4 Jones on Evidence, Civil and Criminal, §§ 15:15, 26:2-5 (6th ed. Gard 1972); Annot., 11 A.L.R.2d 30, 89-101, 155-165 (1950). Petitioners do contend written transcripts are more easily used for these purposes than are tape recordings. Their experienced, court- appointed attorneys sincerely feel that they will be handicapped without a certified, typewritten copy of a court reporter’s transcription of the preliminary hearing. However, at oral argument before us they conceded they had never tried using a tape recording in preparation for trial or at trial. We are of the opinion that they are mistaken in their belief that they will be handicapped by the use of a tape recording.
An audio recording of oral statements, conversations, questions and answers is not equal to an audio visual recording thereof, but it is far superior to a written transcription. It adds a most important and significant dimension to the understanding and evaluation of the spoken words. We agree with the district court that a tape recording is adequate for trial preparation, for use at trial and for purposes of appeal, and that the record on this appeal fails to show that a written transcript is a better form of preserving testimony than a tape recording thereof.
The tape recording of that portion of the preliminary hearing, which had been conducted prior to service on Respondent of the preliminary writ of prohibition, was played before the district court, Petitioners, Petitioners’ attorneys and the Respondent. The district court announced it would listen to the tape for tone and quality. The record on this appeal is devoid of any question as to the tone or quality of the recording, and there is no indication that it in any way fails to constitute an accurate record of the proceedings purportedly recorded thereon.
Petitioners contend that a recording could be altered by a relatively simple op eration by someone who had access to the tape and who was so motivated. This is true. It is also true that a written transcription of a tape recording could contain inaccuracies by reason of either honest mistakes or dishonest design on the part of the transcriber. It is equally true, and obviously more likely, that a transcription of stenographic notes will contain honest errors, and it is just as likely that dishonest changes will be made in stenographic notes or the transcription thereof as will be made in a tape recording. The dishonest are resourceful enough to accomplish changes in either, if presented an opportunity and a reason to do so.
An affidavit of a United States magistrate was received into evidence by stipulation, and therein it was stated:
“In connection with the official duties of this Court [United States magistrate court], I have presided at two hundred and five (205) preliminary hearings from April 1971 down to the date of this affidavit [December 13, 1972], With perhaps five (5) exceptions, all such hearings were conducted using a sound-recording device.
“In my judgment, the sound record- ■ ings in this Court properly preserve the record for appellate review. I find no inherently prejudicial defect in the use of a sound recording for the trial record.”
Petitioners particularly rely upon Britt v. North Carolina, 404 U.S. 226, 92 S.Ct. 431, 30 L.Ed.2d 400 (1971). In that case certiorari was granted so that the court could determine whether the rule announced in Griffin v. Illinois, 351 U.S. 12, 76 S.Ct. 585, 100 L.Ed. 891 (1956) was applicable to the furnishing of a transcript of the trial record for use on the retrial of a case which had ended in a mistrial. It was held that the principle announced in Griffin and its progeny was applicable and a state must provide an indigent defendant with a transcript of prior proceedings when that transcript is needed for an effective trial defense or appeal.
However, in the Britt case, no question was raised as to whether some other form of recording of the prior proceedings would not have served just as well. In fact the decision of the court in that case was that the defendant was not entitled to a transcript because “ * * * the reporter would at any time have read back , to counsel his notes of the mistrial, well in advance of the second trial, if counsel had simply made an informal request.” Britt v. North Carolina, supra, 404 U.S. at 229, 92 S.Ct. at 435, 30 L.Ed.2d at 405. The court referred to this informal alternative, which was available to defendant, as an apparently substantial equivalent to a transcript.
We find it unbelievable that a reading by a court reporter of his notes of a mistrial is as satisfactory for the purposes of preparation fot a retrial as an audible and accurate sound recording of the prior proceedings.
The adoption of the view of Petitioners would be to constitutionally limit records of judicial proceedings to a certified transcript of a court reporter’s notes. This cannot be the law in view of the far more complete, informative and impressive audio and visual records which can now be made of judicial proceedings. This court has long recognized that the trier of the facts —the trial court or the trial jury — which participates in the trial proceedings with first hand observations of the trial judge, the trial attorneys, the trial atmosphere, and, particularly, the trial witnesses and their testimony, is better able to determine the credibility of the witnesses and the weight to be given their testimony than is an appellate court, which is presented with a written record of the trial proceedings. See Durrett v. Petritsis, 82 N.M. 1, 474 P.2d 487 (1970); Farmers and Stockmens Bank of Clayton v. Morrow, 81 N.M. 678, 472 P.2d 643 (1970); Gray v. Grayson, 76 N.M. 255, 414 P.2d 228 (1966); Hoskins v. Albuquerque Bus Company, 72 N.M. 217, 382 P.2d 700 (1963); Rice v. First Nat. Bank in Albuquerque, 50 N.M. 99, 171 P.2d 318 (1946); Lopez v. Townsend, 42 N.M. 601, 82 P.2d 921 (1938).
If the typed record were entirely adequate to determine the credibility of the witnesses, the truth of their testimony, and the weight to be accorded thereto, there could be no reason for holding that these are matters to be determined by the trier of the facts and not by the appellate court.
It is only logical that in preparing for a trial the more information a trial attorney has as to the witnesses, what their testimony will likely be, whether or not they are likely to be believed, and whether their testimony is consistent with the truth, the better prepared the attorney can and should be to competently try the case on behalf of his client. An audio record of the former testimony of witnessses would seem clearly superior to a written transcript thereof in making these evaluations and in preparing for trial. We fail to understand why the use of an audio recording is more cumbersome and less effective in trial than a written record. In any event, if the trial attorney feels more at ease with a written record, he can make written notes of pertinent portions of the prior testimony from the audio record, or, if he is so inclined and thinks it advisable, he can make a complete written copy thereof for use at trial.
We next consider Petitioner’s contention that the district “COURT COMMITTED ERROR IN HOLDING RULE 55, THE SAME BEING SECTION 41-23-55, N. M.S.A., 1953 COMP., GOVERNS PROCEEDINGS IN PRELIMINARY HEARINGS IN MAGISTRATE COURTS.” These Rules of Criminal Procedure [§§ 41-23-1 to 55, N.M.S.A.1953 (2nd Repl. Vol. 6, 1972, Supp.1973] were adopted by order of this court and made effective as of July 1, 1972 to cases filed thereafter in district courts and to cases filed thereafter in magistrate courts but not within the trial jurisdiction of the magistrate courts.
Rules 1, 2, 20(b) and 55 are as follows:
“Rule 1 — Scope. These rules govern the procedure in the district courts of New Mexico in all criminal proceedings. In so far as they may be applicable, Rules 3 through 17, 19, 20, 22, 24 and 25 [41-23-3 to 41-23-17, 41-23-19, 41-23-20, 41-23-22, 41-23-24 and 41-23-25] also apply to all proceedings in magistrate court relating to those persons accused of offenses not within magistrate court trial jurisdiction.”
“Rule 2 — Purpose and construction. “These rules are intended to provide for the just determination of criminal proceedings. They shall be construed to secure simplicity in procedure, fairness in administration and the elimination of unjustifiable expense and delay.”
“Rule 20 — Preliminary examination. “(b) Record of Hearing. Upon request, a record shall be made of the preliminary examination. If requested, the record shall be filed with the clerk of the district court within ten [10] days after it is requested.”
“Rule 55 — Record. As used in the Rules of Criminal Procedure, ‘record’ shall mean: (1) stenographic notes which must be transcribed when a ‘record’ is required to be filed; (2) a statement of facts and proceedings stipulated to by the parties for purposes of review; or (3) any mechanical, electrical or other recording, including a video-tape recording when such method of mechanical, electrical or other recording has been approved by the court administrator. No broadcast or reproduction of any mechanical, electrical or other recording shall be made for any person other than an official of the court without the express written consent of the New Mexico Supreme Court.”
It is true, as Petitioners urge, that Rule 1, supra, does not expressly recite that Rule 55 is applicable “to all proceedings in magistrate court relating to those persons accused of offenses not within magistrate court trial jurisdiction.” However, as already indicated above, we are of the opinion that a tape recording would constitute an adequate record of the preliminary hearing in magistrate court, and it would be illogical to hold that a tape recording of this preliminary hearing, if held in the district court, would be adequate and consistent with Rule 55, but, if held in the magistrate court, would be inadequate and inconsistent with Rule 55, simply because Rule 1 did not expressly make Rule 55 applicable to ' these proceedings in the magistrate court. Rule 55 is merely a definition of a “record.” We are unwilling to say a “record” means one thing in district court and another thing in magistrate court, and particularly so since Petitioners are not prejudiced thereby.
Petitioners further argue that since this court has not “ * * * adopted rules governing Magistrate Court proceedings in preliminary hearings in so far as the record which must be made is concerned, we, therefore, must look to the statutes of the State which have been enacted by the legislature to cover the rules. * * * ” They then cite § 36-21-26, N.M.S.A.1953 (2nd Repl.Vol. 6, 1972), which they say was enacted by the Legislature and is mandatory, and which provides in part:
"36-21-26. Rule 26 — Preliminary examinations.
“(a) Conduct of Hearing. After proceeding in accordance with Rule 25(b) [36-21-25 (b)] of these rules and determining that a preliminary examination must be conducted, the magistrate shall proceed to examine the case as follows:
“ * * *
“(2) The witnesses shall be examined in the defendant’s presence and may be cross-examined by him, and the defendant may be sworn and testify in his own behalf. On the request of either party, the testimony shall be reduced to writing and signed by the witnesses, or recorded stenographically and transcribed by the reporter, and filed with the clerk of the district court. * * * ”
They are mistaken about this rule having been enacted by the Legislature. This was a portion of one of the Rules for Criminal Actions in Magistrate Courts adopted by this court and which rules became effective January 1, 1969. Clearly Rule 20(b) of the Rules of Criminal Procedure above quoted, which was adopted subsequent to the adoption of Rule 26 of the Magistrate Rules for Criminal Actions, is made applicable to the preliminary hearing in question in this cause. Rule 1 of the Rules of Criminal Procedure, supra. Thus, Rule 20(b) of the Rules of Criminal Procedure is the controlling rule, and we look to Rule 55 of the Rules of Criminal Procedure, supra, for a definition of “record.”
Petitioners’ final contention is that “RULE 55, THE SAME BEING SECTION 41-23-55, N.M.S.A.1953 COMP., AS APPLIED BY THE COURT BELOW AND THE RESPONDENT’S ACTIONS IN REFUSING TO PROVIDE [PETITIONERS] WITH A PROPER RECORD [OF THE PRELIMINARY HEARING] VIOLATES THE DUE PROCESS AND EQUAL PROTECTION PROVISIONS OF THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA AND THE NEW MEXICO CONSTITUTIONS.”
They primarily rely upon Britt v. North Carolina, supra; Mayer v. City of Chicago, 404 U.S. 189, 92 S.Ct. 410, 30 L.Ed.2d 372 (1971) and Griffin v. Illinois, supra. None of these cases support the position of Petitioners. The Griffin and Mayer cases did call for procedures in criminal trials which prohibit invidious discriminations between persons and different groups of persons. However, this is not a requirement that a certified copy of a court reporter’s notes of these proceedings must be always and forever furnished. It means that the State must afford indigents a “ ‘record of sufficient completeness’ to permit proper consideration of their claims.” Draper v. Washington, 372 U.S. 487, 499, 83 S.Ct. 774, 780, 9 L.Ed.2d 899, 907 (1963); Mayer v. City of Chicago, supra.
The State “ ‘may find other means [than providing stenographic transcripts for] affording adequate and effective appellate review to indigent defendants’.” Mayer v. City of Chicago, supra, 404 U.S. at 194, 92 S.Ct. at 414, 30 L.Ed.2d at 378. Certainly in view of the approval in Britt v. North Carolina, supra, of the informal alternative which was available to the defendant in that case, Petitioners in the case now before us cannot be heard to say that because in the past, and apparently in some jurisdictions at the present, a court reporter’s transcript is furnished, that such transcript must still be furnished when an equally good verbatim record in the form of an audio recording has been tendered them.
They are not entitled to a written transcript of a court reporter’s notes of the preliminary hearing merely because their attorneys have long been accustomed to using such transcripts and sincerely feel they will be unable to use an audio recording of the proceedings with equal facility and effectiveness. As stated above, their attorneys have never tried using such a recording, and, in our judgment, an audio recording of a preliminary hearing is superior to a written transcription of a reporter’s notes in preparing for trial, in examining witnesses at trial, and for whatever possible use may be made of a record of a preliminary hearing on appeal.
Affirmed.
It is so ordered.
McMANUS, C. J., and MARTINEZ, J., concur. | [
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Original Proceeding on Certiorari
Ordered that petition for writ of certiorari be and the same is hereby denied.
Further ordered that the record in Court of Appeals Cause No. 1119, 85 N.M. 484, 513 P.2d 1266 be and the same is hereby returned to the Clerk of the Court of Appeals. | [
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OPINION
RIORDAN, Justice.
David Munoz (defendant) was convicted of first-degree felony murder and attempted robbery. Defendant was sentenced to life imprisonment for the murder and eighteen months for the attempted robbery. Defendant appeals his convictions. We reverse.
Defendant raises four issues on appeal. Because one of the issues is dispositive, we find it unnecessary to address the remaining three. The issue we address is whether the trial court erred in allowing defendant’s trial to continue over defendant’s objection to the State’s use of defendant’s prior immunized testimony.
Defendant and Richard Montoya (Montoya) were sought for questioning in the murder of a Las Cruces undercover agent. After turning himself in to police, defendant gave four statements to investigating police officers. Three of those statements were exculpatory. The fourth statement implicated defendant and Montoya in the murder and robbery. Defendant and Montoya were subsequently indicted on counts of murder and armed robbery. The two were tried separately, with Montoya being tried first.
Defendant was compelled to testify (immunized testimony) under a grant of use immunity at Montoya’s trial. During his immunized testimony, defendant’s previous statements to investigating officers were admitted into evidence, and defendant asserted, for the first time, that the investigating officers had coerced him into making the fourth (inculpatory) statement. The three investigating officers that were present when defendant made the four statements prior to his indictment were also present in the courtroom during defendant’s immunized testimony. These three officers later appeared and testified for the State at defendant’s trial.
The same district attorney prosecuted both Montoya and defendant. Prior to defendant’s trial, the district attorney filed a motion to “impeach defendant’s claim of coercion” on the ground that such claim had not been asserted at an earlier suppression hearing. The district attorney also instructed one of the investigating officers to time defendant’s prior statements to police, apparently to determine the time interval involved in the statement process in which the alleged coercion occurred. Furthermore, the district attorney requested and reviewed a transcript of defendant’s immunized testimony in preparation for de fendant’s trial. Despite all of these facts, and over numerous objections by defense counsel before and during trial, defendant’s trial was allowed to continue.
On appeal, defendant argues that the district attorney’s actions show an unconstitutional use of defendant’s immunized testimony. Defendant further argues that the state failed to meet its heavy burden of proving that the evidence presented against defendant was untainted by defendant’s immunized testimony. We agree.
It has been held that a grant of immunity should leave the witness and the prosecuting authorities “in substantially the same position as if the witness had claimed his [Fifth Amendment] privilege.” Murphy v. Waterfront Commission, 378 U.S. 52, 79, 84 S.Ct. 1594, 1609, 12 L.Ed.2d 678 (1964). Thus:
[A] grant of immunity must afford protection commensurate with that afforded by the [Fifth Amendment] privilege * * Immunity from the use of compelled testimony [use immunity], as well as evidence derived directly and indirectly therefrom, affords this protection. It prohibits the prosecutorial authorities from using the compelled testimony in any respect, and it therefore insures that the testimony cannot lead to the infliction of criminal penalties on the witness.
Kastigar v. United States, 406 U.S. 441, 453, 92 S.Ct. 1653, 1661, 32 L.Ed.2d 212 (1972) (emphasis in original).
A witness that has been accorded use immunity and that is subsequently prosecuted for offenses revealed during such immunized testimony “is not dependent for the preservation of his rights upon the integrity and good faith of the prosecuting authorities.” Id. at 460, 92 S.Ct. at 1664; Kastigar requires that a defendant only show that he has testified under a grant of immunity. The prosecuting authorities then “have the burden of showing that their evidence is not tainted [by exposure to prior immunized testimony] by establishing that they had an independent, legitimate source for the disputed evidence.” Id. (quoting Murphy v. Waterfront Commission, 378 U.S. at 79 n. 18, 84 S.Ct. at 1609 n. 18). It is not enough that the prosecuting authorities simply negate the existence of taint in order to meet this burden. Instead, the prosecution has “the affirmative duty to prove that the evidence it proposes to use is derived from a legitimate source wholly independent of the compelled testimony.” Id.
Various lower United States court decisions have addressed the Kastigar prohibitions on the use of prior immunized testimony. In United States v. McDaniel, 482 F.2d 305 (8th Cir.1973), McDaniel had been extended complete immunity from state prosecution upon appearing before a state grand jury. Sometime after McDaniel’s state grand jury appearance, the United States Attorney requested and reviewed a copy of McDaniel’s testimony, not realizing that such testimony was immunized. Shortly thereafter, McDaniel was indicted on federal charges. McDaniel was subsequently convicted and appealed his conviction. On appeal, McDaniel asserted that under the circumstances, it would be impossible for the prosecution to meet the heavy burden of proof required under Kastigar. The McDaniel Court found that, despite the fact that voluminous F.B.I. reports received by the United States Attorney prior to McDaniel’s immunized state grand jury testimony may have provided proof of an independent source for the government’s case against McDaniel, such reports:
nevertheless fail[ed] to satisfy the government’s burden of proving that the United States Attorney, who admittedly read McDaniel’s grand jury testimony prior to the indictments, did not use it in some significant way short of introducing tainted evidence. Such use could conceivably include assistance in focusing the investigation, deciding to initiate prosecution, refusing to plea-bargain, interpreting evidence, planning cross-examination, and otherwise generally planning trial strategy.
Kastigar, after all, proscribed “any use, direct or indirect * * * * ” And, indeed, if the immunity protection is to be coextensive with the Fifth Amendment privilege, as it must to be constitutionally sufficient, then it must forbid all prosecutorial use of the testimony, not merely that which results in the presentation of evidence before the jury.
McDaniel, 482 F.2d at 311 (emphasis added; citations omitted). The McDaniel Court held that under these circumstances, the government could not meet its heavy burden of proof required by Kastigar:
[OJnce the subject matter was touched upon in the [immunized] testimony, and the prosecutor had read it, he could have used it in a variety of ways * * * * The possibility of such use, and the impossibility of clearly showing that the use did not occur calls for the holding in this case that the defendants were denied the constitutional protection that their silence would have given them.
Id. (emphasis added) (quoting U.S. v. Dornau, 359 F.Supp. 684, 687 (S.D.N.Y.1973)). The McDaniel Court concluded that since the trial court obviously failed to consider “the immeasurable subjective effect” on the prosecutor after reading McDaniel’s immunized testimony, the trial court’s finding that the government had met its Kastigar burden was incorrect. Id. at 312.
Another case analogous to the instant case is United States v. Semkiw, 712 F.2d 891 (3rd Cir.1983). Semkiw was granted use- immunity and compelled to testify before a grand jury regarding a crime for which he was later indicted. Semkiw’s contention on appeal was that the prosecuting attorney used Semkiw’s grand jury testimony as a discovery deposition and therefore violated Semkiw’s Fifth Amendment privilege against self-incrimination. The government did not deny that the prosecuting attorney was familiar with Semkiw’s immunized grand jury testimony and stipulated that the prosecuting attorney had “access” to such testimony. Under these facts, the Semkiw Court reasoned that since it was undisputed that the government had all of its evidence against Semkiw prior to Semkiw’s immunized testimony, it could be inferred that the government intended to use Semkiw’s immunized testimony to its own advantage in the case against Semkiw. The Semkiw Court further stated:
The possibility that the government compromised [Semkiw’s] immunity is heightened by the fact that it assigned the trial to an attorney who had “access” to the compelled testimony. It is no answer for the prosecution to say, as it does on this appeal, that [Semkiw] did not prove that the trial attorney learned his defense from the testimony. The burden of proof at the hearing on this issue rested with the government, not [Semkiw].
Id. at 895. The Semkiw Court stated that the government could “easily have removed any cloud from the trial by assigning it to another attorney who did not and would not review [Semkiw’s] immunized testimony.” Id. Semkiw’s case was remanded to the district court for a determination on the extent of “access” the prosecuting attorney had to Semkiw’s immunized testimony and what use may have been made of it.
It is our determination that McDaniel controls the instant case. Like the prosecuting authorities in McDaniel, the district attorney who prosecuted defendant not only had “access” to defendant’s immunized testimony, but in fact elicited such testimony from defendant at Montoya’s trial and reviewed that testimony prior to presentation of the State’s case against defendant. This same district attorney also made pretrial motions specifically referring to subjects that were only revealed in defendant’s immunized testimony. The trial court in fact admonished the district attorney for “anticipating” such subjects before trial.
Unlike the situation in Semkiw, where it was necessary to remand the case for a determination on the extent of the prosecution’s “access” to immunized testimony, in the instant case, it is undisputed that the district attorney not only had “access” to defendant’s immunized testimony, but heard defendant’s original immunized testimony when it was given and read a transcript of that testimony prior to defendant’s trial. Thus:
Human frailties being as they are, * * it is nigh impossible, after having read the [immunized] testimony, to conduct a completely separate investigation and to separate what was learned from the [immunized] testimony from what was not.
United States v. Rice, 421 F.Supp. 871, 877 (E.D.Ill.1976).
The State argues that its heavy burden of proof was met and likens the instant case to United States v. Pantone, 634 F.2d 716 (3rd Cir.1980). However, that case is distinguishable from the instant case and the authorities on which we rely.
In Pantone, it was found that there was no Kastigar violation. However, under the facts in Pantone, the prosecution’s exposure to defendant’s immunized testimony came after defendant’s first trial and before retrial. At the hearing on the matter, the prosecution assured the court that its case on retrial would mirror the first trial. Under these circumstances, the two trial transcripts could be compared to insure nonuse of defendant’s immunized testimony. Further, defendant’s immunized testimony dealt with only an analogous incident not directly related to those matters for which he was going to be retried. However, under McDaniel and the instant case, the immunized testimony dealt with the same criminal transactions for which the defendants were being tried. Another factor distinguishing Pantone is that the immunized testimony given in Pantone did not reveal, any new or beneficial information to the prosecution. That is not the situation in the. instant case. Defendant’s immunized testimony revealed, for the first time, his defense of coercion.
Another case cited by the State in which the heavy Kastigar burden was met is United States v. Romano, 583 F.2d 1 (1st Cir.1978). However, that case is also distinguishable from the instant case. There, the government successfully proved its independent sources of evidence against Romano by showing that all the prosecuting staff and investigators had prior notice to “avoid all access or contact with any reports, personal or journalistic” of Romano’s immunized testimony. Id. at 5. This directive to avoid Romano’s immunized testimony was complied with by all involved in the prosecution of Romano as evidenced by various testimony and affidavits. However, in the instant case, no such attempts to insulate were made by the prosecuting authorities. Instead, the same district attorney that elicited defendant’s immunized testimony proceeded to prosecute defendant, review that immunized testimony prior to defendant’s trial, and make pretrial motions based on that immunized testimony.
Thus, the conclusion is inescapable that the district attorney was not insulated from defendant’s immunized testimony. The State and the defendant were not in “substantially the same position” as if defendant had retained the right to remain silent. Murphy v. Waterfront Commission, 378 U.S. at 79, 84 S.Ct. at 1609. Under the circumstances of this case, it is our determination that the State did not and cannot meet its burden of disproving taint and showing an independent source for its evidence. We must therefore reverse defendant’s convictions. We do not know what evidence the State has against the defendant that may be used in a new trial. However, the district attorney, who has already made use of the information learned during defendant’s immunized testimony, may not participate in any way if there is a new trial. Similarly, any State witnesses (and particularly the three police officers who were present during defendant’s immunized testimony) are prohibited from testifying or participating in any further investigation or preparation of a new trial with respect to anything that was revealed to the State for the first time during defendant’s immunized testimony.
The prosecution faces a very important decision when it chooses to immunize a witness, especially when criminal charges may be or have been brought against that witness. We therefore caution that cases involving defendants who have given immunized testimony should be handled carefully in light of the State’s heavy burden dictated by Kastigar. A different district attorney than the one who elicits immunized testimony should always handle the prosecution of a defendant who has given such immunized testimony and steps should always be taken to fully insulate such district attorney and staff. Further, steps should be taken to insure that key witnesses will not be exposed to immunized testimony. These precautions are required in all such cases because:
[I]t is the government’s heavy burden to prove the negative in [these] case[s]; i.e., that none of its evidence suffers from taint. The government might find this to be an unreasonable or impossible burden. The government must however recognize that it, in its sole discretion, determines to whom it will grant immunity in order to convict others. The government must recognize that where it grants immunity, it runs the grave risk that any future prosecution of such an immunized witness for past or continuing crimes may, as a practical matter, be impossible, irrespective of whether the prosecutors who grant such immunity know or have any reason to know or suspect the witness of such other crime or crimes.
United States v. Hossbach, 518 F.Supp. 759, 773 (E.D.Pa.1980).
Defendant’s convictions are reversed.
IT IS SO ORDERED.
FEDERICI, C.J., WALTERS, J., and SOSA, Senior Justice, concur.
STOWERS, J., specially concurs.
. Montoya's conviction was affirmed by this Court. State v. Montoya, 101 N.M. 424, 684 P.2d 510 (1984).
. Defendant's motion to suppress on other grounds had been heard prior to Montoya’s trial and denied. | [
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] |
OPINION
BIVINS, Judge.
The plaintiffs, Phillip Bozza and Karen Bozza, individually and as shareholders of Ruzzo-Bozza Trucking Company (corporation), and the corporation brought suit against defendants claiming improper payment of insurance proceeds. From a summary judgment in favor of defendants, plaintiffs appeal.
The trial court ruled that:
1. Defendants did not owe any duty to Plaintiffs, Phillip Bozza and Karen Bozza, individually and as the shareholders of Ruzzo-Bozza Trucking Company, as a matter of law, and
2. [A]ny duty owed to Plaintiff Rozzo-Bozza Trucking Company, a New Mexico corporation, was fulfilled by the Defendants as a matter of law.
At the summary judgment hearing, counsel for plaintiffs conceded that no duty was owed to the Bozzas individually, but argued a duty was owed to them as shareholders of the corporation. Plaintiffs have not pursued their individual or shareholder claims on appeal by argument or authority; therefore, any challenge to the first ruling is deemed abandoned. Novak v. Dow, 82 N.M. 30, 474 P.2d 712 (Ct.App.1970). In any event, the ruling is correct. See Bank of New Mexico v. Rice, 78 N.M. 170, 429 P.2d 368 (1967) (holding that one not a party to contract cannot maintain suit on it, and that a corporation and its shareholders are separate entities).
Thus, the primary issue on appeal focuses on the second ruling that any duty owed to the corporation was fulfilled by defendants as a matter of law. We must determine if a genuine issue of material fact exists which would preclude summary judgment. We hold one does.
The corporation was incorporated in May 1981. At that time the Bozzas and Ruzzos purchased a 1970 Kenworth truck in the name of the corporation and insured it with Excess Insurance Company, Ltd. (Excess). In June 1981, Bruce Ruzzo, president of the corporation, reported the truck stolen and filed a proof of loss on behalf of the corporation. Excess assigned the claim to General Adjustment Bureau (GAB), who, in turn, gave it to its adjuster, Mary Campos, to handle. After GAB had completed its investigation, two drafts, each in the amount of $7,375 and made payable to the insured, Ruzzo-Bozza Trucking, were delivered to Ruzzo in settlement of the claim. Ruzzo endorsed the drafts on behalf of the corporation and obtained in exchange from a bank two cashier’s checks for like amounts also made payable to the corporation. Ruzzo then cashed these checks and absconded with the money. These facts appear to be undisputed.
What is controverted involves information made available to the defendants through Campos or directly prior to delivery of the settlement drafts. While the defendants call attention to affidavits and deposition testimony that reflect that Campos was only aware of internal corporate conflicts between Bozza and Ruzzo, as to which she had no “concern,” an affidavit of Bozza suggests more. Bozza stated that he told Campos, prior to delivery of the drafts, that he was suspicious that Ruzzo was going to abscond with the insurance money and not to pay him. Bozza said he asked Campos to notify him when the drafts were ready so he could accompany Ruzzo to pick them up. He also said that he told Campos that he was placing the title to the truck with the corporate attorney, William Aldridge, and that she should contact the attorney if she needed the title in order to disburse funds.
Aldridge’s affidavit states that he received the truck title from either Mr. or Mrs. Bozza, and then told Campos that he was the corporation’s attorney and that the insurance proceeds were to be paid through his office. Aldridge said he confirmed this with Campos’ supervisor. He said he was never contacted before delivery of the settlement drafts, but that Ruzzo had “wrongfully” taken the truck title from his office.
While defendants strenuously challenge the facts concerning these communications, the standard of review requires only that we determine if they raise genuine issues of fact, not whether they are true. Defendants recognize this, but contend that these facts are immaterial. We turn to the law to see if they are.
We are concerned with the law of agency. Defendants maintain that Ruzzo had apparent authority to act on behalf of and to bind the corporation. At all times material, Ruzzo was president; he reported the theft of the truck; he filed the proof of loss; and he dealt with and negotiated the settlement with Campos, all on behalf of the corporation. In Tabet v. Campbell, 101 N.M. 334, 681 P.2d 1111 (1984), the supreme court said, “[ajpparent authority is-‘that authority which a principal holds his agent out as possessing or permits him to exercise or to represent himself as pos sessing, under such circumstances as to estop the principal from denying its existence.’ ” Id. at 1114 (emphasis in original) (citations omitted). In Vickers v. North American Land Developments, Inc., 94 N.M. 65, 607 P.2d 603 (1980), the supreme court explained the basis for estoppel:
The Doctrine of Apparent Authority is based upon an estoppel theory:
[T]he principal will not be permitted to establish that the agent’s authority was less than what was apparent from the course of dealing for when one of two innocent parties must suffer, the loss must fall upon the party who created the enabling circumstances. (Citations omitted.)
Southwestern Portland Cement v. Beavers, 82 N.M. 218, 221, 478 P.2d 546, 549 (1970).
Id. at 67, 607 P.2d 603.
We agree that the undisputed facts demonstrate that Ruzzo had apparent authority to act on behalf of the corporation initially, but did that change with the communication from Bozza and Aldridge? Tabet v. Campbell also says that a principal is bound by the actions taken under the apparent authority of its agent if the agent is in a position which would lead a reasonably prudgnt .p.erson to believe the agent possessed such apparent authority. The critical question here is whether defendants had notice or knowledge of limitations on Ruzzo’s authority, or possessed information which required them to make further inquiry before delivering the drafts to Ruzzo.
Restatement (Second) of Agency Section 135 (1958) provides:
When Third Persons Have Notice of Termination of Authority
A third person to whom a principal has manifested that an agent has authority to do an act has notice of the termination of authority when he knows, has reason to know, should know, or has been given a notification of the occurrence of an event from which, if reasonable, he would draw the inference that the principal does not consent to have the agent so act for him, that the agent does not consent so to act for the principal, or that the transaction has become impossible of execution.
Restatement, supra, Section 13b provides that, unless otherwise agreed, there is notification by the principal to the third person of revocation of an agent’s authority when the principal states that fact to the third person.
Here we have evidence that Bozza, vice president of the corporation, informed Campos that payment should not be delivered to Ruzzo. Also, there is the statement of Aldridge, who says he was corporate counsel, that the drafts should be delivered to him. This suffices, we believe, to raise a fact question as to whether defendants could still rely on Ruzzo’s apparent authority, at least to the extent of receiving payment on behalf of the corporation.
Due diligence must be employed by a third person with an agent to ascertain the truth of the facts with reference to authority, and a total failure to make inquiry is not ordinarily consistent with reasonable prudence. Anheuser-Busch, Inc. v. Grovier-Starr Produce Co., 128 F.2d 146 (10th Cir.1942). A person knowing of an agent’s limited authority deals with the agent at his peril. See Ham v. Ellis, 42 N.M. 241, 76 P.2d 952 (1937).
Whether an agency exists is ordinarily a question of fact which may be established by direct or circumstantial evidence. State v. De Baca, 82 N.M. 727, 487 P.2d 155 (Ct.App.1971). We, therefore, hold that the trial court erred in deciding as a matter of law that defendants fulfilled its duty to its insured when it delivered the drafts to Ruzzo. In so holding, we are mindful that the corporation has not demonstrated the authority of either Bozza or Aldridge to countermand or limit the authority of the corporation’s president. Nor have we overlooked the fact that Ruzzo converted the money after, not before, payment was made. We believe that these are questions which should be properly ad dressed by the trial court as issues of fact, not of law.
The authorities relied on by defendants do not conflict with the result we reach. In City of Kiel v. Frank Shoe Manufacturing Co., 245 Wis. 292, 14 N.W.2d 164 (1944), the Supreme Court of Wisconsin reversed a money judgment against individual directors of a corporation who received money on behalf of the corporation without wrongdoing. There was no issue in that case concerning authority; only whether the individual directors could be held liable along with the corporation. The case of Clibon Drilling Co. v. Wyoming Mineral Corp., 42 Colo.App. 41, 589 P.2d 78 (1978), which involved facts remarkably similar to those before us, relied on a Colorado statute to affirm summary judgment for defendant. The Colorado statute, identical to NMSA 1978, Section 46-1-2, relieves a person from responsibility who in good faith pays or transfers money or other property to a fiduciary “which the fiduciary as such is authorized to receive”. “Fiduciary” includes an officer of a corporation. In Clibo'n Drilling Co. there was no issue as to the fiduciary’s authority to receive the check; here there is.
Similarly, in Savidge v. Metropolitan Life Insurance Co., 380 Pa. 205, 110 A.2d 730 (1955), also relied on by defendants, the insurance company was not notified or aware of any limitation of the agent's authority when it paid the proceeds under a life policy, and the principal ratified the acts of her agent in collecting the proceeds. We agree with the holding of that case that payment to an authorized agent is payment to the principal, but the agent must be authorized to collect.
Finally, defendants GAB and Campos assert that the duty owed the insured corporation was fulfilled when the settlement checks were picked up by Ruzzo. In claiming the duty should not extend beyond that, defendants rely on Douglass v. Mutual Beneficial Health & Accident Ass’n., 42 N.M. 190, 76 P.2d 453 (1937). That case supports the principles we apply here that one is required to know the agent’s authority. While a principal may be bound by apparent authority of his agent, it does not follow that the principal is bound by acts exceeding that authority, when the third person is made aware of the limitations. That is the issue in the present case, and one which must be resolved by the fact finder.
? stated in Sterling v. B. & E. Constructors, Inc., 74 N.M. 708, 397 P.2d 729 (1964), a third person dealing with an agent is not bound by any limitations or restrictions placed upon the agent by the principal of which he has no notice. See also South Second Livestock Auction, Inc. v. Roberts, 69 N.M. 155, 364 P.2d 859 (1961); New Mexico-Colorado Coal & Mining Co. v. Baker, 21 N.M. 531, 157 P. 167 (1916). The corollary to that rule is that the third person may be bound by limitations and restrictions of an agent’s authority as to which he does have notice.
The corporation argues that a conspiracy existed between Campos and Ruzzo to defraud the corporation. We have examined the second amended complaint and can find no allegations of a conspiracy. Las Luminarias of the N.M. Council of the Blind v. Isengard, 92 N.M. 297, 587 P.2d 444 (Ct.App.1978), sets out the requirements for conspiracy. None have been alleged. Plaintiffs refer to a grudge by Campos against Bozza. The first cause of action appears to allege a breach of contract in delivering the insurance payment to Ruzzo. The second cause of action against GAB alleges negligent handling of the claim by Campos, and the third cause of action makes essentially the same claim against Campos, and attempts to invoke the Unfair Insurance Practices Act, NMSA 1978, Sections 59-11-9 to -22, as to which no private remedy is recognized. State Farm Fire and Casualty Co. v. Price, 101 N.M. 438, 684 P.2d 524 (Ct.App.1984).
Since the matter must be remanded, we simplify the issues. First, only the corporation has a cause of action. Second, that cause of action is for breach of contract in allegedly failing to pay the insurance pro ceeds to the insured corporation. The specific issue is whether delivery of the drafts to the president constitutes payment to the corporation. The determination of that question lies with the authority of Ruzzo to receive delivery. Any restrictions or limitations in Ruzzo’s authority must have been the act of the corporation, not just other officers or attorneys acting on their own or for others. The notice of limitations or restrictions must have been from the corporation itself and of a nature that would have caused a reasonable prudent person to make further inquiry before making payment to the agent. Finally, and even if it is found that prudence would have dictated further inquiry, before defendants can be held liable to pay the claim twice, the fact finder must find that their actions caused the loss.
Defendants Excess and Market Finder argue that the direct claims against them as well as the claim for punitive damages have been settled even if the case is reversed for trial on the merits. As to the punitive damage claim, the trial court did not reach that issue since it dismissed on the question of liability. Defendants may invoke a ruling if they wish. As to the direct claim of liability, we fail to see where this makes any difference. Whether defendants had notice or knowledge of any restrictions or limitations on Ruzzo’s authority, directly or through Campos, would not matter. We do not understand that defendants deny Campos was acting as their agent in the adjustment of the claim.
Finally, with respect to plaintiffs’ appeal from the protective order, this is not a final appealable order, and this court has no jurisdiction at this time to consider it.
We reverse the summary judgment and remand for trial on the merits of the issue herein delineated. Plaintiff corporation may recover its costs of appeal.
IT IS SO ORDERED.
DONNELLY, C.J., and NEAL, J., concur. | [
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OPINION
HENDLEY, Judge.
The state appeals from an order quashing an information for failure to charge a crime. Because the facts were not disputed and because the state asked the court to rule on the questions raised by defendant's motion to quash, the trial court was of the view that a legal, not factual, issue was presented. Cf. State v. Mares, 92 N.M. 687, 594 P.2d 347 (Ct.App.1979). The state does not disagree, nor do we.
We affirm.
The information charged battery upon a peace officer, contrary to NMSA 1978, Section 30-22-24 (Repl.Pamp.1984). The defendant is an eighteen-year-old resident at the New Mexico Boys’ School at Springer. The alleged victim is an employee of the corrections department, classified as a juvenile correctional officer II. The principal functions of such a correctional officer include exercising custody and care of residents committed to the Springer facility; supervising training, recreation, and work activities of residents; counseling; maintaining shift logs; writing incident and accident reports; censoring mail; and performing related work, all under supervision. If a resident of the Springer facility commits a bad act, the juvenile correctional officer may physically restrain a resident and file a report on the incident. The report is reviewed at several levels and the superintendent must make the final determination of whether to initiate disciplinary or criminal proceedings.
Section 30-22-24 proscribes battery upon a “peace officer while he is in the lawful discharge of his duties.” NMSA 1978, Section 30-l-12(C) (Repl.Pamp.1984) defines peace officer as “any public official or public officer vested by law with a duty to maintain public order or to make arrests for crime.” (Emphasis added.) The trial judge, after exhaustively reviewing the pertinent statutes and case law, concluded that, while juvenile correctional officers may have the power to maintain order and make arrests in their particular domain, they were not vested by law with a duty to do so. Accordingly, they were not peace officers within the meaning of Section 30-1-12(C) to which the crime of battery upon a peace officer, contrary to Section 30-22-24, would be applicable. We agree.
A duty is that which is required by one’s station or occupation. City of Clovis v. Archie, 60 N.M. 239, 290 P.2d 1075 (1955). The critical word is “required.” Over the years, the legislature has known how to require certain behavior of certain people and, thus, establish duties. See, e.g., NMSA 1978, § 4-41-2 (Repl.Pamp. 1984) (sheriff shall be conservator of the peace, shall suppress assaults, shall apprehend and commit felons to jail, and shall cause offenders to keep the peace and appear in court); NMSA 1978, § 4-41-9 (Repl.Pamp.1984) (deputy sheriffs are authorized to discharge duties of sheriffs); NMSA 1978, § 3-13-2 (Repl.Pamp.1985) (municipal police officers shall execute and serve certain writs, shall suppress breaches of the peace, shall apprehend certain persons, shall arrest certain persons, and shall have the same responsibilities as sheriffs); NMSA 1978, § 29-2-18 (Repl.Pamp.1984) (state police have certain powers and duties; they shall be conservators of the peace, and shall be charged with enforcement of other laws); NMSA 1978, § 29-9-11 (Repl.Pamp.1984) (investigators of Governor’s Organized Crime Prevention Commission shall be peace officers and have the powers and duties of peace officers); NMSA 1978, § 16-2-30 (it shall be the duty of certain state park and recreation division employees to enforce certain laws); NMSA 1978, § 29-1-2 (Repl.Pamp.1984) (it shall be the duty of sheriffs, deputies, and constables to trace and discover stolen livestock and property); NMSA 1978, § 29-1-1 (Repl.Pamp.1984) (duties of all peace officers and sanction of removal from office for breach of duty).
In contrast, jailers and correctional officers are simply given powers in certain sections of legislation. NMSA 1978, Section 33-1-10 (Cum.Supp.1985) gives correctional officers, whose duty it is to hold people in custody, the powers of peace officers to arrest and enforce laws on the premises of a correctional facility. It also provides that correctional officers shall not be liable for performing the duties of a peace officer authorized by the section. A parallel section exists for jailers. NMSA 1978, § 33-3-28(A) (Cum.Supp.1985).
Significantly, Section 33-3-28, the section on jailers, contains a subsection C: “Crimes against a jailer * * * shall be deemed the same crimes and shall bear the same penalties as crimes against a peace officer.” Section 33-1-10 has no parallel provision.
In other areas of the law, the legislature has consistently treated peace officers differently than correctional officers. In prescribing aggravating circumstances under which the death penalty may be imposed, one such circumstance is that the victim was a peace officer and another such circumstance is that the victim is an employee of the corrections department. NMSA 1978, § 31-20A-5 (Repl.Pamp.1981). See also NMSA 1978, § 30-22-17 (Repl.Pamp. 1984) (making it a third degree felony for a prisoner to assault an officer or employee of any penal institution).
The state contends that, given the similarity between Sections 33-1-10 and 33-3-28(A), the trial court’s focus on duty, as opposed to power, is not defensible. This argument, however, misses the point. Peace officer is defined in terms of duty. § 30-1-12(0). Courts are to give legislation effect as written. State v. Russell, 94 N.M. 544, 612 P.2d 1355 (Ct.App.1980). The legislature having used the word “duty” in its definitional section, the trial court was required to focus on the word “duty.”
The state contends that the presence of subsection C in Section 33-3-28 was overemphasized by the trial court. This argument ignores a basic principle of statutory construction. It is presumed that the legislature does not enact useless legislation. State ex rel. Bird v. Apodaca, 91 N.M. 279, 573 P.2d 213 (1977). According to the state’s analysis, both jailers and correctional officers are, by virtue of Sections 33-1-10 and 33-3-28(A), already given peace officer status so that crimes against them are covered by statutes such as Section 30-22-24, proscribing battery on a peace officer. Accepting this analysis would render Section 33-3-28(C) a useless enactment. Under Apodaca, we cannot accept it.
Finally, the state appears to be arguing that a ruling that a correctional officer is not a peace officer within the meaning of Section 30-l-12(C) would be absurd, would undermine the express objectives of the legislation, and would be applying a strained and unnatural construction to work an exemption from just penalties. These arguments presuppose the answer to the exact issue we are called upon to decide in this appeal: whether a correctional officer is a peace officer for criminal code purposes. It may be that there are good reasons for the legislature to decide to treat correctional officers like peace officers for purposes of crimes against them. It may also be that there are good reasons for the legislature to have decided not to treat correctional officers like peace officers. As the trial judge noted, the correctional officer legitimately may call upon the sheriff, the New Mexico State Police officer, or the municipal officer for aid in any given circumstance. Wisdom may dictate that course out of considerations of lack of law enforcement academy training, lack of training in use of weapons, lack of physical strength, and problems of implementing an arrest. While the state has expressed good reasons to protect correctional officers from crimes enumerated by NMSA 1978, Sections 30-22-21 to -26 (Repl.Pamp.1984), the trial judge has expressed equally good reasons for not giving them such protection. When there are good reasons both for and against a particular course of action, the decision to take that course or not is a legislative judgment.
The legislature has not yet taken the course advocated by the state. The legislature has thus far given the protection of Sections 30-22-21 to -26 only to those vested by law with certain duties. § 30-1-12(C). Because correctional officers are not vested with such duties and because the legislature has not seen fit to give them express protections as it has done with jailers, we hold that a correctional officer is not a peace officer for purposes of charging defendant with battery on a peace officer. As we said in State v. Garcia, 98 N.M. 585, 651 P.2d 120 (Ct.App.1982), another case decided by the same trial judge and involving issues analogous to those presented here, “[cjomplaints of the inadequacy of legislation to reach the result desired by the State must therefore be addressed to the legislature, not to the courts.”
The order of the trial court is affirmed.
IT IS SO ORDERED.
BIVINS and MINZNER, JJ., concur. | [
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] |
OPINION
GARCIA, Judge.
Defendant was indicted on a charge of fraud in excess of $2,500.00, in violation of NMSA 1978, Section 30-16-6 (Repl.Pamp. 1984). Defendant filed a motion in limine seeking to exclude the testimony of his former wife, Elizabeth Teel, based on the spousal confidential communication privi lege of NMSA 1978, Evid.R. 505 (Repl. Pamp.1983). Following a hearing on the motion, the trial court determined that Ms. Teel’s testimony was “inextricably intertwined” with privileged communications and granted defendant’s motion in limine.
Two issues are presented on appeal:
(1) Whether the proposed testimony of Ms. Teel contained confidential communications proscribed by Rule 505;
(2) Whether the trial court abused its discretion in ruling that Ms. Teel’s testimony should be excluded because it would be “inextricably intertwined” with privileged communications.
FACTS
The ease involves an allegedly fraudulent claim made by defendant to Farmers Insurance Group. In December of 1981, defendant reported the loss of a valuable diamond from a gold ring setting. Ms. Teel signed the Proof of Loss, reputedly at the request of her husband. In March of 1982, the insurance company paid defendant $4,750.00 for the claimed loss. The draft was endorsed and cashed by defendant.
Several months later Ms. Teel noticed her husband wearing a new ring with a diamond of the same size, shape and tint as the stone previously reported lost. Due to its distinctive nature, Ms. Teel recognized the diamond as the same stone.
Defendant and Elizabeth Teel had marital difficulties and were subsequently divorced. In March of 1984, Elizabeth Teel contacted Detective Morgan of the Clovis Police Department and reported that her husband had made a fraudulent claim to Farmers Insurance Group. She stated that her motivation in reporting the apparent fraud was to avoid being implicated in criminal wrongdoing. Following an investigation, defendant was charged with fraud. During grand jury proceedings, a Clovis jeweler testified that defendant delivered a diamond to him for mounting on a new setting. The new ring, which had been confiscated from defendant, was identified by the jeweler as the ring he had made for defendant.
Elizabeth Teel’s grand jury testimony was limited to three specific facts. The exclusion of her testimony on these matters forms the basis of this appeal. First, Ms. Teel testified that she was present when the claim for the lost diamond was made to the agent for the insurance company and that she signed the Proof of Loss for defendant. Second, she identified her husband’s signature from the endorsement line of the $4,750.00 draft. Third, she recognized the diamond in her husband’s second ring as the same diamond that had previously been reported lost. The trial court ruled that Ms. Teel could not testify as to these matters under Rule 505.
NMSA 1978, Section 38-6-6 refers to privileged communications between spouses. The statute states in pertinent part:
A. No husband shall be compelled to disclose any communication made by his wife during the marriage, and no wife shall be compelled to disclose any communication made to her by her husband during the marriage.
* * * * 4c *
D. If a person offers himself as a witness and voluntarily testifies with reference to the communications specified in this section, that is a consent to the examination of the person to whom the communications were made as above provided.
This statute extends a spousal testimonial privilege to any communication. Rule 505, however, provides that one spouse may prevent another from disclosing a confidential communication, made during the marriage. Thus, the statute is far more comprehensive and seeks to grant a greater privilege than does the rule. The New Mexico Supreme Court has held that any conflict between the rules of evidence and statutes attempting to create evidentiary privileges must be resolved in favor of the rules. Maestas v. Allen, 97 N.M. 230, 638 P.2d 1075 (1982). Thus, Section 38-6-6(A), which mirrors the older common law rule that neither spouse could be compelled to disclose a communication made during the marriage, does not govern the court’s deci sion in this case. See Ammerman v. Hubbard Broadcasting, Inc., 89 N.M. 307, 551 P.2d 1354 (1976) cert. denied 436 U.S. 906, 98 S.Ct. 2237, 56 L.Ed.2d 404 (1978).
In determining whether the trial court erred in excluding Ms. Teel’s testimony, the evidence sought to be excluded under the marital privilege must qualify as a confidential communication under Rule 505. This rule was amended in 1980 to eliminate the absolute testimonial privilege which previously existed. See State v. Wheeler, 95 N.M. 378, 622 P.2d 283 (Ct.App.1980). The rule defines a confidential communication as one “made privately, and not intended for further disclosure.” Rule 505(a)(1). To qualify under the evidentiary privilege there must be a communication and it must be intended to be private. 8 J. Wigmore, Wigmore on Evidence, § 2336 at 648 (1961). Thus, our task is to determine whether the excluded testimony was a communication and if so, whether the communication was intended to be private. There is no uniformly accepted judicial interpretation for “communication.” Some courts have limited the term to expressions intended by one spouse to convey a meaning or message to the other. E. Cleary, McCormick on Evidence, § 79 (2d ed. 1972); see United States v. Lustig, 555 F.2d 737, 748 (9th Cir.1977). Yet other courts have broadly construed confidential communications to include acts, facts, conditions and transactions. McCormick at 164; see Arnold v. State, 353 So.2d 524 (Ala.Cr.App.1977). In discussing the various constructions given the term “communications”, and in criticizing the broad interpretation afforded the term by some courts, Professor McCormick stated:
[I]t would seem that the privilege should be limited to expressions intended by one spouse to convey a meaning or message to the other.
# # # # * #
All extensions beyond communications seem unjustified. The acts thus protected are frequently acts done in furtherance of a crime or fraud, and thus under the principle developed for the cognate privilege for attorney-client communications, should not be protected from disclosure even by direct communication.
McCormick at 163-165.
The 1980 amendment to Rule 505 narrowed the scope of privilege from all communications to confidential communications. It would be inconsistent to suppose that New Mexico narrowed the application of the rule on one hand, but intended to broaden its scope on the other. Thus, we determine that the communications contemplated under the rule should be limited to utterances or expressive acts intended by one spouse to convey a meaning or message to the other. While we adopt a principle that a communication may include an expressive act, not every act observed by defendant’s spouse is a communication. Coleman v. State, 668 P.2d 1126 (Okl.Cr.1983). In Coleman, defendant’s wife testified that on the day of the homicide with which her husband was charged, defendant came home, retrieved a shotgun and shells from their bedroom, left in a white camper pickup and returned at a certain time. On appeal, the court found that the wife’s testimony did not violate the confidential communications privilege because the privilege did not extend to matters learned through observation of the spouse’s non-communicative acts which were not intended to be confidential. See also State v. Fowler, 101 Idaho 546, 617 P.2d 850 (1980) (knowledge of the possessions of one’s spouse and their location is generally not a spousal communication protected by this privilege).
The second prong of the Rule 505 test is whether the communication was intended to be confidential. Any presumption of privacy granted a marital communication is negated by proof of the presence of a third party at the time the communication was made, or proof that the information communicated was meant to be conveyed to a third person. Pereira v. United States, 347 U.S. 1, 74 S.Ct. 358, 98 L.Ed. 435 (1954). Observations by one spouse of the non-communicative acts of the other, especially acts which are open to the view of others, are not confidential communica tions. State v. Garland, 617 S.W.2d 176 (Tenn.Cr.App.1981) (the fact that defendant owned certain items of clothing is not by nature confidential; a shirt and pants publicly worn and observed by many is obviously not confidential). In accord with this two prong test, we review Ms. Teel’s testimony.
IDENTIFICATION OF THE DIAMOND
Defendant wore the second ring publicly. The ring had been observed by others, and the diamond had been observed by the jeweler who mounted it on a new setting after defendant reported it lost. Ms. Teel’s observation of the diamond in her husband’s second ring was not a communication nor could the act of wearing the ring have been intended to be confidential. See State v. Garland. Ms. Teel was not asked to relate any statements or expressions which defendant may have made concerning the diamond, nor was there any indication that the wearing of the diamond as an item of jewelry was a secret. Ms. Teel’s testimony concerning the diamond is not subject to the Rule 505 privilege.
IDENTIFICATION OF DEFENDANT’S SIGNATURE
Ms. Teel was shown the negotiated draft and asked if she could identify the signature. She said it was her husband’s. The identification of defendant’s signature does not constitute a confidential communication. The signature was not an expression or an expressive act intended to convey a message from defendant to his wife. Any message that would be conveyed by the signature would be directed to the bank and to Farmers Insurance Group. If the signature could be deemed a communication, the fact that it was meant to be seen by third parties destroys any claim of confidentiality. In People v. Saidi-Tabatabai, 7 Cal.App.3d 981, 86 Cal.Rptr. 866 (1970), the court found that the testimony of a husband that certain handwriting was his wife’s did not violate the privilege against disclosure of confidential communications. Even assuming that the contents of the writing are confidential, the recognition of a spouse’s handwriting does not fall within the privilege. “Every court that ever analyzed the problem has held that a spouse may identify the handwriting of the other spouse.” Id. 7 Cal.App.3d at 984, 86 Cal.Rptr. at 869. The trial court’s determination that Ms. Teel could not testify as to her identification of her husband’s signature was error.
THE FILING OF THE CLAIM
? the grand jury, Ms. Teel testified that someone from the insurance company came to the Teel house, and she signed the claim for the lost diamond. She signed the form for her husband because he was not there. During the hearing on defendant’s motion in limine, the trial court stated that because defendant intended that his “communication” be passed on to a third person, specifically the insurance agent, any marital privilege had been waived. We agree with the court’s analysis. See Resnover v. State, 267 Ind. 597, 372 N.E.2d 457 (1978) (if a communication from a husband to a wife is intended by the husband to be transmitted by the wife to a third person, there is no privilege because there is no confidentiality). While the court correctly ruled that the privilege was not applicable to the filing of the claim, the court did find that the privilege was applicable to the other portions of Ms. Teel’s testimony, and thus, excluded all testimony out of a concern that the admissible testimony might by tainted by inadmissible evidence. Although certain communications of defendant voiced to his former wife during their marriage may be subject to exclusion under Evid.Rule 505, the trial court’s order of exclusion was too sweeping in its scope. The order had the effect of improperly excluding some admissible testimony of defendant’s ex-wife.
ABUSE OF DISCRETION
Trial judges have broad discretion in determining the admissibility of evidence. State v. Day, 91 N.M. 570, 577 P.2d 878 (Ct.App.1978). A trial court’s determina tion of admissibility will not be disturbed on appeal absent an abuse of discretion. State v. Worley, 100 N.M. 720, 676 P.2d 247 (1984). The trial court demonstrated care, concern and caution in dealing with this issue. After receipt of briefs and hearing oral arguments, the court conducted independent research, and directed the attorneys to present additional arguments. Defense counsel urges us to commend the trial court for proceeding with care and circumspection in this case. This we do. Nevertheless, we conclude that the trial court erred in excluding the testimony of defendant’s ex-wife. We therefore reverse the court’s order which excludes the presentation of her testimony.
IT IS SO ORDERED.
DONNELLY, C.J., and ALARID, J., concur. | [
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OPINION
WOOD, Judge.
Defendants appeal from the award of lump-sum compensation for the benefit of a deceased worker’s minor children. We proposed summary affirmance. Defendants filed a timely memorandum in opposition. Having considered defendants’ arguments, we affirm.
The sole issue in this appeal is the propriety of a lump-sum award. The statutory authority for making a lump-sum award is found in NMSA 1978, Section 52-l-30(B). A lump-sum payment may not be awarded solely because, if invested, the lump sum would produce more benefits than would be realized from weekly payments. Merrifield v. Auto-Chlor System of Albuquerque, 100 N.M. 263, 669 P.2d 739 (Ct.App.1983). However, if there are exceptional circumstances, the district court has discretion to award a lump-sum payment. Boughton v. Western Nuclear, Inc., 99 N.M. 723, 663 P.2d 382 (Ct.App.1983). The statutory inquiry is the best interests of the recipient. Generally, the best interests of the recipient are served by the payment of benefits in regular intervals but, if the circumstances are otherwise, “there should be no hesitancy in making a lump sum award.” Codling v. Aztec Well Servicing Co., 89 N.M. 213, 215, 549 P.2d 628 (Ct.App.1976).
The recipients in this case are two minor children of the deceased worker. Each child has a different mother. Neither mother was married to the worker at the time of his death, and neither was eligible for any compensation benefits. See NMSA 1978, § 52-1-17. The district court’s decision to award lump-sum benefits was based upon concern that the mothers might mismanage the children’s benefits. The district court concluded that a lump-sum award was necessary to secure the services of a conservator at a reasonable cost.
The calendar assignment states: “[T]he district court’s decision that a lump sum was necessary to secure the services of a fiduciary at a reasonable cost was consistent with the policy of protecting the recipients from want.”
Defendants’ memorandum states:
The reasons given by this Court for summary affirmance are exactly what Appellant controverts exists in the record to establish the propriety of a lump sum settlement. There has been no demonstration of exceptional circumstances ____ The appointment of a banking institution was done for the sole purpose of maximizing the financial management of the benefit funds .... The further award of the lump sum judgment was done for the sole purpose of maximizing the investment value that this fiduciary banking institution could achieve with the death benefit funds.
Defendants take a selective view of the trial court’s findings but do not assert the findings lack evidentiary support. The findings reveal that the mothers agreed to settle the compensation claims of their children on a basis that was not in the best interests of the children and that they so agreed without legal counsel or financial advice. Court-appointed guardians refused to approve the settlement to which the mothers agreed. The trial court found that approval of the settlement “would subject the aforesaid minor children ... to grave and unnecessary risk of want during their minority.”
In these circumstances, the trial court properly looked to someone other than the mothers to look out for the children’s financial welfare. The lump sum awarded was based on the circumstances of obtaining a conservator for the children at reasonable cost. The findings reveal three steps in the trial court’s reasoning: (a) the mothers were inappropriate persons to receive the benefits for the children; (b) there should be a conservator; and (c) what was the best way to get a conservator at reasonable cost. The trial court could properly decide that a lump-sum award was in the best interests of the children and that the circumstances were exceptional.
Defendants contend that affirmance in this case would have the effect of overruling Merrifield. This is incorrect. The mother in Merrifield was entitled to benefits in her own right and there is nothing in the opinion suggesting that she attempted to enter into a settlement contrary to the interests of the children. Each request for a lump-sum award stands or falls on its own merits. Padilla v. Frito-Lay, Inc., 97 N.M. 354, 639 P.2d 1208 (Ct.App.1981). Affirmance in this case is not inconsistent with the holding in Merrifield.
The discussion above illustrates that this was not a case where a lump-sum payment was awarded solely for the purpose of maximizing the production of income. Under the circumstances, the matter rested within the discretion of the trial court. Boughton v. Western Nuclear, Inc. The trial court abuses its discretion only when it acts contrary to logic and reason. Three Rivers Land Co. v. Maddoux, 98 N.M. 690, 652 P.2d 240 (1982). The district court did not abuse its discretion in this case.
Affirmed. No award of attorney fees for this appeal.
IT IS SO ORDERED.
HENDLEY and BIVINS, JJ., concur. | [
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OPINION
WOOD, Judge.
Defendant was convicted, in metropolitan court, of driving a vehicle while under the influence of intoxicating liquor. The conviction was for a second or subsequent offense. Defendant appealed to the district court, and was again convicted. Defendant’s appeal to this court contends the length of his supervised probation was not authorized. We agree.
NMSA 1978, Section 66-8-102(E) (Cum. Supp.1985) provides:
A second or subsequent conviction under this section shall be punished by imprisonment for not less than ninety days nor more than one year or by a fine of not more than one thousand dollars ($1000), or both, provided that if the sentence is suspended in whole or in part or deferred, the period of probation may extend beyond one year but shall not exceed five years.
The metropolitan court imposed, and the district court affirmed, a sentence of 364 days in jail and a $1,000 fine. Three hundred and six days of jail time and the fine were suspended on the condition of five years of probation. Three years of the probation were to be supervised and two years were to be unsupervised. The judgment states that defendant is to obtain treatment and counseling and have no further alcohol-related arrests during the probation period.
Defendant contends supervised probation for his offense is only authorized for one year. He relies on NMSA 1978, Section 31-20-6(D) (Repl.Pamp.1981), which provided that a defendant may be required
to be placed on probation under the supervision, guidance or direction of probation authorities for a term not to exceed that of the maximum sentence prescribed by law for the commission of the crime for which he was convicted; provided that if the defendant was convicted of a third or fourth degree felony, this limita tion shall not apply and the term of probation shall not exceed five years[.]
Defendant recognizes that Section 66-8-102(E) is specific as to the length of time he may be placed on probation. Defendant asserts that Section 31-20-6(D) is specific as to the length of time he may be placed on supervised probation.
A trial court’s authority to impose probation is a legislative function. State v. Holland, 91 N.M. 386, 574 P.2d 605 (Ct.App.1978). If two statutes on a common subject are inconsistent, the more specific act controls. In re Rehabilitation of Western Investors Life Insurance Co., 100 N.M. 370, 671 P.2d 31 (1983). However, before applying a special statute over a general statute, the two statutes should be considered together, if possible, to give effect to the provisions of both statutes. State ex rel. State Park & Recreation Commission v. New Mexico State Authority, 76 N.M. 1, 411 P.2d 984 (1966); State ex rel. Department of Human Services v. Avinger, Ct.App. No. 8423 (Filed October 17, 1985).
Defendant contends that if there is a conflict between Section 66-8-102(E) and Section 31-20-6(D), the provisions of Section 31-20-6(D) are specific as to supervised probation and, thus, are controlling. However, defendant asserts there is no conflict because Section 66-8-102(E) does not distinguish between supervised and unsupervised probation, and Section 31-20-6(D) does. Under either approach, his supervised probation is limited to one year.
The state asserts:
(a) “It is normally assumed that probation is supervised, rather than unsupervised. § 31-21-21, N.M.S.A., 1978 Comp.”
(b) Section 66-8-102(E) authorizes up to five years of probation, “with all the normal incidents of that status, including supervision by probation officers.”
(c) “Section 66-8-102(E) * * * constitutes [a] legislative exception to the normal rule that probation cannot exceed the maximum allowable imprisonment for the offense.”
The essence of the state’s contention is that Section 66-8-102(E) authorizes supervised probation of up to five years and that the “clear and unambiguous” legislative intent must be given effect. In making this argument, the state ignores the obvious. Section 31-20-6(D) refers to supervised probation and Section 66-8-102(E) does not. Statutory construction is required.
The purpose of statutory construction is to give effect to legislative intent. City of Albuquerque v. Cauwels & Davis, Management Co., 96 N.M. 494, 632 P.2d 729 (1981). “[A] later statute, as the most recent expression of legislative intent, will control over an earlier statute to the extent of any inconsistency.” Abbott v. Armijo, 100 N.M. 190, 191, 668 P.2d 306 (1983).
The state’s arguments are based on the premise that Section 66-8-102(E) is the latest expression of legislative intent. That is incorrect. Section 66-8-102(E) was enacted by 1983 N.M. Laws, ch. 76, § 2. The legislative session which adjourned February 16, 1984, enacted 1984 N.M. Laws, ch. 106. This 1984 law was in effect on June 25, 1984, when defendant committed the offense involved in this appeal. N.M. Const, art. IV, § 23. The latest applicable expression of legislative intent is the 1984 law.
Section 1 of the 1984 law appears in the statutes as NMSA 1978, Section 31-19-1 (Cum.Supp.1985). As amended, Section 31-19-1 sets forth the sentencing authority for misdemeanors. A violation of Section 66-8-102(E) is a misdemeanor. NMSA 1978, § 66-8-7(A). Section 31-19-1(C) provides: “When the court has deferred or suspended sentence, it shall order the defendant placed on supervised or unsupervised probation for all or some portion of the period of deferment or suspension.” This latest expression of legislative intent disposes of the state’s arguments that all probation must be considered as supervised probation. Accordingly, we do not consider the validity of arguments that disregard Section 31-19-1(C).
Section 2 of the 1984 law amended NMSA 1978, Section 31-20-5 (Repl.Pamp. 1981). The 1984 amendment appears as NMSA 1978, Section 31-20-5(A) (Cum. Supp.1985). The 1985 amendment to Section 31-20-5 is not applicable. This 1984 amendment provided: “[T]he total period of probation for district court shall not exceed five years and the total period of probation for the magistrate or metropolitan courts shall be no longer than the maximum allowable incarceration time for the offense, or as otherwise provided by law.” Because of the “as otherwise provided by law” clause in Section 31-20-5(A), there is no conflict with Section 66-8-102(E).
Section 3 of the 1984 law amended Section 31-20-6. That section pertains to the conditions of any order deferring or suspending sentence. Prior to the 1984 amendment, Section 31-20-6 only identified the district court as the court subject to the conditions. The 1984 amendment included the magistrate and metropolitan courts as being subject to the conditions. There were two amendments to Section 31-20-6 in 1985, but neither of the 1985 amendments apply to this case.
The 1984 amendment to Section 31-20-6 made no change in the conditions appearing as Section 31-20-6(D), quoted in the early part of this opinion. In 1984, Section 31-20-6(D) limited supervised probation to “a term not to exceed that of the maximum sentence prescribed by law for the commission of the crime for which he was convicted[.]” The maximum sentence for defendant’s offense was imprisonment for not “more than one year.” Section 66-8-102(E). The maximum length of defendant’s supervised probation was not more than one year.
The provision in defendant’s sentence for three years of supervised probation is reversed. The cause is remanded to the district court with instructions to reduce the period of supervised probation to one year.
IT IS SO ORDERED.
DONNELLY, C.J., and GARCIA, J., concur. | [
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OPINION
NEAL, Judge.
The personal representative and survivors of Roland H. Wittkowski brought suit for wrongful death, seeking compensatory and punitive damages against defendants under the New Mexico Tort Claims Act and the Federal Civil Rights Act. The district court granted defendants’ NMSA 1978, Civ. P.Rule 12(b)(6) (Repl.Pamp.1980) motions to dismiss.
Because the case comes to the court following the granting of the Rule 12(b)(6) motion, we must accept the facts set out in the complaint as true, and resolve all doubts in favor of the sufficiency of the complaint. Runyan v. Jaramillo, 90 N.M. 629, 567 P.2d 478 (1977).
Facts.
Facts alleged in plaintiffs’ complaint show that the decedent, Roland H. Wittkowski, a-resident of Colorado, was killed during a robbery of the liquor store in which he worked. His killers, Ross David Thomas and Eddie Lee Seward, had es caped from the New Mexico State Penitentiary in Santa Fe.
Thomas and Seward had documented histories of violence. Both had escaped or attempted escape before. Thomas had an extensive record of violent behavior and was an alcoholic. Both were psychotics. Nevertheless, they were classified as minimum trustees, with only minimum supervision and assigned to work on a dairy operation at the prison. The complaint alleges they were left unguarded at night, without proper lighting for surveillance, without proper fencing or other facilities to prevent escape, and without properly trained prison personnel to supervise them. They escaped at 4:10 a.m., March 1, 1982. The state police knew of the escape within two hours and issued an all-points bulletin in New Mexico, but did not contact Colorado authorities. Thomas and Seward crossed the Colorado border, and at 7:00 p.m. that night, they robbed the liquor store and shot Wittkowski.
Plaintiffs alleged that the defendants breached duties set out in statutes and their own rules and regulations. The state police are alleged to have breached their duty, under NMSA 1978, Sections 29-1-4 and 29-3-3 (Repl.Pamp. 1984) to identify, investigate and apprehend escapees and to cooperate with necessary officials in New Mexico and other states. The New Mexico State Department of Corrections, then-Secretary of Corrections Roger W. Crist, and then-warden Harvey Winans are alleged to have breached their duties to correctly classify prisoners in view of their personal histories, and to use all means in their power to prevent escape. See NMSA 1978, Sections 33-2-16 and 33-2-31 (Repl.Pamp. 1983). The federal civil rights claim was brought under 42 U.S.C.A. Section 1983 (West 1981), and alleges that the defendants acted with knowledge of the dangerousness of the escapees and knowledge of inadequate supervision of the dairy barn.
On appeal the plaintiffs contend that because the case of Schear v. Board of County Commissioners, Bernalillo County, 101 N.M. 671, 687 P.2d 728 (1984), abolished the distinction between private and public duties, the complaint states a cause of action against all defendants under the Tort Claims Act, NMSA 1978, Sections 41-4-1 through -29 (Repl.Pamp.1982 and Cum. Supp.1984). We discuss whether Colorado or New Mexico law should apply before reaching the merits of the argument against each defendant. We then discuss the federal civil rights claim.
Choice of Law.
The shooting of Wittkowski occurred in Colorado. All of the conduct of defendants allegedly leading up to the shooting occurred in New Mexico. While plaintiffs plead both Colorado and New Mexico law in the alternative, they argue that Colorado law should apply, citing First National Bank in Albuquerque v. Benson, 89 N.M. 481, 553 P.2d 1288 (Ct.App.1976). Benson states that New Mexico applies the place of the wrong rule in tort cases and the place of the wrong is the location of the last act necessary to complete the injury citing Restatement (First) of Conflicts of Laws, § 378 (1934). However, New Mexico cases recognize an exception to the place of the wrong rule when the application of foreign law would violate New Mexico public policy. Sandoval v. Valdez, 91 N.M. 705, 580 P.2d 131 (Ct.App.1978). The Restatement (First) of Conflicts of Laws, supra, which New Mexico recognizes, states at Section 380(2):
Where by the law of the place of wrong, the liability-creating character of the actor’s conduct depends upon the application of a standard of care, and such standard has been defined in particular situations by statute or judicial decision of the law of the place of the actor’s conduct, such application of the standard will be made by the forum.
New Mexico has determined the standard of care relating to its own corrections officials and state police in the Tort Claims Act and through decisional law. To apply the place of wrong rule could result in the identical conduct by New Mexico officials being determined actionable if the final act occurred in one state but not actionable if it occurred in another. Public policy dictates that New Mexico law determine the existence of duties and immunities on the part of New Mexico officials.
Existence of Duty.
The trial court relied on the public versus private duty concept of Doe v. Hendricks, 92 N.M. 499, 590 P.2d 647 (Ct.App.1979) in dismissing the action. Indeed, that was a valid distinction at the time the motion was decided. However, in the interim the supreme court decided Schear, and explicitly recognized that the abolition of sovereign immunity in Hicks v. State, 88 N.M. 588, 544 P.2d 1153 (1975) and the subsequent passage of the Tort Claims Act, rendered the distinction invalid. Finding law enforcement officials have a duty to investigate reported violations of the criminal law under NMSA 1978, Section 29-1-1 (Repl. Pamp.), the court allowed a private cause of action for one injured by the negligence of the law enforcement officers in not responding to a reported crime in progress. The court stated that the distinction between private and public duties is a function of sovereign immunity and not a common law negligence concept and, therefore, its efficacy is dependent on the vitality of the doctrine of sovereign immunity, stating “[i]t is clear to us ... that the Tort Claims Act abolished the ‘public duty-special duty’ distinction in this jurisdiction.” 101 N.M. 673, 687 P.2d at 730.
The defendants contend that the Schear doctrine should not apply to this case and should only be applied prospectively. We disagree. Schear did not overrule Doe, rather it held that case “not controlling” due to the subsequent passage of the Tort Claims Act. It did not create new duties on the part of law enforcement officers; instead it recognized that the Tort Claims Act had worked the change in the law. A new interpretation was applied to Schear itself, and should also be applied here. See State v. Kaiser, 91 N.M. 611, 577 P.2d 1257 (Ct.App.1978).
pori Claims Act.
The Tort Claims Act shields both governmental entities and public employees from liability for torts except when immunity is specifically waived in the Act. If a public employee, while acting in the scope of duty, commits a tort falling within one of the waivers, the entity which employs him is liable. See § 41-4-4(A) (Repl.Pamp. 1982). We now discuss the claims against each defendant.
Section 41-4-4(A) states that governmental entities and officials, while acting in the scope of their duty, are granted immunity from liability for any tort, except as waived under the Act. A waiver of immunity is provided for law enforcement officers under Section 41-4-12 for the wrongs listed in that section.
Law enforcement officers are defined in Section 41-4-3(D) as “any full-time salaried public employee of a governmental entity whose principal duties under law are to hold in custody any person accused of a criminal offense, to maintain public order or to make arrests'for crimes, or members of the national guard when called to active duty by the governor[.]”
Based on the statutes, plaintiffs contend that the State, the Department of Corrections and Crist and Winans are within the law enforcement waiver. However, the supreme court has already decided that the Secretary of Corrections and penitentiary warden are not law enforcement officers within the meaning of the waiver of immunity provision. Anchondo v. Corrections Department, 100 N.M. 108, 666 P.2d 1255 (1983). Therefore, the court below properly dismissed the claims against Crist and Winans.
The state is also not a proper defendant. Under Lopez v. State, 24 SBB 193 (Ct.App.1985), cert. granted and under advisement February 20, 1985, the negligent governmental entity, that is, the particular agency, is the entity that may be liable, not the state. Therefore, the court did not err in dismissing the state as a defendant.
The particular agency which was allegedly negligent is the corrections department. Plaintiffs allege that the law enforcement officer waiver applies to the corrections department. As quoted above, however, Section 41-4-3 defines law enforcement officers as “any full-time salaried public employee of a governmental entity.” The corrections department is a governmental entity under the act. The statute is to be given effect as written. Methola. The corrections department is not within the definition.
Plaintiff also contends that the department’s immunity is waived under Section 41-4-6. That section waives immunity for injury “caused by the negligence of public employees while acting within the scope of their duties in the operation or maintenance of any building, public park, machinery, equipment or furnishings.” The contention is that the corrections department maintains and operates the state penitentiary, which is a public building, and the operation of the building includes the security, custody, and classification of inmates. There is no authority for this proposition. On the contrary,, the fact that the Methola court did not even consider the possibility of the building maintenance waiver in a situation where the inmates were actually injured in the building in question is an indication that the provision is not applicable. Cf. Howell v. Anaya, 102 N.M. 583, 698 P.2d 453 (Ct.App.1985). Similar provisions in other states have been construed as covering premises liability situations only. See Vargo v. Svitchan, 100 Mich.App. 809, 301 N.W.2d 1 (1980); Danow v. Penn Central Transportation Co., 153 N.J.Super. 597, 380 A.2d 1137 (1977). Therefore, as the injuries alleged did not occur due to a physical defect in a building, the provision is not applicable, and the corrections department is not a proper defendant.
State Police.
The state police (NMSP) do not argue that they are immune from suit under the Tort Claims Act; rather, they assert that they breached no duty which would give rise to liability. Plaintiffs make two allegations against NMSP based on the fact that the NMSP was informed of the escape within two hours after it occurred but did not inform Colorado officials. First, they allege that the failure to notify breached a duty created by Section 29-1-4 to apprehend escaped prisoners. Second, plaintiffs rely on Section 29-3-3, regarding cooperation with agencies of other states and the federal government as to criminal matters to establish a duty to notify Colorado officials.
Section 29-1-4 states:
It shall be the duty of judicial and ministerial officers, in their respective counties, precincts or demarcations, who shall see or receive information that any of the persons mentioned in the foregoing section [29-1-3 NMSA 1978] [escaped prisoners], are to be found in his county, precinct or demarcation, notwithstanding he shall have escaped at any time, to apprehend as soon as possible the fugitive, and send him forthwith to the jail of the respective county, where he shall be kept, with all possible security in order to prevent his making his escape again.
Plaintiffs contend that the failure to notify Colorado authorities is directly analogous to the breach of the statutory duty (Section 29-1-1) to investigate crimes of which they are informed which formed the basis of the duty in Schear. However, they make no allegation that NMSP did not diligently attempt to apprehend the escapees as soon as possible. In Schear the police were notified of a specific crime in progress at a specific location, but did not take any ac tion which was in direct violation of a specific statutory duty. In this case, the statute simply requires the NMSP to apprehend escapees as soon as possible, and plaintiffs do not allege any facts showing a breach of that duty.
? also seek to create a duty under Section 29-3-3, which states:
It shall be the duty of the New Mexico state police and it is hereby granted the power to cooperate with agencies of other states and of the United States having similar powers to develop and carry on a complete interstate, national and international system of criminal identification and investigation, and also to furnish upon request any information in their possession concerning any person charged with crime to any court, district attorney or police officer or any peace officer of this state, or of any other state or the United States.
They allege the statute creates a duty to warn Colorado officials of the escape. Unlike the statute in Schear, which is for the benefit and protection of the public, the statute here deals with cooperation between various governments for the benefit of the law enforcement organizations. While the public in general is the ultimate beneficiary of the statute, there is no indication that the provision was intended for the benefit of persons in the circumstances of the deceased here. Hayes v. Hagemeier, 75 N.M. 70, 73, 400 P.2d 945 (1963). Further, plaintiffs plead no facts showing a violation of the statute in order to create negligence per se.
4^ U.S.C.A. § 1983 Civil Rights Claim.
Plaintiffs allege that the constitutional rights of the decedent and plaintiffs were violated by the defendants, giving rise to an action under Section 1983. That section states:
Every person who, under color of any statute, ordinance, regulation, custom, or usage, of any State or Territory, or the District of Columbia, subjects, or causes to be subjected, any citizen of the United States or other person within the jurisdiction thereof to the deprivation of any rights, privileges, or immunities secured by the Constitution and laws, shall be liable to the party injured in an action at law, suit in equity, or other proper proceeding for redress.
The relationship between the Tort Claims Act and Section 1983 is complex. (See R. Kovnat, Constitutional Torts and the New Mexico Tort Claims Act, 13 N.M.L. Rev. 1 (1983), for an excellent treatment of the numerous issues involved.)
We note that the Tort Claims Act does not exclude a Section 1983 remedy. Wells v. County of Valencia, 98 N.M. 3, 644 P.2d 517 (1982). “The Tort Claims Act does not prohibit a plaintiff from bringing an action for damages under the Tort Claims Act where the plaintiff also pursues, by reason of the same occurrence, an action against the same government under 42 U.S.C. § 1983.” 98 N.M. at 7, 644 P.2d at 521. Conduct by persons acting under color of state law which is wrongful under Section 1983 cannot be immunized by state law. McLaughlin v. Tilendis, 398 F.2d 287, 290 (7th Cir.1968).
The initial inquiry in a Section 1983 suit is whether plaintiff was deprived of a constitutional right under color of state law. In Martinez v. California, 444 U.S. 277, 100 S.Ct. 553, 62 L.Ed.2d 481 (1980), the parents of a fifteen-year-old girl, who was murdered by a dangerous parolee five months after his release from prison, brought suit under Section 1983 for violation of their daughter’s Fourteenth Amendment liberty rights. Despite the fact the defendant officials should have known the prisoner created an unreasonable danger, the court held that the plaintiffs had no cognizable claim because defendants did not deprive the victim of life within the meaning of the Fourteenth Amendment. The decision was based on two factors: the remoteness in time of the incident, which occurred five months after the release, and that the parole board was unaware that the victim in particular, “as distinguished from the public at large, faced any special danger.” Id. at 285, 100 S.Ct. at 559.
Federal courts which have considered the Martinez decision have focused on the second part of the analysis, the nature of the right protected. The right claimed violated here is identical to that defined in Fox v. Custis, 712 F.2d 84, 88 (4th Cir.1983), which held, “In sum, the right asserted is the right to be protected by the state from the possible depredations of a convicted criminal with known danagerous propensities who is under the direct supervision of the state’s agents.” The court agreed with the Seventh Circuit’s decision in Bowers v. DeVito, 686 F.2d 616, 618 (7th Cir.1982) that, “there is no constitutional right to be protected by the state against ... criminals or madmen” and, therefore, failure to do so is not actionable under the section. Fox recognized that there are exceptions, such as when inmates in a state’s control are known to be under risk of harm from others.
As stated in Fox:
It was the claimants’ tragic misfortune to be randomly victimized by the depredations of a criminal who was subject, but not subjected, to the effective control of the state. As Judge Posner observed in Bowers, “[i]t is monstrous if the state fails to protect its residents against such predators but it does not violate the due process clause of the Fourteenth Amendment * * Bowers, 686 F.2d at 618
712 F.2d at 88.
Here, the victim was a randomly selected member of the general public. It is alleged that the defendants, under color of state law, violated the victim’s constitutional rights by failing to provide protection from the prisoners. The state, however, has no duty under the United States Constitution to provide such protection. “The Constitution is a charter of negative liberties; it tells the state to let people alone; it does not require the federal government or the state to provide services, even so elementary a service as maintaining law and order.” Bowers, 686 F.2d at 618. Therefore, the trial court properly dismissed the Section 1983 action. Because the complaint did not assert a deprivation of a constitutional right cognizable under Section 1983, we need not consider that statute’s applicability to the defendants individually. Cf. Vigil v. Arzola, 102 N.M. 682, 699 P.2d 613 (Ct.App.1983); DeVargas v. State ex rel. Department of Corrections, 97 N.M. 447, 640 P.2d 1327 (Ct.App.1981).
Affirmed. No costs are awarded.
IT IS SO ORDERED.
WOOD and BIVINS, JJ., concur.
. The abolition of the public duty-special duty distinction did not change the requirement of Section 41-4-12 that injury result from a listed wrong. Schear did not discuss the listed wrong, there was no need to do so (the victim was raped and tortured). In Methola v. County of Eddy, 95 N.M. 329, 622 P.2d 234 (1980) the victims were assaulted and battered. In this case there was a killing. Thus, in none of these cases was there an issue in the appeal concerning a wrong within Section 41-4-12. | [
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] |
OPINION
DONNELLY, Chief Judge.
On rehearing, the previous opinion is withdrawn and the following is substituted.
Defendant appeals from a conviction of unlawful possession of a controlled substance, marijuana, with intent to distribute contrary to NMSA 1978, Section 30-31-22 (Repl.Pamp.1980). Pour issues are presented on appeal: (1) claim of pretextual stop of defendant’s automobile; (2) legality of car search; (3) legality of the defendant’s detention; and (4) validity of seizure of evidence. We affirm.
On June 22, 1984, defendant was driving a rental car en route to Tennessee. As defendant approached within a few miles of Roswell, traveling in the eastbound lane, he passed a state police officer, Phillip Baiers, who was observing traffic. The roadway at that point was a four-lane highway with two lanes going both east and west. Defendant was traveling in the inside lane. The maximum speed posted in the area is fifty-five miles per hour. The patrolman followed defendant for approximately two miles. Officer Baiers testified that he did not see any other cars in the roadway when he began following defendant, but that there were other vehicles in the area at the time he stopped defendant. Defendant testified that he believed he was driving approximately forty-five miles per hour. Officer Baiers testified that he determined defendant to be traveling at a speed of approximately thirty-five miles per hour and that defendant was driving in the passing lane of the eastbound lanes.
Officer Baiers signaled defendant to stop and informed him that he would be issued a citation for driving in such a manner so as to impede traffic. The officer requested defendant to produce his vehicle registration papers and driver’s license. The car driven by defendant had been rented in Tucson by another person, but defendant’s name and driver’s license number also appeared on the car rental agreement specifying him as an authorized driver of the vehicle.
Baiers testified that after looking at the registration papers and defendant’s driver’s license, he requested permission from him to search the trunk of the vehicle. Baiers stated that during the time he was talking with defendant, he observed the following: (1) the rental agreement for the car recited that the car had been rented by another individual; (2) defendant appeared to be nervous; and (3) there were some items placed in the back seat of the car, which Baiers felt were of the type which normally were stored in the trunk of the vehicle.
Defendant initially refused to authorize the officer to conduct a search of the vehicle. Defendant testified that Baiers then informed him that if he did not consent to the search, he would detain him until he could obtain a search warrant. Baiers denied that he made this statement. After defendant refused permission for the search, the officer returned to his patrol car and radioed a request for an NCIC check on defendant and his vehicle.
Defendant testified while the officer was waiting for the NCIC response, he decided to open the trunk to the vehicle and informed Baiers that he would consent to allow the officer to search the car trunk. Baiers testified that when he looked into the trunk he observed the following: (1) the spare tire was sitting on top of some luggage; (2) the lining on the back sides and wall of the car’s trunk was loose and had been tampered with; and (3) upon moving some luggage, he saw that one part of the trunk lining had fallen over, partially disclosing a brown package sealed with tape, positioned behind the trunk lining. The officer started to remove the package. At that point, defendant informed the officer that he was terminating his consent to search and closed the trunk lid. The officer then detained defendant and transported him to jail. Baiers testified that the wrapping of the package observed by him appeared to be of the type normally used to package marijuana. After defendant was booked into jail, Officer Baiers issued him a ticket for impeding traffic by driving too slowly, contrary to NMSA 1978, Section 66-7-305(A).
Following defendant’s detention, Baiers secured a search warrant from a magistrate and conducted a further search of the vehicle and the contents of the brown, wrapped package. Upon execution of the search warrant, the hidden package was found to contain eighty-eight pounds of marijuana, wrapped in twelve separate blocks. Defendant was thereafter charged with possession of marijuana with intent to distribute.
I. CLAIM OF PRETEXTUAL STOP
Defendant contends that the initial stop by Officer Baiers was pretextual and that the officer’s claim that he stopped defendant’s car for impeding traffic was patently unbelievable. Defendant argues that there were caution signs posted in the highway area and little actual traffic in the vicinity. Defendant also asserts that the trial court erred in denying his motion to suppress and that all evidence obtained from his initial traffic stop, including the evidence seized pursuant to a subsequently obtained search warrant, should have been suppressed.
? appellate standard of review of a trial court’s denial of a motion to suppress evidence obtained by the police following a warrantless search of a vehicle after a claimed pretextual stop for a traffic violation involves a two-part analysis. First, the appellate court looks to the record to determine if there was a valid basis for the stop, supportive of the trial court’s ruling. See Amador-Gonzalez v. United States, 391 F.2d 308 (5th Cir.1968); Taglavore v. United States, 291 F.2d 262 (9th Cir.1961); State v. Bloom, 90 N.M. 192, 561 P.2d 465 (1977); State v. Luna, 91 N.M. 560, 577 P.2d 458 (Ct.App.1978); State v. Galvan, 90 N.M. 129, 560 P.2d 550 (Ct.App.1977). Second, the appellate court reviews the record to determine whether there is substantial evidence indicating the existence of facts which bring the search and seizure of any evidence within some clearly delineated exception to the fourth amendment requirement for obtaining a search warrant. United States v. Mendenhall, 446 U.S. 544, 100 S.Ct. 1870, 64 L.Ed.2d 497 (1980); Carroll v. United States, 267 U.S. 132, 45 S.Ct. 280, 69 L.Ed. 543 (1925); State v. Bloom.
Once a defendant puts in issue facts alleging that law enforcement officers stopped his vehicle on pretext and conducted a warrantless search and seizure, the state has the burden of coming forward with the evidence to show that there was a valid legal basis for the stop and that the search and seizure came within the ambit of a recognized exception to the search warrant requirements imposed by the fourth amendment. United States v. Humphrey, 409 F.2d 1055 (10th Cir.1969); State v. Nittolo, 317 So.2d 748 (Fla.1975), cert. denied, Hover v. Florida, 423 U.S. 1036, 96 S.Ct. 572, 46 L.Ed.2d 411 (1975). See also State v. Cohen, 24 SBB 388 (Ct.App.), cert. granted (1985); Annot., 10 A.L. R.3d 314 (1966). A police officer may stop the driver of a vehicle if he has a reasonable suspicion that a law has been or is being violated. State v. Galvan.
The fourth amendment of the United States Constitution interdicts against subjecting individuals to unreasonable searches and seizures. Amador-Gonzalez v. United States; State v. Martinez, 94 N.M. 436, 612 P.2d 228 (1980).
In reviewing the propriety of the stop and any subsequent search and seizure of evidence, an appellate court may consider facts elicited not only at the suppression hearing, but also at the trial. State v. Dobbs, 100 N.M. 60, 665 P.2d 1151 (Ct.App.), cert. denied, 100 N.M. 53, 665 P.2d 809 (1983). The evidence in the instant case is clearly conflicting as to whether a sufficient basis existed to justify defendant’s stop for an infraction of the traffic code.
Defendant contends that there was no substantial evidence to support a conclusion that Officer Baiers was justified in making his initial stop of defendant. We disagree. Section 66-7-305(A) provides that no person shall drive a motor vehicle at such a slow speed as to impede the normal and reasonable movement of traffic, except when reduced speed is necessary for safe operation or compliance with the law. Here Baiers testified that defendant was traveling thirty-five miles per hour in a fifty-five miles per hour zone while occupying the inside traffic lane. The officer said there were other vehicles in the area when he stopped defendant. While it is true traffic could pass defendant in the outside lane, pursuant to NMSA 1978, Section 66-7-311, slower traffic is directed to normally occupy the outside lane. See NMSA 1978, § 66-7-308(B). Given these facts and the standard of review, we are unable to say the trial court’s finding is unsupportable.
Where there is conflicting evidence and testimony but there is substantial evidence to support the finding of the trial court, the appellate court will not find error as a matter of law nor reweigh the evidence. State v. Harge, 94 N.M. 11, 606 P.2d 1105 (Ct.App.1979); State v. Ramirez, 89 N.M. 635, 556 P.2d 43 (Ct.App.1976); See also State v. Gonzales, 96 N.M. 556, 632 P.2d 1194 (Ct.App.1981). Conflicts in the evidence are to be resolved by the trier of facts, including any conflicts in the testimony of the witnesses. State v. Johnson, 99 N.M. 682, 662 P.2d 1349 (1983).
The trial court’s determination that Officer Baiers’ initial stop of defendant’s vehicle was lawful is supported by substantial evidence.
The trial court determined, in effect, that Officer Baiers’ assertion that he stopped defendant for a traffic violation constituted a legitimate basis for the stop. Whether or not defendant could have been convicted for impeding traffic is not the issue. There was substantial evidence from which the trial court could have believed the stop was not pretextual. Any claim that the stop was otherwise invalid is disposed of under our discussion of defendant’s other points.
II. AUTHORITY FOR SEARCH OF VEHICLE; EFFECT OF DETENTION
We discuss jointly defendant’s other points raised on appeal.
Defendant claims that the trial court erred in refusing to suppress evidence derived from the initial warrantless search of defendant’s vehicle. Defendant contends that there was no valid consent to search and that any consent to search given by him was coerced and the product of an unlawful detention.
Where police obtain evidence from an automobile without a search warrant or enter a vehicle for purpose of making a visual inspection and search, the burden of proof is upon the prosecution to establish that the entry and search fall within specifically established and clearly delineated exceptions to the state and federal constitutional requirements for a search warrant. State v. Gonzales, 97 N.M. 182, 637 P.2d 1237 (Ct.App.), cert. denied, 97 N.M. 242, 638 P.2d 1087 (1981). See also State v. Manus, 93 N.M. 95, 597 P.2d 280 (1979); State v. Everitt, 80 N.M. 41, 450 P.2d 927 (Ct.App.1969).
A search based upon a valid consent is an exception to the requirement for obtaining a search warrant. State v. Bidegain, 88 N.M. 466, 541 P.2d 971 (1975). In Bidegain, the court observed:
A police officer making a lawful stop of a motorist is not precluded from making reasonable inquiries concerning the purpose or purposes for the stop. An inquiry by an officer is not automatically violative of the right of security of a motorist, because the officer lacks probable cause to secure a warrant, or even because he lacks reasonable grounds for suspecting the motorist to be guilty of a crime. There is nothing wrong with an officer asking for information or asking for permission to make a search. * * * A search authorized by consent is an exception to the requirements of both a warrant and probable cause and is wholly valid.
Id. at 469-470, 541 P.2d at 974-975.
Here the state contends that the initial search which gave rise to facts which Officer Baiers subsequently relied upon to obtain a search warrant was conducted pursuant to the express consent of the defendant and was not predicated upon a search incident to a valid arrest. Compare State v. Aull, 78 N.M. 607, 435 P.2d 437 (1967) (search and seizure without a search warrant is valid where consent to search is freely and voluntarily given), cert. denied, Aull v. New Mexico, 391 U.S. 927, 88 S.Ct. 1829, 20 L.Ed.2d 668 (1968).
Where a consent to search the closed portion of a vehicle is voluntary and freely given, the search and any subsequent evidence thereby obtained may be properly received in evidence. Similarly, observations gleaned after a valid consent to enter and inspect premises may also provide a basis for establishing probable cause for the issuance of a search warrant where after initially permitting entry, the consent to search is subsequently terminated. Factual determination of whether a consent to search was voluntarily given, or whether it is the product of duress or coercion, turns upon the facts of each case. United States v. Mendenhall; Schneckloth v. Bustamonte, 412 U.S. 218, 93 S.Ct. 2041, 36 L.Ed.2d 854 (1973); State v. Sneed, 76 N.M. 349, 414 P.2d 858 (1966); State v. Aull. Defendant asserts also that he was effectively in custody at the time when he gave his consent to search, that he was not advised of his rights under Miranda v. Arizona, 384 U.S. 436, 86 S.Ct. 1602, 16 L.Ed.2d 694 (1966), and that his consent to the initial search was not given freely or voluntarily. Miranda warnings are not a prerequisite to obtaining a valid consent to search a vehicle, when the state establishes by clear and convincing evidence that the consent for the search was in fact freely given. Schneckloth v. Bustamonte.
The voluntariness of a consent to search is a question of fact for determination by the finder of fact. State v. Bidegain; State v. Sneed. See also United States v. Miles, 449 F.2d 1272 (10th Cir.1971). The appellate court is to determine whether the evidence viewed in the light most favorable to the trial court’s finding substantially supports that finding. State v. Bloom; State v. Bidegain.
The trial court in ruling upon defendant’s motion to suppress reviewed the reasons given by Officer Baiers for wanting to search defendant’s vehicle and found defendant’s consent to search was not forced, stating in part:
I’m going to find that [the stopping of defendant’s vehicle] was not just a stop for a ticket, which was legitimate, and then he decided, well now that I’ve got him here I might as well do' something else, but he had a legitimate reason to check the trunk [and] that for whatever reason that Mr. Mann decided to open the trunk, he was not forced * * *.
Although defendant initially refused the officer permission to search the trunk, after the officer went over to his unit and was waiting for the NCIC response, defendant opened his trunk and told the officer he could search inside. While defendant argues that the officer used his authority to coerce consent, the trial court found otherwise and the evidence supports this finding. Here, defendant’s consent to search was not invalid as a matter of law. See State v. Sneed. Thus we hold the evidence sufficient to support a finding that consent was voluntarily given.
Defendant also contends that he was detained for a period of time longer than that which was reasonably necessary for the issuance of a traffic citation. Defendant argues that because his detention was unlawful, then a fortiori his consent was the product of an illegal detention and should be suppressed under the fruit of the poisonous tree doctrine articulated in Wong Sun v. United States, 371 U.S. 471, 83 S.Ct. 407, 9 L.Ed.2d 441 (1963).
This court has previously considered the question of whether extended detention of a defendant tainted a consent to search, thereby rendering the consent invalid. State v. Cohen. Whether a prolonged detention or the attendant circumstances surrounding the detention renders a consent to search the product of coercion is a factual question. State v. Ruud, 90 N.M. 647, 567 P.2d 496 (Ct.App.1977); State v. Bidegain. Once defendant presents facts indicating a warrantless search, based upon a claimed voluntary consent, the state has the burden of proving the absence of duress, coercion or other factors which would vitiate the voluntary nature of the consent. NMSA 1978, Crim. P.R. 18 (Repl.Pamp.1980); United States v. Mendenhall; State v. Ruud; State v. Aull. See also State v. De Koenigswarter, 54 Del. 388, 177 A.2d 344 (1962); James v. State, 80 So.2d 699 (Fla.1955); Annot., 9 A.L.R.3d 858 (1966).
Whether a particular consent is voluntary is to be determined by the totality of all the circumstances, including the factor of whether defendant has been arrested or subjected to detention. State v. Ruud; Schneckloth v. Bustamonte; State v. Aull. See State v. Austin, 91 N.M. 793, 581 P.2d 1288 (Ct.App.1978).
The fact that a suspect has been subjected to arrest or detention does not automatically invalidate a subsequent consent to search. State v. Herring, 77 N.M. 232, 421 P.2d 767 (1966) (consent to search vehicle held valid, where permission was given following arrest), cert. denied, 388 U.S. 923, 87 S.Ct. 2126, 18 L.Ed.2d 1372 (1967); State v. Bidegain, (consent to search trunk of vehicle upheld after police stopped defendant during routine license and registration check); State v. Jefferies, 41 N.C.App. 95, 254 S.E.2d 550 (officer requested permission to look in car and defendant opened trunk of vehicle), cert. denied, 297 N.C. 614, 257 S.E.2d 438 (1979); State v. Gates, 260 Iowa 772, 150 N.W.2d 617 (1967) (defendant held to have given voluntary consent to search of automobile even though placed under arrest and restrained); People v. Woods, 13 Ill.App.3d 860, 301 N.E.2d 593 (1973) (defendant’s consent to search vehicle held valid where he agreed to permit police to inspect his vehicle following his arrest). As stated in 9 A.L.R.3d 858, 873 (1966), “a person may validly consent to a search even though the consent is given while he is in custody * * the fact of custody does not inherently render the consent invalid.”
In State v. Herring, the accused was arrested following a police chase of his vehicle. Defendant drove his vehicle to the police station while accompanied by a police officer. At the station, police requested permission to search the vehicle, and defendant gave his consent. On appeal, defendant challenged the legality of the warrantless search of his automobile and claimed that the trial court erred in admitting into evidence items seized from his car on the basis of his alleged consent to the search. The court upheld the validity of the consent, stating:
It is clear that consent can validate an unlawful search. Zap v. United States, 328 U.S. 624, 66 S.Ct. 1277, 90 L.Ed. 1477. But the waiver of a basic constitutional right will not be presumed. Johnson v. Zerbst, 304 U.S. 458, 58 S.Ct. 1019, 82 L.Ed. 1461.
Valid consent to search must be voluntary and with no duress or coercion, actual or implied. Johnson v. United States, 333 U.S. 10, 68 S.Ct. 367, 92 L.Ed. 436; Amos v. United States, 255 U.S. 313, 41 S.Ct. 266, 65 L.Ed. 654. The burden of proving voluntariness is on the state, McDonald v. United States, (10th Cir.1962), 307 F.2d 272, and that burden is particularly heavy when the accused is under arrest. * * * Although the fact that consent is given while in custody or under arrest is clearly a factor to consider, we do not believe that such a situation makes voluntary consent impossible. (Citations omitted.)
Id. at 235, 421 P.2d at 769.
In People v. Klager, 107 Mich.App. 812, 310 N.W.2d 36 (1981), the Michigan Court of Appeals considered a case factually analogous to the present case. Defendant was stopped for a traffic violation and detained pending the running of a registration check on his vehicle. During this detention, police requested defendant to open the trunk of his vehicle so it could be searched, and he agreed. The court upheld the validity of the consent to search despite failure of police to advise defendant of his right to refuse such request. Similarly in State v. Beard, 22 N.C.App. 596, 207 S.E.2d 390 (1974), the court declined to hold that a consent to search was invalid, even though the defendant had been placed under arrest and interrogated at the time the consent to search was given.
The trial court’s determination that defendant’s consent to search was voluntarily given is supported by substantial evidence.
Defendant’s conviction and sentence are affirmed.
IT IS SO ORDERED.
MINZNER and BIVINS, JJ., concur. | [
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OPINION
SOSA, Senior Justice.
Due to defendants’ refusal to accept prepayment on a real estate contract, plaintiffs, relying on the Residential Home Loan Act (RHLA), sought a declaratory judgment, an injunction and damages. Defendants answered and brought a counterclaim seeking recission in the event the trial court declared plaintiffs’ right to prepay. The trial court found that the RHLA did not apply; nevertheless, the court held that plaintiffs were entitled to prepay the contract provided they also pay defendants a reasonable penalty for prepayment. We reverse the trial court except as to the issue of tender.
The pertinent facts are that on September 30, 1982, plaintiffs Peter and Haila Naumburg entered into a real estate contract with defendants Buell and Jean Patti-son for the purchase of a tract of land and house in Taos County, New Mexico. Under the terms of the contract, the purchase price of the property was $120,000.00, payable as follows: (1) a down payment in the amount of $20,000; (2) the interest on the remaining balance of $100,000.00 at a rate of 20 percent per annum to be paid in ten equal annual installments of $20,000.00, beginning on September 30, 1983; (3) the remaining balance to be paid in one lump sum payment of $100,000.00 on September 30, 1993.
The contract contained the provision that “[b]uyer shall not have the right of prepayment during the pendency of the contract.” On April 11, 1983, however, plaintiffs’ attorney wrote a letter to defendants’ attorney stating:
In behalf of my client Peter Naumburg, I hereby notify you that Peter will shortly pay the outstanding balance on the Real Estate Contract between the parties dated September 30, 1983 [sic], I note a prohibition against prepayment in that contract. I have advised Peter that said clause is unenforceable under State law
Nine days later, defendants’ attorney wrote in response:
This will acknowledge your letter of April 11, 1983. I am of the opinion that prohibition against prepayment is enforceable, although a prepayment penalty or premium would not be.
I would be most appreciative if you would site [sic] any authority you might have for your conclusion that [the prepayment prohibition] is unenforceable. I have provided a copy of your letter to my client and have advised him that he has the right to receive payments under the contract as outlined * * *.
On April 28, 1983 plaintiffs filed a four count complaint. Count I requested that the court declare the prepayment prohibition unenforceable under the RHLA, NMSA 1978, Sections 56-8-22 to -30 (Cum. Supp.1982). In Count II, plaintiffs sought a permanent injunction, enjoining defendants from enforcing the prepayment prohibition and requiring defendants to direct the escrow agent to deliver the Warranty Deed upon payment by plaintiffs of all sums currently due. Count III requested the award of damages in the amount of $150,000.00 for defendants’ arbitrary refusal to allow prepayment. And finally, Count IV alleged that in making the loan to plaintiffs, defendants had failed to comply with NMSA 1978, Section 56-8-11.2 (Cum.Supp. 1982) and that defendants should, therefore, forfeit all interest, charges or other advantages of the sale.
After a bench trial, the trial court concluded in its Judgment and Order that the RHLA did not apply “because the property was not purchased by [pjlaintiffs as a principal residence, is not a residence within the definitions of the Act, and the real estate [cjontract is not a home loan as defined in the Act.” Relying on common law, rather than the Act, the court found that the contract was a valid, binding and enforceable contract between the parties except for the absolute prohibition against prepayment. Plaintiffs were to be allowed to prepay but defendants could extract a reasonable prepayment penalty, in an amount determined by the court. Nevertheless, the court found that plaintiffs’ letter of April 11, 1983 constituted an invalid tender of prepayment.
On appeal, plaintiffs’ main contentions are that: (1) the RHLA does apply because the property in question is a residence as defined in the Act; (2) the complete prohibition against prepayment is a penalty and, therefore, specifically forbidden by the Act; (3) the letter sent by plaintiffs’ attorney constituted a valid tender; in the alternative a formal tender was not required since defendants manifested the intention to refuse prepayment; and (4) the defendants are liable for any damages resulting from their refusal to accept prepayment. Defendants answer each of these points on appeal and, furthermore, cross-appeal on the ground that the trial court erred in holding the prepayment prohibition unenforceable under common law principles.
I. Applicability of the Residential Home Loan Act
The RHLA forbids a lender from requiring a penalty or premium for the prepayment of the balance of indebtedness. § 56-8-30. This restriction only applies to real estate contracts made for the purchase of a “residence”. “Residence”, in turn, is defined as “a dwelling and the underlying real property designed for occupancy by one to four families * * § 56-8-24 A.
Plaintiffs argue that, at the time of purchase, the lot contained a log cabin, which was clearly a single-family, residential structure; that they made improvements to the cabin after purchase, to make it “more attractive for single family use”; and that they intended to use it for recreational purposes, though the best and highest use would be commercial. Defendants, relying on the trial court’s findings below, contend that the property is located in the center of a commercial area; that prior to putting the property up for sale, defendants had taken steps to develop the property commercially; that the Naumburgs’ residence is in Santa Fe and that the property in question is nothing more than a “recreational second-home” which the Naumburgs use sporadically; and that the RHLA was not meant to benefit sophisticated buyers.
In interpreting the statutory definition of “residence”, we must ascertain the legisla tive intent from the language used and words will be given their ordinary meaning unless a different intent is clearly indicated. Davis v. Commissioner of Revenue, 83 N.M. 152, 153, 489 P.2d 660, 661 (Ct.App.), cert. denied 83 N.M. 151, 489 P.2d 659 (1971). Section 56-8-24 A is plain and unambiguous in defining a residence as a dwelling designed for occupancy by one to four families. Our task, then, is to review the record to determine whether the log cabin falls within this definition.
The record reveals that, at the time of purchase, the log cabin was a ’structure designed for single-family use, notwithstanding its location in a commercial area. The cabin contained three bedrooms, a family room, a kitchen, and a bathroom. Furthermore, it is undisputed that plaintiffs intended to use, and did in fact use, the property for recreational and not commercial purposes. Thus, the property clearly fits the statutory definition of residence.
To answer each of defendants’ claims, specifically, we note first that the Act contemplates protecting purchasers of dwellings intended to house four families or less regardless of whether the dwellings are located in residential or commercial areas. The RHLA makes no distinctions based on the locale of the property. Second, although the record reveals that defendants had begun excavation in front of the cabin to put in a parking lot, this does not render the dwelling commercial. Third, Section 56-8-24 A contains no requirement that the dwelling be the primary family residence. Hence, it makes no difference that the log cabin was a vacation home. We will not presume, absent some indication to the contrary, that the Legislature intended to limit the protection of the RHLA to primary family residences. Lastly, in response to defendants’ recurring argument that the RHLA was not intended to protect sophisticated purchasers of real estate, such as Mr. Naumburg, we find no indication, either express or implied that the RHLA applies only to unsophisticated and naive purchasers of real estate. Unless and until the Legislature directs otherwise, we assume that the Act applies to all New Mexicans who purchase a residence designed for occupancy by one to four families.
The trial court erred in finding that the RHLA did not apply to the real estate contract between the Naumburgs and the Pattisons.
II. Complete Prohibition Against Prepayment as a Penalty
Having determined that the RHLA applies to the contract in question, we next consider whether the complete prohibition against prepayment is a penalty forbidden by the Act. Section 56-8-30 provides that “[n]o provision in a home loan, the evidence of indebtedness of a home loan, a real estate contract or an obligation secured by a real estate mortgage requiring a penalty or premium for prepayment of the balance of the indebtedness is enforceable.” Plaintiffs argue that a complete prohibition against prepayment is as much a penalty as requiring a surcharge when prepayment occurs. Defendants assert that the RHLA does not apply and that under common law principles, a purchaser has no right to prepay, absent a contract provision allowing him to do so. Thus, defendants reason, prohibiting that which one has no right to do cannot amount to a penalty.
We observe that since the RHLA applies, it confers upon plaintiffs the statutory right to prepay the balance of the contract and we need not resort to common law doctrines, as defendants advocate. It is self-evident that a complete prohibition against prepayment is a penalty of the most extreme kind and, thus, is forbidden by the Act. We note that the trial judge had no difficulty in concluding that if the RHLA applied to the contract in dispute, the complete prohibition against prepayment contained in the contract would constitute an unlawful penalty. The prohibition against prepayment is unenforceable under the terms of the RHLA.
III. Validity of the Prepayment Tender
The trial court found that plaintiffs’ attorney’s letter of April 11, 1983 was not a tender of prepayment since it merely evidenced an intention to prepay. Plaintiffs assert that the letter was a sufficient tender, especially in view of the fact that Mr. Naumburg testified at trial that at the time the letter was sent, he was ready, willing and able to make full payment. In the alternative, plaintiffs argue that even if the letter were not a sufficient tender, a formal tender was not required since defendants’ attorney’s letter of April 20, 1983 rejected plaintiffs’ offer to prepay.
New Mexico has no statute or cases which define what constitutes a valid tender. The general common law rule, however, is that
[a] tender is more than a mere offer to pay. It is an offer to perform coupled with the present ability of immediate performance, so that were it not for the refusal of cooperation by the party to whom the tender is made, the condition or obligation would be immediately satisfied * * *. A tender is the offer of a sum of money in satisfaction of a debt and is made by producing and showing the amount to the creditor and expressing verbally a willingness to pay it.
Mr. U. Inc. v. Mobil Oil Corp., 197 Neb. 612, 617, 249 N.W.2d 909, 912 (1977) (citations omitted). See also Action Develofment Corp. v. Woodall, 21 N.C.App. 567, 571, 205 S.E.2d 592, 596 (1974); Dunn v. Ligon, 430 S.W.2d 704, 707-08 (Tex.Civ.App.1968); Zion’s Properties, Inc. v. Holt, 538 P.2d 1319, 1322 (Utah 1975). In the instant case, plaintiffs’ letter states that “Peter will shortly pay the outstanding balance * * *.” Clearly, this was not an offer to pay coupled with the actual production of the amount owing. Rather, it was an offer to pay the balance at some uncertain time in the near future. Hence, it was not a proper tender.
Plaintiffs attempt to excuse the insufficient tender by reliance on Guthrie v. Curnutt, 417 F.2d 764 (10th Cir.1969). There it was stated “[wjhen a party, able and willing to do so, offers to pay another a sum of money and is told that it will not be accepted, the offer is a tender without the money being produced.” Id. at 765-66. Plaintiffs reason that since defendants’ letter manifested an intention not to accept prepayment, the money need not actually have been produced. Plaintiffs misconstrue Guthrie. In that case, the person seeking to tender money met with the creditor personally and at the time of the meeting, the tenderor carried the actual amount he owed with him. He offered to pay the sum and the creditor refused. The circuit court of appeals held that the tenderor need not actually have counted out the cash or presented a cashier’s check since the creditor indicated that he would not accept the offer. In Guthrie, but for the non-cooperation of the creditor, the tenderor’s obligation would have been immediately satisfied.
In the case before us, the Pattisons’ attorney indicated that his clients would frobably decline the Naumburgs’ written offer to prepay money available at some indeterminate time in the near future. Thus, the Naumburgs were not excused from a formal tender under Guthrie, and the trial court was correct in concluding that no tender of prepayment had been made.
There being no valid tender of prepayment, we need not address plaintiffs’ fourth point that they are entitled to damages for defendants’ refusal to accept prepayment. -
For all the foregoing reasons, we reverse and remand for proceedings not inconsistent herewith.
IT IS SO ORDERED.
FEDERCI, C.J., and RIORDAN, and WALTERS, JJ., concur.
STOWERS, Justice, dissents.
. In the trial court’s estimation, a reasonable penalty for prepayment would be $120,000.00, as of September 30, 1983, plus interest accrued as of that time, or that amount reduced by one-tenth each year, if prepayment occurs in any year after 1983.
. We recognize that there are statutes which allow the tenderor to offer, in writing, to pay a debt without requiring the tenderor to actually produce the money — provided he has the money, in fact. See e.g. Cal.Civ.Proc.Code § 2074 (West 1983). New Mexico, however, has no such provision. | [
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OPINION
ALARID, Judge.
Placido Sanchez (plaintiff) appeals an order dismissing his complaint with prejudice against M.M. Sundt Construction Company (defendant). Plaintiff, as the personal representative of the estate of his son, Placido Cristobal Sanchez (Placido), brought a wrongful death action against defendant and Arizona Public Service Company. The trial court ordered the complaint against defendant dismissed under NMSA 1978, Sections 52-1-8 and -9, of the Workmen’s Compensation Act (Act). These sections are the exclusive remedy provisions of the Act. Arizona Public Service Company is not involved in this appeal. We affirm. FACTS
It is undisputed that (1) Placido was an employee of defendant; (2) he was injured when he fell from an iron beam while performing services during the course and arising out of his employment; (3) he died eight days later on August 8, 1981 as a result of the injuries; (4) defendant was properly insured for workmen’s compensation; and (5) Placido was not married and left no eligible dependents under the Act. Plaintiff, at the time of his son’s injury and subsequent death, was not dependent upon his son for support or care.
DISCUSSION
Plaintiff contends that Sections 52-1-8 and -9 violate the equal protection clauses of the United States and New Mexico Constitutions when applied to the case of a deceased worker with no eligible dependents under the Act. Section 52-1-8 provides, in pertinent part:
Any employer who has complied with the provisions of the Workmen’s Compensation Act [52-1-1 to 52-1-69 NMSA 1978] relating to insurance, or any of the employees of the employer, including management and supervisory employees, shall not be subject to any other liability whatsoever for the death of or personal injury to any employee, except as provided in the Workmen’s Compensation Act, and all causes of action, actions at law, suits in equity and proceedings whatever, and all statutory and common-law rights and remedies for and on account of such death of, or personal injury to, any such employee and accruing to any and all persons whomsoever, are hereby abolished except as provided in the Workmen’s Compensation Act.
Section 52-1-9 provides, additionally, that the right to compensation under the Act is “in lieu of” any other liability. NMSA 1978, Section 52-l-46(A) limits compensation for the death of a worker with no eligible dependents, with certain exceptions, to (1) $1,500 for funeral expenses; (2) the expenses provided for medical and hospital services; and (3) all other amounts which the worker should have been paid for compensation until the time of his death.
Plaintiff argues that because the exclusive remedy provisions limit recovery to the terms of Section 52-l-46(A), and bar a wrongful death action, a deceased workman without eligible dependents is not accorded equal protection of the law with (1) a deceased workman with eligible dependents, or with (2) a tort victim fatally injured outside the course and scope of his employment and, consequently, not subject to the Act. In the first instance, eligible dependents receive compensation benefits for the death, under Section 52-l-46(B)-(F), in addition to the expenses enumerated for non-dependents in subsection (A). In the second instance, the personal representative of a tort victim injured outside the course and scope of his employment may maintain an action for wrongful death under NMSA 1978, Sections 41-2-1 to -3 (Repl.Pamp. 1982).
Plaintiff contends that, in the first instance, the classifications set out in Section 52-1-46 violate equal protection because the classifications do not further the purpose of the Act. In the second instance, plaintiff contends that barring non-dependent survivors from pursuing a wrongful death action, while permitting another class of non-dependent plaintiffs to bring such actions, is arbitrary, unreasonable and violative of equal protection. Plaintiff urges this court to fashion an exception to the exclusive remedy provisions, and to permit plaintiff, on this set of facts, to proceed with a wrongful death action.
To demonstrate an equal protection violation, plaintiff must show that the legislation in question is clearly arbitrary and unreasonable, not just that it is possibly so. Gallegos v. Homestake Mining Co., 97 N.M. 717, 643 P.2d 281 (Ct.App.1982). As we stated in Gallegos, “[cjourts must uphold the efficacy of statutes unless they are satisfied beyond all reasonable doubt that the legislature went outside the Constitution in enacting the challenged legislation.” Id. 97 N.M. at 723, 643 P.2d 281. In focusing upon the classification between non-dependent survivors and dependent survivors, and the classification between non-dependent survivors under workmen’s compensation and survivors of tort victims outside the scope of workmen’s compensation, we inquire into the purpose of the Act and the relationship of the classification to the objective. Id. at 722, 643 P.2d 281; Howell v. Burk, 90 N.M. 688, 568 P.2d 214 (Ct.App.1977). If the purpose or objective of the Act is legitimate and the classification “is rationally related to that objective, it [classification] is not unconstitutionally arbitrary” Gallegos, 97 N.M. at 722, 643 P.2d 281.
“The primary purpose of the Workmen’s Compensation Act is to keep an injured workman and his family at least minimally secure financially”, Aranda v. Mississippi Chemical Corp., 93 N.M. 412, 416, 600 P.2d 1202, 1206 (Ct.App.1979), and to prevent a workman and his family from becoming public charges. Paternoster v. La Cuesta Cabinets, Inc., 101 N.M. 773, 689 P.2d 289 (Ct.App.1984). The Act, in effect, is designed to supplant the uncertainties of tort remedies and the burden of establishing an employer’s negligence with a system of expeditious and scheduled payments of lost wages based on accidental injury or death in the course and scope of employment. Gonzales v. Chino Copper Co., 29 N.M. 228, 222 P. 903 (1924). Within this system, the exclusive remedy provisions represent “a balance between the worker’s need for expeditious payment and the employer’s need to limit liability [from tort actions].” Kent Nowlin Construction Co. v. Gutierrez, 99 N.M. 389, 390, 658 P.2d 1116, 1117 (1982).
It is clear that the limitation of death benefits embodied in Section 52-1-46(A) is rationally related to the Act’s purpose. The scheme of this Act focuses on the welfare of dependent survivors of a deceased workman, and not on the welfare of those financially independent of the workman. Only this dependent class is in danger of becoming public charges upon the workman’s death. Setting a different, and a more expansive, remedy provision for this class is thus well within legislative prerogatives, and is not violative of equal protection. See Gallegos.
The next inquiry is whether the classification imposed, in effect, by the exclusive remedy provisions violates equal protection requirements. These provisions effectively classify non-dependent survivors of the workman differently than the survivors of tort victims fatally injured outside the course and scope of their employment. Again, the purpose of the Act and the relationship of the classification to the purpose is the relevant question. Because the Act provides for expeditious payment to the workman or his dependents without a showing of employer’s fault, it requires, in return, a limitation on the liability of the employer from common-law tort actions. The stated purpose is legitimate, and the exclusive remedy and the classification it imposes is rationally related to the purpose. Kent Nowlin. The fact that operation of the Act, through the exclusive remedy provisions, does not provide a recovery of tort damages for the non-dependent survivors is not fatal. An exclusive remedy provision is not unreasonable nor arbitrary “merely because the legislature failed to make provision for every possible contingency.” Leech v. Georgia-Pacific Corp., 259 Or. 161, 169, 485 P.2d 1195, 1199 (1971). The United States Supreme Court concluded in Dandridge v. Williams, 397 U.S. 471, 485, 90 S.Ct. 1153, 1161, 25 L.Ed.2d 491 (1970), in discussing an equal protection challenge to a Maryland welfare grant regulation, that:
In the area of economics and social welfare, a State does not violate the Equal Protection Clause merely because the classifications made by its laws are imperfect. If the classification has some ‘reasonable basis’, it does not offend the Constitution simply because the classification ‘is not made with mathematical nicety or because in practice it results in some inequality.’ Lindsley v. Natural Carbonic Gas Co., 220 U.S. 61, 78, 31 S.Ct. 337, 340, 55 L.Ed. 369.
We recognize that the standards for violation of the equal protection clauses of the United States Constitution and the New Mexico Constitution are similar. Vandolsen v. Constructors, Inc., 101 N.M. 109, 678 P.2d 1184 (Ct.App.1984). That some inequality results from the classification imposed by the exclusive remedy provision on the class of non-dependent survivors is not indicative of a constitutional violation. Dandridge.
Plaintiff, secondarily, argues that another basic objective of the Act is to promote occupational safety, and that the compensation limitations imposed under Section 52-1-46(A), coupled with the exclusive remedy bar, will encourage employers to place employees without eligible dependents in the jobs carrying the greatest hazards, and thereby frustrate the safety objective. The employer, according to plaintiff, has no economic incentive to minimize the hazards of the workplace so long as he employs workers without dependents who will, upon death, be subject to the limiting provisions of Section 52-l-46(A) and the exclusive remedy provisions. Plaintiff cites Guitard v. Gulf Oil Co., 100 N.M. 358, 670 P.2d 969 (Ct.App.1983) for the proposition that the Act is designed to promote safety. Guitard, however, dealt only with the safety objectives behind the anti-indemnity statute, NMSA 1978, Section 56-7-2(A), and did not discuss the purposes of the Act. While the promotion of safety in the workplace is not the central concern of the Act, the Act does penalize an employer who fails to provide safety devices required by law, or reasonable safety devices in general use for the protection of the workman, when an injury or death results from such failure. NMSA 1978, § 52-l-10(B) and (C). We note that an exception to the limitations of Section 52-l-46(A) is triggered when this failure occurs, and that under Section 52 — 1—10(C), compensation in the amount of $5,000. shall be paid to the surviving mother and father of a deceased workman with no eligible dependents. The legislature, therefore, has constructed a punitive measure surrounding safety violations specifically for the deceased workman with no eligible dependents.
The order of the trial court dismissing plaintiffs complaint against defendant with prejudice is affirmed. Each party will bear its costs on appeal.
IT IS SO ORDERED.
DONNELLY, C.J., and HENDLEY, J., concur. | [
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] |
OPINION
WALTERS, Justice.
Objecting to a December 23, 1985, order of the New Mexico State Corporation Commission (purportedly acting as the insurance board) which canceled increased workmen’s compensation insurance rates pursuant to a filing made by the National Council on Compensation Insurance on October 17, 1985, the Council petitioned this Court on December 30, 1985, for Writs of Emergency Relief, Mandamus and Certiorari.
The Council protests the cancellation on the ground that the Commission failed to follow the statutory procedure established in Article 17 of the Insurance Code, NMSA 1978, ch. 59A (Orig.Pamp.1984), for disapproving rate changes which otherwise would become effective 15 days after filing by the insurer, by operation of Section 59A-17-10. The Council concedes that Section 59A-17-35 of the Code provides for appeals from orders of the insurance board made “under Section 66 of the Insurance Code * * * to the district court of Santa Fe County in the same manner as provided for taking of appeals in other civil actions.” But it contends that because the legislature did not enact a “Section 66,” providing in 1984 N.M. Laws, ch. 127, that Section 66 was “reserved,” there is no Section 66 order to be appealed by the procedure provided in Section 59A-17-35; and that in the absence of such an identifiable order, its only recourse is to this Court.
It is pertinent to our discussion to note that in the voluminous 420-page Insurance Code contained in Volume 8 of our New Mexico Statutes, only two references to Section 66 appear, and they are in Sections 59A-17-34 and -35 relating to hearings and appeals under Article 17, which deals with Insurance Rates and Rating. It is the administrative action provided for in Article 17 upon which the Council seeks review. It is equally critical to note that Section 59A-4-20 of the Code provides for an appeal to the Santa Fe district court from all orders under the Code except those “arising under Article 17 (insurance rates and rating) of the Insurance Code [this chapter].” The exception of proceedings under Article 17 alone from the review procedure provided in Section 59A-4-20 for the other 52 articles of the Code, and the reference to a “Section 66” appeal in Article 17 only, is some evidence that the legislature considered Article 17 orders to be “Section 66” orders, and that its failure to enact Section 66 to so define those orders was an inadvertent omission.
There is no doubt, from a reading of Section 59A-17-34, that the procedure for review of the superintendent’s order by the insurance board was intended to be set out in Section 66 of 1984 N.M. Laws, ch. 127. Following the board’s review under Section 59A-17-34, an appeal from its decision to the Santa Fe district court is provided in Section 59A-17-35. Thus, the meaning and intent of these two statutes is not difficult to discern; it is only the procedure of “Section 66” hearings by the insurance board that is missing.
We, therefore, liberally construe Section 59A-17-35 which gives the right of appeal, as the rules of statutory construction require us to do. 3 N. Singer, Sutherland Statutory Construction § 67.08 (4th ed.1984). As the Sutherland treatise points out at Sections 47.36, 47.37, and 47.38, courts may substitute, disregard or eliminate, or insert or add words to a statute, if it is necessary to do so to carry out the legislative intent or to express the clearly manifested meaning of the statute. In the instant case, if “Section 59A-17-34” were substituted for “Section 66” in Section 59A-17-35, the meaning of the legislature as gathered from the context of the Insurance Code would clearly appear. Such a substitution would make Section 59A-17-35’s provisions for appeal sensible, and give the section force and effect. See New Mexico Glycerin Co. v. Gallegos, 48 N.M. 65, 145 P.2d 995 (1944). If, on the other hand, the words “Section 66” were disregarded or eliminated from Section 59A-17-35, the legislature’s intent to allow an appeal from an internal review likewise would be crystal clear. We are aided in so determining its meaning by the additional provisions of Section 59A-17-35 which go on to provide to the appealing party the exact remedies in the district court that were requested of this Court by extraordinary writ. Those provisions must be accorded some vitality if, by statutory construction, the legislative intent may be ascertained.
Consequently, when we apply the long-standing rule of determining legislative intent by reading not only isolated parts of the act but all of its parts, provi sions, and purposes, Vaughn v. United Nuclear Corp., 98 N.M. 481, 650 P.2d 3 (Ct.App.), cert. quashed, 98 N.M. 478, 649 P.2d 1391 (1982), we are persuaded that the legislature intended to provide for an appeal from all determinations made under the Insurance Code, but to provide, not the discretionary de novo or “on the record” appeal of Section 59A-4-20, for rates and rating determinations, but one “in the same manner as provided for taking appeals in other civil actions.” § 59A-17-35. Such a construction not only preserves the salutary provision for appeal to an aggrieved party; it also gives effect to the interim statutory powers of the district court pending determination of the appeal, as outlined in subsections (A), (B), and (C) of Section 59A-17-35. Appeal, therefore, and the preliminary remedies sought by the Council, are properly addressed to the Santa Fe District Court.
For the above reasons, the Petition for Writs of Mandamus and Certiorari are denied.
RIORDAN, C.J. SOSA, Senior J., and FEDERICI and STOWERS, JJ., concur. | [
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OPINION
HENDLEY, Judge.
Convicted of three counts of distribution of a controlled substance contrary to § 54-11-22, N.M.S.A.1953 (1972 Interim Supp.), defendant appeals asserting two points for reversal. First, that the prosecuting attorney and the state’s witness “made constant inferences designed specifically to appeal to the racial prejudices of the jurors” which amounted to either fundamental or plain error; and, second, that all the errors in the record constituted cumulative error when considered in the aggregate.
We affirm.
Inferences as to race
Defendant is a Negro. The transactions complained of occurred between defendant and an undercover agent. Two of the three transactions took place at the home of a female friend of defendant. This woman is “white.” She was present throughout the trial and on several occasions was identified by various witnesses as the person at whose home various events, including the two drug transactions took place.
Defendant’s appellate counsel asserts that the inferences were deliberately injected to arouse racial prejudices by implying that defendant was having an affair with the woman.
We examine the record. First, at no time did defendant’s trial counsel object to any comment. Section 21-2-1 (20) (1), N. M.S.A.1953 (Repl.Vol.1970). Second, with one exception, at no time was the woman referred to by race.
“Q. She white or black ?
“A. Pardon me?
“Q. Is she white or black?
“A. She is white.”
Third, with the exception of the one comment, the remaining comments called to our attention serve some legitimate evidentiary purpose (identification) independent of the possibility that the comments might draw attention to the fact that defendant and the woman were of 'different races. The comments were facts of the case:
“There was a female subject in the house, and another male colored subject, also.
“It is the lady seated on the second row. (Indicating).”
While we do not condone the questions which asked that the woman be identified as “white or black”, we cannot say as a matter of law that the exchange constituted fundamental error; nor can we hold, as a matter of law, that the non-racial comments constituted fundamental error. As we stated in State v. Torres, 78 N.M. 597, 435 P.2d 216 (Ct.App.1967):
“The doctrine of fundamental error is resorted to in criminal cases only if the innocence of the defendant appears indisputable, or if the question of his guilt is so doubtful that it would shock the conscience to permit his conviction to stand. . . .If there is a total absence of evidence to support a conviction, as well as evidence of an exculpatory nature, then an appellate court has the duty to see that substantial justice is done and to set aside the conviction.
See also State v. Sandoval, 83 N.M. 599, 495 P.2d 379 (Ct.App.1972).
We have reviewed the record and find no indisputable evidence of defendant’s innocence, nor is his guilt so doubtful that an affirmance would shock the conscience. Also, under this point defendant urges us to adopt the federal standard of review regarding “plain error.” Under this doctrine the federal appellate courts notice “[p]lain errors or defects affecting substantial rights . . .” even though “. they were not brought to the attention of the court.” Fed.R.Crim.P. 52(b). The answer to this argument is twofold: First, the federal practice is based on a federal procedural rule which has no counterpart in New Mexico. State v. Lopez, 84 N.M. 402, 503 P.2d 1180 (Ct.App.1972). Second, even under such a standard the single racial reference present in this record does not require a reversal.
Cumulative Erfor
Lastly, defendant contends that when taken together, all the alleged errors constitute cumulative error when considered in the aggregate. The “alleged errors,” according to defendant are “references,' inferences ánd statements” to the effect that defendant was living with a white woman, “. . . together with additional references to Negro parties as ‘colored’ . . . . ” The doctrine of cumulative error is recognized in New Mexico. State v. Valdez, 83 N.M. 632, 495 P.2d 1079 (Ct. App.1972). Even assuming defendant’s right to argue the existence of cumulative error (having failed to object to any individual error alleged) we have held that the exchanges alleged to be objectionable, were not so as a matter of law. There were no errors to cumulate.
Affirmed.
It is so ordered.
WOOD, C. J., and LOPEZ, J., concur. | [
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] |
OPINION
WOOD, Chief Judge.
The appeal involves the evidence of value in a larceny case. Defendant was convicted of larceny of copper wire with a value in excess of $100.00 but not more than $2500.00. Section 40A-16-1, N.M.S. A. 1953 (2d Repl.Vol. 6). He claims there was no substantial evidence upon which the jury could conclude that the value of the wire was more than $100.00. We disagree.
The copper wire stolen was described as 500 MCM, 250 MCM and scrap. Considering only the 500 MCM, a witness testified that if it was considered as scrap it was worth $30.00; its replacement cost was $110.00; that its market value was $170.00 to $180.00. Questioned as to whether the amount of 500 MCM stolen was usable, the witness replied that it was usable. This is substantial evidence of a value in excess of $100.00.
Defendant contends the testimony of this witness was “ . . .so inconsistent as to be inadequate to support the conclusion that the total value of the property allegedly taken was over $100.00. . . . ” We have reviewed this testimony; it is not inconsistent. However, even if the testimony was inconsistent, such would not require a ruling that the above testimony was not substantial. Conflicts in evidence are to be resolved by the fact finder and this includes conflicts in the testimony of a witness. State v. McKay, 79 N.M. 797, 450 P.2d 435 (Ct.App.1969).
The evidence of value being substantial, the judgment and sentence is affirmed. See State v. Phillips, 83 N.M. 5, 487 P.2d 915 (Ct.App.1971); State v. Parker, 80 N.M. 551, 458 P.2d 803 (Ct.App.1969).
It is so ordered.
HENDLEY and SUTIN, JJ., concur. | [
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] |
OPINION
WOOD, Chief Judge.
Defendant pled guilty to burglary. Section 40A-16-3, N.M.S.A.1953 (2nd Repl. Vol. 6). His appeal asserts the trial court erred in accepting the guilty plea because the question of his competency to plead had previously been raised and that question had not been determined by the court.
On May 2, 1972, defendant moved for a psychiatric examination to determine whether defendant was competent to stand trial and assist counsel in his defense. The defendant represented to the court that he had been in four mental hospitals and had recently been released from a mental hospital ; that he had been “ . . . having a hard time controlling my own mind. . ” His counsel represented to the court that he had “noticed a change” in defendant’s condition in recent days and that defendant was unable to cooperate in his defense. On the basis of these representations, the trial court ordered a psychiatric examination for the same day.
Nothing more appears concerning this examination. The State would dispose of this appeal on the basis that the representations to the court were insufficient to raise a question as to defendant’s competency and, therefore, no hearing on his competency was required. See State v. Morales, 81 N.M. 333, 466 P.2d 899 (Ct.App.1970), cert. denied, 400 U.S. 842, 91 S.Ct. 84, 27 L.Ed.2d 77 (1970); State v. Hollowell, 80 N.M. 756, 461 P.2d 238 (Ct.App.1969); State v. Hovey, 80 N.M. 373, 456 P.2d 206 (Ct.App.1969). In support of this position, they attach to the answer brief what purports to be an evaluation of defendant by the psychiatrist which reports “no evidence of psychosis.” This exhibit will not be considered. Kassel v. Anderson, (Ct.App.), No. 1019, decided February 16, 1973.
We do not decide the appeal on the basis suggested by the State. Instead, we examine the subsequent events.
On June 15, 1972, defendant appeared before the court, with counsel, and pled guilty. This plea was accepted only after the trial court had questioned defendant extensively as to his understanding of the proceedings and the voluntariness of the plea. In these proceedings the trial court questioned defendant as to his mental capacity at the time of the burglary and at that time.
The trial court asked: “Are you under any kind of mental disability at this point?” Defendant answered: “Well, at this point I have been to four state hospitals and I have been working pretty hard for my sanity, and I believe that I was drunk at the time. . . . ” The trial court then asked defense counsel if he was satisfied that the court should accept the plea. Counsel’s answer: “Yes, Your Honor. I believe that the defendant is competent and understands what is happening and was in possession of his mental faculties at the time to a sufficient degree to enable him to be responsible for his actions.”
In two subsequent proceedings, the defendant was referred to as being emotionally disturbed and as having a mental and emotional problem. Defendant stated he had been to “three state hospitals in the last three years.” No claim was made in these proceedings that defendant lacked the mental capacity to plead guilty.
Assuming the question of defendant’s mental capacity to plead was before the court on June 15, 1972, counsel’s response to the court’s questions about defendant’s mental condition can only be interpreted either as an abandonment of the question or a representation that there was no issue as to defendant’s competency to plead. Compare State v. Barefield, 80 N.M. 265, 454 P.2d 279 (Ct.App.1969).
The references to hospitalization and a “mental and emotional problem” in subsequent proceedings were insufficient to raise a question as to competency to plead. Stafford v. State, 82 N.M. 365, 482 P.2d 68 (Ct.App.1971); State v. Smith, 80 N.M. 742, 461 P.2d 157 (Ct.App.1969); State v. Botello, 80 N.M. 482, 457 P.2d 1001 (Ct.App.1969).
Defendant does not claim that he lacked the capacity to plead guilty. The essence of defendant’s appeal is that the trial court, having once ordered a psychiatric examination of defendant, could not, under § 41- 13-3.1, N.M.S.A.1953 (2nd Repl.Vol. 6), proceed further until defendant’s mental competency had been determined by the court. Our answer is that counsel’s response to the court’s questions on June 15, 1972, effectively removed any question of competency from the case at that time. Accordingly, the trial court did not err in not holding a competency hearing.
The judgment and sentence is affirmed.
It is so ordered.
HERNANDEZ and LOPEZ, JJ., concur. | [
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OPINION
MONTOYA, Justice.
The parties hereto were married in 1967 in the State of New Mexico, and in June 1971, while residing in the State of California, the plaintiff-appellee (appellee) separated from the defendant-appellant (appellant). Upon separation, the appellee assumed residence in New Mexico.
Thereafter, in February 1972, appellee commenced an action for divorce from appellant in Albuquerque, New Mexico, on the grounds of incompatibility.
Appellant answered, asserting the affirmative defense of recrimination alleging adultery on the part of appellee.
In substance, the findings made by the trial court are: That the parties are irreconcilably incompatible, to such a degree that it is no longer possible for them to live together as husband and wife; that the incompatibility of the parties is of long standing duration and finally resulted in the appellee leaving the appellant in California in June 1971, returning to New Mexico; that subsequently, the appellee met Jim Steele in the latter part of August 1971, began seeing him on a regular basis in September 1971, and' began residing with him some three and a half months later; that Jim Steele in no way contributed to or gave rise to the state of incompatibility existing between the parties. The court also found that the parties were irreconcilably incompatible for some time prior to appellee meeting Jim Steele.
After making its decision, the court granted a divorce to appellee, which was entered on September 7, 1972. Appellant appeals from that decree.
The basic issue to be decided is whether, under the facts of this case, recrimination is a defense to a suit for divorce.
This court has in the past considered the issue. In Chavez v. Chavez, 39 N.M. 480, 50 P.2d 264, 101 A.L.R. 635 (1935), we held that adultery by the wife was a bar to a suit for divorce. In a concurring opinion, one of the Justices wrote that the 1933 enactment by the Legislature of incompatibility as a new ground for divorce indicated a declaration of policy by the Legislature that, when the court is satisfied that the parties to the marriage are irreconcilable and can no longer live together harmoniously, the district court has full power and authority to grant a divorce decree.
It appears that recrimination was a defense in divorce actions in our State from the time of the Chavez decision, supra, until 1946, when this court decided Pavletich v. Pavletich, 50 N.M. 224, 174 P.2d 826 (1946). In that case, a suit for divorce was filed and the doctrine of recrimination was pled by way of cross-complaint, claiming adultery on the part of the husband. The trial court granted the divorce on the grounds of incompatibility, and the ruling was appealed. We affirmed the trial court and said (50 N.M. 233-234, 174 P.2d 832):
“If the chancellor believes the parties are reconcilable, he will, no doubt, endeavor to bring about a reconciliation. But where the parties are irreconcilable we believe that the public policy of this state as expressed by the legislature, is against denying a divorce on the doctrine of recrimination. * * * ”
We further said:
“ * * *. Chavez v. Chavez, 39 N.M. 480, 50 P.2d 264, 101 A.L.R. 635, in so far as it holds it to be the imperative duty of the chancellor to deny a divorce upon a showing of recrimination, should no longer be followed.”
After the Pavletich case, supra, it appeared that the defense of recrimination to an action for divorce in this State had been abolished. However, in 1950, this court in Clark v. Clark, 54 N.M. 364, 225 P.2d 147, 21 A.L.R.2d 1263 (1950), reviewed the Pavletich decision, supra, and while not overruling it, said (54 N.M. 367, 225 P.2d 149):
“It is obvious from a reading of the Pavletich case that it does not go so far as to hold that a finding of incompatibility imposes upon the trial court, sitting as a chancellor, the mandatory duty of granting a divorce where the defense of recrimination has been pleaded and fully established. The decision in that case does not hold, as the trial judge seems to have felt and as counsel for appellee (plaintiff) insisted below and maintains here, that the chancellor must ignore the defense of recrimination, even though irreconcilable differences exist between the parties. * * *
‡ * *
“It would be absurd to say that ‘incompatibility’ itself could be pleaded by way of recrimination as a defense to a divorce sought upon the ground of incompatibility. But as to other defenses traditionally employed by way of recrimination, if pleaded, established and found to have resulted from acts of the plaintiff, there resides in the trial judge the discretion to say whether, notwithstanding such incompatibility, it shocks the conscience to hold such plaintiff entitled to a divorce by reason thereof. Cf. Mansur v. Mansur, Tex.Civ.App., 37 S.W.2d 846; Blankenship v. Blankenship, 51 Nev. 356, 276 P. 9, 63 A.L.R. 1127. When exercised, discretion so residing in the trial judge as in the case of an exercise of discretion by him in other matters, is subject to review in this court for abuse.”
The question for decision in the Clark case, supra, as in the instant case, was whether recrimination affords a valid defense in a suit for divorce sought on the ground of incompatibility. The majority in that case, with two justices dissenting, reversed the trial court, ordered the setting aside of the divorce decree and awarded a new trial, where the trial judge could exercise his discretion to determine whether, notwithstanding the incompatibility shown, a divorce should be denied. In the Clark case, supra, as in the instant case, recrimination was pled and established. Significantly, in the Clark case, supra, we held that incompatibility itself cannot be pled by defendant by way of recrimination to a divorce action brought by the plaintiff on the grounds of incompatibility, but that if other defenses traditionally employed by way of recrimination are pleaded, established and found to have resulted from actions of the plaintiff, the trial judge is not bound under the law to grant a divorce and may exercise his discretion.
The trial judge in the instant case clearly understood the import of our decision in Clark v. Clark, supra, and a review of the record indicates that the court’s exercise of discretion followed the “shocks the conscience” test set forth in Clark, supra.
In the light of present social conditions and policy emanating therefrom, we again re-examine the question of whether the defense of recrimination should continue to be recognized. We are mindful that in our State recrimination is a court-established doctrine and thus we are not bound by any legislative enactment concerning it.
In the Pavletich case, supra, it is apparent that our ruling therein was arrived at by studied consideration of the then current social policy. We quoted approvingly from Vol. 10, Kansas City Law Review containing an article by J. G. Beamer entitled “The Doctrine of Recrimination in Divorce Proceedings,” wherein he says in part at 213 (50 N.M. 231-232, 174 P.2d 830-831):
“ ‘Three possible sociological justifications for the doctrine of recrimination can be dimly discerned behind the empty incantations with which the courts rationalize its existence and application to the cases before them. The first is that it tends to hold the family together; the second, that it serves as a check upon immorality; the third, that it protects the property rights of the wife.
“ ‘The family is still the fundamental sociological unit of our civilization. For the purposes of this discussion, it is assumed that it should be preserved and that the state has a vital interest in its preservation.
“ ‘In its largest aspect the problem involved here is whether divorce, under any circumstances, should be permitted. Fortunately, we need not attempt an answer. For our limited purposes the question has already been answered. Forty-seven out of the forty-eight of our state governments, and a respectable majority of foreign governments all of whom, it is assumed, have a vital interest in the maintenance of the family— have decided that the interests of both the family and of the state can best be served by permitting divorce in certain situations. And the present tendency seems to be toward a further liberalization of the divorce laws. This decision and tendency may be said to be due to a slowly awakening realization that denial of divorce seldom restores life to families sociologically dead when they come into court, and that if anything is preserved it is but the dead and empty shell of what has been and is no longer—a realization that upon the refusal of divorce, those things which cannot be done legally are often done illegally, those which cannot be done openly are done clandestinely; that other relationships are formed, nameless children born; and that even if the parties force themselves to remain, together, their children probably will not thank them for it or even be imbued with any high and lasting ideals about their family, or the family as a sociological concept.
“ ‘If this is the justification for permitting divorce where only one party is at fault, how much more reasonable is it to permit divorce where both parties hold their marriage vows in contempt, and the likelihood that attempts at reconciliation will fail are thereby doubled. * * * ’ ”
Accordingly, we hold that the doctrine of recrimination as a defense is abolished in proceedings where a divorce is sought on the grounds of incompatibility. Henceforth, evidence of any recriminatory act is only admissible to the extent that such act may have weight as proof on the issue of incompatibility as a ground for divorce.
If the trial judge is satisfied and finds that incompatibility exists between the parties, a decree of divorce should be entered. To the extent that Clark v. Clark, supra, and other prior decisions of this court are inconsistent with our holding herein, they are hereby overruled.
Appellant vigorously argues that
“A plaintiff seeking equitable relief must come into court with clean hands and prepared to do equity; that continued cohabitation in adultery up to and including the date of trial establishes that plaintiff did not have clean hands nor was prepared to do equity; that the granting of a divorce to plaintiff under the circumstances is shocking to the conscience of the court.”
We have considered the evidence in the record and the many years of existing discord between the parties, the incidents of harassment after the separation of the parties, and hold that the trial court properly made a finding that incompatibility existed. We further hold that, even under the doctrine enunciated in the Clark case, supra, the so-called “shocks the conscience” test, there was no abuse of discretion by the trial court in granting the divorce, even though we have ruled that the doctrine of the Clark case, supra, is no longer applicable or to be followed. No useful purpose would be served to engage in a lengthy discussion about the equitable doctrines and powers incident to a divorce proceeding. Our Legislature, acting properly within its powers, has established “incompatibility” as a ground for divorce and, as hereinbefore stated, once such a finding is made that it exists, a divorce decree must be entered.
Appellee raises in her brief the point that appellant should be penalized for filing a frivolous appeal to harass appellee herein. The appellant, at oral argument, asked for an opportunity to brief the question. We hold that, in view of the disposition we have made of the issues, this court will consider the point as not being well taken.
Appellee also claims entitlement to an award from appellant for her attorney’s fees herein. We agree that such an award would be proper and appellee is allowed a reasonable attorney’s fee for this appeal in the sum of $1,000, to be taxed as costs against appellant.
The judgment of the trial court is affirmed.
It is so ordered.
STEPHENSON and MARTINEZ, JJ., concur. | [
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] |
OPINION
SUTIN, Judge.
Defendant was convicted of unlawful possession of a controlled substance (heroin). Section 54-11-23, N.M.S.A.1953 (Repl. Vol. 8, pt. 2, Interim Supp.1972). Defendant appeals.
We affirm.
Defendant contends the state failed to prove, (1) possession of the narcotic by the defendant; (2) a complete chain of custody of the narcotic.
(1) State Proved Constructive Possession
On April 20, 1972, defendant rented for one week room No. 3 at a motel in Albuquerque, New Mexico, and took possession. The police began observation on April 23, 1972. Surveillance showed defendant in the motel room and people going in for a few minutes and then leave. On April 26, 1972, a search warrant was obtained, the room was searched in the absence of defendant, and police found one cap of suspected heroin in the bottom of a box in the northeast corner of the room. Seven caps of suspected cocaine were found.
This is sufficient evidence to show defendant was in constructive possession of the heroin cap with knowledge thereof. “Constructive possession” means knowledge of the presence of the narcotic and control over it. The power to produce or dispose of the narcotic is evidence of such control. Amaya v. United States, 373 F.2d 197, 199 (10th Cir.1967); The People v. Fox, 24 Ill.2d 581, 182 N.E.2d 692 (1962); Annot. 91 A.L.R.2d 810; State v. Giddings, 67 N.M. 87, 352 P.2d 1003 (1960); State v. Maes, 81 N.M. 550, 469 P.2d 529 (Ct.App.1970). Defendant was in possession of the room for six days before the legal search began, and in the absence of any evidence to the contrary, a reasonable inference can be drawn that defendant had knowledge of the presence and nature of the narcotic drug. State v. Garcia, 76 N.M. 171, 413 P.2d 210 (1966); State v. Ronniger, -Or.App.-, 492 P. 2d 298 (1971).
The state proved constructive possession.
(2) The State Proved Chain of Custody of Narcotic
On April 26, 1972, a detective, who participated in the search, took the narcotic to the Albuquerque police department and checked it into evidence in a sealed envelope. In August, he checked it out and took it to a biochemist for testing. A receipt was given the detective on August 31, 1972. On September 1, 1972, the narcotic was tested and returned to the biochemist’s safe until the morning of trial, September 5, 1972.
Defendant claims that no evidence was presented about the narcotic from April 26, 1972, until August 31, 1972, and this was a missing link. It is not a missing link in this court. State v. Chavez, 84 N.M. 760, 508 P.2d 30 (Ct.App.), decided March 2, 1973.
Affirmed.
It is so ordered.
WOOD, C. J., and LOPEZ, J., concur. | [
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OPINION
WOOD, Chief Judge.
Defendant was convicted of homicide by vehicle while either driving under the influence of intoxicating liquor or narcotic drugs, or reckless driving. Sections 64— 22-1, 64-22-2 and 64-22-3, N.M.S.A.1953 (2d Repl.Vol. 9, pt. 2). His appeal raises issues as to: (1) the taking of a blood sample; (2) the instruction concerning the results of a test of the blood; and (3) the failure to instruct on a lesser included offense.
Taking of the hlood sample.
Defendant was driving a vehicle which was involved in an automobile accident. An investigating officer testified that immediately after the accident defendant had a strong alcoholic smell to his breath. A bottle of wine “about half gone” was observed on “the left front floor board” of defendant’s car “down by the pedals on the driver’s side.”
Defendant was taken to the hospital. At the hospital defendant was advised of his rights and placed under arrest for driving while intoxicated, reckless driving and for failure to have a driver’s license. The officer read the advice of rights from a card he carried. The officer stated he asked defendant if he understood his rights and if he wanted to talk about the accident. According to the officer, defendant stated he understood his rights “and would talk to me.” According to the officer, defendant did not remember the accident, but told the officer he had “ ‘[a] couple beers’ ” before the accident.
The officer testified that he asked defendant if he was aware of New Mexico’s implied consent law, see §§ 64-22-2.4 to 64-22-2.12, N.M.S.A.1953 (2d Repl.Vol. 9, pt. 2), and requested defendant to take a blood alcohol test. “ * * * He said he knew about the implied consent. I said if he refused to take it it could mean automatic revocation for a year. He said he knew this and would take the blood test.”
The person who drew the blood sample from defendant testified that defendant consented to the taking of the blood and signed his name on a form indicating that consent. This witness also testified such consent was necessary before he could take the blood sample.
There is, of course, conflicting evidence, but our review considers the evidence in the light most favorable to support the verdict. State v. Gregg, 83 N.M. 397, 492 P.2d 1260 (Ct.App.1972).
Defendant contends his blood could not have been constitutionally taken apart from the implied consent law. We need not decide this question; however, see Schmerber v. California, 384 U.S. 757, 86 S.Ct. 1826, 16 L.Ed.2d 908 (1966). The validity of taking the blood sample, and the propriety of admitting the results of tests on that blood, in this case, must be decided under our implied consent law. This is so because the jury was instructed as to the statutory presumptions based on the test of the blood. Such an instruction was authorized only if the test was “performed pursuant to the Implied Consent Act.” Section 64 — 22-2.10, supra.
Defendant asserts that he did not consent to the taking of a sample of his blood. There is substantial evidence that he did consent. Even if he had not expressly consented, the evidence is undisputed that he was the operator of the car. Section 64-22-2.6, supra, provides that a “ * * * person who operates a motor vehicle within this state shall be deemed to have given consent . . . to a chemical test . . . of his . . . blood for the purpose of determining the alcoholic content of his blood. * * * ”
Defendant claims it was unconstitutional to draw his blood while he was unconscious or incapable of refusing. The evidence, reviewed above indicates defendant was not unconscious and supports the inference that defendant was capable of refusing. But even if defendant were in such a condition, § 64 — 22-2.8, supra, provides that a person who is unconscious or in a condition rendering him incapable of refusing to submit to a test, shall not be deemed to have withdrawn the consent implied by operating a vehicle. Defendant asserts § 64 — 22-2.8, supra, denies him equal protection of the law. It does not. This provision classifies certain persons on the basis of their condition, but the classification has a rational basis and is not discriminatory. In Re McCain, 84 N.M. 657, 506 P.2d 1204 (1973).
The implied consent law may be applied to a person “ * * * if arrested for any offense arising out of the acts alleged to have been committed while the person was driving or in actual physical control of a motor vehicle while under the influence of an intoxicating liquor.” Section 64 — 22-2.-6(A), supra. Defendant challenges the validity of his arrest. He claims it was illegal because the officer did not have a warrant.
A police officer may arrest without a warrant if the circumstances would warrant a reasonable person in believing that an offense had been committed by the person whom he then arrests. State v. Barton, 79 N.M. 70, 439 P.2d 719 (1968) and cases therein cited.
Defendant was arrested for driving while intoxicated. He had a strong smell of liquor on his breath immediately after the accident. There was a “half gone” bottle of wine (which was 19% alcohol by volume) in the car. He had been driving the car. These circumstances warranted the officer, as a reasonable person, to believe that defendant had been driving while intoxicated and provided a probable cause for defendant’s arrest. See State v. Gibby, 78 N.M. 414, 432 P.2d 258 (1967).
Section 64-22-2.9, supra, states: “Only the persons authorized by section 64-22-2.1 NMSA 1953 shall withdraw blood from any person for the purpose of determining its alcoholic content. * * * ” One of the persons authorized by § 64-22-2.1, supra, is a technologist employed by a physician.
The person who withdrew defendant’s blood was employed by a physician. He had received training in withdrawing blood. Over an eight year period this person had withdrawn some 1600 blood samples. There is evidence that the blood taken from defendant was withdrawn in a medically approved manner. Defendant does not question the fact that the person withdrawing the blood was a technologist employed by a physician.
This technologist did not have a license. Because of the absence of a license, defendant claims the technologist was not authorized to withdraw blood under § 64 — 22-2.1, supra, and on this basis asserts his blood was withdrawn in violation of § 64— 22-2.9, supra. This contention is based on the sentence in § 64 — 22-2.1, supra, which reads:
“Only a physician, licensed professional or practical nurse or laboratory technician or technologist employed by a hospital or physician shall withdraw blood from any person in the performance of a blood-alcohol test. . . .”
Defendant claims the quoted sentence clearly and unambiguously identifies five categories authorized to withdraw blood and four of them are required to be licensed. According to defendant, the categories are: (1) a physician; (2) a licensed professional nurse employed by a hospital or physician; (3) a licensed prac tical nurse employed by a hospital or physician ; (4) a licensed laboratory technician employed by a hospital or physician; and (5) a licensed laboratory technologist employed by a hospital or physician.
A comparison of the statute, quoted above, with defendant’s expansive reading of that statute, answers the claim that the statute is clear and unambiguous. Defendant’s reading would add words to the statute which are not part of the statute as enacted. If the statute, as enacted, was clear and unambiguous, words would not have to be added. We hold the statute is ambiguous. Accordingly, we must seek the legislative intent by applying rules of construction. State v. Clark, 80 N.M. 340, 455 P.2d 844 (1969).
In seeking the legislative intent, the only category with which we are concerned is the one of technologist, because it was a person in that category who withdrew defendant’s blood. The question is : Did the Legislature intend that a technologist be licensed? Our answer is: “No.” Three rules of construction provide that answer.
One rule of construction is that this Court must presume that in enacting § 64-22-2.1, supra, the Legislature was informed as to existing law. Bettini v. City of Las Cruces, 82 N.M. 633, 485 P.2d 967 (1971). A second rule is that we are not to adopt constructions which lead to absurd or unreasonable results. Trujillo v. Romero, 82 N.M. 301, 481 P.2d 89 (1971); Midwest Video v. Campbell, 80 N.M. 116, 452 P.2d 185 (1969).
There were no provisions for the licensing of technologists at the time § 64-22-2.1, supra, was enacted. We must presume the Legislature was so informed. To construe § 64-22-2.1, supra, as requiring the technologist to be licensed would be absurd when there were no provisions for the licensing of technologists. There still are no such licensing provisions.
A third rule of construction is that statutes should be construed according to the purpose for which they were enacted. Tijerina v. Baker, 78 N.M. 770, 438 P.2d 514 (1968); Martinez v. Research Park, Inc., 75 N.M. 672, 410 P.2d 200 (1965). Referring to New Mexico’s Implied Consent Act, In Re McCain, supra, states: “ * * * One purpose is to deter driving while intoxicated. Another purpose is to aid in discovering and removing from the highways the intoxicated driver. .” To hold that a technologist must be licensed when there are no provisions for a license, would defeat the purpose of “discovering . . . the intoxicated driver.”
On the basis of the above rules of construction, we hold that in enacting § 64-22-2.1, supra, the Legislature did not intend that the technologist must be licensed.
Other arguments of defendant under the first point were either not raised in the trial court or need not be answered because not applicable to our implied consent law. We hold that defendant’s blood was validly withdrawn under New Mexico’s implied consent law.
Instruction concerning blood test results.
The jury was instructed as to the statutory presumptions stated in § 64-22-2.10(B), supra. Defendant presents several contentions as to why this instruction was error. We consider only the contention presented to the trial court. The contentions not presented to the trial court are not before us for review. State v. Johnson, 60 N.M. 57, 287 P.2d 247 (1955); State v. Compton, 57 N.M. 227, 257 P.2d 915 (1953); State v. Trujillo, 54 N.M. 307, 224 P.2d 151 (1950); State v. Lucero, 24 N.M. 343, 171 P. 785 (1918); State v. Alva, 18 N.M. 143, 134 P. 209 (1913).
Defendant’s objection to the trial court was that the instruction imposed “. a conclusive presumption of fact on the court and the jury. . . .” This objection is directed to the portion of the instruction which states if the blood tested contains “one-tenth of one percent (.10%) or more weight of alcohol, it shall be pre sumed that the person was under the influence of intoxicating liquor.” See § 64— 22-2.10(B) (3), supra. There is evidence that the blood withdrawn from defendant was .268%.
Defendant asserts that under the “shall be presumed” language, the only discretion left to the jury was to accept or reject the test analysis. This is incorrect. The jury was not limited to accepting or rejecting the test results. Section 64 — 22-2.10(D), supra, provides that the presumptions in § 64-22-2.10(B), supra, “ * * * do not limit the introduction of other competent evidence concerning whether or not a person was under the influence of intoxicating liquor.” As defendant states, a “plethora of evidence” was admitted which went to defendant’s sobriety at the time of the accident.
The “shall be presumed” language is not a conclusive presumption. What, then, is its effect? A test result of .10% or more is prima facie proof, sufficient to go to the jury, that defendant was under the influence of intoxicating liquor. State v. Johnson, 42 N.J. 146, 199 A.2d 809 (1964). The evidence giving rise to the presumption is to be considered with other evidence in the case on the question of being under the influence and the presumption may be rebutted by such other evidence. McConville v. United States, 197 F. 2d 680 (2d Cir. 1952), cert. denied, 344 U.S. 877, 73 S.Ct. 172, 97 L.Ed. 679 (1952); State v. Bailey, 184 Kan. 704, 339 P.2d 45 (1959). It is proper to inform the jury that when the required percentage is reached, the presumption exists. City of Seattle v. Bryan, 53 Wash.2d 321, 333 P.2d 680 (1958).
The trial court did not err in instructing the jury concerning the statutory presumption.
Lesser included offense.
Defendant’s request for an instruction on a lesser included offense was refused. The asserted lesser included offense is driving a vehicle while under the influence of intoxicating liquor. Section 64-22-2, supra. Defendant contends that under the evidence, the jury could have found that defendant was driving while under the influence but that this was not the proximate cause of the death which followed the automobile accident. See § 64-22-1, supra; compare State v. Sisneros, 42 N.M. 500, 82 P.2d 274 (1938). It is on this basis that defendant asserts refusal of the requested instruction was error. We disagree.
There is evidence that defendant was driving while under the influence of intoxicating liquor. This is a crime under § 64 — 22-2, supra. The trial court, however, is not required to instruct on every offense for which there is evidence. State v. Andrada, 82 N.M. 543, 484 P.2d 763 (Ct.App.1971).
Section 41-13-1, N.M.S.A.1953 (2d Repl.Vol. 6) states: “Upon indictment * * * for an offense consisting of different degrees, the jury may find the accused not guilty of the offense charged * * * and may find him guilty of any degree of such offense inferior to that charged. . . .” (Our emphasis). Section 41-13-1, supra, is applicable only where there are lesser degrees of the offense charged. “The trial court is not required to instruct on offenses which the evidence tends to establish unless the offense is a lesser offense included within the crime charged. . . .” State v. Andrada, supra.
Our “homicide by vehicle” statute has no degrees. Homicide by vehicle may be committed while driving under the influence of intoxicating liquor, but it may also be committed by driving while under the influence of drugs or reckless driving. Driving while under the influence of intoxicating liquor may be, but is not necessarily, an element of the homicide charge. The crime of homicide by vehicle may be committed without there being any driving while under the influence of intoxicating liquor. The converse is also true. The crime being distinct, driving while under the influence of intoxicating liquor is not an offense included within the homicide charge. Compare State v. Andrada, supra.
There being no degrees of the homicide charge, and driving while under the influence of intoxicating liquor not being included within that charge, the trial court did not err- in refusing the requested instruction.
The judgment and sentence is affirmed.
It is so ordered.
HERNANDEZ and LOPEZ, JJ., concur.
HENDLEY and SUTIN, JJ., not participating. | [
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] |
OPINION
MONTOYA, Justice.
Defendant-appellant Cornwallis Riggsbee (appellant) appeals from his conviction of the crimes of first degree murder and aggravated battery. We affirm both convictions.
The record reveals that, for several years, appellant visited the residence of Andrew Barnes. Frequently, from June to November 1971, appellant was accompanied by his girl friend Jane Murphy. On November 25, 1971, the deceased Mattie Lee Barnes was visiting her father’s home. On that day, appellant visited the Barnes’ residence three times. The first time was around 11:45 a. m., during appellant’s lunch hour, the second visit was around 7:45 p. m., and the final visit was somewhere near 9:00 p. m. During the second visit some words, best characterized as harsh, were spoken to appellant by the deceased. Upon returning for the third visit a short time later, it appears that appellant entered the kitchen where the deceased and other persons, including a Charley Bennett, were seated and that appellant struck the deceased, knocking her to the floor. Appellant and Mr. Bennett began struggling and appellant shot Mr. Bennett, then he shot the deceased. Appellant and his girl friend immediately left the Barnes’ residence. About three hours later, Officer Joseph Tapia of the Santa Fe Police Department arrested appellant in front of his Santa Fe residence. The arrest and frisk search of appellant were both without warrants.
The appellant relies on the following six points for reversal of his conviction:
“I. The trial court was in error in not suppressing evidence taken from the defendant without benefit of a search warrant.
“II. The trial court erred and committed reversible error in allowing the jury to consider the charge of first degree murder because the evidence presented was insufficient to show premeditation or deliberation.
“HI. It was error for the court to permit the district attorney to question the defendant on matters not covered on direct examination and which were not material or relevant to the issues in this case.
“IV. It was error for the court not to declare a mistrial when one of the jurors reported in the morning to the court intoxicated and the court then excused the jury until 1:30 p. m. in the afternoon without conferring with counsel for the defense and then held an informal interrogation in the court’s chambers without presence of counsel for the state or the defense. ,
“V. It was error for the trial court to refuse to instruct the jury on involuntary manslaughter.
“VI. It was error for the court not to declare - a mistrial after the inflammatory remarks made by the district attorney.”
Under point I appellant contends that the trial court erred by refusing to hold an evidentiary hearing on the motion to suppress prior to trial. Further, that the court erred in admitting the evidence taken without a search warrant.
This issue has been resolved by this court in State v. Deltenre, 77 N.M. 497, 424 P.2d 782 (1966), cert. denied, 386 U.S. 976, 87 S.Ct. 1171, 18 L.Ed.2d 136 (1967), where we said (77 N.M. at 499, 424 P.2d at 783) :
“A search without a warrant is lawful when the search is incident to a lawful arrest and the legality of an arrest without a warrant depends upon whether the arrest was based upon probable cause. Ker v. State of California, 374 U.S. 23, 83 S.Ct. 1623, 10 L.Ed.2d 726. In viewing the facts to determine the propriety of denying a motion to suppress, controverted questions of fact will not be resolved, but the facts found by the trial court will be weighed against the stand ards of reasonableness. Ker v. State of California, supra. That the trial court’s decision as to the reasonableness of an arrest will not be disturbed if facts found to make the arrest constitutionally reasonable are supported by substantial evidence. United States v. Hilbrich, 341 F.2d 555 (7th Cir. 1965); People v. Guyette, 231 Cal.App.2d 460, 41 Cal.Rptr. 875; and State v. Tuttle, 16 Utah 2d 288, 399 P.2d 580. The facts to be examined on appeal are those facts elicited before the trial court on the hearing on the motion to suppress. People v. Matera, 45 Misc.2d 864, 258 N.Y.S.2d 2.”
While the hearing on the motion to suppress in the instant case was denied, the evidence which was the subject of the motion to suppress was also sought to be excluded during the trial on the grounds that it was the result of an illegal arrest and an illegal search. Consequently, during the voir dire of Officer Tapia, out of the presence of the jury, the motion to suppress was renewed, heard and again denied. Officer Tapia testified during ihat voir dire that he was contacted by car radio by a Sergeant Norbert and, after getting together with him, learned of the shooting, who the suspect was, and that appellant was identified as the suspect by several persons present at the shooting. The officer further stated it was understood that the suspect (appellant) was on foot when he' left the house where the shooting occurred, and so the officer drove up and down the streets checking for him. After no success, Officer Tapia again met with Sergeant Norbert, who advised him to stake out the apartment of appellant. It was at appellant’s apartment that the arrest and frisk search were made. Again, in State v. Deltenre, supra, we considered this issue and stated (77 N.M. at 501, 424 P.2d at 784):
“ * * *. What appears to be the generally accepted definition of probable cause was stated in Brinegar v. United States, 338 U.S. 160, 69 S.Ct. 1302, 93 L.Ed. 1879:
“ ‘ * * * Probable cause exists where “the facts and circumstances within their [the officers’] knowledge and of which they had reasonably trustworthy information [are] sufficient in themselves to warrant a man of reasonable caution in the belief that” an offense has been or is being committed. Carroll v. United States, 267 U.S. 132, 162, 45 S.Ct. 280, 288, 69 L.Ed. 543.’”
The trial court correctly concluded that Officer Tapia had probable cause to arrest appellant. The net effect was that the matters not considered under the motion to suppress before trial were actually heard and presented by the voir dire of Officer Tapia, when the items of evidence were sought to be introduced. The motion to suppress and the voir dire concerned the same issue. Concluding that the substance of the motion was actually heard leaves us to determine only if the facts before the trial court were sufficient for that court to determine that probable cause existed for the arrest of appellant. We believe there were sufficient facts and, the arrest being legally established, the search incident thereto is also valid according to the standards of Ker v. State of California, 374 U.S. 23, 83 S.Ct. 1623, 10 L.Ed.2d 726 (1963). The evidence was correctly admitted and the trial court did not err.
Appellant’s second point, that the court erred in submitting the issue of first degree murder to the jury, is also not well taken. The decision of the jury, finding appellant guilty of murder in the first degree, must be sustained unless there is an absence of evidence showing directly or circumstantially, premeditation and deliberation. See State v. Ferrari, 80 N.M. 714, 460 P.2d 244 (1969); State v. Smith, 76 N.M. 477, 416 P.2d 146 (1966); State v. Ybarra, 24 N.M. 413, 174 P. 212 (1918). In brief, the testimony of the various witnesses established the following: That the deceased was visiting in her father’s home; that on the day the-deceased was shot, appellant visited the deceased’s father’s home on three different occasions; that an argument developed between the deceased and appellant during the second visit and, when appellant returned for the third time that day, he entered the home without knocking, went directly to the kitchen, struck the deceased knocking her from her chair, saying “Bitch, what did you say to me?” He then engaged in a struggle with Mr. Bennett and, after shooting Mr. Bennett, appellant shot the deceased.
The questions of premeditation and deliberation were for the jury to determine upon a consideration of all the circumstances. State v. Ybarra, supra. The evidence in this case and the inferences the jury was entitled to draw therefrom were sufficient to sustain the conviction of first degree murder. State v. Smith, supra.
Under point III, appellant contends there was improper questioning on matters not covered by direct examination, or on matters that were not material or relevant, and makes reference to a conversation he had previously with the district attorney in 1970. The particular questions which he contends were improper are the following:
“Q. What did I tell you at that time, Mr. Riggsbee?
“A. Well, you told me not to be carrying a gun, but I don’t think this has nothing to do with the case.
“Q. What did you tell me ?
“A. I told you I would not be carrying a gun.
“Q. And you walked out and you started carrying a gun again, didn’t you?
“A. About a couple of weeks later.
“Q. As a matter of fact you always carry a gun, don’t you ?
“A. Yes, sir.”
The above questions were asked during the district attorney’s attempt to impeach the witness’s (appellant’s) credibility.
This court has long held that the credibility of a witness, even though the witness is the accused, may be impeached by extracting from him on cross-'examination admissions of specific acts of misconduct or wrongdoing, if such admissions can be thus secured. State v. Holden, 45 N.M. 147, 113 P.2d 171 (1941). Therefore, the trial court did not commit error.
Appellant’s point IV is that he was erroneously denied a mistrial when one juror reported to the court intoxicated and the court excused the jury until the afternoon without conferring with defense counsel, and then interrogated the juror in chambers out of the presence of counsel for the State or counsel for the defense. While misconduct on the part of a juror during a trial is censurable, it is not sufficient grounds for a new trial unless it appears, or is at least presumable, that the accused was thereby prejudiced. Territory v. Clark, 15 N.M. 35, 99 P. 697 (1909). See also State v. Chavez, 83 N.M. 349, 491 P.2d 1160 (Ct.App.1971).
The fifth point raised on appeal by appellant is that the trial court erred in refusing to instruct the jury on involuntary manslaughter. This court has consistently held that an appellant, in a murder prosecution, had the right to an instruction on lesser included offenses to be submitted to the jury, but only if there is some evidence tending to establish the lesser included offenses. State v. Anaya, 80 N.M. 695, 460 P.2d 60 (1969). There was insufficient evidence in the-instant case to warrant an instruction on involuntary manslaughter. However, the jury in this case was instructed on the lesser included offense of voluntary manslaughter.
Appellant’s point VI is that it was error for the trial court not to declare a mistrial after certain alleged inflammatory remarks were made by the district attorney during closing arguments. State v. Polsky, 82 N.M. 393, 403, 482 P.2d 257, 267 (Ct.App.1971), answers this contention fully in the following language:
“ * * *. We appreciate a prosecutor is given reasonable lattitude in his closing arguments, and the trial court has wide discretion in controlling the scope of such arguments. State v. Pace, supra [80 N.M. 364, 456 P.2d 197 (1967)]. See also United States v. Lewis, 423 F.2d 457 (8th Cir. 1970); State v. Gonzales, 105 Ariz. 434, 466 P.2d 388 (1970); State v. Hanson, 286 Minn. 317, 176 N.W.2d 607 (1970); Conyers v. Wainwright, 309 F.Supp. 1101 (S.D.Fla. 1970). However, a prosecutor must exercise good faith and reasonable caution to avoid unfairness. This does not mean, however, that the entire burden is on the prosecutor to make certain his remarks may not possibly be given an improper construction. If a defendant is of the opinion remarks by the prosecutor exceed the bounds of propriety, the burden is on him to make objection and call the objectionable matter to the attention of the trial court. State v. Hudson, supra [78 N.M. 228, 430 P.2d 386 (1967)]. Defendant failed to do so here, and, thus, failed to preserve the error, if error was committed. * * * ”
We cannot say that there was an abuse of discretion here. Further, as there was no objection made by appellant at the time the r.emarks were made, he cannot now be heard to complain.
Other points are raised by appellant in a preface to his brief, at his specific request, which are listed as follows:
1. That the conviction is, invalid because of systematic exclusion of negroes from the jury.
2. That bias was displayed by the trial court in permitting the charge of premeditated murder to go before the jury where there was failure of proof.
3. That failure to grant a preliminary hearing was a violation of his constitutional rights.
4. That appellant was not arraigned and was not furnished counsel at such arraignment.
5. That appellant was compelled to give incriminating statements in violation of his constitutional rights.
6. That he was not properly advised of his constitutional rights.
7. That perjury was committed during trial.
8. That only witnesses testifying at the preliminary hearing can be used at the trial.
9. That the indictment should be quashed because a hearing on the merits would reveal evidence presented to the grand jury was insufficient upon which to base an indictment.
10. Appellant also complains of defects in the indictment and cites cases in support of propositions not stated.
All of the foregoing matters were neither supported by points in the brief nor were they argued by counsel on appeal. This court held in Irwin v. Lamar, 74 N.M. 811, 813, 399 P.2d 400, 401 (1964);
“ * * * . We have consistently indicated that Supreme Court Rule 15(14) (§ 21-2-1 (15)(14), N.M.S.A. 1953), requiring a statement of the points relied upon for reversal, does not contemplate such a general attack as appellant makes here, but demands the errors claimed to be specifically stated and argued. See Petty v. Williams, 71 N.M. 338, 378 P.2d 376; Town of Mesilla v. Mesilla Design Center & Book Store, Inc., 71 N.M. 124, 376 P.2d 183.”
We do not believe that the rule is different for criminal cases. We have also held in Chavez v. Trujillo, 47 N.M. 19, 132 P.2d 713 (1942), that an assignment of error not supported by point and argument will not be considered by the Supreme Court. Despite this failure, we have reviewed the entire record and find the objections made at the specific request of appellant to be without merit.
Finding no error, the judgment is affirmed.
It is so ordered.
McMANUS, C. J., and STEPHENSON, J., concur. | [
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OPINION
PER CURIAM:
The petition filed in this proceeding seeks review and an evaluation by this court of petitioner’s answers to the March and August 1972 bar examinations given and graded by the New Mexico Board of Bar Examiners (Board). The petitioner further requests an evidentiary hearing. The Board has asserted three defenses to the petition.
The third defense is that the petition fails to state a claim upon which the relief requested can properly be granted. A hearing was conducted on the Board’s third defense and it is basically on a consideration thereof that we decide this cause.
In his petition, the petitioner makes a number of allegations concerning bar examinations, their effectiveness and their validity. In substance, these allegations are:
(1) The bar examination is an imperfect instrument for measuring an individual’s qualifications.
(2) Present day bar examinations are unfair to minority group applicants because of the bar examiner’s concern with business law as distinguished from problems of the poor. This unfairness is directed not only at minority group applicants; by concentrating on traditional subjects, the examinations, the examinations tend to penalize any person whose legal interests revolve around “unconventional” subjects. Thus, bar examinations discriminate against persons whose culture or values are different from those of the examiner.
(3) The bar examination does not test-legal research ability or skill in oral advocacy. In addition, it does not consider psychological, social, emotional or personal fitness; capacity to negotiate; adeptness in the use of procedural mechanisms of our legal system, or the ability to form and develop successfully the attorney-client relationships. All of these are crucial if the attorney is to serve the client and the public in a professional manner.
(4) The bar examination requires review of three or four years of study in order to cover all possible detailed questions, most of which necessarily will not be on the examination. The examination “tests” three or four-years of study in three days.
(5) Bar examinations place heavy stress upon memorization of rules and superficial knowledge of the law rather than the analytical skills that are much more important for genuine legal ability. Rote learning is encouraged to the exclusion of analytical understanding.
(6) A bar examination sets very restrictive time limits for analyzing the questions, recalling relevant legal knowledge, and developing and writing convincing answers, which limits do not present a realistic law-practice situation and which encourage the mere memorization of legal points and cases.
(7) The examination is a “one-shot” qualification, failing to allow for the physical, mental, and emotional condition of the examinee on the three days of his life when he takes the examination.
(8) A bar examination requires not just good legal knowledge, analysis and logic, but a certain type of study and writing — the “black letter law” approach, an approach often quite repugnant to good, analytical minds.
(9)A bar examination results in unqualified individuals being admitted to practice and well-qualified ones being excluded, the frequency of which petitioner is not prepared to guess. Because the bar examina- ' tions are oriented toward memorization and superficial learning, it is not surprising that there is little correlation between the quality of a person’s legal education and success on the examinations. In many states, the exams consistently produce a higher failure rate for graduates of distinguished law schools than for graduates of law schools that are generally considered to be of lower caliber.
(10) In essence, bar examinations are of no value — indeed, they cause more harm than good. They are an injustice to aspiring lawyers and to the public at large. Therefore, bar examinations should be abolished.
(11) It should perhaps be stressed that the petitioner is not complaining that the examinations were too difficult.
These contentions by petitioner raise the query as to whether he was denied due process and equal protection of the law. Similar complaints have been voiced and held to be groundless in other jurisdictions throughout the country, as in Chaney v. State Bar of California, 386 F.2d 962 (9th Cir. 1967), wherein the Court said:
“The Committee’s examinations have in form consisted of sets of questions covering some 24 subjects of the law, calling for discussion or essay answers and thus requiring exercise and demonstration of analytical and reasoning capacity. It admittedly is the form of examination employed generally in the law schools of the country, and the' form suggested for bar admission use in the American Bar Association’s Recommended Standards for Bar Examiners (1959), as follows: ‘The major portion of the Bar examination should consist of questions in the form of hypothetical fact problems requiring essay answers.’ * * * ”
Rule 19 of the Rules Governing Bar Examiners, Bar Examinations and Admission to the Bar of the State of New Mexico reads:
“Questions. The major portion of the bar examination shall consist of questions in the form of hypothetical fact problems requiring essay answers. Questions shall not be generally designed to test knowledge uniquely based upon local case or statutory law; however, subjects of substantial local interest may be included. Questions will not be labeled as to subject matter. The identical questions should ordinarily not be repeated in subsequent examinations. Sufficient time will be allowed for answering the questions to permit the applicant to make a careful analysis of the facts and to prepare well-reasoned answers.”
See also, Application of Peterson, 459 P.2d 703, 39 A.L.R.3d 708 (Alaska, 1969); Staley v. State Bar of California, 17 Cal.2d 119, 109 P.2d 667 (1941); Salot v. State Bar of California, 3 Cal.2d 615, 45 P.2d 203 (1935); In re Avery’s Petition, 44 Hawaii 597, 358 P.2d 709 (1961); In re Reid’s Petition, 76 Nev. 76, 349 P.2d 446 (1960).
Petitioner urges that he was denied equal protection of the law because the Board has established one procedure for reviewing complaints against denials of admission on the grounds of character and another procedure for reviewing failures on bar examinations. See Rules 10 and 23 of the Rules Governing Bar Examiners, Bar Examinations and Admission to the Bar of the State of New Mexico (28th Ed.1972).
Certainly a rational basis exists for the difference in the treatment of the two classes of applicants. A character evaluation is largely predicated upon reports of misconduct and upon judgments by those to whom an applicant’s activities and behavior are well known. To a large degree the truth or falsity of reported acts of misconduct, questionable activities, or abnormal or unusual behavior can be tested and determined by investigations, hearings and appeals as provided in Rule 10, supra. Whereas, the testing procedures adhered to in conducting a bar examination are essentially objective and result in an essentially objective evaluation of the qualities being tested. As stated in Davis, Administrative Law Text, § 7.10, at 173 (3d Ed.1972):
"In some circumstances hearings [full due process hearings] are inferior to inspection, examination or testing. * * *
“ * * * Bar examiners determine questions of fact — qualifications of applicants — by written examinations, but examiners’ conclusions about intellectual qualification are almost never challenged. * * * ”
Examiners’ conclusions are obviously rarely challenged because the results reached by a bar examination are far more likely to result in fairer evaluations of intellectual qualifications than could be attained by checking transcripts of law school courses, credits and grades, by reading letters of recommendations from friends, or by hearing and evaluating evidence in a due process hearing.
There is a rational basis for according an applicant a full due process hearing in the area of character determinations, and denying such full hearing on the matter of the validity of determinations as to intellectual and learning qualifications arrived at by examination or testing in accordance with recognized procedures.
Petitioner further challenges the minimum passing score set by the Board and the methods by which the examinations are graded. The rules of this court referred to above do not specify a minimum passing score for its bar examination and the establishment in the Board of minimum passing scores and the examination itself has been left in the discretion of the Board. In the Matter of the Petition of Michael Alarid, Jr., et al., for Court Review of the August 1972 Bar Examination Procedures and for Admission to the New Mexico Bar (filed June 22, 1973), this court stated:
“Petitioners quarrel with the establishment of 67 as a passing grade, but this is lower than the generally considered passing grade of 70 and was fixed by the examiners in an effort to insure fairness. The establishment of 67 as a passing grade represented an exercise of the collective judgment of a majority of the highly qualified examiners, including the experienced and highly qualified members of the Board of Bar Examiners. Had the decision been left to this Court, the passing grade might well have been higher.”
This reasoning would apply to all of the bar examinations with which this petitioner is concerned.
Petitioner seeks a “meaningful,” evidentiary hearing to demonstrate his qualifications. The Alarid case, supra, answers this point by stating that:
“ * * * an applicant failing the examination shall be entitled to a reasonable review of (1) the questions on the examination; (2) the unsuccessful applicant’s answers to the questions; and (3) a sample of a passing answer for each question on that examination. The sole purpose of this rule is to permit an unsuccessful applicant to determine his deficiencies in order that he may be aided in his efforts in future examinations. * * * ” (Emphasis added.)
In Feldman v. State Board of Law Examiners, 438 F.2d 699 (8th Cir. 1971), footnote 6, at 703, the nature of a Board of Law Examiners and its proceedings, and the inappropriateness of the hearing process to its determinations, were referred to in the following language:
“A Board of Law Examiners clearly is not an administrative agency of the Executive Branch of government, but even were it, the Administrative Procedure Act would not require a hearing procedure for examiners since 5 U.S.C. § 554(a) (3) exempts from the hearing process ‘proceedings in which decisions rest solely on inspections, tests or elections ;’. These methods of determination obviously do not lend themselves well to the hearing process. See Davis, Administrative Law (1959) Sec. 7.09, p. 124, mentioning Bar Examinations as one type falling within this category.”
Furthermore, a number of jurisdictions have held that a review of one’s bar examination answers will not be made by a court in the absence of an allegation that there was fraud, coercion, imposition or other misconduct on the part of the bar examiners in connection with an applicant admission to the bar. Application of Heaney, 106 Ariz. 391, 476 P.2d 846 (1970); Chaney v. State Bar of California, 386 F.2d 962 (9th Cir. 1967); Staley v. State Bar of California, supra; Salot v. State Bar of California, supra; In re Monaghan, 126 Vt. 193, 225 A.2d 387 (1967). The petitioner herein has neither alleged nor demonstrated fraud, coercion or imposition on the part of the Board of Bar Examiners.
Petitioner further requests that the Board be directed to furnish him with copies of the March and August 1972 bar examination questions, model answers thereto, sample passing and failing answers, and petitioner’s answers to said questions. Rule 23 of the Rules Governing Bar Examiners, supra, grants an unsuccessful applicant a reasonable review of the questions asked, his answers thereto, and a sample of a passing answer to each question. We understand petitioner has taken advantage of this right of review. We are of the opinion that this right is reasonable, and we decline to order the Board to grant petitioner’s requests. We are not convinced that a rule requiring, or even permitting the Board to furnish an unsuccessful applicant the requested copies of examination matters would be reasonable or proper, or would in any way serve the purpose for giving bar examinations.
Petitioner in his reply brief in opposition to respondent’s motion to dismiss refers to alleged unprofessional conduct on the part of the Board’s counsel. We deem it unnecessary to discuss these allegations.
Petitioner also questions the efficacy of bar examinations as being the proper device to determine his qualifications for admission to practice law, but it is a recognized means of testing some of the qualities essential in a successful practitioner and a means of demonstrating capabilities which are required of every practitioner for the protection of the public and the proper perpetuation of our legal system. See Chaney v. State Bar of California, supra. This precise question was before the Alaska Supreme Court in Application of Peterson, supra, and that court disposed of the contention in the following language (459 P.2d 703, 704, 39 A.L.R.3d 710, 711):
“Bar examinations are commonly used throughout the states as a test of one’s fitness to advise and represent clients in legal matters. When one fails to pass an appropriate and properly administered examination, it is not unreasonable to say that he has demonstrated his lack of proficiency in law so as to justify denying him the right to be admitted to the bar. We believe that the legislature-imposed disqualification for one who took and failed to pass the bar examination * * * did have a rational connection with one’s fitness to be admitted to the Alaska bar. * * * ”
With respect to the same argument as is being made by petitioner herein, that his educational and work experience and recommendations from practicing lawyers are sufficient to qualify him for admission, regardless of his having failed to pass a bar examination, the Alaska court, in the same case, stated:
“We remain unpersuaded as to the efficacy of abandoning the clear and unambiguous legislative and judicial standard which requires passage of a bar examination given by the Alaska Bar. Adoption of appellant’s position would in our view abolish any semblance of objective criteria and would substitute in its place rather vague and shifting standards which dramatically increase the probabilities of ad hoc admissions. If appellant’s suggested standards were accorded primacy, we thereafter could not say with any degree of assurance that a particular applicant possessed the requisite qualifications to advise and represent clients in legal matters. In short, we choose to adhere to the rationale of Application of Brewer and reiterate our belief that ‘When one fails to pass an appropriate and properly administered bar examination, it is not unreasonable to say that he has demonstrated his lack of proficiency in law so as to justify denying him the right to be admitted to the bar. * * * ”
We agree with the statements of the Alaska court, as quoted above, and which, together with our rules, amply support the position that petitioner has no cause for complaint.
Accordingly, we hold that there has been no denial of “due process” or “equal protection.”
For the reasons stated herein the motion of the Board of Bar Examiners to dismiss the petition is granted.
It is so ordered. | [
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OPINION
WOOD, Chief Judge.
The trial court directed a verdict for defendants on plaintiffs’ claim for invasion of privacy. Prior to trial, summary judgment had been granted to defendants on plaintiffs’ claim for libel. This appeal challenges the correctness of both rulings.
At the State Fair in 1970, Walston took a photograph of La Verne Bitsie, a Navajo child, then approximately 18 months old. The photograph was taken with the consent of her father, Oscar Bitsie. Walston prepared a sketch of La Verne and sent it to the father in February, 1971.
“The Arts” section of the Albuquerque Journal on Sunday, June 27, 1971, carried the headline: “Cards by Local Artists to Benefit Cerebral Palsy Fund.” The article states: “Note cards designed by five local artists are being sold by the Women’s Committee of United Cerebral Palsy to help finance a pre-school for children afflicted with cerebral palsy.” The remainder of the article identifies six designs, states the price of the cards and where the cards could be purchased. One of the identified designs is: “ * * * ‘La Verne Bitsie, Navajo Girl’ by Jim Walston, printed on tan paper. * * * ”
Six photographs appear below the article. The photographs are of the designs identified in the article. One photograph is of the sketch of La Verne prepared by Walston.
Plaintiffs’ suit for invasion of privacy and libel is based on the newspaper article and photograph.
Invasion of privacy.
New Mexico recognizes invasion of privacy as a tort for which damages may be recovered. Apodaca v. Miller, 79 N.M. 160, 441 P.2d 200 (1968); Blount v. T. D. Publishing Corporation, 77 N.M. 384, 423 P.2d 421 (1966); Hubbard v. Journal Publishing Company, 69 N.M. 473, 368 P.2d 147 (1962). The factual aspects of this tort have not as yet been delineated in New Mexico decisions. Compare Montgomery Ward v. Larragoite, 81 N.M. 383, 467 P.2d 399, 42 A.L.R.3d 859 (1970).
“ * * * The plaintiff contends that the defendants appropriated her name and •likeness without her consent and placed her in a false light in the public eye. * * * ” Prosser, Law of Torts (4th Ed. 1971), indicates both items alleged — the appropriation and the placing in a false light —are two of the ways by which the tort may be committed. Prosser, supra, at 804 and 812. We proceed on the assumption that each of the claims allege the tort of invasion of privacy in New Mexico.
The three defendants present various contentions as to why they are not liable for an invasion of privacy in this case. We consider the contention common to each of the defendants. That contention is concerned with conduct for which liability is imposed and how chat conduct is measured.
IV, Restatement of Torts § 867 (1939) states: “A person who unreasonably and seriously interferes with another’s interest in not having his affairs known to others or his likeness exhibited to the public is liable to the other.” Comment (d) to § 867 discusses conditions of liability. It states: “ * * * liability exists only if the defendant’s conduct was such that he should have realized that it would be offensive to persons of ordinary sensibilities. * * * ”
Comment (d), supra, goes on to say: “ * * * It is only where the intrusion has gone beyond the limits of decency that liability accrues. * * * ” It also states: “* * * It is only when the defendant should know that the plaintiff would be justified in feeling seriously hurt by the conduct that a cause of action exists. * * * »
In some of the following cases, the courts have referred to “limits of decency.” In others, the reference is to “justified in feeling seriously hurt.” All, however, have applied the view that for liability, defendants’ conduct must have been such “that he [they] should have realized that it would be offensive to persons of ordinary sensibilities.” Varnish v. Best Medium Publishing Co., 405 F.2d 608 (2d Cir. 1968), cert. denied, 394 U.S. 987, 89 S.Ct. 1465, 22 L.Ed.2d 762 (1969); Leverton v. Curtis Pub. Co., 192 F.2d 974 (3rd Cir. 1951); Samuel v. Curtis Pub. Co., 122 F.Supp. 327 (N.D.Cal., S.D.1954); Reed v. Real Detective Pub. Co., 63 Ariz. 294, 162 P.2d 133 (1945); Gill v. Curtis Pub. Co., 38 Cal.2d 273, 239 P.2d 630 (1952); Cason v. Baskin, 155 Fla. 198, 20 So.2d 243, 168 A.L.R. 430 (1944); Davis v. General Finance & Thrift Corporation, 80 Ga.App. 708, 57 S.E.2d 225 (1950); Meetze v. Associated Press, 230 S.C. 330, 95 S.E.2d 606 (1956). The converse of this rule is stated in Blount v. T D Publishing Corporation, supra: “ * * * The right of privacy is to be applied to the individual of ordinary sensibilities, not the super-sensitive. * >Jí »
Plaintiffs recognize the above rule is applicable in this case; we agree. The trial court applied this standard when it directed the verdict at the close of plaintiffs’ case. Ordinarily, the question of whether defendants violated this rule is a jury question. See Varnish v. Best Medium Publishing Co., supra; Aquino v. Bulletin Company, 190 Pa.Super. 528, 154 A.2d 422 (1959). The trial court, by directing a verdict, determined the evidence was insufficient to support a verdict in plaintiffs’ favor. See Brown v. Hall, 80 N.M. 556, 458 P.2d 808 (Ct.App.1969). In reviewing the correctness of this ruling, we consider the evidence in the light most favorable to plaintiffs, who were resisting the motion for a directed verdict. Archuleta v. Johnston, 83 N.M. 380, 492 P.2d 997 (Ct.App. 1971).
The father testified the newspaper story was offensive because La Verne’s picture had been used with an article referring to cerebral palsy and at a time when she was in good health. According to the father, this means La Verne will have bad luck later in life. La Verne’s grandmother testified that a “strong assumption” from the newspaper story is that La Verne had cerebral palsy. The grandmother also testified the use of La Verne’s picture in relation • to the article “wished her harm.” Benjamin Begay testified that this wish will become a reality. All of the foregoing testimony is on the basis of “traditional” Navajo belief.
The evidence then is that the newspaper story was offensive to traditional Navajos. There is evidence that there are some 20,000 traditional Navajos in New Mexico. The right of privacy “ * * * is a personal one, which does not extend to members of his family. * * * ” Prosser, supra, at 814. Assuming, but not deciding, that the offense to traditional Navajos, including La Verne’s father and grandmother, is evidence of an offense to La Verne (2j4 to 3 years old at the time of the newspaper publication), the' evidence is insufficient for imposition of liability upon defendants. A traditional belief is one based on an inherited or established way of thinking; a cultural feature preserved from the past. Webster’s Third New International Dictionary (1966). We cannot, as a matter of law, équate an offense to persons holding such a belief with an offense to persons of ordinary sensibilities.
The interest which one has to maintain his privacy is the basis of the tort for invasion of privacy. Restatement of Torts, § 867, supra, Comment (a). “* * * This interest appears only in a comparatively highly developed state of society. * * *” Restatement of Torts, § 867, supra, Comment (b). The protection afforded to this interest “ * * * is relative to the customs of the time and place and to the habits and occupation of the plaintiff. One who is not a recluse must expect the ordinary incidents of community life of which he is a part. * * * ” Restatement of Torts, § 867, supra, Comment (c). We cannot equate an offense to persons holding a traditional belief with an offense to persons of ordinary sensibilities because: (1) the tort relates to the customs of New Mexico at this time and does not extend to “traditional" beliefs. (2) At this time the newspaper story is no more than an ordinary incident of the life of the New Mexico community, which is the developed society on which the interest in privacy is based.
Our ruling, of no invasion of privacy as a matter of law, applies because there is no evidence that, as a matter of fact, the newspaper story offended persons of ordinary sensibilities.
Another aspect of the tort here involved is whether the defendants should have realized that the newspaper story would be offensive. Unless there is evidence that the defendants should have so realized, there is no basis for liability. Restatement of Torts, § 867, supra, Comment (d). Neither in brief nor argument did plaintiffs contend there was any evidence as to this requirement concerning Walston and The United Cerebral Palsy Association. We have reviewed the record; there is no such evidence as to these two defendants.
Plaintiffs assert there is evidence that the Journal should have known its story would have been offensive. This evidence is that the Journal, over a six or seven year period, had published “dozens of articles” on Navajo customs and beliefs. There is no evidence that the traditional belief asserted in this case was involved in the previously published articles. There is no evidence as to what customs and beliefs were covered in those articles. The evidence as to previously published articles does not sustain an inference that the Journal should have known the newspaper story in this case would be offensive.
Libel.
The claim of libel in the complaint is that the article, together with the picture identifying La Verne by name, “ * * * inferred that plaintiff was afflicted with cerebral palsy, a serious disabling disease.” Also, that “ * * * circulation of the publication implying that plaintiff was a victim of cerebral palsy, was false and defamatory. * * * ”
A defamatory meaning will not be given to words unless such a meaning is their plain and obvious import. Language will receive an innocent interpretation where fairly susceptible to such an interpretation. Reed v. Melnick, 81 N.M. 608, 471 P.2d 178 (1970); Perea v. First State Bank, 84 N.M. 326, 503 P.2d 150 (Ct.App. 1972). The newspaper story in this case does not plainly and obviously impute that La Verne had cerebral palsy. The story is not a libel per se.
Where the defamatory character of the writing can only be shown by reference to extrinsic facts, the plaintiffs must plead and prove either: (1) the publisher knew or should have known of the extrinsic facts which were necessary to make the statement defamatory in its innuendo or (2) special damages. Reed v. Melnick, supra.
In this case, neither extrinsic facts nor special damages were pled. Summary judgment on the libel claim was correct. Wilson v. Albuquerque Board of Realtors, 82 N.M. 717, 487 P.2d 145 (Ct.App.1971); compare Salazar v. Bjork, 85 N.M. 94, 509 P.2d 569 (Ct.App.1973).
The summary judgment and the judgment of dismissal entered pursuant to the' directed verdict are affirmed.
It is so ordered.
HENDLEY, J., concurs.
SUTIN, J., dissents. | [
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OPINION
SUTIN, Judge.
Defendant was convicted of burglary and larceny. Sections 40A-16-3 and 40A-16-1, N.M.S.A. 1953 (2nd Repl.Vol. 6). He appeals.
We affirm.
The indictment charged defendant with burglary and larceny under the statutes, supra in two counts. The particulars in each count stated the crimes were committed in the dwelling house of James Martinez, 1221 Stanford, N.E., Albuquerque, Nezv Mexico.
All evidence offered by the state to prove the criminal offenses established that the events occurred at the residence of Barbara Martinez, 1200 Stanford, N.E.; that no evidence was shown of any relationship between James Martinez and Barbara Martinez; and no evidence presented of error in the street address. This variance was never mentioned by defendant in the court below.
First, defendant claims the evidence is not sufficient to warrant conviction because identity of place and owner burglarized, and identity of ownership of stolen property, stated in Counts I and II, are essential to conviction.
Is the variance between the particulars stated in the indictment, and the proof thereof, sufficient to warrant a reversal when raised for the first time on appeal? The answer is “no.”
We have pointed out on many occasions that errors not raised in the trial court cannot be first raised on appeal unless the errors claimed are either (1) jurisdictional or (2) fundamental. State v. Rodriguez, 81 N.M. 503, 469 P.2d 148 (1970).
(1) Variance Between Indictment and Proof Not Jurisdictional.
The reason the faulty allegation of fact in an indictment on the name and address of the party and place burglarized is not jurisdictional is that the error can be cured by verdict of the jury. State v. Montgomery, 28 N.M. 344, 212 P. 341 (1923).
The defendant relies on State v. Salazar, 42 N.M. 308, 77 P.2d 633 (1938). This court held that the identity of the place burglarized is an essential element and a material variance between the charge and proof is fatal if the defendant calls this variance to the trial court’s attention, and the trial court disregards the variance.
The variance in this case was not jurisdictional. It was cured by the verdict of the jury when it found defendant guilty of burglary and larceny at the home of Barbara Martinez, 1200 Stanford, N.E.
(2) Variance was not Fundamental Error.
Fundamental error will only be involved to prevent a plain miscarriage of justice where the defendant has been deprived of rights essential to the defense. State v. Lott, 73 N.M. 280, 387 P.2d 855 (1963). We will not resort to the doctrine of fundamental error when there is, as here, substantial evidence in the record to support the verdict of the jury. State v. Rodriguez, supra.
Second, the trial court instructed the jury that before it could find the defendant guilty, the state must prove beyond a reasonable doubt that defendant committed burglary and larceny in the dwelling of James Martinez, 1221 Stanford, N.E., the particulars set forth in Counts I and II. The state failed in this respect, but defendant did not object to this instruction, nor tender a correct written instruction. Such error was not preserved for review, and does not constitute fundamental error. State v. Rodriguez, supra; State v. Anaya, 79 N.M. 43, 439 P.2d 561 (Ct.App. 1968).
Affirmed.
It is so ordered.
HERNANDEZ and LOPEZ, JJ„ concur. | [
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] |
OPINION
McMANUS, Chief Justice.
This suit was brought in the District Court of Guadalupe County, Fourth Judicial District, State of New Mexico. The plaintiffs Sanchez sought possession of certain described real property, together with damages, for the wrongful withholding of same since May 1968. Defendants Scott, by countér-claim, sought to quiet title to the same real property. By third-party complaint, defendants sought to specifically enforce a proposed agreement entered into between the defendants, plaintiffs, and all of the third-party defendants wherein it was agreed that certain real property would be exchanged by the parties in order that the physical boundary lines of said property would be made to conform to the manner in which improvements were placed on the property. The third-party defendant, American Oil Company, filed its cross-claim and counter-claim seeking to establish the boundaries of the tracts involved by acquiescence and agreement of the parties as those on which improvements had actually been placed by the parties.
Plaintiffs (appellants) appeal from the trial court’s judgment wherein it was ordered that the plaintiffs’ complaint be dismissed; that the boundary between the plaintiffs and defendants (appellees) was established by acquiescence so that the defendants’ improvements are within the boundaries of their tract and certain described property was therefore quieted in the name of the defendants; similarly, that the boundary between third-party defendant American Oil Company was established by acquiescence so that the latter’s improvements were within the boundaries of this tract and certain described property was quieted in the name of American Oil Company.
As to that portion of the judgment granting American Oil Company relief, we need make no comment since that portion of the appeal was dismissed by this Court by order on June 14, 1973.
Plaintiffs first contend that the proposed agreement entered into between the parties to reestablish the boundary line should be specifically enforced. We disagree and affirm the trial court’s holding that this proposed agreement was unenforcible due to the failure of the wives of the parties to execute the same. The effect of the proposed agreement would have been to shift the property lines of the parties approximately 6Q feet to the west. The shift would have been accomplished by the execution of quitclaim deeds provided for in the unexecuted agreement. This is clearly improper since § 57-4-3, N.M.S.A. 1953 (Repl. Vol. 8, pt. 2, 1962), provides that both the husband and the wife must join in all deeds and mortgages affecting community real property (which apparently this property was). Furthermore, it has been held that a contract purporting to sell community real estate would not be ordered to be specifically performed where the wife did not join the husband’s agreement to sell. Adams v. Blumenshine, 27 N.M. 643, 204 P.2d 66 (1922).
The second issue before us is to determine whether or not the doctrine of acquiescence applies in this case. To so determine, we shall refer to the case of Rodriguez v. Ranch Co., 17 N.M. 246, 134 P. 228 (1912). There, the court found that if there is doubt or uncertainty as to the true location of a boundary line, the parties may by parol agreement fix a line which will, at least when followed by possession with reference to the boundary so fixed, be conclusive upon them and their grantees. This line must be considered as the true boundary line between the parties and their grantees even though the period of such acquiescence falls short of the time fixed by statute for gaining title by adverse possession. Furthermore, this boundary line will bind the parties and their grantees notwithstanding the same may not, as a matter of fact, be the correct line as long as the parol agreement is fair, conscionable and free from fraud.
The facts of the instant case are as follows. Appellees purchased the property involved from a Mrs. Colton on March 14, 1960. At the time of sale, there apparently was some doubt as to where the true boundary was located. The grantor’s husband, therefore, showed appellees where he believed.the property line to be. In reliance on this parol description and after the property had been surveyed, the appellees expended $54,566.00 for the purchase of the land and placing of improvements thereon. It was at no time contended that any of these transactions were anything but fair. From this evidence, the trial court concluded that Mrs. Colton acquiesced in a common boundary between the two tracts while the appellees were building the improvements and this acquiescence existed from 1960 until 1966 when Mrs. Colton conveyed to the appellant (grantee) the land she had retained. In 1967, the land was resurveyed with a view toward putting in new sewers and it was determined that the appellees had constructed their improvements too far west, thus encroaching upon appellants’ lot. Appellants, for the first time, proposed that the property be re-subdivided but appellees refused to consent, contending that Mrs. Colton and her grantees (appellants) had acquiesced as to the existence of the mutual boundary line, were cognizant of all improvements made, did not object thereto until suit was filed on May 12, 1971, and, therefore were precluded from claiming that the boundary line thus recognized and acquiesced in was not the true one. We agree that the boundary in question has been established by acquiescence.
The judgment is affirmed. It is so ordered.
OMAN and STEPHENSON, JJ., concur. | [
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OPINION
WOOD, Chief Judge.
Convicted of two counts of robbery, defendant appeals. Section 40A-16-2, N.M. S.A.1953 (2d Repl.Vol. 6). The issues concern: (1) intent as an element of robbery, and (2) instructions concerning intent. We affirm.
Section 40A-16-2, supra, states:
“Robbery consists of the theft of anything of value from the person of another or from the immediate control of another, by use or threatened use of force or violence.”
Intent as an element of robbery.
Section 40A-16-2, supra, does not specifically mention “intent.” The Attorney General states: “ . . . criminal intent is not an essential element of the crime of robbery. . . . ” We disagree for two reasons.
First, State v. Shedoudy, 45 N.M. 516, 118 P.2d 280 (1941) holds “ . . . the existence of a criminal intent is to be regarded as essential, although the terms of the statute do not require it. ” Further, “ . . . the legislature may forbid the doing of an act and make its commission criminal, without regard to the intent with which such act is done; but in such case it must clearly appear . that such was the legislative intent. . . . ” State v. Craig, 70 N.M. 176, 372 P.2d 128 (1962) and State v. Lawson, 59 N.M. 482, 286 P.2d 1076 (1955) applied this rule as to criminal intent. This court has applied this rule in numerous cases; recent ones are State v. Fuentes, (Ct.App., 84 N.M. 757, 508 P.2d 27) (1973); State v. Pedro, 83 N.M. 212, 490 P.2d 470 (Ct.App.1971). It does not clearly appear from § 40A-16-2, supra, that the Legislature intended to make robbery a crime without regard to the intent with which the act is done. Thus, robbery does require a criminal intent under State v. Shedoudy, supra.
Second, robbery is an aggravated form of larceny. 2 Wharton’s Criminal Law and Procedure §§ 547, 548 (1957). This is demonstrated by comparing the definition of larceny with the definition of robbery. Section 40A-16-1, N.M.S.A. 1953 (2d Repl.Vol. 6) states: “Larceny consists of the stealing of anything of value which belongs to another.” Section 40A-16-2, supra, which is quoted above, requires a theft. “Theft” is the act of stealing. Webster’s Third New International Dictionary (1966).
A criminal intent is required for larceny. State v. Eckles, 79 N.M. 138, 441 P.2d 36 (1968); State v. Paris, 76 N.M. 291, 414 P.2d 512 (1966); State v. Curry, 32 N.M. 219, 252 P. 994 (1927). The criminal intent required for larceny is also required for its aggravated form — robbery. 2 Wharton’s, supra, § 548.
The Attorney General asserts no criminal intent is required for robbery because, by statutory definition, robbery requires the theft of something of value “by use or threatened use of force or violence.” In so contending, the Attorney General refers to the criminal intent of conscious wrongdoing.
This argument mistakes the criminal intent involved for there to be a robbery. The intent necessary for robbery includes the general criminal intent of conscious wrongdoing. See State v. Austin, 80 N.M. 748, 461 P.2d 230 (Ct.App.1969). But more than conscious wrongdoing is involved.
The criminal intent necessary for larceny is the intent to permanently deprive the owner of his property. State v. Eckles, supra; see State v. Austin, supra. This is the intent to steal. State v. Paris, supra. This same intent to steal is necessary for there to be a robbery. “ . [Rjobbery requires an intent to steal. . . . . [Ajn intent to steal is an essential element. . . .”2 Wharton’s, supra, § 548. Since one cannot intend to steal without consciously intending to do wrong, our concern with criminal intent in robbery cases is not with the general criminal intent discussed in State v. Austin, supra, but with a specific intent— the intent to steal.
The use or threatened use of force or violence does not eliminate such an intent as an element of robbery. Force or violence could be used in a taking of property in jest, in taking one’s own property or in taking property when so drunk that an intent could not be formed. Such takings, although employing force or violence, could be done without an intent to steal. 2 Wharton’s, supra, § 548.
We hold that a criminal intent is an essential element of the crime of robbery. McGruder v. State, 213 Ga. 259, 98 S.E.2d 564 (1957); People v. Singleton, 21 A.D.2d 907, 251 N.Y.S.2d 714 (1964). That criminal intent is the intent to steal.
Instructions concerning intent.
The only specific mention of intent in the instructions to the jury referred to the manner of proving intent. The instruction states: “Intent is seldom susceptible of direct proof, and may be inferred from the facts and circumstances surrounding the case.” The jury was not specifically instructed that an intent to steal was an element of robbery. No issue was raised in the trial court concerning the intent to steal. This intent, being an essential element of the crime, is jurisdictional and may be raised for the first time on appeal. State v. Walsh, 81 N.M. 65, 463 P.2d 41 (Ct.App.1969).
State v. Maestas, 63 N.M. 67, 313 P.2d 337 (1957) states: “ . . . Instructions are sufficient which substantially follow the language of the statute or use equivalent language. . . . ” This Court applied this rule in State v. Fuentes, supra, and State v. Baca, 85 N.M. 55, 508 P.2d 1352 (Ct.App.1973). Both cases involved statutes which expressly refer to the required intent. See § 54-11-22(A), N.M.S.A. 1953 (Int.Supp.1972) and § 40A-16-3, N.M. S.A. 1953 (2d Repl.Vol. 6). That is not the situation here. The language of our robbery statute, § 40A-16-2, supra, does not mention intent. Neither Fuentes nor Baca is applicable to the fact situation in this case.
State v. Lopez, 80 N.M. 599, 458 P.2d 851 (Ct.App.1969), cert. denied, 398 U.S. 942, 90 S.Ct. 1860, 26 L.Ed.2d 279 (1970) applied the rule stated in State v. Maestas, supra, to the instructions in a robbery case. It did so without discussion. This appeal raises the question of whether the Maestas rule was properly applied in Lopez.
Specifically, the question is whether an instruction in the language of the statute in a robbery case should be considered a sufficient instruction on the element of intent when the robbery statute does not expressly mention “intent.” There is authority that in such a situation the jury has not been properly instructed on the issue of intent. State v. Mundy, 265 N.C. 528, 144 S.E.2d 572 (1965). While an instruction on the requisite intent to steal would, in our opinion, be a clearer statement as to that element, nevertheless, our view is that in a robbery case an instruction in the language of the statute is legally sufficient. Our view is based on the definition of the crime.
Robbery requires an intent to steal; an intent to commit a theft. The jury was instructed that a material allegation was that “ . . . the defendant did commit a theft of a thing of value, to wit: money, from the immediate control of Art Sanchez and Manuel Sanchez.” The use of the word “theft” in the instruction carried with it the meaning that the taking of money from the victims must have been with the intent to steal the money. State v. Paris, supra. This is so because “theft” means a taking “with intent to deprive the rightful owner” of that which . is taken. Webster’s Third New International Dictionary (1966).
Accordingly, we hold that the instruction in the language of the statute sufficiently instructed on the essential element of an intent to steal and that State v. Maestas, supra, was properly applied in State v. Lopez, supra. In so holding, we caution that we do not hold that an instruction in the language of the statute will be a sufficient instruction on the issue of intent for all crimes. For example, in State v. Bachicha, 84 N.M. 397, 503 P.2d 1175 (Ct.App.1972) the statute involved, § 64-9-4, N.M.S.A.1953 (2d Repl.Vol. 9, pt. 2), which was read to the jury, referred to the intentional taking of a vehicle, but such an instruction did not inform the jury there must be a conscious wrongdoing. The jury not having been instructed on the general intent of conscious wrongdoing, the instruction would have permitted conviction for intentionally taking a vehicle even if there was an accidental mistake as to the car involved. See State v. Austin, supra.
Generalization from our holding is simply this: A jury must be instructed on the essential elements of the crime charged. State v. Walsh, supra. Where intent is an essential element, and in most cases it will be, the jury must be instructed on the intent involved. State v. Carter, 4 Wash.App. 103, 480 P.2d 794 (1971). The instruction need not use the word “intent,” but the words used must inform the jury of any intent which is an element of the crime charged. Compare Morissette v. United States, 342 U.S. 246, 72 S.Ct. 240, 96 L.Ed. 288 (1952); State v. Austin, supra. In this case, the words used instructed the jury on the requisite intent.
Defendant also asserts the instructions in this case were erroneous because as a whole they did not properly instruct on all of the elements .of robbery. The complaint is not that essential elements are missing, but that the elements are not all stated in one place and certain elements, such as “a thing of value” are not defined. Instructions are to be considered as a whole; all elements of the offense need not be contained in one instruction. State v. Paul, 83 N.M. 619, 495 P.2d 797 (Ct.App.1972). Since the essential elements of robbery are covered in the instructions, if defendant considered certain of the elements should have been defined, he should have raised the issue in the trial court. He did not do so. Accordingly, he may not raise this issue here for the first time. State v. Fuentes, supra.
In deciding this case, we are aware that there is a question as to our jurisdiction. This case was submitted to this Court on February 26, 1973, and at that time was clearly within our jurisdiction. Section 16-7-8, N.M.S.A.1953 (Repl.Vol. 4). On March 21, 1973, 84 N.M. 756, 508 P.2d 26, we certified the case to the New Mexico Supreme Court. We did so because the Supreme Court had granted certiorari in other cases involving instructions on “intent.”. Our certification was pursuant to § 16-7-14(C), N.M.S.A.1953 (Repl.Vol. 4) which states: “Any certification by the court of appeals under this subsection is a final determination of appellate 'jurisdiction.” The Supreme Court, however, remanded the case to us for decision. We have decided this case on the basis that we had jurisdiction by virtue of the remand, and not on the basis of § 16-7-8, supra.
The judgment and sentence is affirmed.
It is so ordered.
HENDLEY and HERNANDEZ, JJ„ concur. | [
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] |
OPINION
STEPHENSON, Justice.
This action was brought to recover benefits under a certain group life and accidental death and dismemberment policy (“the policy”) issued by the appellee life insurance company (“the company”) to Bernalillo County covering the latter’s employees. The trial court granted the company’s motion for summary judgment and plaintiff appeals. We affirm.
In April, 1971, representatives of the company conducted meetings with county employees concerning the group policy, which required employee contributions. During these meetings it was explained that as to those individuals who were full-time employees of the county on May 1, 1971, the eligibility date of the policy, who agreed to make the required contributions and who made written request for such insurance prior to that day, the insurance would be issued effective May 1, 1971. For those employees who met the above requirements, but who filed their written request after May 1, 1971, but before June 1, 1971, the insurance would be issued effective June 1, 1971. As for those employees whose written requests were dated June 1, 1971 or thereafter, it was explained that it would be necessary for those employees to submit evidence of insurability to the company.
In the latter instance the insurance would not become effective until the first day of the policy month coincident with or next following the date the company determined the evidence of insurability to be satisfactory.
Whether decedent attended any such meeting is unknown.
The policy in pertinent part provided: “EFFECTIVE DATE OF AN INDIVIDUAL’S INSURANCE. The insurance for an eligible Individual shall become effective on the applicable date set forth below:
2. If contributions from Individuals are required, the insurance shall become effective as follows, provided the Individual makes written request for insurance on forms provided by the Company and agrees to make the required contributions and subject to the other requirements in this provision:
(c) When the date of written request is more than thirty-one days after the Individual becomes eligible for insurance, or is after previous termination of insurance because of failure to make any required contribution, the Company reserves the right to require of the Individual, without expense to the Company, evidence of insurability satisfactory to the Company before he may become insured. If such evidence is required and submitted, the insurance shall become effective on the first day of the policy month coincident with or next following the date the Company determines the evidence to be satisfactory, provided the Individual is then in a class of Individuals eligible for insurance.”
In any case, it appears that the decedent signed a payroll deduction form on June 8, 1971 which was received by the company on June 14. On June 22, the company wrote its Albuquerque office requesting a statement of health which was- signed by decedent on June 29, 1971. Meanwhile, the statement not having been received by the company, a second request was made by it on July 2. The decedent’s statement was received by-the company sometime between July 2 and July 8, 1971 when the company approved the statement.
Whether the time intervals or delays in the course of paper work, on the part of either the decedent or the company are unreasonable, or what the occasion therefor may have been, is unknown.
Under the policy, its effective date as to the decedent would have been August 1, 1971. On July 14, 1971 the company issued a certificate of insurance to the decedent stating rather clearly in several places that the effective date of the coverage was August 1, 1971.
When the decedent received the certificate, or in fact whether he received it, is unknown. He never raised any question about its effective date during the short span of his remaining life. He died on July 31, 1971.
It is difficult to come to grips with the plaintiff’s theory. The first amended complaint alleged in separate counts four theories of liability. The first count claimed that the company represented to the county that the insurance coverage for each employee would be effective upon acceptance of the policy and the making of the payroll deduction for the payment of the premium. The second count asked that the policy be reformed to show an effective date of July 30, 1971 when decedent’s payment for premium was allegedly made and received by the company. In the third count it is claimed that the county, as agent for the company, was negligent in processing the decedent’s application and the fourth count asserted that the county, as the company’s agent, contracted with the decedent to deliver to him the policy on or before July 1, effective as of that date and that it breached the contract.
From what we have said no discussion is required, nor will we indulge in any, to demonstrate that none of these allegations find support in the facts.
In truth, on appeal, the plaintiff frankly concedes:
“It really cannot be disputed, as it is a matter of the record, that the insured had not complied with the requirements of the insurance policy. Under the terms of the policy the insured’s coverage did not go into effect until August 1, 1971.”
The plaintiff makes mention of complexity in the policy and the decedent's supposed inexperience in the insurance field, coupled with a speculation that such inexperience may have accounted for his failure to comply with the policy requirements. These matters are said to be all that is necessary in this appeal, the basis of which is our decision in Pribble v. Aetna Life Insurance Company, 84 N.M. 211, 501 P.2d 255 (1972).
■ Pribble, supra, stands for several propositions, none of which are applicable to the facts of this case. In Pribble, we held: (1) that the issue of the agent’s authority was a question of fact precluding a grant of summary judgment; (2) that the insured would not be bound by a literal application of the terms of the policy where there was a representation that coverage existed for occupational injuries; (3) that if the language of the policy is such that a layman could not understand its full impact, the policy would be interpreted in such a manner as to yield maximum protection consistent with policy language and the reasonable expectations of the insured. Here, there are no facts from which we could infer that a representation of coverage was made or that an ambiguity exists in the language of the policy.
Plaintiff would apparently read Pribble as meaning that whenever an insurance policy is or may be less than clear to a layman, its true meaning will be disregarded and the policy construed in whatever manner is necessary to allow recovery. This, of course, is not the law, and Pribble was so radically different upon its facts as to furnish little comfort to plaintiff here.
The case at bar is quite similar to Kloepfer v. Continental Assurance Company, 23 Utah 2d 178, 460 P.2d 339 (1969). In that case the deceased was an aviator and a member of the National Aeronautic Association which had a group insurance policy with the defendant. Like the language in the master policy between the Company and the county, the master policy in Kloepfer provided that:
“Each such individual must furnish, without expense to the Company, evidence of insurability satisfactory to it before he may become insured. If such evidence is submitted, and payment of the required premium made, if any, the Individual’s insurance shall become effective on the first of the insurance month coinciding with or next succeeding the date the Company determines the evidence to be satisfactory.”
On March 30, 1968, the decedent applied for coverage under the group insurance plan and provided evidence of insurability. His application was accepted and on April 11, 1968, the policy was issued to him effective May 1, 1968. The decedent died on April 11, 1968, and his widow contended that, notwithstanding the fact that the policy itself expressly provided that it was to be effective May 1, 1968, the court should construe the policy as being effective on April 11, when it was issued. It was argued that the language of the policy was ambiguous. The Supreme Court of Utah said that it was unable to see any ambiguity and affirmed a summary judgment awarded by the trial court to the defendant. It was explained:
“If the application for insurance is accepted on the first of any month, then the policy would be effective on that date, for it is the first day of the insurance month, coinciding with the date the company determines that the applicant is eligible for insurance. If such determination of eligibility is made on any other date, then under the terms of the master policy it would become effective on the first of the insurance month next succeeding such date of determination.
“The language of the policy quoted above seems clear and unambiguous to us.”
In closing the court noted:
“Our sympathies go out to the plaintiff, who may be in need of the proceeds of the policy which she undoubtedly hoped to collect. However, we cannot require the defendant to pay other than according to the terms of this policy. We cannot back-date that policy, .nor would we have allowed the defendant insurance company to collect premiums for any coverage previous to May 1, 1968, had the insured not lost his life.”
We echo the sentiments of the Supreme Court of Utah.
We see no ambiguity here. In Cain v. National Old Line Insurance Company, 85 N.M. 697, 516 P.2d 668, (1973) we said:
“If in fact ambiguity exists in the language of an insurance contract, then it should be construed liberally in favor of the Insured. However, resort will not be made to a strained construction for the purpose of creating an ambiguity when no ambiguity in fact exists. Miller v. Mutual Benefit Health & Acc. Ass’n of Omaha, 76 N.M. 455, 415 P.2d 841, 19 A.L.R.3d 1421 (1966); Anaya v. Foundation Reserve Insurance Company, 76 N.M. 334, 414 P.2d 848 (1966).”
Finding no error, the summary judgment is affirmed.
It is so ordered.
OMAN and MARTINEZ, JJ., concur. | [
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OPINION
STEPHENSON, Justice.
The State of New Mexico, through the State Highway Department (“the Department”) brought this eminent domain proceeding in the District Court of McKinley County against the owners of a number of tracts of land, including Mr. and Mrs. Joe Yurcic. The trial court dismissed the Yurcics’ claim for damages, although they were granted judgment for certain attorney’s fees. The Yurcics have appealed. The Department has not cross-appealed.
It appears that as early as 1964 the Department had evinced an intention, or at least a plan, to condemn the tracts of land with which we are concerned in connection with an interstate highway project. On the assumption that the condemnation would occur, the Yurcics entered into an option agreement with Western Securities in October 1965, in which they agreed to convey the land in question upon exercise of the option. They retained “all damages and other funds which may be payable from the State Highway Department” as part of the consideration. The option was exercised, and the transaction was consummated in June 1966. The land was ultimately conveyed to Phillips Petroleum Company subject to the same reservations as to any proceeds from the Department.
In August, 1968, the Department filed this action under the Special Alternative Procedure [§ 22-9-39 et seq. N.M.S.A. 1953 (1971 Pocket Supp.)] and on the same day the court issued a preliminary order of entry pursuant to Section 29-9-43. However, the Yurcics filed timely objections to the preliminary order of entry and it was never made permanent.
In June, 1969, the Department moved to dismiss these proceedings as to the Yurcic property, reciting that a relocation would make them unnecessary. The Yurcics responded by asserting that the tract had been taken; that they had acted in reliance on the Department’s action to their prejudice and further that the Department was estopped to dismiss. The court sustained the Department’s motion for dismissal, but its order was subject to “a determination of any damages which may have accrued and are properly recoverable by (the Yurcics) because of the actions of the (Department).” The order further required the Yurcics to file a pleading within a reasonable time specifying any damages they had suffered because of the Department’s action and provided for a responsive pleading.
In December, 1969, the Yurcics filed a claim for damages, which, as amended, sought damages said to have accrued by reason of the Department’s abandonment of the condemnation suit. The Department answered with admissions and denials and also apparently moved the dismissal of the claim. The court in its judgment, inter alia, ruled that insofar as the Yurcics sought to recover the fair market value of the property or damages resulting from the loss of the benefit of their bargain, the claim should be dismissed for failure to state a claim upon which relief could be granted.
After the court had orally announced what its ruling would be, evidence was taken in respect to the Yurcics’ claim for reasonable attorney’s fees which were allowed.
The Yurcics first contend that the Department could not unilaterally abandon its condemnation proceeding without compensation to them. This is premised upon the proposition that a “taking” had oc curred. They say that under our law the “taking” occurs when the petition is filed.
Unfortunately for the Yurcics, after the judgment was entered in this case and, in fact, after the briefs were filed, we addressed ourselves to this question in State ex rel. State Hwy. Com’n. v. Hesselden Inv. Co., 84 N.M. 424, 504 P.2d 634 (1973). In that case we said:
“Clearly and logically the ‘date of taking’ was the date on which the condemn- or became vested with the legal right to possession, dominion and control over the real estate being condemned. This date was March 5, 1968, the date the Order Making Preliminary Order of Entry Permanent was made and entered. State ex rel. State Highway Commission v. Burks, 79 N.M. 373, 443 P.2d 866 (1968).”
Hesselden involved distinguishable facts, but the distinction is without substance. That case concerned the issue of whether § 22-9-9.1, N.M.S.A.1953 (1971 Pocket Supp.), pertaining to partial takings was in effect at the date of the “taking.” We see no reason why the time as of which a partial taking is fixed should be any different from the time when a complete taking occurs.
As we have said, the preliminary order of entry was never made permanent and there being no assertion that there was a physical entry or disturbance of the Yurcics’ possession, we hold that no “taking” occurred here.
The Yurcics next contend that they were entitled to damages either under Article II,' Section 20 of the New Mexico Constitution which provides that private property shall not be taken or damaged for public use without just compensation or under § 22-9-22, N.M.S.A.1953 (1971 Pocket Supp.), which provides for actions by those whose property has been taken or damaged without just compensation.
Here again, the argument is premised, in part at least, upon a taking having occurred, but we have held that none did. Insofar as it is asserted that damage to the land occurred, this is also without substance. The damage that may have occurred was to the Yurcics rather than to the land, and was only incidental.
On this subject Nichols on Eminent Domain, § 26.45 (3rd ed. 1972) states:
“When condemnation proceedings are discontinued, even when there has been no disturbance of the actual occupancy of the land, the owner often suffers pecuniary loss-during the pendency of the proceedings. * * * He is almost certain to have incurred an attorney’s fee. But it is held that in the absence of bad faith or unreasonable delay upon the part of the party which instituted the proceedings that the owner is not constitutionally entitled to recover such expenses and losses. When the statutes are silent on the subject, no damages will be awarded him.”
Our eminent domain statutes do not provide for recovery of such incidental damages.
Finally, the Yurcics contend that the Department was estopped to abandon the condemnation proceeding, relying upon such cases as McGee v. City of Los Angeles, 6 Cal.2d 390, 57 P.2d 925 (1936); Times-Mirror Co. v. Superior Court, 3 Cal.2d 309, 44 P.2d 547 (1935); and Piz v. Housing Authority, 132 Colo. 457, 289 P.2d 905 (1955).
Appellant’s first amended claim for damages alleges, inter alia, the ownership of certain lands; that the Department “publicly announced, represented and otherwise manifested generally and to Defendants that it would take through condemnation” the lands in question; that the Yurcics thereafter entered into the option agreement regarding the lands which were thereafter conveyed away; that “in reliance upon the acts and conduct of” the Department the Yurcics agreed with their vendee to be compensated for the land solely through the eminent domain proceedings by which the Department represented it would acquire the tract and that thereafter the Department abandoned its condemnation action as to the land. The claim then alleges that as a result the Yurcics will not be compensated for the land and have been damaged in a certain sum.
The elements of estoppel which must be pleaded and proven as a prerequisite to recovery have been stated by this court in In re Williams’ Will, 71 N.M. 39, 376 P.2d 3 (1962) where we said:
“The elements of equitable estoppel are well defined in New Mexico and are fully set forth in the case of Westerman v. City of Carlsbad, 55 N.M. 550, 237 P.2d 356, wherein the court states:
‘The essential elements of an equitable estoppel as related to the party estopped are: (1) Conduct which amounts to a false representation or concealment of material facts, or, at least, which is calculated to convey the impression that the facts are otherwise than, and inconsistent with, those which the party subsequently attempts to assert; (2) intention, or at least expectation, that such conduct shall be acted upon by the other party; (3) knowledge, actual or constructive, of the real facts. As related to the party claiming the estoppel, they are: (1) Lack of knowledge and of the means of knowledge of the truth as to the facts in question; (2) reliance upon the conduct of the party estopped; and (3) action based thereon of such a character as to change his position prejudicially.’ ”
Clearly the amended claim for damages, viewed in the light most favorable to Mr. and Mrs. Yurcic, falls short of touching the bases which are needed to plead estoppel. An examination of the entire record, including the testimony taken in respect to, but not strictly confined to, the issue of attorney’s fees, furnishes an insight into the reason for the shortcomings of the pleading. Counsel simply did not have the facts at his disposal.
We have no quarrel with the cases we have mentioned which are relied upon by the Yurcics. They are somewhat unusual, but what makes them unusual is the rather shocking degree of aggravated and overreaching conduct of the condemnors which the appellate courts were considering. The condemnor’s conduct in those cases immeasurably exceeded in degree those present here. For example, in McGee the court said that estoppel should be invoked in:
“ * * * [Tjhose exceptional situations, recognized in Times-Mirror Co. v. Superior Court, 3 Cal.2d 309, 44 P.2d 547, 557 * * * where justice and right require the invocation of the principle of estoppel in pais in favor of a citizen or private property and against a municipality.”
In that case, the city had planned two condemnation proceedings involving parcels of land on which a building was located. The first proceeding was instituted during which the parties entered into a stipulation setting the value of the building and providing that compensation for the building was to be paid partially in the first and partially in the second proceeding. When the city later attempted to abandon the second proceeding, the court held it estopped because of the prior stipulation upon which condemnee had relied in tearing down the building.
In Times-Mirror, the condemnation suit had been tried, appealed, and reversed, when the city attempted to abandon a few days before the second trial. During the pendency of the suit the city-condemnor had adopted resolutions, formal plans, and written several letters indicating to condemnees and the public that it intended to condemn the land.
In Piz, the condemnor’s “agents endeavored to get Piz (condemnee) to agree” to an unreasonably low price. The case proceeded to trial where a jury awarded a fig ure even above the amount condemnee had demanded and over twice the amount offered by the condemnor. At this point condemnor moved to dismiss and the trial court so ordered. The Colorado Supreme Court reversed on the basis of estoppel.
Nothing of the sort happened here that occurred in those cases, each of which had gone to trial. Here, the Department simply indicated a plan to condemn the property. This was all that had occurred when the Yurcics made their deal. There is no indication that the Department even knew of it.
The court did not err in dismissing the amended claim for damages.
The Department complains of the trial court’s having awarded attorney’s fees. The Highway Litigation Expenses Act [§ 55-13-1 et seq., N.M.S.A.1953 (1971 Pocket Supp.)] is mentioned but does not seem to be relied upon by the Yurcics, presumably because the matters and things of which they complain occurred prior to its effective date.
Under the general law, the award looks a little doubtful. State ex rel. Stanley v. Lujan, 43 N.M. 348, 93 P.2d 1002 (1939); Keller v. Cavanaugh, 64 N.M. 86, 324 P.2d 783 (1958); Gregg v. Gardner, 73 N.M. 347, 388 P.2d 68 (1963); Lanier v. Securities Acceptance Corporation, 74 N.M. 755, 398 P.2d 980 (1965); Riggs v. Gardikas, 78 N.M. 5, 427 P.2d 890 (1967); Nichols on Eminent Domain, supra.
But since no cross appeal was taken pursuant to Supreme Court Rule 7(2) (§ 21-2-1(7) (2), N.M.S.A.1953) there is nothing for us to consider on this score. Reynolds v. Ruidoso Racing Association, Inc., 69 N.M. 248, 365 P.2d 671 (1961); Daughtrey v. Carpenter, 82 N.M. 173, 477 P.2d 807 (1970).
The judgment is affirmed.
It is so ordered.
McMANUS, C. J., and MONTOYA, J., concur. | [
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] |
OPINION
WOOD, Chief Judge.
Convicted of unlawful branding, defendant appeals. The unlawful branding was the use of an unrecorded brand in violation of § 40A-18-3(C), N.M.S.A.1953 (2d Repl.Vol. 6). Defendant’s appeal raises issues as to: (1) whether criminal intent is an element of the crime; (2) the constitutionality of § 40A-18-3(C), supra; (3) refused instructions on entrapment; and (4) refusal of a continuance.
Is criminal intent an element of unlawful branding ?
The unlawful branding of which defendant has been convicted is the use of an unrecorded brand. Must defendant have had a criminal intent, see State v. Austin, 80 N.M. 748, 461 P.2d 230 (Ct.App.1969), in order to be convicted of this use ?
State v. Shedoudy, 45 N.M. 516, 118 P.2d 280 (1941) held that a criminal intent is generally regarded as essential, but that the legislature may declare the commission of an act to be criminal without regard to intent. However, “ * * * in such case it must clearly appear * * * that such was the legislative intent.” [Citation omitted]. In determining legislative intent we consider prior statutes in pari materia. State v. Prince, 52 N.M. 15, 189 P.2d 993 (1948); see State v. Thompson, 57 N.M. 459, 260 P.2d 370 (1953); compare State v. Dennis, 80 N.M. 262, 454 P.2d 276 (Ct.App.1969).
In this case four prior laws bear on the subject of legislative intent.
1.' Laws 1884, ch. 47 is an act for the protection of livestock. This law provided for the branding of cattle and the recording of brands. Section 5 of this law made it unlawful to brand an animal that was the property of another with any brand which was not the recorded brand of the owner of the animal. A violator of § 5 was deemed guilty of larceny and, under the authorized penalties, a violator could be sentenced to the penitentiary.
Laws 1884, ch. 47, § 5 was amended by Laws 1919, ch. 56, § 1. This 1919 amendment removed the reference to larceny. Assuming the reference to larceny in 1884 indicated that a criminal intent was required, the 1919 amendment removed that requirement. The provisions of this 1884 law, as amended in 1919, appear as § 40-4-11, N.M.S.A.1953 (Orig.Vol. 6). Section 40-4-11, supra, was repealed in 1963 as a part of the law which enacted § 40A-18-3(C), supra. See Laws 1963, ch. 303, § 30-1.
2. Laws 1895, ch. 6 is an act relating to brands. This act made additional provisions for the branding of cattle and the recording of brands. Section 20 of this law prohibited the branding of unbranded range cattle with a brand that had not been recorded. A violator of § 20 was deemed guilty of larceny; however, no specific penalty was provided for the violation of § 20.
Laws 1895, ch. 6, § 20, was amended by Laws 1919, ch. 57, § 1. This 1919 amendment removed the reference to larceny. This amendment added, however, that the prohibited branding must have been done “knowingly.” The requirement of “knowingly” did not add a requirement of criminal intent since, in two decisions, the New Mexico Supreme Court has treated “knowingly” as a concept separate from that of criminal intent. State v. Craig, 70 N.M. 176, 372 P.2d 128 (1962); State v. Blevins, 40 N.M. 367, 60 P.2d 208 (1936); compare State v. Borunda, 83 N.M. 563, 494 P.2d 976 (Ct.App.1972).
Assuming here, as we did in connection with the 1884 law, that the reference to larceny in 1895 indicated a criminal intent was required, the 1919 amendment removed that requirement. The provisions of the 1895 law, as amended in 1919, appear as § 40-4-15, N.M.S.A.1953 (Orig.Vol. 6). Section 40^1 — 15, supra, was repealed in 1963 as a part of the law which enacted § 40A-18-3(C), supra. Laws 1963, ch. 303, § 30-1.
3. Laws 1905, ch. 95 also pertains to brands. A portion of its title reads: “AN ACT TO PREVENT AND PUNISH * * * THE USE * * * OF ANY BRAND THAT IS NOT RECORDED IN THE TERRITORIAL BRAND BOOK. * * * ” Section 1 of this law made it unlawful to use any brand unless the brand had been duly recorded and the person using the brand held a certificate certifying to the fact of such record. This provision is clearly more comprehensive than the 1884 and 1895 laws discussed above. This 1905 provision is not limited to branding an animal not one’s own and is not limited to the branding of range cattle. This 1905 provision applies to the use of any brand.
The penalty for use of an unrecorded brand is stated in § 5 of the 1905 act. As originally enacted there was a proviso to the authorized penalties. This proviso stated there would be no conviction if the brand was recorded within thirty days after seizure of the animals. An amendment in 1927 (Laws 1927, ch.. 49, § 2) deleted this proviso. After this 1927 amendment, the authorized penalties of fine or imprisonment applied.
Section 7 of the 1905 law stated that all acts or parts of acts in conflict with the 1905 law were repealed. We are not concerned with whether § 7 was legally effective to repeal conflicting laws. Our concern is with legislative intent. At a time that the branding provisions in the 1884 and 1895 laws declared violations of these provisions to be larceny, § 7 of the 1905 laws shows a legislative intent that the provisions of the 1905 laws were the criminal provisions on branding that were to be given effect.
Section 6 of the 1905 law also shows legislative intent.. This section stated that it was “deemed evidence of guilt” that a person charged with using an unrecorded brand “ * * * shall have been seen placing said brand upon any animal. * * * ”
The title and §§ 1, 5, 6 and 7 of the 1905 law clearly show that the legislature intended use of an unrecorded brand to be a crime without regard to criminal intent. Sections 1, 5 (as amended) and 6 of the 1905 law appear as §§ 40-^4-12, 40-4-13 and 40-4-14, N.M.S.A.1953 (Orig.Vol. 6). These three sections were repealed in 1963 in the law which enacted § 40A-18-3(C), supra. Laws 1963, ch. 303, § 30-1.
4. In discussing the 1895 laws, we pointed out that it included provisions for the branding of cattle. These provisions appeared in Laws 1895, ch. 6, § 1. Section 1 has been twice amended, see Laws 1941, ch. 40, § 1 and Laws 1951, ch. 67, § 1. We are not concerned here with the details of the branding provisions but with the fact that requirements for branding exist. This requirement — the necessity of a brand — is existing law, appearing at § 47-9-3, N.M. S.A.1953 (Repl.Vol. 7).
When enacted in 1895, no penalty was provided for failure to brand as required. A penalty was provided in 1961. It is § 47-9-3.1, N.M.S.A.1953 (Repl.Vol. 7).
We will refer to §§ 47-9-3 and 47-9-3.1, supra, under another point. At present our concern is limited to legislative intent. Section 47-9-3.1, supra, shows a legislative intent, in 1961, that all livestock required to be branded were to bear a recorded brand.
The legislative intent of the 1905 law is clear. Any conflict between the 1884 and 1895 laws and the 1905 law was removed by subsequent amendments and those amendments also show legislative intent. This legislative intent again appears in the penalty provisions added in 1961. Considering the four laws together — those of 1884, 1895, 1905 and 1961 — it clearly appears that immediately prior to the enactment of § 40A-18-3(C), supra, in 1963, criminal intent was not an element of the crime of using an unrecorded brand.
Our “Criminal Code,” of which § 40A-18-3 (C), supra, is a part, was enacted in 1963 [see § 40A-1-1, N.M.S.A.1953 (2d Repl.Vol. 6)] after a study of our criminal law. A criminal law study committee was established by Laws 1957, ch. 233. The committee was continued by Laws 1959, ch. 109 and Laws 1961, ch. 179. This committee was charged to examine the laws relating to criminal offenses, recommend changes deemed desirable and draft legislation to effect those changes.
The result was the “Report of Criminal Law Study Interim Committee 1961-1962.” This report grouped the then existing statutes on a particular subject so that the existing statutes could be compared with the proposed statute. On the subject of unlawful branding it grouped §§ 40-4-11, 40-4-12, 40-4-13, 40-4-14 and 40-4-15, supra, for comparison with a proposed statute on unlawful branding. Little change was made in the proposal concerning use of an unrecorded brand. The committee proposal referred to brands recorded with the cattle sanitary board; the legislature added a reference to brands recorded with the sheep sanitary board. However, the prohibition on use of an unrecorded brand was enacted as proposed by the committee.
The committee’s report to the 26th Legislature (see page 1 of the committee report) states a policy of the committee to retain provisions of existing criminal laws wherever possible and to amend those laws only where the law was unclear, unnecessary, a duplication or outmoded. Under this policy, the provisions as to use of a brand in the 1884 and 1895 laws, previously discussed, were discarded. A comparison shows the 1905 law was the law proposed by the committee and the law reenacted as § 40A-18-3(C), supra.
On the basis of the foregoing, we hold that it clearly appears that criminal intent is not an element of the crime stated in § 40A-18-3(C), supra. With this result, we need not consider defendant’s claim that the trial court did not instruct on criminal intent. No such instruction was necessary; criminal intent is not an element of that crime.
The constitutionality of the crime of unlawful branding.
Without criminal intent as an element of the crime of using an unrecorded brand, defendant asserts § 40A-18-3(C), supra, is unconstitutional on several grounds. Defendant’s claims were not raised in the trial court. Since, however, the claims raise the issue of whether a crime has been committed, we consider them as jurisdictional questions which may be raised for the first time on appeal. See Valdez v. City of Las Vegas, 68 N.M. 304, 361 P.2d 613 (1961); State v. Diamond, 27 N.M. 477, 202 P. 988, 20 A.L.R. 1527 (1921); State v. Austin, supra.
Section 40A-18-3(C), supra, encompasses innocent acts. One could brand one’s own cattle and if the brand were unrecorded an offense would be committed. Relying on State v. Prince, supra, defendant asserts that making an innocent act a crime renders the statute vague and uncertain. Relying on State v. Dennis, supra, defendant asserts that § 40A-18-3(C), supra, is not “ ‘. . . reasonably necessary to prevent manifest or anticipated evil. .’” Defendant also asserts the penalty for use of an unrecorded brand is excessive and exceeds any legitimate penal aim; that the offense is out of proportion to the punishment (that of a fourth degree felony) that could be inflicted. See Huerta v. Flood, 103 Ariz. 608, 447 P.2d 866 (1968). We understand these contentions to raise the due process question of whether the statute is a reasonable exercise of the State’s police power. See State v. Davis, 80 N.M. 347, 455 P.2d 851 (Ct.App.1969).
These due process contentions fail to consider the purpose of § 40A-18-3(C), supra. That purpose is “. . . to prevent a kind of theft peculiarly easy of commission and difficult of discovery and punishment, and to afford special protection to the important industry of stockraising.” State v. Thompson, supra; Wilburn v. Territory, 10 N.M. 402, 62 P. 968 (1900).
That purpose is demonstrated in this case. A witness testified the five head of cattle involved were his; that he had not disposed of them; that the three cows bore his recorded brand. The record is not clear whether the two calves had been branded before the unrecorded brand was applied. There is evidence that defendant’s wife acquired the cattle from an identified third person. The three cows had also been branded with an unrecorded brand and in at least one instance the unrecorded brand had been applied over the recorded brand. Defendant admitted helping apply the unrecorded brand to the calves. Defendant denied having anything to do with applying the unrecorded brand to the cows, yet the evidence is that defendant claimed the unrecorded brand as his brand. Under these facts, the requirement of use of a recorded brand is_ clearly a reasonable ■ requirement for the identification of cattle and for the prevention of cattle theft.
We hold § 40A-18-3(C), supra, to be a reasonable exercise of the police power of New Mexico; that in the light of its purpose, its application to innocent acts and the felony penalty provided do not offend due process of law. See State v. Thompson, supra; compare State v. Davis, supra.
Another question is whether there are two statutes providing different penalties for identical acts. If so, there is a constitutional question as to whether the statute providing the higher penalty offends the requirement of equal protection. State v. Chavez, 77 N.M. 79, 419 P.2d 456 (1966).
The penalty for violating § 40A-18-3(C)', supra, is penitentiary imprisonment of not less than one nor more than five years, a fine of not more than $5,000.00, or both a fine and imprisonment. Section 40A-29-3(D), N.M.S.A.1953 (2d Repl.Vol. 6).
Section 47-9-3.1, supra, provides a penalty for violating either §§ 47-9-3 or 47- 9-3.1, supra. That penalty is a fine of not less than $50.00 nor more than $300.00.
The question is whether the penalty provided in § 47-9-3.1, supra, is a penalty for the identical act prohibited by § 40A-18-3 (C), supra. We hold it is not. Section 47-9-3, supra, applies to “neat cattle;” the cattle in this case fit that category. Wilburn v. Territory, supra. Section 47-9-3, supra, however, goes to the requirement of branding, not to the use of an unrecorded brand.
Section 47-9-3.1, supra, goes to the brand that is applied and requires that the brand be the “ * * * brand recorded in the name of the present owner * * * or, in the alternative, the * * * brand of a former owner. * * * ” The requirement then is directed to persons in possession of cattle with brands that do not meet the requirements of § 47-9-3.1, supra, and not to the use of an unrecorded brand. Thus, in our opinion, § 47-9-3.1, supra, does not provide a penalty for the identical act prohibited by § 40A-18-3(C), supra.
Another answer to the unequal protection question is provided by rules of construction. If the penalties in § 47-9-3.-1, supra, and § 40A-18-3(C), supra, should be considered as providing penalties for identical acts, then § 47-9-3.1, supra, would not be applicable. It would not be applicable because § 47-9-3.1, supra, applies to branding requirements generally while § 40A-18-3(C), supra, applies specifically to the use of an unrecorded brand. See State v. Blevins, supra. Section 40A-18~3(C), supra, does not offend the requirement of equal protection of the laws.
There is no merit to the constitutional questions presented.
Refused instructions on entrapment.
Defendant submitted requested instrucr tions on entrapment which were refused. There is no issue as to the contents of the refused instructions. For the meaning of entrapment see State v. Roybal, 65 N.M. 342, 337 P.2d 406 (1959); State v. Sainz, 84 N.M. 259, 501 P.2d 1247 (Ct.App.1972); State v. Sena, 82 N.M. 513, 484 P.2d 355 (Ct.App.1971). The issue is whether defendant was entitled to instructions on entrapment.
Defendant was entitled to instructions on his theory of entrapment only if there was evidence to support that theory. State v. Garcia, 79 N.M. 367, 443 P.2d 860 (1968); State v. Romero, 79 N.M. 522, 445 P.2d 587 (Ct.App.1968).
Defendant testified to a conversation with a special investigator for the New Mexico Livestock Board which would support his theory of entrapment if he had been charged with using an unrecorded brand between the time of the State Fair in 1971 and the end of that year. However, the use for which he is charged is in February, 1972. The evidence is that this use occurred within a week or two of February 10, 1972. There is no evidence that defendant was entrapped into using an unrecorded brand after the early part of 1972.
There being no evidence to support defendant’s theory of entrapment, refusal of the requested instructions was not error.
Refusal of a continuance.
On the morning of trial defendant moved that the trial setting be vacated on the basis that a witness “crucial to the Defense” had become ill, was hospitalized and, because of impending surgery, would be unable to testify. The affidavit in support of the motion asserts the witness would corroborate defendant’s testimony that he was in Arizona “ * * * about the time the alleged unlawful brands were applied.”
This corroborative testimony was in no sense crucial; defendant admitted helping to brand the calves. If in fact defendant was absent when the brand he claimed as his own was applied to the cows, the evidence concerning the calves fully sustains the conviction. In the light of this evidence, the testimony of the missing witness would not have aided his defense. The trial court did not abuse its discretion in denying the motion to vacate the trial setting. State v. Sluder, 82 N.M. 755, 487 P. 2d 183 (Ct.App.1971).
The judgment and sentence is affirmed.
It is so ordered.
LOPEZ, J., concurs. | [
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OPINION
OMAN, Justice.
By defendant’s own admission, the amount in dispute in this cause is $38.52, plus his claim for costs incurred in the justice of the peace court, where this case had its beginning on February 28, 1968, and costs in the district court to which defendant secured a delayed appeal from the judgment entered against him in the justice of the peace court.
The appeal to the district court was in fact a complete trial de novo, and the proceedings in that court also ended in a judgment for plaintiff. The case is now before us on appeal by defendant from this judgment.
He has failed in several respects to comply with the rules of this Court in the preparation of his briefs. Only because he is appearing pro se and is not an attorney have we disregarded these failures and given full consideration to his arguments and the pertinent portions of the record.
However, we are not disposed to encourage appeals to this Court in which so little is involved. Wagner v. Eaton et al., 2 N.M. 211 (1882). Because we find no prejudicial error and the amount involved is so trifling,' we affirm without discussion of the points relied upon by defendant for reversal. Scholte v. Walker, 87 Neb. 406, 127 N.W. 123 (1910). See also Moodie v. Jenks, 329 Mass. 332, 108 N.E.2d 558 (1952) ; Guinane v. Hogan, 78 Ill.App. 272 (1898).
The judgment should be affirmed.
It is so ordered.
STEPHENSON and MARTINEZ, JJ., concur. | [
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] |
OPINION
STEPHENSON, Justice.
This suit was brought by American Employers’ Insurance Company (“American”) against Continental Casualty Company (“Continental”) for a declaratory judgment determining the respective obligations of those insurance companies to a Mr. Powell and his successor partnership, an engineering firm, common insureds (hereinafter collectively called “the insured”) of American and Continental, and to determine the liability of American to reimburse and indemnify Continental for expenditures made in defending and settling two suits against the insured. Continental counterclaimed against American for indemnification and reimbursement for these amounts asserting it was American’s obligation to defend. The suit was tried to the court sitting without a jury, and judgment was entered for American.
As a result of two gas explosions, one in La Mesa, and a second in Las Cruces, suits wepe filed in the District Court of Dona Ana County by Mr. Camunez and Mr. Mark against the City of Las Cruces and Higdon,' Inc. for wrongful death and personal injuries. The City in the Camunez case' filed a third party complaint against the insured, and in the Mark case the City and Higdon both filed third party complaints against the insured. These complaints were predicated upon the alleged fact that at the time of each explosion the insured was under contract with the City to perform services in connection with improvements consisting of additions and betterments to its natural gas system.
At the time of each explosion two liability insurance policies with the insured as the named insured were in effect. Continental had issued the insured an “Architects’ and/or Engineers’ Professional Liability Policy” and American had issued a “Comprehensive Liability Policy.” Continental accepted the defense in both suits but American declined. Both the Camunez and Mark suits were settled by Continental which made demand upon American for the respective amounts paid in settlement of the suits and also attorney’s fees and other costs incurred by it in the defense of the claims against the insured. This declaratory judgment action by American and the counterclaim by Continental ensued.
Continental’s contention is that American had a duty to defend the insured against the third party complaints of the City of Las Cruces in the Camunez suit and the City and Higdon in the Mark suit. Continental argues the application of Satterwhite v. Stolz, 79 N.M. 320, 442 P.2d 810 (Ct.App.1968) in which it was held that an insurer’s duty to defend is determined by the allegations of the petition filed by a claimant against the insured, the issue being whether the allegations are sufficient to state a claim within the terms of the policy. American’s rebuttal to this argument is that the Satterwhite case in volved Texas law and is therefore not instructive as to the law of New Mexico. Although the Satterwhite case did apply Texas law, the law of Texas is in accord with the general rule applicable to determine whether an insurer has a duty to defend. The rule is stated in 1 Long, The Law of Liability Insurance (1973) § 5.02:
“If the allegations of the injured third party’s complaint show that an accident or occurrence comes within the coverage of the policy, the insurer is obligated to defend, regardless of the ultimate liability of the insured. The question presented to the insurer in each case is whether the injured party’s complaint states facts which bring the case within the coverage of the policy, not whether he can prove an action against the insured for damages. The insurer must also fulfill its promise to defend even though the complaint fails to state facts with sufficient clarity so that it may be determined from its face whether or not the action is within the coverage of the policy, provided the alleged facts tend to show an occurrence within the coverage.”
Also, see 7A Appleman Insurance Law and Practice (1962) § 4683; 14 Couch on Insurance 2d (1965) § 51:40.
We approve the general rule and begin our application of it by comparing the coverages afforded by the policies in question with the allegations of the third party complaints. American’s is a typical comprehensive liability policy. The insurer agrees in the relevant clause:
“To pay on behalf of the insured all sums which the insured shall become legally obligated to pay as damages because of bodily injury as defined herein (bodily injury is defined in the policy as including death) sustained by any person.”
Continental agrees in its policy to:
“[P]ay on behalf of the insured all sums which the insured shall become legally obligated to pay as damages if legal liability arises out of the performance of professional services for others in the insured’s capacity as an architect or engineer and if such legal liability is caused by an error, omission or negligent act.”
Although the third party complaint by the City in the Camunez suit and by Higdon in the Mark suit refer to the fact that the insured was under contract with the City to perform engineering services, they are based upon theories of general negligence and in no way restrict their assertions to liability based upon the insured’s professional capacity as an engineer. The allegations of the third party complaint by the City in the Mark suit are more ambiguous. The complaint refers to the fact that the insured agreed to perform the “services of an engineer” under contract, but it also states that the contract required that the insured “ * * * take and have full charge and control of all construction work in connection with the construction of such additions and betterments to the natural gas system, and maintain continuous supervision * * * to assure that the additions and betterments were constructed in accordance with plans and specifications.” The fundamental assertion of the complaint was that the damages or injuries suffered by plaintiff were “proximately caused by or contributed to by the negligent, careless and reckless conduct * * * (of the insured) * * * in the performance of his duties or, in the alternative, in the non-performance of his duties * * *” required by the contract.
American points to two exclusions in its policy contending that the third party complaints do not bring the claim within the coverage of its policy when the exclusions are considered. The first of these is the professional liability exclusion which reads:
“It is agreed that the policy does not apply to injury, sickness, disease, death or destruction arising out of defects in maps, plans, signs or specifications, prepared, acquired or used by the insured.”
We have already recounted the allegations in the complaints and none of them are limited to defects in maps, plans, signs or specifications prepared, acquired or used by the insured.
American also invites us to consider whether the “completed operations” exclusion in its policy takes the allegations in the complaints outside the coverage of the policy. That exclusion states:
“It is agreed that the policy does not apply to the Products Hazard as defined therein. It is further agreed that Coverages B and D apply only to accidents arising out of operations of the named insured during the progress thereof and not to accidents arising out of such operations after final completion thereof.”
Although it is possible that the accidents in both the Camunez and Mark suits arose out of “completed operations”, it is impossible to determine this by looking at the third party complaints.
The fact that grounds of damage against the insured other than those stated in the policy are pleaded, is immaterial if the injured person pleaded any grounds against the insured coming within the terms of the policy. Appleman, supra, (p. 444). And as stated in the citation from Long, supra, the duty to defend arises when the facts are not stated with sufficient clarity so that it can be determined from the face of the complaint whether the action falls within the coverage of the policy.
The trial court’s apparent application of the rules we have discussed is indicated by its conclusion of law number 1 which states:
“1. Both had duty (sic) to defend on the basis of the Third-Party Complaint; however, Continental’s policy provided for specific coverage and American’s policy was general coverage.”
However, the trial court’s conclusion of law number 2 is to the effect that Continental was primarily liable to defend the suits. Thus, the trial court apparently reasoned that even though the complaints indicated that both insurers had a duty to defend, Continental had the primary duty, since its coverage was more specific. Continental challenges conclusions number 1 and number 2 as well as the findings to the same effect. American relies on Maryland Cas. Co. v. State Farm Mut. Auto. Ins. Co., 77 N.M. 21, 419 P.2d 229 (1966) in support of its position. That case is inapplicable to the facts before us. In fact, a comparison of that case with this one reveals the necessity of the principles we invoke here. The Maryland Cas. Co. suit was precipitated by a fire which broke out while one of the insured’s employees was delivering gasoline in a tank truck to the premises of a customer. The insured had two liability policies. An automobile liability policy covering the truck had been issued by State Farm Mutual Automobile Insurance Company. Maryland Casualty had issued a general liability policy. The suit concerning the insured’s liability was tried and judgment rendered against it. In its later suit, Maryland Casualty argued that State Farm was primarily liable because the accident arose out of the use of the truck. The court, after analyzing the facts found in the tort action, agreed with Maryland Casualty, but not on the basis that its coverage was more general than State Farm’s. Rather, the court held that the policies did not cover the same risks and further stated that “Maryland’s policy-specifically excluded this accident.” We do not have the luxury in this case of analyzing the facts surrounding the occurrence of the accidents in the Camunez and Mark suits to determine which insurer was primarily liable, for these suits were settled before trial. It is thus impossible for us to make the determination made by the court in the Maryland Cas. Co. case. Even if we accept the trial court’s conclusion that Continental’s coverage was more specific than American’s, the allegations contained in the third party complaints being general do not bring the suit within the exclusive coverage of that policy. The only issue before us is whether American had a duty to defend and this issue must be resolved on the basis of allegations in the third party complaints.
American cites two cases as authority for the proposition that as between an insurer covering a specific risk and one whose general policy would encompass the same risk, the specific coverage is primarily liable. These cases are Ins. Co. v. Assur. Corp. Ltd., 138 Ohio St. 488, 35 N.E.2d 836 (1941); and Hartford Steam Boiler I. & Ins. Co. v. Cochran O. M. & G. Co., 26 Ga.App. 288, 105 S.E. 856 (1921). The prevailing view as to the liabilities of specific and general insurers in the absence of appropriate policy provisions, and the one which we approve, is stated at 16 Couch on Insurance 2d, (1966) § 62:42, where it is said:
“The fact that a loss comes within the coverage of two policies, one being designed specifically for the loss sustained and the other being a general policy which includes the particular loss within its scope, does not make the specific policy primary insurance and the general policy excess insurance.”
For a discussion of the problems arising from “double coverage” and a criticism of the specific versus general distinction, see 2 Long, The Law of Liability Insurance (1973) § 22:03. Also, see Industrial Indemnity Co. v. Continental Casualty Co., 375 F.2d 183 (10th Cir.1967).
Thus, even if we were able to determine from the third party complaints before us that the allegations brought the case within the specific coverage afforded by Continental and not within the limits of an exclusion in American’s coverage, we would fehen have to accept the questionable wisdom of the specific versus general rationale to sustain American’s position.
Having held, on the basis of the allegations in the third party complaints, that the basic coverage of neither the American nor the Continental policy excluded them from liability, we now consider whether the “other insurance” clauses of the insurers excuse either from liability. Although the other insurance clauses are not identical, they are both of the “excess insurance” variety. The effect of the provisions of each is that if other valid and collectible insurance exists to cover a loss, the policy applies only to cover any deficiency in the other’s coverage. Since the allegations in the Camunez and Mark suits were within the coverage of each policy and the claims did not exceed the coverage of either policy, the effect of these provisions, if each were literally applied, would be that the insured had no coverage. However, rules have been developed to avoid such an absurdity. In Oregon Auto Ins. Co. v. United States Fidelity & Guar. Co., 195 F.2d 958 (9th Cir.1952), the court was faced with determining the liability of concurrent insurers arising out of an automobile accident. After determining that the “other insurance” provisions of the policies were indistinguishable in meaning and intent, the court held:
“ * * * [W]here both policies carry like ‘other insurance’ provisions, we think [they] must be held mutually repugnant and hence be disregarded. Our conclusion is that such view affords the only rational solution of the dispute in this case. The proration is to be applied in respect both of damages and of the expense of defending the suits.”
Also, see United States Fire Ins. Co. v. Insurance Co. of No. America, 328 F.Supp. 43 (E.D.Mo.1971) and the cases discussed therein; 2 Long, The Law of Liability Insurance, supra, § 22:06.
Continental also challenges the trial court’s finding of fact that because of the many exclusions in the American policy, there would have been a conflict of interest between American and the common insured had American defended either of the suits. This finding was apparently one of the bases of the court’s conclusion that Continental had the primary duty to defend. It is generally held that the existence of a conflict of interest alone does not excuse an insurer from defending. Babcock and Wilcox Co. v. Parsons Corporation, 430 F.2d 531 (8th Cir.1970) and the cases cited therein. Moreover, there are several methods of resolving the conflict, none of which involve an abdication of the insurer’s duty to defend under the insurance contract. See Employers’ Fire Insurance Co. v. Beals, 103 R.I. 623, 240 A.2d 397 (1968); Burd v. Sussex Mutual Insurance Co., 56 N.J. 383, 267 A.2d 7 (1970). Therefore, the trial court’s finding as to conflict of interest has no effect upon American’s duty to defend.
Continental’s argument is based upon subrogation rather than contractual rights against American. In State Farm Mut. Auto. Ins. Co. v. Foundation R. Ins. Co., 78 N.M. 359, 431 P.2d 737 (1967) we held that an excess insurer which had defended a suit had a right of reimbursement under the theory of subrogation against a primary insurer which had refused to defend. It follows that in a situation in which there are two insurers each with a duty to defend, one of which refuses to defend, the defending insurer has a right of apportionment of expenses and outlays with the other insurer in proportion to the insurance carried. See United Services Auto. Ass’n v. Agricultural Ins. Co., 67 N.M. 333, 355 P.2d 143 (1960).
The maximum coverage afforded by these two policies was $700,000.00 — $500,000.00 by the American policy and $200,000.00 by the Continental.
We hold that American must reimburse Continental for five-sevenths of the outlays incurred in defending and settling the Camunez and Mark suits.
Finally, American filed a motion to dismiss under Rule 41(e) [§ 21 — 1— 1(41) (e), N.M.S.A.1953 on which the trial court never ruled. It argues in a counterpoint that this court should affirm the trial court on this basis or alternatively direct the trial court to dismiss the case.
We have not overlooked American’s counterpoint. We have examined the record, which does not support the factual predicate upon which American’s argument is constructed. Moreover, no hearing was held nor procedures had upon the issues presented by the motion. State Ex rel. Reynolds v. Molybdenum Corp. of Amer., 83 N.M. 690, 496 P.2d 1086 (1972). For these reasons we are of the opinion that the counterpoint is without merit.
The judgment is reversed, and the case remanded for further proceedings consistent with this opinion.
It is so Ordered.
McMANUS, C. J., and OMAN, J., concur. | [
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OPINION
STEPHENSON, Justice.
This Application for Termination of Parental Rights was brought in the District Court of Bernalillo County by the Hueys in respect to an infant son of Mary Lente, pursuant to § 22-2-23, N.M.S.A.l953 (Supp. 1971).
The district court entered judgment:
“ * * * that the parental rights of Respondent Mary Lente to the minor child, Jessie Lente, be and they are hereby terminated.”
Mary Lente appealed. The Court of Appeals on June 20, 1973 handed down its opinion [85 N.M. 585, 514 P.2d 1081 (1973)] reversing the trial court’s judgment. However, in doing so, the majority declared the cited statute to be unconstitutional for a variety of reasons.
While not disagreeing with the result reached by the Court of Appeals, we were concerned about the statute having been struck down and granted certiorari. The New Mexico Health And Social Services Department intervened and filed a brief.
The majority opinion disregards at least two basic principles. Firstly, no holding that the statute was unconstitutional was required. Witness the specially concurring opinion of Judge Hernandez reaching the same result as the majority, but on the basis of the statute being constitutional. Courts will not decide constitutional questions unless necessary to a disposition of the case. Ratliff v. Wingfield, 55 N.M. 494, 236 P.2d 725 (1951).
Secondly, if a statute is susceptible to two constructions, one supporting it and the other rendering it void, a court should adopt the construction which will uphold its constitutionality. State v. Morley, 63 N.M. 267, 317 P.2d 317 (1957); State ex rel. Dickson v. Saiz, 62 N.M. 227, 308 P.2d 205 (1957); Abeytia v. Gibbons Garage, 26 N.M. 622, 195 P. 515 (1920); and State ex rel. Clancy v. Hall, State Treasurer, 23 N.M. 422, 168 P. 715 (1917). Again witness Judge Hernandez’ opinion. Actually, this principle may be of doubtful application because of our difficulty in following the construction of the majority.
The majority went astray in construing § 22-2-23 E., N.M.S.A.1953 (Supp. 1971) which provides:
“E. The court after hearing may grant or deny a judgment terminating parental rights. A judgment of the court terminating parental rights has the same effect as an adoption judgment has in terminating the parent-child relationship, including terminating parental rights, dispensing with the consent, and with any required notice of an adoption proceed ing of a parent whose relationship is terminated by the judgment.” (Emphasis supplied.)
§ 22-2-33, N.M.S.A.1953 (Supp.1971), captioned in part “Effect of judgment of adoption” provides in subsection A., (1) that such a judgment has the effect “ * * (1) to relieve the natural parents of all parental rights and responsibilities; ‡ ‡ >|c 1}
This is the section to which the emphasized portion of § 22-2-23 (E) obviously refers. Section 22-2-33 (A) (2), N.M.S.A. 1953 (Supp.1971), which seemingly confused the majority in the Court of Appeals, is not concerned with the termination of parental rights, but rather defines the rights created between an adoptive parent and a child being adopted.
Suffice it to say that from the mentioned erroneous point of departure, the majority proceeded to further errors which arose from a blending of statutes relating to adoption and that which relates to termination of parental consent.
The majority further erred in holding, without citation of authority, that the statute was unconstitutional by reason of the failure of its title to comply with art. IV, § 16 of the New Mexico Constitution. Again this holding proceeded on the fallacious premise that actions brought under § 22-2-23 are for adoption.
In any case, we find no constitutional shortcomings in the title of the statute measured by the standards laid down in City of Albuquerque v. Garcia, 84 N.M. 776, 508 P.2d 585 (1973), which we intended as a definitive expression on this subject.
We reverse the majority opinion of the Court of Appeals in its entirety.
By way of supplementing what we have said, we approve of and adopt the special concurring opinion of Judge Hernandez. In so doing, we specifically approve his views as to the quantum of proof required as being “clear and convincing.” Nevelos v. Railston, 65 N.M. 250, 335 P.2d 573 (1959). We do not view the opinion in Petition of Quintana, 83 N.M. 772, 497 P.2d 1404 (1972) as creating or directly approving any lesser quantum.
The judgment of the District Court of Bernalillo County is reversed, and the case remanded for further proceedings in accordance herewith.
It is so ordered.
McMANUS, C. J., and OMAN, MONTOYA and MARTINEZ, JJ., concur. | [
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] |
OPINION
HENDLEY, Judge.
Convicted of the unlawful sale of a depressant drug contrary to § 54 — 6-38(B), N.M.S.A. 1953 (Repl. Vol. 1962, pt. 2, Supp. 1971) defendant appeals asserting three points for reversal. The third point relating to the trial court’s failure to grant a mistrial is dispositive of the appeal.
We reverse.
During the course of the state’s case the names of Marlin Strange, Tom Garlow, Mickey Aragon, Butch Hale, Donnie Phillips and Wallita Collums were mentioned several times as associates or friends of defendant. All of these individuals had been present when the alleged sale was made. The state’s case rested primarily on the testimony of an undercover agent who made the alleged purchase from defendant. Defendant was the sole witness for the defense and denied the sale.
The state, in the presence of the jury, stated that it would call Strange, Garlow, Aragon, Hale, Phillips and Collums as rebuttal witnesses. Collums was called first and after several questions and answers defendant objected on the ground that the testimony was “not rebutting anything.” The objection was sustained. Garlow was ■called next and refused to testify for the reason that “The answer to that question may incriminate me.” Defendant’s motion for a mistrial on the grounds of prejudice was denied. The prosecution then stated:
“ * * * These witnesses have refused to talk. They have said they would state in Court they wouldn’t talk to us, Your Honor.”
The jury was excused and Aragon was called. He stated he could not remember anything. The state then rested its case. Defendant again moved for a mistrial “ * * * on the ground of the five [sic] rebuttal witnesses having been called by the State and being sworn and presented in front of the Jury and it was only done for the purpose of prejudicing the Defendant in the eyes of the Jury. * * * ”
It is apparent from the foregoing that the state was aware that the witnesses would not testify. We do not ascribe any particular motive to the state in the calling of the six witnesses in spite of its stated information regarding their refusal to talk. We discuss only the issue of prejudice to the defendant.
This precise question has not heretofore been passed upon by this court or the New Mexico Supreme Court. It is not, however, a novel question to the courts of other jurisdictions. See Annot., 86 A.L.R.2d 1443 (1962) and A.L.R.2d, Later Case Service, Supp. 85-91 A.L.R.2d (1968).
Without passing on the question presented in the instant case the United .States Supreme Court in commenting on the various lower Federal Court opinions stated in Namet v. United States, 373 U.S. 179, 83 S.Ct. 1151, 10 L.Ed.2d 278 (1963):
“None of the several decisions dealing with this question suggests that reversible error is invariably committed whenever a witness claims his privilege not to answer. Rather, the lower courts have looked to the surrounding circumstances in each case, focusing primarily on two factors, each of which suggests a distinct ground of error. First, some courts have indicated that error may be based upon a concept of prosecutorial misconduct, when the Government makes a conscious and flagrant attempt to build its case out of inferences arising from use of the testimonial privilege. This seems to have been one of the principal reasons underlying the finding of reversible error in United States v. Maloney, supra. [262 F.2d 535 (2d Cir., 1959)]. In that case, the prosecution admitted knowing that two of its key witnesses could validly invoke the privilege against self-incrimination and intended to do so. The prosecutor nevertheless called and questioned them. The court also found that the Government’s closing argument attempted to make use of the adverse inferences from their refusals to testify. See also United States v. Tucker, 3 Cir., 267 F.2d 212. A second theory seems to rest upon the conclusion that, in the circumstances of a given case, inferences from a witness’ refusal to answer added critical weight to the prosecution’s case in a form not subject to cross-examination, and thus unfairly prejudiced the defendant. This theory seems also to have been present to some extent in the Maloney decision, where the court noted that the challenged inferences were the only corroboration for dubious and interested testimony by the Government’s chief witness. 262 F.2d, at 536-537. On the other hand, courts have failed to find reversible error when such episodes were ‘no more than minor lapses through a long trial.’ United States v. Hiss, 185 F.2d 822, 832 (C.A. 2d Cir.). See also United States v. Amadio, 215 F.2d 605, 614 (C.A. 7th Cir.). And even when the objectionable inferences might have been found prejudicial, it has been held that instructions to the jury to disregard them sufficiently cured the error.” [footnote omitted].
In the instant case we have the following circumstances: the defendant denying the sale to the undercover agent; the statement by the prosecutor that he would call six rebuttal witnesses and the reasonable implication thereby conveyed to the jury that the witnesses would contradict defendant’s testimony; the state’s knowledge that the witnesses would refuse to talk; and a witness refusing to testify on the grounds the answer may tend to incriminate him.
Under the foregoing posture we think the language in State v. Johnson, 243 Or. 532, 413 P.2d 383 (1966) most appropriate:
“In State v. Harper, supra, [33 Or. 524, 55 P. 1075 (1899) ] this court reversed the guilty judgment because the trial court permitted the district attorney to comment upon the guilt of the defendant to be inferred from the state’s witness invoking his constitutional right. In this case, the district attorney refrained from making comment. Nevertheless, it would seem equally reversible error for the state to call a witness, who it appears from prior testimony, already in the record, may have been closely associated with the defendant in the scheme to defraud, and the witness has been indicted for but not convicted of his purported participation in that scheme, when the state knows that the witness will invoke his constitutional right, and, with this knowledge, asks questions from which the jurors themselves could infer that if the questions were answered truthfully the answers would tend to establish the quilt of the defendant.” (Emphasis ours.)
We deem it of no significance that in the Johnson case the witness who was called had been indicted while, as far as appears from the record, the witnesses in the present case had not been criminally charged. It is sufficient that the witnesses were present when the alleged purchase took place and that the prosecution knew they would' decline to testify in rebuttal.
We cannot agree with the state that the error “without any showing that defendant was affected thereby is at best a species of harmless error.” Nor can we agree with the proposition that defendant has the burden of showing prejudice. Under the circumstances of this case prejudice is presumed. Once the state has obtained the benefit of the inference of defendant’s guilt, which is not subject to cross-examination, it cannot have the benefit of a presumption that this inference was not prejudical and shift the burden to defendant to show there was prejudice. The witnesses’ right, to invoke the constitutional right of self-incrimination is a personal privilege over which defendant has no control. Under the circumstances of this case the state does have control, that is to say, the state need not call the witness when it knows the witness, who was associated with defendant, will refuse to testify on the grounds that it may incriminate him. “ * * * If the state is at any time uncertain whether or not a witness will refuse to testify, this can easily be determined before the trial court in the absence of the jury and the appearance of purposeful prejudice avoided.” State v. Johnson, supra.
Reversed and remanded for a new trial.
It is so ordered.
HERNANDEZ, J., concurs.
LOPEZ, J., dissents. | [
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OPINION
HERNANDEZ, Judge.
The defendant was convicted of possession of marijuana weighing more than eight ounces in violation of § 54-11-23(B)(3), N.M.S.A.1953 (1972 Interim Supp.), a fourth degree felony. He sets out four points of error on this appeal all revolving around a single issue — whether the marijuana found in his possession was properly weighed.
We affirm.
Defendant was arrested for possession of marijuana after police officers observed him in the yard of a private home with some plants in his hand which the officers identified as green marijuana plants. The plants were seized and immediately sent to a laboratory in Albuquerque where they were positively identified as marijuana and weighed. The testimony of the chemist indicates that the plants were in substantially the same condition when he weighed them in Albuquerque as when defendant was arrested, that is, the plants had not dried out. The laboratory weight of the plants was in excess of eight ounces.
At trial defendant offered evidence by an expert witness that the. weight, some two and one-half months after the original weighing, was “approximately” four ounces. The defendant contended that the weight of the dried plants was the weight to be used under § 54 — 11—23(B) (3), supra, because marijuana is usable as a stimulant only in the dried state. The state’s expert testified that marijuana did not necessarily have to be dry to be usable. The trial court ruled that it interpreted the statute to mean the weight at the time of the offense and not at some subsequent time.
On this appeal defendant argues that (1) the state did not carry its burden of proof in showing the weight of the marijuana because of the discrepancy between green and dried plants, (2) that the trial court committed reversible error in refusing defendant’s offer of proof on the issue of weight, (3) that the statute applied to defendant in the context of the green-dried problem violates principles of equal protection and due process, and (4) that the statute is void because of the vagueness inherent in the weight issue.
We find no merit in any of defendant’s contentions. Section 54-ll-23(B)(3), supra, states in pertinent part:
“Any person who violates this section with respect to:
“(3) eight [8] ounces or more of marijuana is guilty of a fourth degree felony.
The definition section of the Controlled Substances Act, § 54-11-2(0), N.M.S.A. 1953 (1972 Interim Supp.), defines marijuana as
“ . . . all parts of the plant Cannabis sativa L., whether growing or not, the seeds thereof, and every compound, manufacture, salt, derivative, mixture or preparation of the plant or its seeds. It does not include the mature stalks of the plant. . . . ” [Emphasis ours]
Moreover, we are required to give force and effect to each and every portion of a statute, State v. Sublett, 78 N.M. 655, 436 P.2d 515 (Ct.App.1968), and to assume that the legislature used no surplus words in its enactment of the Controlled Substances Act. Cromer v. J. W. Jones Const. Co., 79 N.M. 179, 441 P.2d 219 (Ct.App.1968). The language of the statute shows that it applies with equal force to the “growing plant” as well as to dried marijuana and various derivative products of the plant. The legislature intended to prohibit both the cultivating and the use of the plant. We are required to give common sense interpretations to statutes. Bettini v. City of Las Cruces, 82 N.M. 633, 485 P.2d 967 (1971). A common sense interpretation of § 54 — 11-23(B) (3), supra, read in conjunction with § 54-11-2(0), supra, requires that the weight of eight ounces mentioned in § 54-11-23(B)(3), supra, be interpreted to mean the weight of the plant, or the plant’s derivative products, weighed in the form seized whether that form be the green plant, the dried plant or the various products which may be derived from the plant. To hold that the weight of seized marijuana may only be computed on the basis of its weight after drying would be to disregard the clear intent of the legislature in proscribing the possession of marijuana plants “whether growing or not.”
The defendant offered to have his expert reweigh the marijuana at trial. The trial court refused the offer by stating that the testimony of defendant’s expert (relating to approximately four ounces of marijuana) would stand. Defendant’s contention now that the refusal to permit the reweigh was error is without merit. The trial court had accepted defendant’s expert witness’ testimony that the weight would be less than eight ounces. Defendant was not prejudiced by the refusal.
Defendant’s third contention that by allowing the state to determine at what time it will weigh the marijuana (which determines the penalty under § 54-11-23(B)(3), supra), deprives defendant of his right to equal protection because of unequal treatment is without merit. Defendant asserts that since the Controlled Substance Act makes no mention of when the weighing is to be done then it must be done in an approved scientific manner, that is, the dry weight, is also without merit. The testimony by the state’s expert witness was that marijuana need not necessarily be dry to be usable. Inherent within § 54-11-2(0), supra, when referring to the plant marijuana “whether growing or not” is implicit a substantially contemporaneous weighing of the plant, whether growing or not, after the seizure. The fact that the Act does not specifically state when the weighing is to be done does not mean that § 54 — 11—23(B) (3), supra, as applied to de fendant is a violation of his rights to equal protection. It is the possession of marijuana, on the date of the offense, which is the prohibited act and not the amount in some subsequent form suitable to a particular defendant.
Furthermore, defendant’s argument as to the vagueness of the statute is not well taken. The statute is clear; possession of more than eight ounces of marijuana in the forms set out in the statute is a fourth degree felony. The language of the definitional section coupled with § 54 — 11— 23(B)(3), supra, is not so indefinite that men of common intelligence must guess at its meaning and scope. Compare State v. Minns, 80 N.M. 269, 454 P.2d 355 (Ct.App.1969).
The judgment and sentence are affirmed.
It is so ordered.
HENDLEY and LOPEZ, JJ„ concur. | [
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OPINION
MONTOYA, Justice.
This was an eminent domain proceeding initiated by the State of New Mexico through its State Highway Department under the Special Alternative Procedure [§§ 22-9-39 to 22-9-59, N.M.S.A., 1953 Comp. (1973 Pocket Supp.)]. Of the defendants only appellant-cross-appellee Gus D. Bruskas (Bruskas) and appellee-cross-appellant Safeway Stores, Inc. (Safeway) made appearances, and they are the only parties before this court appealing and cross-appealing the trial court’s judgment apportioning the damages' from the condemnation award made by the trial jury below.
Both Bruskas the owner-lessor of the condemned property, and Safeway the lessee of part of the condemned property, moved for separate trials in this cause. After denial of these motions, the case proceeded to trial before a jury. It was ruled during the trial that Bruskas and Safeway would each present evidence pertaining to their respective damages, but that the jury would decide only the before and after value of the entire tract and would not concern itself with the apportionment of damages. See § 22-9-52(D), N.M.S.A., 1953 Comp. (1973 Pocket Supp.).
The jury returned a lump sum verdict in the amount of $181,000. Later the trial judge, without any further hearing, entered its decision apportioning the award between the defendants as follows: $143,000 plus interest and costs of suit to Bruskas, and $38,000 plus interest and costs of suit to Safeway.
In so doing, the trial court made the following findings of fact and conclusions of law:
“FINDINGS OF FACT
“1. The jury awarded the sum of $181,000.00 in this cause for the combined damages of Gus D. Bruskas and Safeway Stores, Inc.
“2. Safeway Stores, Inc. is entitled to the sum of $46,000.00 as its portion of the jury award, less $8,000.00 as an offset for the uncertainty of tenancy during the remainder of the prime term and any renewals thereof. Safeway, thus, is entitled to a net award of $38,000.00.
“3. Gus D. Bruskas is entitled to the sum of $143,000.00 as his portion of the jury award.
“CONCLUSIONS OF LAW
“1. In apportionment of the jury award in this cause, Safeway Stores, Inc. is entitled to total damages in the amount of $36,000.00 and Gus D. Bruskas is entitled to total damages in the amount of $143,000.00.”
By the terms of the judgment entered upon the foregoing findings, the apportionment contained in the findings was made by the court and, in addition, Safeway was awarded a reduction of rent of $258 per month as provided for in the lease existing between the parties herein. The reduction of rent was ordered to begin with the date of entry of judgment. It is from this judgment that this appeal is brought.
In the briefs filed herein and at oral argument, both parties agreed that the judgment should be reversed and that the matter be remanded for the entry of appropriate findings of fact and conclusions of law. We agree.
In Mora v. Martinez, 80 N.M. 88, 90, 451 P.2d 992, 994 (1969), we quoted with approval from Featherstone v. Barash, 345 F.2d 246, 249 (10th Cir. 1965), and said:
“ ‘ * * *. And when findings wholly fail to resolve in any meaningful way the basic issues of fact in dispute, they become clearly insufficient to permit the reviewing court to decide the case at all, except to remand it for proper findings by the trial court.’ ”
In view of the fact that the findings of fact here fail to aid this court in making an adequate review of this case, and considering the fact that the trial judge is no longer on the district court, the judgment is set aside and this case is reversed and remanded for a new trial on the issue of apportionment. It is so ordered.
OMAN and STEPHENSON, JJ., concur. | [
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OPINION
DONNELLY, Chief Judge.
John Doe appeals from a judgment and sentence imposed after conviction of possession of a controlled substance (heroin) with intent to traffic, contrary to NMSA 1978, Section 30-31-20 (Repl.Pamp. 1980). Two issues are presented on appeal: (1) whether defendant’s prosecution and conviction were barred by an agreement not to prosecute; and (2) whether the defendant’s conviction for trafficking in heroin was supported by sufficient evidence. Other issues raised in the docketing statement but not briefed are deemed abandoned. State v. Burdex, 100 N.M. 197, 668 P.2d 313 (Ct.App.), cert. denied, 100 N.M. 192, 668 P.2d 308 (1983).
FACTS
On motion of defendant, portions of the record have been sealed herein. On the court’s own motion, the name John Doe has been substituted for the name of defendant for the purposes of this appeal.
Defendant was arrested and charged with possession of heroin with intent to traffic, and possession of a controlled substance (dilaudid) in 1983 after the execution of a search warrant at the home of defendant.
Several police officers testified that they had defendant’s residence under surveillance for several days preceding his arrest. The officers saw numerous vehicles arrive and depart during their surveillance. One officer described the activity as “a lot of traffic.” He also testified that the occupants of the vehicles would remain at the residence for short periods of time, often less than two minutes.
The defendant gave two separate statements to law enforcement officers in which he admitted both using and selling heroin. Defendant gave his first statement two days after his arrest. He gave a second statement shortly thereafter and admitted selling heroin. Defendant also told the police he would “shoot a gram a day, sometimes more if he could get it.” Defendant raises no claim that the statements were improperly admitted into evidence.'
Several months after defendant gave his statements, he entered into a written agreement with the prosecutor. The agreement was negotiated at a meeting between defendant’s attorney, police and the prosecutor. The agreement provided in part:
Defendant, [John Doe] has been charged with: (1) possession of a controlled substance with intent to traffic, to-wit: heroin; and (2) possession of a controlled substance, to-wit: dilaudid.
Pursuant to our conference [date omitted] Defendant is to aid the state in the search and seizure of controlled substances which may lead to the arrest of individuals in possession of said substances. These controlled substances must be in Schedule I or Schedule II controlled substances, § 30-31-6 and § 30-31-7 NMSA 1978, respectively. For Defendant’s aid in the State’s arrest of these individuals, for each three individuals [John Doe] assists the state in the search and seizure process leading to the arrest of that individual, one charge of [John Doe] will be dismissed. It also is specifically understood that should [John Doe] have information leading to the arrest of person(s) involved in murders or a crime that rises to this gravity, the Defendant’s charges will be dismissed entirely.
Upon the successful completion by the Defendant of the above, the State specifically agrees to recommend the Defendant receive ninety days in the [name of county omitted] Jail for dismissal of the charges or, in the alternative, the defendant entering a residential program of rehabilitation.
The prosecutor also added in handwriting the following addendum to the typewritten agreement:
[I]t is also understood and made part of this agreement that [John Doe] must complete this agreement no later than October 18[, 1983]. [A]nd that the defendant will not violate the law during the period of time covered by this agreement.
Defendant sought to prevent prosecution of the two charges against him by filing a motion to compel compliance with the agreement not to prosecute. Defendant requested an in camera hearing on the motion. Defendant also filed a motion to vacate his trial setting which was granted.
The trial court denied defendant’s motion to compel the state to dismiss the charges against him without hearing testimony. It noted that it had previously found in the hearing on the motion to vacate the trial setting that defendant had not fulfilled his part of the agreement not to prosecute. Thereafter, the case was tried in 1984. The jury convicted defendant of trafficking in heroin and acquitted him of unlawful possession of dilaudid.
I. AGREEMENT NOT TO PROSECUTE
Defendant contends the trial court erred in failing to vacate the trial setting and refusing to require the prosecutor to abide by the provisions of an agreement that if defendant informed on eight different persons relating to drug transactions the state would not prosecute him. At the hearing on defendant’s motion to vacate, defendant testified that he had abided by the terms of the agreement by informing on eight persons and had supplied the quantity and quality of information sufficient to fulfill the terms of the agreement. However, he gave contradictory statements about what he felt was necessary for compliance. Defendant conceded that the information which he was to give under the terms of the agreement was intended to relate to controlled drug buys, drugs in the possession of others, drug dealing, or related information which would in fact “lead to an arrest.”
The state argues that the defendant gave sufficient information to lead to an arrest, on only one person, in compliance with the terms of the agreement. The state contends that the information supplied by the defendant about the other persons was insufficient according to the agreement. The state claims that several of the individuals named by the defendant were arrested as a result of undercover agents purchasing controlled substances from these persons and that the arrests resulted from information received by the state from sources other than from the defendant.
The state contends that as a result of information supplied by defendant, police obtained search warrants to search two homes. As a result of the searches only one person was arrested and this was for a firearms violation, not a narcotics charge. An officer testified that the defendant had not told police of the presence of narcotics in anyone’s house.
Defendant argues that the provisions of the agreement were ambiguous and that parol evidence was admissible to explain any ambiguity in the agreement. The state contends that the agreement was drafted by defendant’s counsel and that any inherent ambiguity should be construed against the party drafting the agreement. Spinoso v. Rio Rancho Estates, Inc., 96 N.M. 5, 626 P.2d 1307 (Ct.App.), cert. denied, 96 N.M. 17, 627 P.2d 412 (1981).
The trial court entered an order denying defendant’s motion to compel compliance with the non-prosecution agreement. The trial court found in its order that:
Further testimony on Defendant’s Motion to Compel for Compliance with Plea Bargain Agreement and Request for In Camera Hearing is unnecessary as the Court has previously heard testimony [date omitted] on Defendant’s Motion to Vacate and Request for In Camera Hearing. At that time, the Court determined there had not been compliance by the Defendant with the plea bargain agreement * * * *
Although the evidence was conflicting, there is evidence that supports the trial court’s determination that defendant did not comply with the agreement and did not comply with the time deadline specified in the agreement.
Defendant argues that the agreement drafted by his attorney and sought to be enforced by him should, however, be construed and interpreted, under contract law. Although upon initial consideration this approach might seem proper, we believe that upon a more careful analysis such an approach should be rejected. We adopt the rationale articulated in United States ex rel. Selikoff v. Commissioner of Correction of New York, 524 F.2d 650, 654 (2d Cir.1975), cert. denied, 425 U.S. 951, 96 S.Ct. 1725, 48 L.Ed.2d 194 (1976), where the court stated: “The defendant seeks to impose principles of contract upon the plea bargaining process. Such principles, borrowed from the commercial world, are inapposite to the ends of criminal justice.”
Although both briefs characterize the agreement sought to be enforced by the defendant as a “plea bargain”, this case involves neither a plea bargain nor a grant of immunity. Defendant did not plead guilty nor was any immunity approved by the trial court. See NMSA 1978, Crim.P.R. 58 (Repl.Pamp.1980); NMSA 1978, § 31-6-15 (Repl.Pamp.1984); see also State v. Sanchez, 98 N.M. 428, 649 P.2d 496 (Ct.App.), cert. denied, 98 N.M. 478, 649 P.2d 1391 (1982).
Agreements to dismiss charges pending prosecution are distinguished from plea bargains, since plea bargains involve a plea of guilty or nolo contendré. Although plea bargains are recognized by rule of court, NMSA 1978, Crim.P.Rule 21(g) (Repl.Pamp.1980), an agreement not to prosecute, unless made under a grant of immunity duly approved by a court, is not expressly sanctioned by court rule or statute.
New Mexico follows the rule that agreements not to prosecute may be enforced if they are duly consummated and comply with the requirements of due process. Compare however, Hunter v. United States, 405 F.2d 1187 (9th Cir.1969); Application of Parham, 6 Ariz.App. 191, 431 P.2d 86 (1967); Bowie v. State, 14 Md.App. 567, 287 A.2d 782 (1972). As noted in People v. Marquez, 644 P.2d 59, 62 (Colo.App.1981):
Courts that have enforced non-prosecution agreements rely primarily upon the due process standards articulated in Santobello v. New York * * * [404 U.S. 257, 92 S.Ct. 495, 30 L.Ed.2d 427 (1971)]. See, e.g., State ex rel. Plant v. Sceresse, 84 N.M. 312, 502 P.2d 1002 (1972); State v. Session, 91 N.M. 381, 574 P.2d 600 (Ct.App.1978). Such decisions also draw upon general equitable principles. See United States v. Lieber, 473 F.Supp. 884 (E.D.N.Y.1979); Hammers v. State, 261 Ark. 585, 550 S.W.2d 432 (1977).
In State v. Session, it was recognized that an agreement not to prosecute could be enforced by the court where giving effect to the agreement was “the only appropriate relief within the dictates of due process.” 91 N.M. at 383, 574 P.2d at 602. (quoting State ex rel. Plant v. Sceresse).
The proper procedure to be applied in determining whether an agreement not to prosecute has been complied with and should be enforced based upon a claim of denial of due process, is for the trial court to examine the totality of the circumstanc es and the exact agreement of the parties and ascertain whether a refusal to comply with the agreement would deny defendant due process of law. The court will then decide what relief, if any, is appropriate under the circumstances. E.g., State v. Torres, 81 N.M. 521, 469 P.2d 166 (Ct.App.), cert. denied, 81 N.M. 506, 469 P.2d 151 (1970); State v. Greene, 91 N.M. 207, 572 P.2d 935 (1977).
In the present case, a plain reading of the agreement drafted by defendant’s counsel and approved by the prosecutor supports the trial court’s finding that the agreement was not fully performed and hence was unenforceable. Although defendant sought to present additional testimony concerning the agreement not to prosecute, which was denied by the trial court, defendant did not make an offer of proof indicating what the proposed additional evidence would be. NMSA 1978, Evid.R. 103(a)(2) (Repl.Pamp.1983); see also State v. Carrillo, 88 N.M. 236, 539 P.2d 626 (Ct.App.1975). Moreover, defendant’s motion to compel compliance with the plea bargain did not alert the court to the necessity for an evidentiary hearing on the motion as required by NMSA 1978, Crim.P. Rule 33(e) (Cum.Supp.1984). Under these circumstances, the trial court’s refusal to enforce the agreement not to prosecute is supported by the evidence.
II. SUFFICIENCY OF EVIDENCE
Defendant contends that the evidence in this case was not sufficient to support his conviction of possession of a controlled substance, heroin, with intent to distribute. In reviewing a challenge of the sufficiency of evidence in a criminal case on appeal, the evidence must be viewed in a light most favorable to the verdict below, resolving all conflicts and indulging in all permissible inferences in favor of the verdict. State v. Hutchinson, 99 N.M. 616, 661 P.2d 1315 (1983). The test used to evaluate this evidence is whether there was sufficient evidence to permit a rational jury to find every element of the crime beyond a reasonable doubt. State v. Tovar, 98 N.M. 655, 651 P.2d 1299 (1982).
Possession and knowledge that an object is a narcotic drug can be proven circumstantially. State v. Baca, 87 N.M. 12, 528 P.2d 656 (Ct.App.), cert. denied, 87 N.M. 5, 528 P.2d 649 (1974). A defendant may be found to be in constructive possession of a controlled substance where he is shown to have knowledge of the presence of the controlled substance and has control over it. State v. Herrera, 90 N.M. 306, 563 P.2d 100 (Ct.App.), cert. denied, 90 N.M. 636, 567 P.2d 485 (1977).
At the time of execution of the search warrant upon defendant’s residence, police found heroin in several places in the home. A spoon, a tin foil packet, and a syringe, all containing heroin, were found on the kitchen table near defendant. The defendant was also near a sizeable collection of dealer’s equipment in the kitchen including a measuring spoon and cotton from the kitchen cabinet which contained heroin residue. Additionally, a plastic container with six grams of 4% heroin was found in the bathroom sink.
A law enforcement officer testified that the six grams of 4% heroin was enough to make between 48 and 192 street-sale packets with a street value of between $1,200 and $4,800. The same officer testified that when police announced their presence outside the residence and that they had a search warrant, the officers heard scuffling and movement inside the house. Defendant admitted twice to police following his arrest that he had been dealing heroin. No objection was made to the officer’s testimony concerning these admissions. An officer also testified that during the time defendant’s home had been under surveillance, police saw numerous individuals arrive and depart from the residence. Defendant’s admissions, his presence near the drug equipment and the evidence of heavy traffic to and from his home were sufficient to support the inference that defendant constructively possessed heroin and was trafficking in a controlled substance. See State v. Quintana, 87 N.M. 414, 534 P.2d 1126 (Ct.App.), cert. denied, 88 N.M. 29, 536 P.2d 1085, cert. denied, 423 U.S. 832, 96 S.Ct. 54, 46 L.Ed.2d 50 (1975).
The evidence was sufficient to sustain the conviction of trafficking.
The judgment and sentence are affirmed.
IT IS SO ORDERED.
NEAL and BIVINS, JJ., concur. | [
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] |
OPINION
ALARID, Judge.
LaVerne Armijo (plaintiff) appeals from a summary judgment granted to defendants, Regents of U.N.M. (Regents) and Dr. Willis Kephart. Plaintiff brought an action against defendants on her own behalf and on behalf of her deceased infant son, Raymundo Armijo (Raymundo). She alleged (1) medical malpractice against Dr. Kephart and Regents; (2) misrepresentation as to the quality of medical care received against Regents; and (3) fraudulent concealment of the facts surrounding the death of Raymundo, which, she claimed, gave rise to an action for punitive damages against Regents.
The trial court granted summary judgment to defendants on the basis of the running’ of the statute of limitations under the New Mexico Tort Claims Act (Act), NMSA 1978, Section 41-4-15 (Repl.Pamp. 1982).
On appeal, plaintiff raises two issues. First, she argues that fraudulent concealment of facts necessary to establish a cause of action tolls the statute of limitations during the period of that concealment. Second, she argues that the trial court erred in granting summary judgment because there were disputes as to material facts related to the issue of fraudulent concealment.
FACTS
Plaintiff, the mother of Raymundo, was provided prenatal care at a branch clinic of the University of New Mexico Medical Center (U.N.M.) during 1978. Doctor Kephart was not involved in the care until December 5, 1978, the day before the birth of Raymundo. On December 5, 1978, at approximately 5:30 p.m., plaintiff went to the U.N.M. hospital because she believed she was in labor. She testified that the staff in attendance instructed her to go home because she was not dilated enough for admission. The staff instructed her to time her contractions, and to return if her water bag broke.
Plaintiff returned to U.N.M. at approximately 11:30 .p.m. that same evening because her contractions were frequent, with little or no time interval between them. Doctor Kephart examined her at that time, and instructed her to return home because she was not dilating. He also directed her to return to the hospital when her water bag broke. Plaintiff left the hospital, but “felt very strongly that it [Dr. Kephart’s instruction] was a wrong decision.” Plaintiff returned to her home, and remembered “feeling very, very angry and very frustrated.”
Subsequently, at home, plaintiff took a warm bath to relax, as recommended in the childbirth classes she had attended. She began to bleed in the tub, and felt intense pain. The father of Raymundo, Arthur Lucero, who was living with plaintiff at the time, called Dr. Kephart and told him that he was bringing the plaintiff into the hospital.
Plaintiff was admitted at approximately 2:30 a.m. on December 6, 1978. Shortly afterwards, she gave birth to Raymundo. Doctor Kephart delivered the baby. At the time of the birth, plaintiff realized that the baby was not crying. She remembered the staff placing the baby in an incubator and taking him outside the delivery room. Plaintiff also remembered that she was “starting to get semi-hysterical” at this time, and was “not getting any answers” to her questions concerning Raymundo’s health.
In the recovery room, plaintiff recalled Dr. Kephart later informing her that the umbilical cord apparently was pinched during birth, but that Raymundo was “in good hands now____” Plaintiff never saw Dr. Kephart after this conversation; U.N.M. pediatricians took over the care of the infant from that point forward in accordance with the clinic system at U.N.M. Plaintiff was discharged on December 7.
On December 8, the pediatrician treating Raymundo gathered the plaintiff and Mr. Lucero together at the hospital for a conference. According to the plaintiff, he told them that Raymundo “probably would never wake up, and that there was absolutely no brain activity whatsoever.” When plaintiff asked what was the cause of these findings, the pediatrician stated that “it was because he [Raymundo] had been asphyxiated during birth, and that he [Raymundo] had had several seizures.” Plaintiff did not ask how the asphyxiation occurred, owing to her “upset” condition. Shortly after leaving this conference, the plaintiff was called at her home by the pediatrician and notified that Raymundo had died. A hospital pathologist, who performed the autopsy, later met with plaintiff and related that the autopsy did not establish the cause of death, and that the baby appeared “normal.”
Plaintiff did not make any further inquiry into the circumstances surrounding Raymundo’s death during the following year. However, she gave birth again in November, 1979, at Presbyterian Hospital in Albuquerque. Prior to that birth, plaintiff consulted her new treating physician about the problems encountered with Ray mundo’s birth. The physician reviewed the U.N.M. records of Raymundo’s delivery, but could not determine from the records what had occurred. Plaintiff experienced no complications with this subsequent delivery, and felt that the procedures employed and care given at Presbyterian Hospital were “considerably different” from the procedures and care at U.N.M. Plaintiff stated, additionally, that she “started believing” that Dr. Kephart’s actions might have caused Raymundo’s death “shortly after” the delivery of her daughter.
Plaintiff had no further involvement with the matter of Raymundo’s death until late 1980 or early 1981 when she requested the medical records relating to the labor, delivery, and death, and received from U.N.M. a summary of the autopsy report, a summary of lab tests, and a summary of the labor and delivery. She did not, at that time, receive the complete medical file.
In the summer of 1981 plaintiff saw an attorney regarding the circumstances of Raymundo’s death. This consultation was sought because of plaintiff’s feeling that she “hadn't gotten any answers” as to why Raymundo died, and because she “didn’t really know how else to go about getting ... answers.” Suit was filed on June 16, 1982.
DISCUSSION
I. Infant’s Cause of Action
The parties agree that Section 41-4-15(A) of the Act controls this action. The statute reads in pertinent part:
A. Actions against a governmental entity or a public employee for torts shall be forever barred, unless such action is commenced within two years after the date of occurrence resulting in loss, injury or death, except that a minor under the full age of seven years shall have until his ninth birthday in which to file ____ (Emphasis added.)
The statute, by its express terms, carves out an exception for minors’ causes of action from the two-year limitation applying to other plaintiffs. Tafoya v. Doe, 100 N.M. 328, 670 P.2d 582 (Ct.App.1983). The statute, on its face, includes an occurrence “resulting in ... death” as part of this exception. No language in the statute differentiates between a claim based upon a minor’s death and a claim based upon a minor’s injury. We conclude, under the plain meaning rule, that an action brought on behalf of a deceased minor, therefore, falls within the exception to the two-year limitation period. See State v. Ortiz, 78 N.M. 507, 433 P.2d 92 (Ct.App.1967).
We are confronted, at the outset, with two separate actions in the present case. Plaintiff sued (1) on behalf of Raymundo, for his pain and suffering and the deprivation of his life; and (2) on her own behalf, for her pain and suffering, and the loss of the companionship and society of Raymundo as a result of malpractice and misrepresentation. (The validity of plaintiff’s individual claims are not involved in this appeal.) We read the limitation statute as applying the exception to a minor under seven years of age on the date of the “occurrence resulting in ... death.” We conclude that the deceased infant falls under the exception, and that the cause of action on his behalf is not barred until after December 6, 1987, the date of his ninth birthday. The trial court’s grant of summary judgment as to the claims brought on his behalf was error, and is reversed.
II. Plaintiffs Cause of Action
The question becomes whether plaintiff’s individual claims for her pain and suffering and the loss of companionship of Raymundo may be tacked on to the claims of the infant, thereby avoiding the operation of the two-year limitation period. A disability, such as minority, which saves one from the operation of a limitation statute is a personal privilege of the person under the disability only, and cannot confer rights on persons asserting independent actions. Slade v. Slade, 81 N.M. 462, 468 P.2d 627 (1970). The test under Slade for establishing an independent action is whether the action is brought on behalf of the minor, or on behalf of another pursuing claims personal to the other. Clearly, in the present action, plaintiff’s claims for pain and suffering and the loss of companionship and society are personal to her, not the infant. She cannot take advantage of the extended limitation section, and is subject to the two-year limitation period for all other plaintiffs.
Under Section 41-4-15(A), the limitation period begins to run from the time of loss, or injury. Aragon & McCoy v. Albuquerque National Bank, 99 N.M. 420, 659 P.2d 306 (1983). The parties do not contend otherwise. The statute runs on plaintiffs claim of pain and suffering from December 6, 1978, and on plaintiff’s claim for loss of companionship from December 8, 1978, . the date of Raymundo’s death. Plaintiff, however, argues that the running of the limitation period was tolled by fraudulent concealment on the part of defendants.
In a medical malpractice action the statute of limitations may be tolled where a physician or hospital has knowledge of facts relating to malpractice, and fails to disclose such facts to the patient under circumstances where the patient may not reasonably be expected to learn of the improper acts. Keithley v. St. Joseph’s Hospital, 102 N.M. 565, 698 P.2d 435 (Ct.App.1984); See Garcia v. Presbyterian Hospital Center, 92 N.M. 652, 593 P.2d 487 (Ct.App.1979); Hardin v. Farris, 87 N.M. 143, 530 P.2d 407 (Ct.App.1974). New Mexico follows the rule that where a confidential relationship exists; as between a physician and patient, or hospital and patient, Garcia, a duty arises to disclose all material facts relating to the patient’s treatment. Keithley; Garcia; Hardin. A failure to do so may constitute fraudulent concealment. Normally, some positive act of concealment must be demonstrated such as a false representation by the physician or hospital. Hardin. However, where there exists a duty to speak as in a confidential relationship, “mere silence constitutes fraudulent concealment.” Id., 87 N.M. at 146, 530 P.2d 407.
Defendants argue that the doctrine of fraudulent concealment is not available to toll the statute of limitations under the Act. Because the Act creates a cause of action in derogation of common law, defendants contend that the commencement of an action within the two-year limitation period is an indispensable condition of the Act. Defendants cite Perry v. Staver, 81 N.M. 766, 473 P.2d 380 (Ct.App.1970), which, in considering the Wrongful Death Act, NMSA 1978, Sections 41-2-1 to -4 (Repl.Pamp. 1982), held that the limitation provision thereof was not only a limitation on the remedy, but also on the right to bring an action for wrongful death. The Perry court concluded that estoppel cannot be asserted “to lengthen the existence of such a statutorily created right of recovery.” 81 N.M. at 769, 473 P.2d at 383. Similarly, defendants maintain that fraudulent concealment, upon which estoppel may be based, is not available to toll the limitation period for tort claims under the Tort Claims Act and thereby lengthen the existence of the statutorily created right of recovery provided by the Act.
We disagree. The Wrongful Death Act does not control the disposition of this action. Section 41-4-17 of the Tort Claims Act provides that the Act shall be the exclusive remedy for plaintiffs with claims against governmental entities and public employees. Moreover, because of the specific inclusion of a wrongful death claim within the definition of a tort claim in Sections 41-4-5 to -12 of the Act, the limitations provision under the Wrongful Death Act does not apply to plaintiff’s claims. See Armijo v. Tandysh, 98 N.M. 181, 646 P.2d 1245 (Ct.App.1981). We determine, therefore, the applicability of the doctrine of fraudulent concealment by ascertaining the intent of the legislature in enacting the Tort Claims Act, see T. W. I. W., Inc. v. Rhudy, 96 N.M. 354, 630 P.2d 753 (1981), not the Wrongful Death Act.
We hold that the doctrine of fraudulent concealment applies to toll Section 41-4-15. The declared policy and intent of the Act is to reject “the inherently unfair and inequitable results which occur in the strict application of the doctrine of sovereign immunity”, Section 41-4-2(A), and to allow suits against governmental entities in specific, listed categories, recognizing, however, that immunity should be maintained in situations “where the State may not have been able to act for some specific reason____” Methola v. County of Eddy, 95 N.M. 329, 333, 622 P.2d 234, 238 (1980). “Liability for acts or omissions under the ... Act shall be based upon the traditional tort concepts of duty and the reasonably prudent person’s standard of care in the performance of that duty.” Section 41-4-2(B). The Act thus impliedly recognizes the duty of a hospital and physician to disclose material facts relating to a patient’s treatment, and bases liability on a breach of that duty, or fraudulent concealment. Because fraudulent concealment does not create a separate cause of action, but acts to toll the statute of limitations in the malpractice cases, Hardin, it should similarly act to toll the statute under the Act.
Our application of fraudulent concealment to the statute is not only directed by the recognition of the traditional tort concepts of duty embodied in the Act. We are also directed by the purpose and goals of the legislature, as set out in Section 41-4-2(A). The Act mandates that suits against governmental entities and employees be allowed in certain instances to avoid the inequities inherent in the doctrine of sovereign immunity. Were we to preclude the application of fraudulent concealment to toll the statute, we would contravene the legislative intent. This would lead to an unreasonable and unjust result which we cannot allow. State v. Santillanes, 99 N.M. 89, 654 P.2d 542 (1982).
We now turn to the propriety of the grant of summary judgment as to plaintiff’s claims for pain and suffering and loss of companionship. A moving party must establish a prima facie case showing there is no genuine issue of material fact in order to be entitled to summary judgment. Lackey v. Mesa Petroleum Co., 90 N.M. 65, 559 P.2d 1192 (Ct.App.1976). Once the showing has been made, the burden shifts to the other party to show the existence of a genuine issue of fact and the impropriety of summary judgment. Knippel v. Northern Communications, Inc., 97 N.M. 401, 640 P.2d 507 (Ct.App.1982). The record establishes that: (1) Dr. Kephart informed plaintiff in the recovery room that the umbilical cord apparently was pinched during birth; (2) plaintiff was informed by a hospital pediatrician that Raymundo “would never wake up” because of asphyxiation during the birth; (3) the autopsy analysis and report could not determine the cause of the asphyxiation and death; (4) plaintiff was informed by a hospital pathologist that the autopsy did not establish the cause of the asphyxiation and death; (5) plaintiff was informed by her physician in 1979, after the physician reviewed the hospital records pertaining to Raymundo’s birth, that the cause of death could not be determined; and (6) plaintiff received from the hospital in late 1980 or early 1981 a summary of the autopsy report, lab tests, and the labor and delivery. Plaintiff responds that the entire medical record was not made available to her in late 1980 or early 1981, and that it was not until Dr. Kephart’s deposition was taken in August of 1982 that she discovered the cause of death, a fact kept from her by the hospital and Dr. Kephart. Plaintiff does not demonstrate, as did the plaintiff in Hardin, what specific facts were concealed by the hospital in not providing her with the entire medical file. Furthermore, the testimony of Dr. Kephart is consistent with the autopsy report provided to plaintiff in that it reiterates the uncertainty as to the cause of death. Plaintiff fails to raise a factual issue as to false representations on the part of defendants, or as to the silence of defendants concerning material facts relating to the delivery and death of Raymundo. The summary judgment as to these claims is affirmed. Cf. Garcia (summary judgment was improper where evidence existed of concealment of a hospital employee’s negligence in the placement of a catheter).
Plaintiff additionally brought a claim of misrepresentation against Regents as to the quality of medical care which would be provided to her at the hospital, apparently made prior to the delivery of the obstetrical care. On appeal plaintiff does not specifically identify how this claim relates to the fraudulent concealment of malpractice issue. If, as we assume, plaintiff intends the misrepresentation claim to represent a separate claim from the fraudulent concealment of malpractice claim, plaintiff is still barred from presentation of this claim under Section 41-4-15(A). Any injury which plaintiff sustained as a result of any alleged misrepresentation as to the quality of medical care occurred no later than December 8, 1978, the date of Raymundo’s death. Plaintiff had two years from this date within which to bring a claim based upon misrepresentation. Section 41-4-15(A). See also Gaston v. Hartzell, 89 N.M. 217, 549 P.2d 632 (Ct.App.1976). If plaintiff is contending that the running of the limitation period on her misrepresentation claim was tolled by fraudulent concealment, the answer is that there is no factual issue as to fraudulent concealment, and that summary judgment was proper as to the misrepresentation claim.
Plaintiff did not argue on appeal a claim based upon breach of contract, which apparently was incorporated in an amended complaint. This claim is abandoned. Novak v. Dow, 82 N.M. 30, 474 P.2d 712 (Ct.App.1970).
Plaintiffs final claim was a claim for punitive damages based on fraudulent concealment. Because we have concluded there was no factual issue as to fraudulent concealment, this claim for punitive damages must necessarily fail.
Affirmed as to the claims of plaintiff; reversed as to the claims of plaintiff’s deceased infant son, with instructions to reinstate these claims upon the trial court’s docket. Each party to bear its own costs.
IT IS SO ORDERED.
DONNELLY, C.J., and WOOD, J., concur.
. A personal injury and wrongful death claim based on medical malpractice of a government institution or government employee is controlled by Section 41-4-15. Claims based on medical malpractice not involving the government nor government employees are controlled by the Medical Malpractice Act, NMSA 1978, Section 41-5-13 (Repl.Pamp.1982) | [
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OPINION
STOWERS, Justice.
This appeal is from the judgment of the district court reversing a decision of the New Mexico State Police Board (Board). Jack Harkleroad (Harkleroad) was suspended by Maurice Cordova (Cordova), Chief of the New Mexico State Police Department (Department) for 30 days without pay from his job as State Police Lieutenant for violating N.M. State Police Dept. Rule 134.0 (Rev. December 15, 1982). Harkleroad appealed the suspension to the Board and a hearing was conducted on March 12, 1984. Upon review of the evidence presented at the hearing, the Board sustained Harkleroad’s suspension. This matter was then brought before the district court on a writ of certiorari. The district court issued an alternative writ of certiorari and conducted a hearing on the matter. The district court reversed the Board’s decision. The Board, Department, and Cordova appeal. We reverse the district court.
We discuss the following issues:
1. Whether the New Mexico State Police may constitutionally regulate certain partisan political activities of its employees, on or off duty; and
2. Whether there was substantial evidence in the whole record to support the Board’s conclusion that Harkleroad was engaged in political activity proscribed by Rule 134.
The pertinent facts are as follows. Sometime between March and mid-July of 1983, Harkleroad approached Cordova and told Cordova he was thinking about running for the office of Governor. Harkleroad advised Cordova he would resign from the force on September 1, 1983. Cordova in turn informed Harkleroad about Rule 134 which prohibits state police employees from engaging in certain political activities.
Harkleroad did not resign from the force on September 1, 1983; nevertheless, he continued to engage in political activity. On September 1, 1983, Cordova, while present at a political function, heard Harkleroad being introduced as a candidate for the office of governor. Harkleroad acknowledged the introduction and did not deny his candidacy. In fact, at the hearing conducted by the Board, Harkleroad admitted speaking at many political gatherings. At these gatherings he would tell the audience he was an unannounced, unofficial candidate for the governor’s office.
On September 6, 1983, Cordova sent Harkleroad a written notice apprising him of Rule 134, which states:
Employees are not permitted to seek contributions for or campaign for any political candidates. Nor will any employee be permitted to run for or accept political office while employed with the Department.
Harkleroad responded, claiming that Rule 134 was vague and overbroad.
On September 23, 1983, Cordova again met with Harkleroad and provided him with guidance, direction, and interpretation of Rule 134. In a letter dated September 27, 1983, he advised Harkleroad that he did not accept his contention that Rule 134 was too broad or vague. Cordova clearly and forcefully informed Harkleroad that Rule 134 applied to off-duty as well as on-duty political activity. He then ordered Harkleroad “to refrain from being a partisan candidate for an elective office while employed by his department”.
Harkleroad disregarded Cordova’s order and continued to pursue his political activity. Harkleroad had printed up and circulated cards and bumper stickers which stated “Jack Harkleroad, Governor (with “86” in a Zia sun symbol) paid for by the Committee to Elect Jack Harkleroad for Governor.” Cordova also read an article in the Albuquerque Journal, October 9, 1983, A-2, which stated that Harkleroad was “already running” for the governor’s office. Furthermore, on October 11, 1983, Cordova received information that Harkleroad had been campaigning at a campaign fundraiser in Taos the previous week, and that Harkleroad had been introduced to the people present as a candidate for governor. After Cordova verified the information, he suspended Harkleroad.
We first address the issue whether the State of New Mexico and New Mexico State Police may constitutionally regulate certain partisan political activities of its employees, on or off duty.
The proposition is well-established that a government may, consistent with the First Amendment and other provisions of the Federal Constitution, place restrictions upon the political activities of its employees, including a prohibition against running for political office.
In United States Civil Service Commission v. National Association of Letter Carriers, 413 U.S. 548, 556, 93 S.Ct. 2880, 2886, 37 L.Ed.2d 796, 804 (1973), the Supreme Court stated “that neither the First Amendment nor any other provision of the Constitution invalidates a law barring ... partisan political conduct by federal employees,” including becoming a partisan candidate for, or campaigning for, an elective public office.
The following cases also held that a government’s action in enacting legislation prohibiting its employees from running for public office does not in and of itself violate the First Amendment to the Federal Constitution: Broadrick v. Oklahoma, 413 U.S. 601, 93 S.Ct. 2908, 37 L.Ed.2d 830 (1973); and Otten v. Schicker, 655 F.2d 142 (8th Cir.1981); State ex rel. Gonzales v. Manzagol, 87 N.M. 230, 531 P.2d 1203 (1975).
Therefore the Board, which derives its authority to promulgate rules from NMSA 1978, Section 29-2-22 (Repl.Pamp. 1984), can constitutionally prohibit a state police employee from running for or accepting a political office.
Furthermore, Rule 134 is neither vague nor overbroad as Harkleroad would have us believe. In Letter Carriers, the Supreme Court stated that neither the First Amendment nor any other provision of the Constitution would invalidate a law specifically barring, in plain and understandable language, particular types of partisan political conduct by federal employees. Therefore, as long as the rule “[is] set out in terms that the ordinary person exercising ordinary common sense can sufficiently understand and comply with ...” it is not unconstitutionally vague. 413 U.S. at 579, 93 S.Ct. at 2897, 37 L.Ed.2d at 816.
In this case, there is nothing vague about Rule 134. It explicitly states which types of political activity are not permissible. “It cannot be seriously argued that men of common intelligence must necessarily guess at its meaning.” Otten, 655 F.2d at 145 (quoting Broadrick, 413 U.S. at 607, 93 S.Ct. at 2913, 37 L.Ed.2d at 837).
Furthermore, Rule 134 is not fatally overbroad because it does not proscribe constitutionally protected conduct. The Supreme Court in Letter Carriers, 413 U.S. at 567, 93 S.Ct. at 2891, 37 L.Ed.2d at 810, stated that the “right to participate in political activities [was] not absolute in any event ... [P]lainly identifiable acts of political management and political campaigning on the part of federal employees may constitutionally be prohibited.”
The State of New Mexico and the New Mexico State Police have an imperative interest in prohibiting its police officers from running for an elective public office. This interest is evident when we consider that the mission of the New Mexico State Police, as set forth in NMSA 1978, Section 29-2-18 (Repl.Pamp.1984), is, among other things, to serve as conservators of the peace for the whole state. As conservators of the peace, state police officers must enforce the laws in an impartial and uniform manner. There can be no situations where there may be an appearance of favoritism in dealing with the public or enforcing the laws. There can be no situation where a state policeman is linked to organized political activity or appears to devote less than full attention to necessary duties because of political involvement.
A state police officer’s appearance and conduct must be fair, honest, and above reproach or question. A state police officer occupies a special place in our society, a place of trust, honor, and dignity, and few are chosen. Properly enacted rules and regulations have the force and effect of law, and who, more so than a police officer, should be expected to give example for lawful behavior?
? next address the issue whether there was substantial evidence in the whole record to support the Board’s conclusion that Harkleroad was engaged in political activity proscribed by Rule 134.
In Duke City Lumber Co. v. New Mexico Environmental Improvement Board, 101 N.M. 291, 681 P.2d 717 (1984) we supplemented the substantial evidence rule with the whole record standard for judicial review of findings of fact made by administrative agencies.
The whole record in this case is replete with evidence that Harkleroad was engaged in political activity prohibited by Rule 134. Specifically, Harkleroad was a candidate for the governor’s office, a candidate being defined in Black’s Law Dictionary 187 (5th ed. 1979) as, “[o]ne who seeks or offers himself or is put forward by others, for an office, privilege or hon- or.” Although Harkleroad may have considered himself to be an unofficial candidate for the governor’s office, this does not change the fact that he was running for public office in violation of Rule 134.
For the above reasons, we reverse the decision of the district court, and reinstate the decision of the Board.
IT IS SO ORDERED.
RIORDAN and WALTERS, JJ., concur. | [
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OPINION
WALTERS, Justice.
General Motors Acceptance Corporation (GMAC) brought a replevin action, under a financing contract assigned to GMAC by Ken Schultz Buick/(Schultz) GMC, Inc., for return of an automobile purchased by Robert and Ester Anaya (the Anayas). The Anayas counterclaimed against GMAC, Schultz, and the manufacturer, General Motors Corporation (GMC), alleging contract, tort, and statutory violations arising from defects in the automobile and a subsequent failure to correct those defects pursuant to warranty obligations. Various third-party complaints are no part of this appeal. The jury awarded the Anayas approximately $40,000 in compensatory damages under various theories, and $675,000 in punitive damages. The trial court, granting motions for judgment notwithstanding the verdict, reduced the compensatory damages to approximately $35,000 and eliminated punitive damages altogether. The Anayas appeal, GMC cross-appeals and GMAC submits a conditional request for a review of error. We affirm.
After the Anayas purchased an automobile from Schultz, the financing contract was assigned to GMAC. When the Anayas later defaulted on payment, GMAC sought replevin. The Anayas counterclaimed against GMAC and Schultz under a revocation of acceptance theory; against GMC and Schultz for breach of express warranty; against GMC and GMAC for willful breach of contract; against Schultz for fraud or material misrepresentation of fact; and against GMC and Schultz for violations of the Motor Vehicle Dealer’s Franchising (MVDF) Act. NMSA 1978, §§ 57-16-1 to 57-16-16 (Orig.Pamp. and Cum.Supp.1983). Through special interrogatories, the jury awarded various damages to the Anayas on the various claims.
Following motions for j.n.o.v. by GMC, GMAC, and Schultz, the trial court (1) eliminated the entire award for breach of warranty, ruling that this remedy was inconsistent with that of revocation of acceptance; (2) eliminated the willful breach of contract award on the same basis of inconsistency, as well as finding insufficient evidence to support the award; and (3) eliminated the incidental and consequential dam ages awarded under the MVDF Act as being duplicative of awards made under other theories.
Asserting a constitutional right to jury trial and to its verdict, the Anayas seek to have the entire jury verdict reinstated. On cross-appeal, GMC contends that, the Anayas, as retail buyers, do not have standing to sue GMC, a manufacturer, under the MVDF Act. Schultz settled all claims and counterclaims after the appeal was filed; we do not discuss the portions of the trial court’s modification of the verdicts or the appellate arguments which relate to Schultz.
I. Breach of Warranty
The Anayas contend that the trial court erred in granting j.n.o.v. on the breach of express warranty claim because the claim is not inconsistent with revocation of acceptance and recovery on both claims does not amount to double recovery. We agree with the trial court. In the review of a jury verdict, for j.n.o.v. purposes, all questions of law lie within the province of the court, “including the legal sufficiency of any asserted claim or defense. If the evidence fails to present or support an issue essential to the legal sufficiency of an asserted claim, the right to jury trial disappears.” American Employers’ Insurance Co. v. Crawford, 87 N.M. 375, 376, 533 P.2d 1203, 1204 (1975) (citations omitted). Loucks v. Albuquerque National Bank, 76 N.M. 735, 418 P.2d 191 (1966).
Although the trial court mistakenly associated the different consequences attaching to the distinct claims of revocation of acceptance and breach of warranty, on the one hand, with the concept of election of remedies, on the other, the court correctly determined that recovery on one claim renders the other claim inconsistent. Once the jury found that the Anayas had successfully proven all elements essential to establish rightful revocation of acceptance as delineated in the jury instructions and special interrogatories, the trial court properly deemed the breach of warranty theory to be extinguished. See Arbuckle Broadcasters, Inc. v. Systems Marketing Corp., 642 F.2d 402 (10th Cir.1981).
The Anayas correctly argue that under the current version of the Uniform Commercial Code, NMSA 1978, §§ 55-2-101 to -725 (Sales), “the buyer is no longer required to elect between revocation of acceptance and recovery of damages for breach.” NMSA 1978, § 55-2-608, comment 1. However, the nonalternative nature of the remedies does not entitle the buyer to inconsistent or double recoveries. See, e.g., Seekings v. Jimmy GMC of Tucson, Inc., 130 Ariz. 596, 638 P.2d 210 (1981) (buyer who returned vehicle and recovered payments made could not also receive damages for breach of warranty). The theories are “two distinct strands of buyer’s remedies under the Code.” Ford Motor Credit Co. v. Harper, 671 F.2d 1117, 1121 (8th Cir.1982). Although a buyer may pursue either or both, they are “separate remedies treated in entirely different sections of the Code and they offer separate forms of relief.” Id. at 1122.
In Gawlick v. American Builders Supply, Inc., 86 N.M. 77, 519 P.2d 313 (Ct.App.1974), the Court of Appeals determined that in light of the uncontested finding of revocation, the plaintiff’s attempt to measure damages under the Code section then in force, which set forth damages for breach of warranty based on acceptance, was misguided. The court held that the applicable sections were those pertaining to revocation of acceptance. Id. at 78, 519 P.2d at 314. Thus, although initially a buyer may present both theories and need not elect between them, the finding of either final acceptance or revocation of acceptance of nonconforming goods ultimately determines the available remedy. See Prince v. LeVan, 486 P.2d 959 (Alaska 1971); Seekings v. Jimmy GMC of Tuscon, Inc.; Performance Motors, Inc. v. Allen, 280 N.C. 385, 186 S.E.2d 161 (1972). Compare § 55-2-711, comment 1 (remedies under this section “are those available to a buyer who has not accepted the goods or who has justifiably revoked his acceptance” whereas those remedies available when goods are “finally accepted appear in the section dealing with breach in regard to accepted goods”), with § 55-2-714, comment 1 (“remedies available to the buyer after the goods have been accepted and the time for revocation of acceptance has gone by”). See Rutherford v. Darwin, 95 N.M. 340, 622 P.2d 245 (Ct.App.1980) (even though not binding on the court, official comment is persuasive of Code section meaning).
Neither the instructions nor the interrogatories indicated to the jury that recovery on one theory precluded recovery based on the other. Nevertheless, the court correctly determined that the verdict awarding relief for both revocation of acceptance and breach of warranty was inconsistent. The instructions outlined the circumstances under which revocation of acceptance may be justified, and advised that- damages for breach of warranty are applicable when a buyer has accepted the goods. We must assume that the jury evaluated each theory separately, and assessed damages in accordance with the instructions.
The Anayas urge that there is no evidence that the jury duplicated the damage award and that the jury could have apportioned the actual damages between the revocation of acceptance, breach of warranty, and statutory violation theories. This argument overlooks that the instructions and interrogatories detailed practically identical elements of damages for each theory; the descriptions of incidental and consequential damages emphasized that the same items of injury were to be considered under each theory. Indeed, the Anayas acknowledge that essentially the same damages are available under theories of revocation of acceptance and breach of warranty. Even though the awards reached under each claim were different, there is no clue from the interrogatories that the damage assessment was not duplicative in certain respects or that the amounts entered may only be interpreted as disclosing that the jury intended to “spread” the total damage amount among the various theories.
There was substantial and persuasive evidence to support the jury’s finding of liability under the Anayas' claim of revocation of acceptance. Consequently, the additional finding of liability under breach of warranty by the jury is inconsistent as a matter of law, and j.n.o.v. on damages for breach of warranty was correct. See Toltec International, Inc. v. Village of Ruidoso, 95 N.M. 82, 619 P.2d 186 (1980). Cf. Greenwood Ranches, Inc. v. Skie Construction Co., 629 F.2d 518 (8th Cir.1980) (remanding solely on issue of total damages after jury originally returned separate compensatory damage awards under each of several alternate legal theories all of which sought relief for same loss, holding plaintiff entitled only to one award when liability found under any or all theories and issues of liability and damages not so intermingled as to require a re-determination of both).
II. Willful Breach of Contract
The Anayas ask us to reinstate the jury verdict awarding damages for willful breach of contract against GMAC and GMC, as supported by substantial evidence. We agree that the trial court properly entered j.n.o.v. with respect to GMAC. Even if GMAC had a duty to independently investigáte the claims and defenses raised by the Anayas (a dubious proposition in light of NMSA 1978, § 55-9-503 and the terms of the Installment Sales Contract between the parties), the mere fact that GMAC exercised its rights and instituted a replevin action before undertaking such investigation does not constitute evidence of willful breach. Nothing was presented to show that GMAC in any way prevented or hindered the Anayas from asserting their claims and défenses. In sum, there is no support for a finding of willful breach or for assessment of punitive damages against GMAC.
Since we have determined that recovery under the theory of revocation of acceptance automatically renders inconsistent recovery under a claim for breach of warranty, recovery for willful breach of contract against GMC is similarly inconsistent. We do not dispute that the Code imposes an obligation of good faith in commercial dealings, Celebrity, Inc. v. Kemper, 96 N.M. 508, 509, 632 P.2d 743, 744 (1981) (citing § 55-1-102), and that the good faith of a party is generally a question of fact. McKay v. Farmers and Stockmens Bank of Clayton, 92 N.M. 181, 585 P.2d 325 (Ct.App.), cert. quashed, 92 N.M. 79, 582 P.2d 1292 (1978). We fail to see, however, and the Anayas have not convinced us, that a claim for willful breach of contract can exist when the underlying breach of warranty claim has been precluded. Thus it is not necessary for us to review what the Anayas claim to be evidence of bad faith and malicious conduct of appellees. The trial court correctly entered j.n.o.v. on grounds of inconsistency.
III. MVDF Act — Standing
On cross-appeal, GMC claims that the trial court should have granted its motion for j.n.o.v. on the MVDF Act claim because a retail buyer has no standing to sue a manufacturer for breach of warranty under the Act. We are directed to the provisions of the Act allowing direct claims and remedies for retail buyers against motor vehicle dealers and for dealers against manufacturers, but the Act does not specify such rights to buyers against manufacturers. See §§ 57-16-4 through -7. According to GMC, this lack of express remedy, combined with the existence of a buyer breach of warranty remedy under Section 55-2-714 of the Uniform Commercial Code, indicates a clear legislative intent not to create a consumer cause of action against a manufacturer.
The plain language qf a statute is the primary indicator of legislative intent. Arnold v. State, 94 N.M. 381, 610 P.2d 1210 (1980). Although this court will not read into a statute language which is not there, we do read the act in its entirety and construe each part in connection with every other part in order to produce a harmonious whole. Westgate Families v. County Clerk of Los Alamos, 100 N.M. 146, 148, 667 P.2d 453, 455 (1983). We agree with the Anayas that the Act’s declaration of policy is strong and specific in listing the promotion of compliance with manufacturer’s warranties as a priority. § 57-16-1. Although it does not specifically describe a course of action for an aggrieved buyer against the manufacturer, the Act clearly outlines the obligations of a manufacturer to be truthful in advertising (which usually includes some mention of a warranty) and to properly fulfill any warranty agreement. §§ 57-16-5(G) and -7. Under Section 57-16-13, “any person who shall be injured in his business or property by reason of anything forbidden in this act * * * may sue therefor in the district court.” (Emphasis added.)
Thus, the statutory language, the explicit legislative object of ensuring “a sound system” of motor vehicle sale and distribution within the state, and the intent to provide a remedy for warranty abuse, implies a retail buyer’s cause of action against a manufacturer for such abuse. See Gutierrez v. City of Albuquerque, 96 N.M. 398, 631 P.2d 304 (1981); State ex rel. Newsome v. Alarid, 90 N.M. 790, 568 P.2d 1236 (1977). See also Albuquerque Hilton Inn v. Haley, 90 N.M. 510, 565 P.2d 1027 (1977) (dicta that remedial legislation should be liberally construed so as to suppress the mischief and advance the remedy). We hold, therefore, that Anayas had standing to invoke the protection of the Act.
Because GMAC indicated that it would accept the judgment of the trial court if upheld on appeal, we do not address its request for review of error.
The judgment, as reduced by the trial court to prevent double recovery of incidental and consequential damages and to eliminate punitive damages, is affirmed.
IT IS SO ORDERED.
FEDERICI, C.J., and SOSA, J., concur. | [
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OPINION
FEDERICI, Chief Justice.
Antonio and Cipriana Chavez (plaintiffs) brought suit under the Tort Claims Act, NMSA 1978, Sections 41-4-1 to -27 (Repl. Pamp.1982 and Cum.Supp.1985) against the Regents of the University of New Mexico (defendants), as trustees of the University of New Mexico Hospital, alleging medical malpractice and the wrongful death of their seventeen year old daughter. After nearly two years of pre-trial discovery and motions on the merits, defendants filed a motion to dismiss or, in the alternative, for summary judgment based on plaintiffs’ failure to obtain, within the time limitation period, court appointment of a personal representative to sue. The trial court denied defendants’ motion, but certified the issue for interlocutory appeal. The Court of Appeals, in a memorandum opinion, reversed the trial court and remanded the case for entry of an order dismissing plaintiffs’ action. We granted plaintiffs’ petition for writ of certiorari. We reverse the Court of Appeals and affirm the trial court.
The sole issue presented for review is whether this action for malpractice and wrongful death brought under the Tort Claims Act by the natural parents of the deceased girl within the limitation period is barred, because the parents failed to secure court appointment as personal representatives within the two-year limitation period of NMSA 1978, Section 41-4-15 (Repl.Pamp.1982). We hold that the cause of action is not barred, due to the operation of NMSA 1978, Civ.P. Rules 15(c) and 17(a) (Repl.Pamp.1980).
Plaintiffs’ daughter died on November 19, 1980, in the University of New Mexico Hospital. On September 14, 1982, plaintiffs filed their complaint for malpractice, alleging capacity as “the parents and surviving heirs and representatives of Sandra Diane Chavez, an unmarried minor.” They sought damages for the loss of their daughter’s society, comfort, support, counsel and services and for medical and funeral expenses, plus attorney fees. Defendants answered the complaint on September 29, 1982, raising no affirmative defense of lack of capacity to sue. Plaintiff Cipriana Chavez was appointed personal representative on June 8, 1983. It was not until November 28, 1984, more than two years after the complaint had been filed, that defendants first raised the issue of plaintiffs’ capacity to sue. In the interim, over one hundred documents had been filed with the court, depositions taken, interrogatories propounded and answered, and numerous motions filed.
The Court of Appeals determined that this case was controlled by Mackey v. Burke, 102 N.M. 294, 694 P.2d 1359 (Ct.App.1984), cert. quashed, 102 N.M. 293, 694 P.2d 1358 (1985). In Mackey, an action for medical malpractice and wrongful death brought by the plaintiffs individually and as the natural parents of the deceased under the Medical Malpractice Act, NMSA 1978, Sections 41-5-1 to -28 (Repl.Pamp. 1982), the Court of Appeals held that NMSA 1978, Section 41-2-3 (Repl.Pamp. 1982) of the Wrongful Death Act applied to bar plaintiffs’ suit, because it had not been brought by and in the name of the personal representative within the limitation period. Furthermore, the Court of Appeals would not allow an amended complaint, which added the father as personal representative and which was filed after the limitation period, to relate back to the original complaint, so as to bring the amended complaint within the statute of limitations. The Court of Appeals held that the original complaint was a nullity.
Similarly, in the instant case, the Court of Appeals concluded that a wrongful death suit filed under the Tort Claims Act, NMSA 1978, Sections 41-4-1 to -27 (Repl.Pamp.1982 and Cum.Supp.1985) must be brought by a court-appointed personal representative within the limitation period or else be subject to dismissal. We disagree, and to the extent that Mackey may be construed to conflict with this opinion, it is hereby overruled.
The Tort Claims Act provides “the exclusive remedy against a governmental entity or public employee * * *.” § 41-4-17 (emphasis added). Governmental entities and public employees are liable only within the limitations of the Tort Claims Act and in accordance with its principles. § 41-4-2. The Tort Claims Act waives immunity for liability for wrongful death negligently caused by public employees of medical facilities, § 41-4-9, or those licensed by the State to provide health care services, § 41-4-10. It is undisputed that the statute of limitations of the Tort Claims Act governs such wrongful death actions. See Regents of the University of New Mexico v. Armijo, 103 N.M. 174, 704 P.2d 428 (1985). The Act also provides that the required notice for wrongful death “may be presented by, or on behalf of, the personal representative of the deceased person or any person claiming benefits of the proceeds of a wrongful death action * * § 41-4-16(C) (emphasis added). Plaintiffs in this case are persons claiming benefits of the proceeds of a wrongful death action. The Tort Claims Act does not specify, however, who has the capacity to bring an action for wrongful death.
At common law there was no right of action for wrongful death. Ickes v. Brim-hall, 42 N.M. 412, 79 P.2d 942 (1938); Perry v. Staver, 81 N.M. 766, 473 P.2d 380 (Ct.App.1970). Any such right of action is purely statutory. Torres v. Sierra, 89 N.M. 441, 553 P.2d 721 (Ct.App.), cert. denied, 90 N.M. 8, 558 P.2d 620 (1976). The statutory authority for a death action in New Mexico may be found in the Wrongful Death Act, NMSA 1978, Sections 41-2-1 to -4 (Repl.Pamp.1982). Section 41-2-1 of this Act allows for a personal injury claim to survive the death of the injured. Section 41-2-3 requires that every such action “shall be brought by and in the name or names of the personal representative or representatives of such deceased person.” While we agree with the Court of Appeals that the personal representative provision is applicable to the present case, we do not agree with that Court’s interpretation or application of the provision.
It is merely “incidental” that a “personal representative” is named to bring a wrongful death action. Henkel v. Hood, 49 N.M. 45, 156 P.2d 790 (1945). Any recovery for wrongful death has no relation to the deceased’s estate; the recovery does not become part of the estate assets. Trefzer v. Stiles, 56 N.M. 296, 243 P.2d 605 (1952). The personal representative is only a nominal party who was selected by the Legislature to act as the statutory trustee for the individual statutory beneficiaries. Dominguez v. Rogers, 100 N.M. 605, 673 P.2d 1338 (Ct.App.), cert. denied, 100 N.M. 689, 675 P.2d 421 (1983).
“Personal representative” is not defined by either the Tort Claims Act or the Wrongful Death act. A statutory definition of the term may be found, however, in the Probate Code in NMSA 1978, Section 45-1-201(29) (Cum.Supp.1985) which provides “ ‘personal representative’ includes an executor, administrator, successor personal representative, special administrator and persons who perform substantially the same function under the law governing their status.”
Although a wrongful death action in New Mexico must be prosecuted by a personal representative, Varney v. Taylor, 77 N.M. 28, 419 P.2d 234 (1966); Dominguez, the cases have generally broadly construed who qualifies as a personal representative under the Wrongful Death Act. In Henkel, which construed a precursor of Section 41-2-3, this Court held that a Texas administrator with limited powers was a “personal representative” within the meaning of the Wrongful Death Act. The Henkel Court reasoned that it was unnecessary for an administrator to have full powers over an estate in order to sue in New Mexico for wrongful death on behalf of the statutory beneficiaries, since his authority to bring such an action was derived from the wrongful death statutes, not from the probate or estate laws. The actual powers and duties of such an administrator, therefore, were not important to a determination of an administrator’s capacity to sue for wrongful death. The Court in Henkel wrote:
The important thing is that the action shall not fail because of the absence of a party capable of suing____
If and when we can say that such administrator as we have here answers the purpose of the statute, in that he is, in some sense, a personal representative of the deceased, he meets the requirement.
49 N.M. at 48-49, 156 P.2d at 792 (citations omitted). The Henkel Court determined that although “personal representative” means “executor or administrator, and includes a temporary, special, or ancillary administrator, and an administrator de bonis non on refusal of the administrator to sue,” id., the duties and powers of such a personal representative differ according to whether he is acting under the authority of the Wrongful Death Act or the Probate Code. Thus, a personal representative under the Wrongful Death Act may be an estate administrator, see Torres v. Sierra, 89 N.M. 441, 553 P.2d 721 (Ct.App.), cert. denied, 90 N.M. 8, 558 P.2d 620 (1976), as well as an executor or a court-appointed personal representative. He need not, however, have the full powers required by the Probate Code, since his duties under the Wrongful Death Act are merely to act as a nominal party for all the statutory beneficiaries in order to centralize the claims and prevent multiple and possibly contradictory lawsuits.
The Court of Appeals in Mackey relied upon Henkel for the proposition that “ ‘personal representative’ for the purpose of a wrongful death action, is not synonymous with the parameters of the Probate Code.” 102 N.M. at 296, 694 P.2d at 1361. From this proposition, the Court of Appeals drew several erroneous conclusions: (1) that the personal representative requirement is jurisdictional; (2) that if it is not met the suit is a “nullity”; and (3) that an amendment under NMSA 1978, Civ.P.Rule 15(c) (Repl. Pamp.1980) adding a party as a personal representative would not relate back to the original filing so as to avoid the bar of the statute of limitations. We believe this view of the personal representative requirement of the Wrongful Death Act is unnecessarily restrictive and that NMSA 1978, Civ.P. Rules 15(c) and 17(a) (Repl.Pamp.1980) dictate a different result.
Rule 15(c) provides:
(c) Relation back of amendments. Whenever the claim or defense asserted in the amended pleading arose out of the conduct, transaction or occurrence set forth or attempted to be set forth in the original pleading, the amendment relates back to the date of the original pleading. An amendment changing the party against whom a claim is asserted relates back if the foregoing provision is satisfied and, within the period provided by law for commencing the action against him, the party to be brought in by amendment (1) has received such notice of the institution of the action that he will not be prejudiced in maintaining his defense on the merits, and (2) knew or should have known that, but for a mistake concerning the identity of the proper party, the action would have been brought against him.
Rule 17(a) provides:
(a) Real party in interest. Every action shall be prosecuted in the name of the real party in interest; but an executor, administrator, guardian, trustee of an express trust, a party with whom or in whose name a contract has been made for the benefit of another or a party authorized by statute may sue in his own name without joining with him the party for whose benefit the action is brought; and when a statute of the state so provides, an action for the use or benefit of another shall be brought in the name of the state. Where it appears that an action, by reason of honest mistake, is not prosecuted in the name of the real party in interest, the court may allow a reasonable time for ratification of commencement of the action by, or joinder or substitution of, the real party in interest; and such ratification, joinder or substitution shall have the same effect as if the action had been commenced in the name of the real party in interest.
New Mexico follows the principle that in the interests of justice and to promote the adjudication of a case upon its merits, amendments should be freely granted and allowed to relate back to the date a complaint was originally filed so as to avoid the bar of the statute of limitations whenever the requirements of Rule 15(c) are met. Galion v. Conmaco International, Inc., 99 N.M. 403, 658 P.2d 1130 (1983). Where the real parties in interest received sufficient notice of the proceedings or were involved unofficially at an early stage, the statute of limitations should not be used mechanically to bar an otherwise valid claim. Galion. See also Annot., 12 A.L.R. Fed. 233 (1972).
In Mackey the Court of Appeals did not allow an amendment to relate back, because it considered the original suit filed within the statutory period a nullity. We do not agree that such a claim is a nullity ab initio requiring dismissal and the institution of a new suit after the plaintiff qualifies as a personal representative. The nature of the claim in an amended complaint would remain unchanged from that asserted in the original complaint and would arise out of “the conduct, transaction or occurrence set forth or attempted to be set forth in the original pleading.” Civ.P.R. 15(c). Unlike DeVargas v. State ex rel. New Mexico Department of Corrections, 97 N.M. 447, 640 P.2d 1327 (Ct.App.1981), cert. quashed, 97 N.M. 563, 642 P.2d 166 (1982), in which the original complaint was deemed a nullity because it failed to state a claim for relief under 42 U.S.C. Section 1983, the complaint in the present case is valid on its face. Its only defect is that the plaintiffs failed to secure appointment as personal representatives within the statutory period. Nor does the holding of Mercer v. Morgan, 86 N.M. 711, 526 P.2d 1304 (Ct.App.1974) mandate that the complaint in this case be considered a nullity. In Mercer the court held that a suit filed against a defendant who was deceased was a nullity and that an amendment would not relate back under Rule 15(c). Clearly that is not the situation in the present case.
Moreover, under Civ.P.Rule 17(a), when due to an honest mistake, a suit is not prosecuted in the name of the real party in interest “the court may allow a reasonable time for ratification of commencement of the action by, or joinder or substitution of, the real party in interest; and such ratification, joinder or substitution shall have the same effect as if the action had been commenced in the name of the real party in interest.”
Our Rules of Civil Procedure are patterned after the Federal Rules of Civil Procedure. A majority of the federal courts allow a change in a plaintiff’s capacity to sue to relate back to the action’s commencement under Fed.Rules Civ.P. 15(c) and 17(a). See 3 J. Moore, Moore’s Federal Practice § 15.15[4] (2d ed. 1985); 6 C. Wright & A. Miller, Federal Practice & Procedure § 1555 (1971). Wrongful death actions have been specifically included within this principle. See, e.g., Davis v. Piper Aircraft Corp., 615 F.2d 606 (4th Cir.), cert. dismissed, 448 U.S. 911, 101 S.Ct. 25, 65 L.Ed.2d 1141 (1980); Holmes v. Pennsylvania New York Central Transportation Co., 48 F.R.D. 449 (N.D.Ind.1969); Shinkle v. Union City Body Co., 94 F.R.D. 631 (D.Kan.1982); Hunt ¶. Penn Central Transportation Co., 414 F.Supp. 1157 (W.D.Pa.1976). See also Annot., 12 A.L.R.Fed. 233 (1972).
The reasoning of these cases has been explained as follows:
Thus in cases involving an amendment, made after the applicable limitation period has run, which attempted to change the capacity or identity of the parties, the courts generally examined the facts of the case to ascertain whether the allowance of such amendment would be inconsistent with the notice requirements inherent in such limitation. Where plaintiff sought to change the capacity in which the action is brought, or in which defendant is sued, there is no change in the parties before the court, all parties are on notice of the facts out of which the claim arose, and relation back was allowed in both the case of the plaintiff and the defendant.
3 J. Moore, supra § 15.15[4.-1] at 15-157 (emphasis added; footnotes omitted).
Also, a majority of the state courts that have recently considered the issue have reached a similar result. See Annot., 27 A.L.R.4th 198 (1984); Annot., 3 A.L.R.3d 1234 (1965). In Bermudez v. Florida Power & Light Co., 433 So.2d 565 (Fla.App.1983), cert. denied, 444 So.2d 416 (1984), although a Florida statute required a death action to be brought by decedent’s personal representative, the court rejected appellees argument that the personal representative must be appointed before an action can be commenced and that the original action is a nullity and must be quashed if it is initiated before the personal representative is appointed. Recently the North Carolina Supreme Court overruled its older cases which adhered to the notion that a change in a plaintiff's capacity to sue was equivalent to the bringing of a new cause of action. Burcl v. North Carolina Baptist Hospital, Inc., 306 N.C. 214, 293 S.E.2d 85 (1982). Basing its reasoning largely upon Rules 15(c) and 17(a) of North Carolina’s New Rules of Civil Procedure, which also were modeled after the federal rules, the court in Burcl held that a foreign administrator, who under state law lacked capacity to sue for wrongful death, could file a supplemental pleading changing her capacity to sue and that this pleading would relate back to the commencement of the action. The Burcl court concluded:
The purpose served by the statute of limitations — protection against state claims — is in no way compromised by allowing such a pleading to relate back to the action’s commencement. To hold otherwise would be to return to hyper-technical pleading restrictions inimical to just resolution of disputed claims, restrictions which our present rules of pleading were designed to overcome.
Id. at 230, 293 S.E.2d at 95.
In the present case, the original pleading alleged a valid cause of action and certainly gave defendants notice of the claim within the statutory period. In fact, the case proceeded normally with both sides engaging in extensive discovery. Any claim asserted in an amended pleading would arise out of the same conduct, and occurrence upon which the original complaint was based. Defendants would in no way be prejudiced if the appointment of plaintiff Cipriana Chavez as personal representative is allowed to relate back to the initial filing of the action. We determine, therefore, that in this case relation-back should be permitted. Such relation-back may be accomplished either by permitting an amendment to relate back under Rule 15(c) or by allowing under Rule 17(a) “a reasonable time for ratification of commencement of the action by, or joinder or subdivision of” the personal representative. See Brohan v. Volkswagen Manufacturing Corp., 97 F.R.D. 46 (E.D.N.Y.1983) (this is the kind of technical mistake contemplated by Rule 17).
The Court of Appeals is reversed, and the trial court’s order denying defendants’ motion to dismiss is affirmed. The cause is remanded to the trial court for proceedings consistent with this opinion.
IT IS SO ORDERED.
SOSA, Senior J., and RIORDAN, STOWERS and WALTERS, JJ., concur. | [
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OPINION
RIORDAN, Justice.
Petitioners Eberline Instrument Corporation and Commercial Union Insurance Company, (Eberline) appealed a worker’s compensation award, claiming that the trial court applied an incorrect hourly rate when computing benefits due. Respondent Chris W. Felix, (Felix) cross-appealed raising various issues. The Court of Appeals ruled against Eberline. We granted Eberline’s petition for certiorari, and now reverse the Court of Appeals.
The issue on certiorari is whether compensation benefits should be computed based on the average weekly wage that a workman is earning at the time of his accident or, on an average weekly wage which a workman was earning in his “primary employment” sometime prior to the accident.
Facts.
Felix went to work for Eberline in October, 1978. Felix’s starting salary at that time was $3.33 per hour as a utility worker in the machine shop. Between the years 1978 and 1982, Felix received promotions and increases in wages so that in October, 1982, he had risen to a grade 4-B welder and was earning $9.72 per hour. On October 18, 1982, due to lack of work, Eberline gave Felix the choice of being laid off or accepting a lower grade job as a machine operator at $6.35 per hour. Felix chose to continue working at the lower wage and was working at this rate when he was injured on December 9, 1982.
Eberline paid Felix temporary weekly benefits based on the $6.35 hourly rate from the time of the accidental injury until April 5, 1983. On April 6, 1983, Felix returned to work with Eberline as a grade 4-B welder and was earning an hourly wage of $9.04 per hour. A short time later he was again laid off and did not return to work for Eberline.
Both the trial court and the Court of Appeals ruled that Felix was entitled to compensation at the $9.72 per hour rate that he had earned as a welder rather than the $6.35 per hour rate that he was earning as a machine operator at the time of the accident. Both courts concluded that Felix’s “primary employment” with Eberline had been as a welder at the higher rate.
The determination of average weekly wage for the purpose of computing compensation payments is governed by NMSA 1978, Section 52-1-20, which provides in pertinent part:
A.[Wjhenever the term “wages” is used, it shall be construed to mean the money rate at which the services rendered are recompensed under the contract of hire in force at the time of the accident. * * * (Emphasis added.)
The plain language of this statute dictates that the contract of hire in force at the time of the accident determines the amount of “wages” that a workman was receiving at the time of the accident. In this case it is undisputed that those “wages” were at the rate of $6.35 per hour.
Further, Section 52-l-20(B) is used to compute benefits based on that average weekly wage. It provides 'in pertinent part:
B. [Ajverage weekly wages for the purpose of computing benefits provided in the Workmen’s Compensation Act shall, except as hereinafter provided, be calculated upon the monthly, weekly, daily, hourly, or other remuneration which the injured or killed employee was receiving at the time of the injury, and in the following manner, to wit:
* * * * * *
(4) where the employee is being paid by the hour, the weekly wage shall be determined by multiplying the hourly rate by the number of hours in a day during which the employee was working at the time of the accident, or would have worked if the accident had not intervened, to determine the daily wage; then the weekly wage shall be determined from said daily wage in the manner set forth in Paragraph (3) hereof; provided, that in no case shall the hourly rate be multiplied by less than seven[.]
At the time of the accidental injury Felix was earning $6.35 per hour. Thus, under the foregoing provisions, that rate applies unless the circumstances of the case allow use of an exception. The Court of Appeals determined that Section 52-l-20(C) provides such an exception. It provides:
C. [Pjrovided, further, however, that m any case where the foregoing methods of computing the average weekly wage of the employee by reason of the nature of the employment or the fact that the injured employee has not worked a sufficient length of time to enable his earnings to be fairly computed thereunder, or has been ill or in business for himself, or where for any other reason said methods will not fairly compute the average weekly wage; in each particular case, computation of the average weekly wage of said employee [shall be made] in such other manner and by such other method as will be based upon the facts presented [to] fairly determine such employee’s average weekly wage[.]
The question then is whether the formula provided by Section 52-l-20(B)(4) fairly represents Felix’s average weekly wage at the time of the accident. If it does not, then the exception provided by Section 52-1-20(C) would allow for the determination of the average weekly wage by any method which was supported by the evidence.
The Court of Appeals based its decision on Kendrick v. Gackle Drilling Co., 71 N.M. 113, 376 P.2d 176 (1962). In Kendrick, the injured workman had a very erratic income because he worked only a few days at each job. The rate of pay and length of employment varied with each job. The Court determined that the only possible method of determining an average weekly wage in that situation was to take an average of the preceding twenty-eight weeks earnings. The method of determining the workman’s average weekly wages in Kendrick was a method which would most accurately reflect the workman’s wages at the time of his injury. However, the instant case does not lend itself to use of such method. Felix opted to take the position as a machine operator with the reduced rate of pay. He worked at this position for approximately seven weeks pri- or to his injury and, under the contract for hire then in effect, earned $6.35 per hour at the time of his injury. Thus, under the plain wording of Section 52-l-20(B)(4), the method to be used to compute Felix’s benefits under the Workmen’s Compensation Act would be calculated upon the hourly remuneration which he was receiving at the time of the injury. There is no reason to calculate Felix’s benefits under Section 52-1-20(C) because the method provided under Section 52 — 1—20(B)(4) fairly computes what Felix’s average weekly wage was at the time of the accident. Section 52-l-20(C) is to be resorted to only in unusual circumstances as in Kendrick, where a worker’s average weekly wage cannot fairly be determined by the precise methods outlined in Section 52-l-20(B).
To allow the Court of Appeals’ opinion to stand would create numerous problems. In the instant case the workman is benefited by the use of the “primary employment” test. However, reversing the factual situation, if Felix was promoted to a higher grade where he earned a higher salary and was injured only seven weeks after such promotion, under the Court of Appeals’ reasoning it could be argued that Eberline would pay only benefits based on the lower, pre-promotional rate because the “primary employment” of Felix would be considered at the lower level. Also, by what standard are we to determine a workman’s “primary employment”? Suppose Felix had worked at the lower paying job for one year (instead of seven weeks) prior to his injury. Would his “primary employment” still be as a welder (at the higher salary) or as a machine operator (at the lower salary)? Further, assume that Felix had opted to be laid off rather than continuing to work at the lower salaried job; but, once in the outside work force, Felix could only find a minimum wage job with a different employer. Again, assume that Felix is injured on his new job. Under the “primary employment” test, the different employer would be required to pay benefits based on the higher wage of the position that Felix left. Inevitably, such situations would remove all predictability from the calculation of exposure rates for workmen’s compensation insurance paid by New Mexico employers.
We therefore determine that the wording of Section 52-l-20(A) and (B) is plain and clear and dictates that benefits should be computed on the basis of the wages the worker was earning under the contract for hire in effect at the time of the accident. Where such wages are easily calculable and fairly compute the worker’s average weekly salary, then the methods for calculating benefits under Section 52-1-20(B) control. No resort need be taken to the exceptions provided in Section 52-1-20(C). That section should be reserved for the unusual ease where the workman’s average weekly wage is not easily determinable. Therefore, the Court of Appeals is reversed.
IT IS SO ORDERED.
STOWERS and WALTERS, JJ., concur.
DAN SOSA, Jr., Senior Justice, dissenting and adopting Court of Appeals opinion as his dissent.
EXHIBIT A
No. 7657
Court of Appeals of New Mexico.
Jan. 22, 1984.
OPINION
BIVINS, Judge.
Defendants appeal a worker’s compensation award, claiming the trial court applied an incorrect hourly rate, and plaintiff cross-appeals, claiming the trial court erred in determining plaintiff only 40% permanently disabled. We first discuss this court’s jurisdiction to consider these appeals. Determining that we do have jurisdiction, we then discuss the merits of the issues. We hold that the trial court applied a correct hourly rate and that its award of 40% partial disability should be sustained. Accordingly, we affirm.
1. Jurisdiction to Consider Appeals.
At the outset we are confronted with jurisdictional questions. The trial court’s judgment entered on January 10, 1984 disposed of all issues except attorney fees. Both parties appealed from this judgment. Defendants filed their notice of appeal on January 18, 1984, and plaintiff filed his notice of appeal on February 8, 1984, pursuant to an order extending the time.
“A judgment or order is not final unless all the issues of law and of fact necessary to be determined, were determined, and the case completely disposed of so far as the court has power to dispose of it.” Johnson v. C & H Construction Co., 78 N.M. 423, 425, 432 P.2d 267 (Ct.App.1967) (citation omitted). In that case, as here, the issue of attorney fees was before the court. Since further action was contemplated, the judgment filed January 10 was not final or appealable. Id. The judgment did not contain an express determination that there is no just reason for delay as required by NMSA 1978, Civ.P. Rule 54(b)(1) (Repl.Pamp.1980). See Thornton v. Gamble, 101 N.M. 764, 688 P.2d 1268 (Ct.App.1984). Nor was it certified for interlocutory appeal. See NMSA 1978, § 39-3-4.
On January 24, 1984 the trial court announced by letter its decision on attorney fees and entered its order awarding fees on February 1, 1984. Thus, the case became ripe for appeal as of February 1, 1984, the date of the final order disposing of the remaining issue, attorney fees. We now consider the effect these events have on this court’s jurisdiction to entertain the respective appeals.
First, as to defendants, their notice of appeal was filed before entry of the final judgment and, therefore, under the rules governing appellate procedure for civil cases, would not be timely. See Public Service Co. of New Mexico v. Wolf, 78 N.M. 221, 430 P.2d 379 (1967); NMSA 1978, Civ.App.R. 3(a) (Repl.Pamp.1984). NMSA 1978, Crim., Child.Ct., Dom.Rel. & W/C App.R. 202(a) (Repl.Pamp.1983) is different. That rule provides: “A notice of appeal filed after the announcement of a decision, or return of the verdict, but before filing of the judgment or order shall be treated as filed after such filing and on the day thereof.” Id. (emphasis added). Here defendants filed their notice before, not after, the announcement of the decision on attorney fees. Does this matter? Under the circumstances here, we hold it does not. Defendants filed their notice of appeal after the announcement of the trial court’s decision, which contained the court’s findings of fact and conclusions of law. That decision was filed on December 14, 1983. The trial court found plaintiff entitled to reasonable attorney fees but, as with the judgment, deferred a determination as to the amount. Defendants do not appeal the award of attorney fees; only the hourly rate. We hold that defendants’ notice of appeal complied with Rule 202(a). Cf. State v. Melton, 102 N.M. 120, 692 P.2d 45 (Ct.App.1984) (jurisdiction exists where notice of appeal from earlier judgment not refiled after amended judgment inasmuch as notice filed after return of verdict).
The situation with plaintiff is somewhat different. He filed his appeal within ten days after the filing of the final judgment, 1.e., the order of February 1. Plaintiff’s notice of appeal refers to the judgment of January 10, but does not mention the order of February 1. Does this matter? Under the rules of appellate procedure for civil cases, it would. NMSA 1978, Civ.App. Rule 4(b) (Repl.Pamp.1984) requires that the notice of appeal designate the judgment, order, decision or part thereof appealed from. A notice of appeal giving erroneous date of order is a nullity. State v. Phillips, 78 N.M. 405, 432 P.2d 116 (Ct.App.1967) (decided under former civil rule). Crim.App. Rule 202 does not require specificity as to the judgment or order appealed from. Therefore, although plaintiff referred to the incorrect order, or failed to include the final order, this was not fatal. This court has jurisdiction to entertain plaintiff’s appeal.
Neither party raised this jurisdictional issue; however, an appellate court has the duty to determine whether it has jurisdiction over an appeal. Rice v. Gonzales, 79 N.M. 377, 444 P.2d 288 (1968). Under the circumstances present here, we find jurisdiction as to both appeals. We now proceed to consider the merits of the issues raised by the parties.
2. Determination of the Applicable Hourly Rate.
We summarize the pertinent findings of fact made by the trial court. Plaintiff went to work for defendant Eberline Instrument Corporation in October 1978, first as a utility worker in the machine shop, earning $3.33 per hour. Plaintiff received promotions and increases in wages over the years 1978-1982. In October 1982, he had risen to a Grade 4B Welder earning $9.72 per hour.. On October 18, 1982, due to lack of work Eberline gave plaintiff the choice of being laid off or accepting a lower grade job as a machine operator at an hourly rate of $6.35. Plaintiff chose the latter and was working at this rate when injured on December 9, 1982. Defendants paid plaintiff temporary weekly benefits based on the $6.35 hourly rate from the time of the accidental injury until April 5, 1983. On April 6, 1983 plaintiff returned to Eberline as a Grade 4B Welder at $9.04 per hour. The trial court also found that, although plaintiff at the time of the accident and for a period of approximately seven weeks pri- or thereto was and had been earning the lower hourly rate as a machine operator, during his employment with Eberline he had primarily been employed as a welder. The trial court concluded that plaintiff’s hourly rate should therefore be based at the hourly rate of $9.72, the rate plaintiff had been earning as a welder before October 18, 1982.
Defendants argue that the trial court incorrectly based the compensation benefits on an hourly rate not in effect at the time of the accident. They point to NMSA 1978, Section 52-1-48, which provides:
The benefits that a workman shall receive during the entire period of disability, and the benefits for death, shall be based on, and limited to, the benefits in effect on the date of the accidental injury resulting in the disability or death. (Emphasis added.)
Because plaintiff was earning $6.35 per hour “on the date of the accidental injury,” defendants claim this was the applicable rate, not the $9.72 per hour plaintiff had previously earned.
The determination of average weekly wage for the purpose of computing compensation payments is governed by NMSA 1978, Section 52-1-20. Subparagraph (A) of Section 52-1-20 provides in part:
A. whenever the term “wages” is used, it shall be construed to mean the money rate at which the services rendered are recompensed under the con tract of hire in force at the time of the accident, either express or implied * * *. (Emphasis added.)
Section 52-l-20(B) provides in pertinent part:
B. average weekly wages for the purpose of computing benefits provided in the Workmen’s Compensation Act shall, except as hereinafter provided, be calculated upon the monthly, weekly, daily, hourly, or other remuneration which the injured or killed employee was receiving at the time of the injury, and in the following manner, to wit:
* * * * * *
(4) where the employee is being paid by the hour, the weekly wage shall be determined by multiplying the hourly rate by the number of hours in a day during which the employee was working at the time of the accident, or would have worked if the accident had not intervened, to determine the daily wage; then the weekly wage shall be determined from said daily wage in the manner set forth in Paragraph (3) hereof; provided, that in no case shall the hourly rate be multiplied by less than seven[.] (Emphasis added.)
It is undisputed that at the time of the accidental injury plaintiff earned $6.35 per hour. Thus, under the foregoing provisions that rate applies unless the circumstances of the case allow use of an exception. Plaintiff argues that the exception found in subparagraph (C) of Section 52-1-20 provides the authority for the trial court using the higher hourly rate. Section 52-1-20(C) provides:
C. provided, further, however, that in any case where the foregoing methods of computing the average weekly wage of the employee by reason of the nature of the employment or the fact that the injured employee has not worked a sufficient length of time to enable his earnings to be fairly computed thereunder, or has been ill or in business for himself, or where for any other reason said methods will not fairly compute the average weekly wage; in each particular case, computation of the average weekly wage of said employee [shall be made] in such other manner and by such other method as will be based upon the facts presented [to] fairly determine such employee’s average weekly wage[.]
In arguing that the facts here fall within the above exception, plaintiff relies on Kendrick v. Gackle Drilling Co., 71 N.M. 113, 376 P.2d 176 (1962). Although decided under former law, the supreme court in construing NMSA 1953, Section 59-10-12(m)(3), which is substantially the same as Section 52-l-20(C), said:
We construe § 59-10-12(m)(3), N.M.S. A.1953 to permit the trial court to determine the pre-injury average weekly wages of an injured workman by any method supported by the evidence in the particular case which fairly represents his average weekly wage if they cannot be fairly determined by one of the formulae set out in § 59-10-12(m)(2). (Citations omitted.)
71 N.M. at 118, 376 P.2d 176.
The supreme court in Kendrick went on to say that the exception in question:
seeks to develop a broad and liberal method of determining not a loss of earnings or income caused by the injury, but rather a method of arriving at the difference between the average weekly wage fairly computed before the accident and the employee’s wages or wage earning ability after the accident.
71 N.M. at 118, 376 P.2d 176 (citations omitted). Kendrick was decided in 1962. In 1963, a year after Kendrick, the legislature changed the primary test of disability from wage-earning ability to capacity to perform work as delineated in the statute. Quintana v. Trotz Construction Co., 79 N.M. 109, 440 P.2d 301 (1968); see NMSA 1978, §§ 52-1-24 and -25. Does it make any difference that disability is now based upon ability to perform as opposed to wage-earning capacity, the test in effect when Kendrick was decided? We think not; however, this does not answer the question.
The question is whether the formula provided by Section 52-l-20(B)(4) fairly represents plaintiff's average weekly wage. If not, then the exception provided by Section 52-l-20(C) permitted the trial court to determine the average weekly wage by any method supported by the evidence.
Here the trial court found plaintiff had worked as a welder from March 1980 until October 18, 1982 with his hourly rate during that period increasing from $6.03 to a high of $9.72. The trial court found plaintiff’s employment primarily that of a welder. When he returned to work following the accidental injury, he worked as a welder at $9.04 per hour. Most of plaintiff’s employment at Eberline was as a welder. Although plaintiff testified that he had not been promised a higher paying job in October 1982, when he chose to stay on as a machine operator at the lower rate and had no guarantee of being repromoted to his former status, he understood the demotion was temporary and would last only until Eberline got more work. That plaintiff returned after the accident to the status of a welder would tend to support that understanding. Defendants state that Eberline’s “business had increased” by April 1983 when plaintiff returned.
’ We are unable to say that the facts here would not support the alternative method of computing the average weekly earnings in view of plaintiff’s primary employment as a welder, the temporary nature of the demotion, and the language of Kendrick that the method which most fairly represents the worker's average weekly wage be used. See 2 A. Larson, The Law of Workmen’s Compensation § 60.11(d) (1983).
Defendants argue that if the situation was reversed, that is, if plaintiff had been moved up from a Grade 2B Machine Operator at $6.35 to a Grade 4B Welder at $9.72, the courts would dismiss any suggestion that the lower rate should be used. The answer to that hypothetical would, of course, depend on the facts, but the argument does not provide a valid reason for rejecting the method applied to the facts here. See § 52-l-20(D). In LaRue v. Johnson, 47 N.M. 260, 141 P.2d 321 (1943), a case where the employer and carrier argued that the exception should apply instead of the hourly rate since the worker did not work full time, the supreme court, in holding for the worker, seemed to apply a standard of fairness. We do so here. Kendrick says that the methods set forth in the statute are not exclusive, nor are they under all circumstances mandatory requirements binding on the trial court. The language of the present statute is consistent with Kendrick.
We hold that the trial court did not err in using the higher hourly rate as being more representative of plaintiff’s primary employment, i.e., a welder.
3. Determination of Disability.
The trial court found plaintiff 40% permanently disabled. Plaintiff recognizes that findings in a worker’s compensation case, as in other cases, will not be disturbed on appeal if supported by substantial evidence. Marez v. Kerr-McGee Nuclear Corp., 93 N.M. 9, 595 P.2d 1204, 597 P.2d 1178 (Ct.App.1978). In fact, in Perez v. International Minerals & Chemical Corp., 95 N.M. 628, 633, 624 P.2d 1025 (Ct.App.1981), we said, “Rarely should an appeal be taken by a workman or employer based upon a lack of substantial evidence to support the findings.” Plaintiff claims, however, that the finding of 40% permanent disability is not supported by or is inconsistent with other findings. He requested a finding of 80% partial disability.
For a worker to be partially disabled, there must be (1) an inability, to some percentage-extent, to perform the usual work the worker was performing when injured; and (2) an inability, to some percentage-extent, to perform any work for which he is fitted. Section 52-1-25; Medina v. Zia Co., 88 N.M. 615, 544 P.2d 1180 (Ct.App.1975).
As to the first part of the test, the trial court found that plaintiff’s primary employment at the time of the accident was as a welder, although at the time of the accident he was working as a machine opera tor. Although the trial court did not make a specific finding that plaintiff could not continue to perform that work, plaintiff concedes that he could still perform some aspects of the job of a welder. After his accident, plaintiff returned to work for his employer doing bench-type light welding. Plaintiff’s employer eventually laid him off in part because he could not do all the work. Plaintiff claims he could not find a welding job which called only for light welding or soldering.
Even if we aSsume that plaintiff could not perform to some percentage-extent the work he was doing at the time of the accident, nevertheless, the findings made as well as the evidence in support of those findings satisfy the second part of the test. The trial court made findings as to plaintiff’s education, training, and past work experience and qualifications for work in other endeavors. It found plaintiff had qualified for training in computer technology-
Plaintiff argues that no evidence was offered that he was actually undertaking the training, or would undertake it. The trial court found plaintiff qualified for this training and “enrolled to commence such training at TVI in Albuquerque.” See Aranda v. Mississippi Chemical Corp., 93 N.M. 412, 600 P.2d 1202 (Ct.App.1979) (interpreting “any work” to mean work that was available and stating worker must make reasonable efforts to seek gainful employment). In addition, other evidence indicates that plaintiff had other skills on which he was able to draw; he was qualified to operate a forklift and various tools. Cf. Aranda v. Mississippi Chemical Corp. (interpreting the phrase “any work” to mean either a worker’s ordinary employment or other employment approximating the same livelihood the worker might be expected to follow).
Based on the evidence and findings made, we cannot say 40% permanent disability was unreasonable, Churchill v. City of Albuquerque, 66 N.M. 325, 347 P.2d 752 (1959). See also Barger v. Ford Sales Co., 89 N.M. 25, 546 P.2d 873 (Ct.App.1976).
We affirm the judgment. Plaintiff shall be allowed $1,250 attorney fees, not for his appeal, but for successfully defending against defendants’ appeal.
IT IS SO ORDERED.
WOOD and MINZNER, JJ., concur. | [
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OPINION
DONNELLY, Chief Judge.
The father, Mike R. Jaramillo, appeals from an order modifying a final divorce decree continuing joint custody of the minor daughter of the parties, but changing primary custody of the child from the father to the mother.
The father raises two issues on appeal: (1) whether substantial evidence supports a finding of a material change in circumstances; and (2) whether the court predicated its modification of primary custody on impermissible grounds. Reversed and remanded.
BACKGROUND
The mother obtained a default judgment against the father granting a dissolution of the marriage on March 21, 1983. The judgment specified that the parties were awarded joint custody of their two year-old daughter, Aimee Nicole Jaramillo, “reserving to the [father] primary custodial care of the child and reserving to the [mother] * * specific rights of visitation * * *.” The default decree, drafted by the mother’s attorney, also provided that she was required to pay monthly child support to her ex-husband and a portion of all medical and dental costs incurred by the child.
Following the divorce, the father and the minor child lived with a male roommate in a one bedroom apartment. Shortly thereafter, the mother began living with a boyfriend and continued to reside with him until they were married approximately one year later. During the year following the divorce, the mother exercised her child visitation rights under the decree, taking Aimee to live with her on alternate weekends and holidays.
The mother repeatedly objected to the living arrangements her ex-husband had chosen for the minor child. The father responded that his limited financial situation necessitated his sharing an apartment with a friend. The father worked and attended college part-time, studying engineering. During the time he was away from home, Aimee was left with a babysitter. Due to his job schedule, the father also had to work two or three evenings a month, during which time Aimee was left with a babysitter.
When the mother sought to visit the child or have her daughter at times, other than those specifically delineated in the decree, the parties usually disagreed. The mother asserted that her ex-husband was uncooperative and that their discussions concerning their child frequently ended with the parties shouting and arguing with each other.
On April 6, 1984, just over a year after entry of the divorce decree, the mother filed a motion to modify the final decree. The mother alleged that, since the granting of the initial decree, there had been a material change of circumstances “including * * a change of living conditions and circumstances with respect to the child’s hab itation * * * a failure of the [father] to properly provide for the basic needs and well being of the child,” and that the mother was now able to care for the child due to her remarriage.
Shortly after the motion to modify was filed, the father moved with the child into a three bedroom mobile home occupied by his sister. The mother testified that she was not given notification of her daughter’s whereabouts and learned of the child’s new residence when her former husband’s deposition was taken at the hearing on the motion to modify. The mother also testified that following the divorce her former husband had not allowed her to participate in any decisions concerning her daughter’s needs, and had refused to provide any basic information concerning the child. The mother testified that her ex-husband demanded that she not communicate with him in any manner except in cases of an emergency.
Following the hearing on the mother’s motion to modify, and the submission of requested findings of fact and conclusions of law by the parties, the trial court rendered its decision and adopted a single finding of fact:
That the circumstances of the parties and their minor child pertaining to the custody and support of said minor child have materially changed since the entry of the Final Decree herein.
Based on the above finding, the court concluded that the final decree previously entered, should be modified so as to change the physical custody of the child to the mother “subject to reasonable rights of visitation in the Respondent,” and prescribing specific times of visitation by the father, including child visitation for a continuous six-week period during each summer. Under the modified order, the father was also ordered to pay $50.00 per month child support.
MODIFICATION OF CUSTODY
At the outset, we are confronted with a formidable obstacle in reviewing the father’s two contentions raised on appeal. The single finding of fact adopted by the trial court fails to specifically identify the basis for the trial court’s order modifying primary physical custody for the child.
The legislature, as a matter of public policy, has specified that in any judicial proceeding involving custody of a minor the trial court shall “first consider an award of joint custody of the minor if it is in the best interests of the minor.” NMSA 1978, § 40-4-9.1 (Repl.Pamp.1983). See Strosnider v. Strosnider, 101 N.M. 639, 686 P.2d 981 (Ct.App.1984).
Section 40-4-9.1(B), further provides:
An order for joint custody may be modified or terminated upon the motion of one or both parties or on the court’s own motion if the best interests of the minor require the modification or termination of the order. The court shall state in its order the reasons for modification or termination of the joint custody order if either party opposes the modification or termination order. [Emphasis added.]
Although it is clear that a trial court has wide discretion in awarding or modifying custody of a child incident to a divorce action, Creusere v. Creusere, 98 N.M. 788, 653 P.2d 164 (1982); Strosnider v. Strosnider, the above statute requires that if the court modifies a prior decree establishing joint custody, over objection of the other party, the court must specifically delineate the reasons for the modification or termination. See Annot., 70 A.L.R.3d 262 (1976).
An award of joint custody incident to a dissolution of marriage may at times require the trial court to adopt a specific finding indicating which parent, in the child’s best interest and welfare, should be awarded primary physical custody of the child. As stated in the text 2 J. McCahey, Child Custody and Visitation Law & Practice, § 13.05[5] (1983):
[C]ourts considering an award of joint custody should distinguish between joint legal and joint physical custody * * *. A joint-custody award need not equally divide a child’s physical custody. The crux of a joint-custody award is that the parents share in the child’s upbringing and the right to jointly make decisions affecting such matters as the child’s health care, education, and religious training * * *. If it is determined that frequent shuttling of the child between homes will be detrimental to the child’s best interests then physical custody may be primarily vested in one parent, with visitation rights awarded to the other.
Both the father and mother submitted detailed requested findings of fact and conclusions of law relating to their requests to be awarded the primary physical custody of the child; all of which were refused by the trial court. While generally a trial court is not required to adopt evidentiary findings — only findings of ultimate fact — the court must adopt specific findings where a statute so requires. See State v. Doe, 93 N.M. 481, 601 P.2d 451 (Ct.App.1979); State v. Doe, 91 N.M. 644, 578 P.2d 345 (Ct.App.1978). See also Holloway v. New Mexico Office Furniture, 99 N.M. 525, 660 P.2d 615 (Ct.App.1983). Section 40-4-9.1(B) requires the trial court to adopt a specific finding of fact delineating the reason for modification or termination of joint custody where a party opposes such action.
The applicable rule was announced in State v. Doe:
The court did not make a specific finding____ Inasmuch as the statute requires a specific finding, and none was made, the transfer order is invalid because not entered in compliance with the statute. See State v. Doe, 90 N.M. 249, 561 P.2d 948 (Ct.App.1977). An implicit finding is insufficient when the statute requires a specific finding.
93 N.M. at 482, 601 P.2d 451. [Emphasis added] [citation omitted.]
When findings adopted by the trial court fail to specifically resolve the basic issues in dispute, the case must be remanded for adoption of proper findings. Michelson v. Michelson, 89 N.M. 282, 551 P.2d 638 (1976); Mora v. Martinez, 80 N.M. 88, 451 P.2d 992 (1969); Walter E. Heller & Co. of California v. Stephens, 79 N.M. 74, 439 P.2d 723 (1968). See also NMSA 1978, Civ.P.R. 52(B)(1)(g) (Repl.Pamp.1980). As a general rule, the trial court must, when requested, find one way or another on a material fact issue. Trigg v. Allemand, 95 N.M. 128, 619 P.2d 573 (Ct.App.1980). See Aguayo v. Village of Chama, 79 N.M. 729, 449 P.2d 331 (1969); State v. Doe.
The single finding of fact adopted by the trial court below is not adequate to permit meaningful appellate review of the issues raised by the father on appeal. The cause is remanded for adoption of specific findings as required under Section 40-4-9.-1. The father is awarded costs incident to this appeal.
IT IS SO ORDERED.
WOOD and BIVINS, JJ., concur. | [
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] |
OPINION
HENDLEY, Judge.
Michael Tom Cherryhomes appeals from his summary conviction for direct criminal contempt. We affirm, but, because of the large fine imposed, we remand this case to the trial court for further consideration.
Facts
Cherryhomes was trial counsel in a criminal case before Judge Harvey W. Fort. During the course of the proceedings, Cherryhomes attempted to bring in certain evidence which he felt would impeach the credibility of one of the state’s witnesses. The jury was excused, and Cherryhomes began his argument to the court. Cherry-homes was attempting to show that there was a verdict of not guilty in a prior case in which this witness had testified. The witness had testified as an expert in drug analysis in the prior case, and was testifying in the same capacity in the proceedings before Judge Fort. Cherryhomes seemed to be attempting to insinuate that the prior verdict was one of acquittal and that the acquittal was a result of this witness’ testimony. The exchange which ensued led to the contempt order against Cherryhomes which is the subject of this appeal. At issue in this exchange was whether the earlier trial had resulted in a jury verdict of acquittal or in a directed verdict by the court.
COURT: And does this, does this file show, and that’s what the court’s looking for, that the jury made a finding that they did not believe the witness, or did they just make a finding of not guilty?.
CHERRYHOMES: What do you think the verdict form says, Judge?
COURT: All right.
CHERRYHOMES: Do you think it has a special verdict form?
COURT: I don’t know.
CHERRYHOMES: Like they do in Texas on findings of fact?
COURT: I, I’m asking you a question, counselor.
CHERRYHOMES: It says we find the defendant not guilty, signed by the foreman.
COURT: Keep your voice down, will you counselor?
CHERRYHOMES: Sure, if you want to insult my intelligence, I’m not saying I’m an intelligent person, but what little I have, I’m entitled not to be insulted on. The verdict says not—
COURT: Yes, counselor.
CHERRYHOMES: Guilty. It does not say we find that Miss Ehart should be [inaudible]. It doesn’t say anything but not guilty. She's a witness that file pointed out. Nobody can contradict it. You were the judge.
Shortly thereafter, Cherryhomes continued with his belligerent behavior.
COURT: And the jury, what, what the court is trying to tell you, if you will just keep quiet long enough for me to make a record, is that there’s nothing in the file in the jury verdict that says on what basis they found. They may have found—
CHERRYHOMES: Who cares, Judge? COURT: All right, just a moment, counselor, and I’m going to order you not to say anything when I talk. You are disrupting the orderly pro — get back to where you were and do not approach the bench. I am ordering you to go back to that witness stand, I mean to go back to that rostrum and do not approach the bench. Do you hear me, counselor? Let the record show that counselor is not moving.
CHERRYHOMES: Oh, I’m moving. COURT: Let the record show that counselor is moving very slow.
CHERRYHOMES: I’m just not moving very fast.
COURT: Very slow, very slow.
CHERRYHOMES: How fast would you like me to move, Judge? Would you like me to jump?
COURT: Counselor—
CHERRYHOMES: I might fall.
COURT: Counselor—
CHERRYHOMES: One of these days, Judge, you’re going to learn that you're a human, and that these people in court are human, and you’re not [inaudible].
COURT: The court is ordering you, the court is ordering you to keep quiet while I speak.
CHERRYHOMES: Speak.
COURT: If you interrupt me one more time, the court is going to find you in contempt of court, and the fine will not exceed $50,000.
CHERRYHOMES: Great.
The court then ordered Cherryhomes not to use the file from the earlier case. Cherry-homes asked the court to take judicial notice of it.
COURT: When you talk to me do not come forward like you are coming counselor, or I will consider that a direct criminal contempt of court. I am ordering you—
CHERRYHOMES: I don't care what you consider—
COURT: I am ordering you, I am ordering you not to approach the bench.
CHERRYHOMES: I’m not approaching the bench, Your Honor. There are 2, 4, 6, 8,10,12,14 people in here that can say whether I’m approaching the bench or not.
COURT: The court is ordering you not to walk toward me when you talk to me. That’s all I said. Thank you.
CHERRYHOMES: Thank you. I’m asking the court not to interrupt me on my argument, too. Just as I do not interrupt the court.
The court warned Cherryhomes twice more that he could be held in contempt if he persisted in using the file or in approaching the bench.
CHERRYHOMES: Judge, that’s three $50,000 threats you’ve made. You want it now, Judge? Let’s make it $300,000.
COURT: No, they’re not threats, counselor, they’re warnings.
CHERRYHOMES: No, they’re threats, Your Honor. I perceive those as a threat by your manner and your attitude.
COURT: The court must warn you what you are doing wrong.
CHERRYHOMES: Your Honor, I’m representing Frank Dominguez, and I’m going to see that he gets a fair trial to the best of my ability. He’s not getting a fair trial right now because of you. He hasn’t received a fair trial all day because of you. You’ve made comments all day in front of the whole jury panel, now that twelve members of the jury, about me, about you can’t ask that question, you can’t do this. Now you’re trying to tell them it’s improper.
After this the court again warned Cherry-homes that he could be found in contempt. Cherryhomes then made a tender for the record.
COURT: And if I remember correctly, counselor, this was a directed verdict by the court. Is that, well, you may answer the question or not, the court is asking you.
CHERRYHOMES: I’m not testifying here, Judge.
COURT: Oh, you’re not testifying.
CHERRYHOMES: No,' I’m not.
COURT: Oh, okay. The court is asking you, counselor, was this a directed verdict by the court based upon the fact that there was not a slip of paper in the, uh, to identify?
CHERRYHOMES: What does the verdict form say, Your Honor?
COURT: The court is asking you a question, counselor.
CHERRYHOMES: I’m answering the question. The verdict form says not guilty. Does it say directed?
COURT: No, it doesn’t.
CHERRYHOMES: Well?
COURT: I’m asking you if this wasn’t a directed verdict.
CHERRYHOMES: What difference does it make, Judge?
COURT: Because the court is asking you, counselor. And not only that, and let’s get this straight, the court is now ordering you to answer the question.
CHERRYHOMES: I’m refusing to.
COURT: If you refuse to answer the question, the court will find that this is disrupting the orderly process of this court. You will be found in direct criminal contempt of court.
CHERRYHOMES: Well, just a minute— COURT: And fined not to exceed $50,-000.
CHERRYHOMES: (Inaudible.)
COURT: The court is now asking you if this was not a case in which the court directed a verdict, because there was no identifying slip of paper in the material.
CHERRYHOMES: If the court’s alleging that I’m going to be charged with direct criminal contempt, I demand a hearing, as I’m entitled to do under the law.
COURT: The court—
CHERRYHOMES: State versus Driscoll [inaudible].
COURT: The court must find, the court is not going to listen to any more. If I find you in direct criminal contempt of court, you are not entitled to any hearing. Now, the court is ordering you to answer the question. Was this a directed verdict, and was it because, in this State versus Cauffman, that there was not a slip of paper, uh, that they could identify the substance with?
CHERRYHOMES: I’ve already answered that question.
COURT: And what was your answer, counselor?
CHERRYHOMES: The verdict says not guilty. And that’s what, that’s the tender I want to make, that’s the evidence I want to get before the jury, because not guilty’s not guilty, whether you [inaudible].
COURT: And the court, and the court is ordering you to answer the question. The court is saying that you are disrupting the orderly process of this court, and the court is going to find you in direct criminal contempt-of court, and I’m going to give you about fifteen minutes, because we’re going to take a break, and I’m going to ask my court reporter to, to get those tapes on State versus Charles Cauffman.
CHERRYHOMES: Well, gee, Your Hon- or, since it’s already on tape, you don’t need my answer. The tapes will answer it. And it doesn’t make any difference.
COURT: And [inaudible] court’s in recess for fifteen minutes.
CHERRYHOMES: Fifteen minutes or fifteen years, because I’m not answering the question any more than I already have. I’ve answered it, and that’s it. I’m not on trial here. I’m an officer of the court. The court has its own file there. It can read its own verdict.
COURT: You haven’t acted like an officer of the court. Are we still on record?
COURT REPORTER: Yes, sir.
COURT: Yes. You haven’t acted like an officer of the court all day.
CHERRYHOMES: And you haven’t acted like a jurist all day, Your Honor. So tit for tat.
COURT: The court is going to order you not to speak in that tone of voice in this courtroom. The next time you talk in that tone of voice, with that smart-alecky answer, the court is going to find that you are in direct criminal contempt of court, and fine you not to exceed $50,000. Now, court's in recess, counselor. Court’s in recess for about fifteen minutes.
CHERRYHOMES: Do I understand I only have to write a check for $200,000?
Cherryhomes was asked at least seven times to tell the court what the disposition of the prior case was. He refused a direct order to answer that question. Cherry-homes was warned at least six times that he would be held in contempt if he failed to answer the question. He was warned that he could be fined in an amount not to exceed $50,000.
As indicated above, the trial judge called a fifteen-minute recess so that he could listen to the tapes of the prior trial and obtain an answer to his question. He found that the case in question had ended in a directed verdict. The trial judge then found Cherryhomes in direct criminal contempt for the way he had acted, and for his refusal to answer the question put to him. Cherryhomes was fined $10,000. He was granted the right of allocution.
Discussion
Cherryhomes raises three issues in his appeal: 1) Was his conduct contemptuous? 2) Was a summary proceeding proper under the circumstances? 3) Was he entitled to a jury trial before a fine of $10,000 could be imposed?
Our review of the record clearly indicates that Cherryhomes’ conduct was contemptuous. Cherryhomes refused to answer the court's question, even when ordered to directly. His manner was belligerent. Cherryhomes’ refusal to answer the court’s questions constituted criminal contempt. State v. Sanchez, 89 N.M. 673, 556 P.2d 359 (Ct.App.1976). Cherryhomes, having refused to answer in the presence of the court, committed direct contempt. In re Klecan, 93 N.M. 637, 603 P.2d 1094 (1979).
Because Cherryhomes committed direct criminal contempt, the trial court could proceed against him summarily. State v. Diamond, 94 N.M. 118, 607 P.2d 656 (Ct.App.1980). Cherryhomes’ behavior clearly involved a disruption of the trial and blatant disrespect for the court. Klecan; State v. Driscoll, 89 N.M. 541, 555 P.2d 136 (1976). Cherryhomes was warned at least six times that he would be held in contempt if he continued to refuse to answer the court. Cherryhomes was given the opportunity to speak. Our review of the record shows that Judge Fort exercised restraint and patience in this case. The trial court, therefore, did not err in the procedure it employed in finding Cherryhomes in contempt. Klecan. A summary proceeding was proper under the circumstances.
Cherryhomes was fined $10,000. In Seven Rivers Farm, Inc. v. Reynolds, 84 N.M. 789, 508 P.2d 1276 (1973), the Supreme Court of New Mexico held that a fine in excess of $1,000 gives the defendant the right to a jury trial. Therefore, since Cherryhomes’ fine exceeded $1,000, he had the right to a jury trial on the contempt charge. The fine imposed by the court was excessive, and cannot stand.
Although this Court lacks the authority to modify Cherryhomes’ sentence, our determination that the fine was excessive does not put an end to our inquiry. State v. Case, 100 N.M. 173, 667 P.2d 978 (Ct.App.1983). It is clear that Cherryhomes acted contemptuously in the presence of the court. However, we are not limited to reversal or ordering a jury trial for Cherry-homes as our options in our disposition of this case. Case allows this Court to remand to the trial court for further proceedings. At the trial level, the state must choose how it wishes to proceed. The state may opt to proceed by jury trial, or it may opt to impose a fine not to exceed $1,000.
Based on the foregoing, the conviction and sentence for contempt are vacated. This cause is remanded to the trial court with the following instructions:
1. The state is to choose how to proceed in the trial court.
2. The state may choose that Cherry-homes be sentenced for contempt with any fine imposed not to exceed $1,000. Cherry-homes has the right of allocution before imposition of his sentence.
3. The state may choose to proceed by jury trial. Cherryhomes has the right to counsel at this proceeding, and the fine imposed may exceed $1,000.
IT IS SO ORDERED.
DONNELLY, C.J., and GARCIA, J., concur.
HENDLEY, J., specially concurs. | [
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OPINION
NEAL, Judge.
Defendant was convicted of four counts of issuing worthless checks and twenty-two counts of fraud. (In the first appeal of this conviction we mistakenly referred to five counts of fraud and twenty-one counts of issuing worthless checks.) He was sentenced to a total of four years and six months imprisonment. He was credited with two hundred days of presentence confinement. His conviction was affirmed by this court in State v. Aaron, 102 N.M. 187, 692 P.2d 1336 (Ct.App.1984).
In this appeal defendant contends (1) that the trial court erred in not crediting the presentence confinement against the sentence imposed on each count rather than against the total sentence imposed; (2) that the order denying his post-conviction motion is an appealable order; and (3) that denial of his right to appeal is unconstitutional.
Defendant filed a motion to correct sentence under NMSA 1978, Section 31-11-6 (Repl.Pamp.1984), requesting the court to credit him with two hundred days presentence confinement against each sentence imposed. The trial court denied the motion by its order filed on August 3, 1984. He mailed his notice of appeal to the Bernalillo County District Court on August 6, 1984. The notice was not filed until September 24, 1984.
Initially, this appeal was assigned to a summary calendar and summary dismissal was proposed. The defendant filed a memorandum in opposition. This court then assigned the case to the legal calendar.
The first calendaring notice cited three reasons why this court could not entertain the appeal. First, the notice of appeal was not timely filed. Second, the trial court was without jurisdiction to enter an appeal-able order because notice of appeal had been filed in the first appeal, and that appeal was still pending. Third, Section 31-11-6 confers no right to appeal under State v. Garcia, 101 N.M. 232, 680 P.2d 613 (Ct.App.1984). The state urges this court to reach the merits. We dismiss the appeal under the second ground above, but we discuss the merits of defendant’s argument as a guide to the district court on remand.
Procedural Issues.
The order defendant seeks to appeal was filed August 3, 1984. The notice of appeal was not filed until September 24, 1984, and was, therefore, untimely. This defect is jurisdictional. State v. Brinkley, 78 N.M. 39, 428 P.2d 13 (1967). However, defendant, who was in custody in New Mexico when he mailed the notice of appeal, asserts in his memorandum in opposition that he mailed his notice to the Bernalillo County District Court Clerk on August 6, 1984, within the time for appeal, but that, “[i]t is the practice of the Bernalillo County District Court [clerk] to file pro se pleadings when she so desires.” The state does not disagree. As the state notes, his claim is circumstantially supported by his certificate of service, and under the circumstances the appeal should be considered timely because “a basis exists for avoiding the effect of the rules.” State v. Martinez, 84 N.M. 766, 767, 508 P.2d 36, 37 (Ct.App.1973); State v. Garlick, 80 N.M. 352, 456 P.2d 185 (1969). We agree and consider the appeal as timely filed.
The motion to correct sentence was filed by defendant during the pendency of defendant’s first appeal. Therefore, the trial court lacked jurisdiction to rule on the motion. State v. Garcia, 99 N.M. 466, 469-470, 659 P.2d 918, 921-922 (Ct.App.1983). Even if the trial court had jurisdiction we would be compelled to dismiss the appeal under State v. Garcia, 101 N.M. 232, 680 P.2d 613 (Ct.App.1984), holding that Section 31-11-6 provides no right to appeal independent of the N.M. Const, art. VI, § 2, due to the conflict between the statute and NMSA 1978, Crim.P. Rule 57 (Repl.Pamp.1980). However, the trial court regained jurisdiction after issuance of the mandate in the first appeal. Under NMSA 1978, Crim.P. Rule 57.1 (Repl.Pamp. 1980), the district court may reduce an illegal sentence within thirty days of the mandate from an appellate court having the effect of affirming the judgment. As stated in the Committee Commentary to the section, “[tjhis rule is not to be construed as allowing the reduction, deferral or suspension of a sentence unless such modification of sentence is consistent with applicable New Mexico law. See 31-18-12 to 31-21-26 NMSA 1978.” The presentence confinement statute is within the cited sections. Therefore, as the trial court may rule on the defendant’s motion upon remand, or may act under Rule 57.1, we discuss whether reduction of his sentence under defendant’s theory would be “consistent with applicable New Mexico law.”
Credit for Presentence Confinement.
The trial court imposed a total sentence of four and one-half years for all of defendant’s twenty-six convictions. The court imposed sentences for all convictions, making some consecutive and some concurrent. The court then subtracted the two-hundred day presentence confinement from the total sentence imposed. Defendant contends that the court erred in not applying the two hundred days to the sentence for each count. NMSA 1978, Section 31-20-12 (Repl.Pamp.1981) states:
A person held in official confinement on suspicion or charges of the commission of a felony shall, upon conviction of that or a lesser included offense, be given credit for the period spent in presentence confinement against any sentence finally imposed for that offense.
Defendant contends that the language “any sentence” is not limited to one sentence and, therefore, he must be given two hundred days credit against each of the twenty-six sentences.
The fallacy of this argument is made apparent from the facts of this case. If defendant were credited with two hundred days against each sentence, his credit for serving two hundred days presentence confinement would be 5,200 days, while his actual sentence is only four and one-half years, and he would serve no time in prison for the convictions. Thus the more crimes a defendant is convicted of, the more credit he would receive for presentence confinement.
The court must give effect to legislative intent which will avoid absurd, unreasonable, or unjust results. State v. Santillanes, 99 N.M. 89, 654 P.2d 542. The legislative intent in enacting Section 31-20-12 was to entitle a defendant to one day’s credit against his total sentence for each day spent in presentence confinement. Further, NMSA 1978, Section 33-2-39 (Repl.Pamp.1983) provides that when one has been convicted of several convictions with separate sentences, the sentences shall be construed as one continuous sentence of the length of all the sentences combined. State v. Miller, 79 N.M. 392, 444 P.2d 577 (1968). Other jurisdictions with statutes similar to Section 31-20-12 have held that credit is not to be multiplied by the number of different sentences imposed. See State v. Hoch, 102 Idaho 351, 630 P.2d 143 (1981); Commonwealth v. Carter, 10 Mass.App. 618, 411 N.E.2d 184 (1980), for example.
Defendant relies on the four New Mexico decisions, none of which involve the issue of credit for presentence confinement on multiple charges in one case. State v. Ramzy, 98 N.M. 436, 649 P.2d 504 (Ct.App.1982) and State v. Barefield, 92 N.M. 768, 595 P.2d 406 (Ct.App.1979) involved credit for confinement in separate cases, that is, separate prosecutions. State v. Harris, 101 N.M. 12, 677 P.2d 625 (Ct.App.1984) and State v. Baker, 90 N.M. 291, 562 P.2d 1145 (Ct.App.1977) involved sentences under our Habitual Offender Act. These four cases do not support defendant and do not require a result contrary to ohr holding in this case.
The appeal is dismissed, but the trial court’s original determination that defendant is to receive two hundred days credit against his total sentence of four and one-half years is correct.
IT IS SO ORDERED.
DONNELLY, C.J., and WOOD, J., concur. | [
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] |
OPINION
SOSA, Senior Justice.
This case raises the issues of whether the trial court exceeded the scope of its mandate from this Court and of what remains of the law of the case, after both parties have reversed the positions they had maintained at trial and on appeal. We hold that the second trial court did exceed its jurisdiction and remand again for a proper and final disposition of the matter, which will include an equitable tolling of the terms of the oil and gas leases in dispute.
HNG Fossil Fuels Company (HNG)-first filed this action in August, 1980, seeking an order of interpleader and a declaratory judgment determining entitlement to delay rentals paid under two oil and gas leases in Colfax County. Defendants T.L. Roach et. al. (Roaches) were owners of the surface estates and executors of the leases. The leases contained non-warranty clauses which required HNG, as lessee, to bear the burden of determining title or interests in the land or minerals. Defendants Thomsons owned a 50% “non-participating mineral interest” in the property.
At the first trial, the district court determined that the Thomsons had no interest in the delay rentals. The trial court also ruled that the leases were cancelled because HNG had breached the non-warranty clauses by interpleading Roaches. Judgment was entered on June 15, 1981. On appeal, this Court affirmed as to the Thomsons’ interests, but reversed on the issue of cancellation. The case was then remanded for a determination of “the amount of damages and costs” incurred by the Roaches. HNG Fossil Fuels Co. v. Roach, 99 N.M. 216, 221, 656 P.2d 879, 884 (1982) (HNG I). Unfortunately, by the time the opinion of this Court was filed (December 29, 1982), the primary lease had expired by its own terms on September 1, 1982.
On the remand (filed on January 1, 1983) a different judge determined that HNG was entitled to a refund of its deposit into the court registry of the delay rentals for the year 1980-1981, the sum of $82,172.35. While the first appeal was pending, HNG had made a tender of the rentals covering the 1981-82 lease period to the Roaches’ depository bank. Roaches rejected the tender. That sum was likewise awarded to HNG by the district court.
The issue before us now is whether the district court exceeded the bounds of its mandate by denying Roaches’ claims to the delay rentals and the tender.
Roaches argue that the second trial court ignored the law of the case by refunding the deposited rentals. The original leases simply called for HNG to pay the rentals directly to Roaches. When Thomsons advised HNG that they claimed a 50% interest in the rentals, HNG sought to protect itself from possible termination of the lease by filing the interpleader action. HNG I at 218, 656 P.2d 879. At that time, HNG did not contend that the rentals should not be paid, only that HNG was in doubt as to the proper recipient. That question was litigated and answered by the trial court in favor of the Roaches. This Court affirmed that answer.
Nevertheless, on remand HNG contended that Roaches were no longer entitled to the rental payments, even though the next year’s rental had also been tendered. HNG’s revised theory is that Roaches may not claim the rentals because Roaches had argued for cancellation based on breach of the non-warranty clauses. HNG contends that its title to the leases was so seriously undermined by Roaches’ litigation position that the leases had become worthless to a prudent operator. Both parties have essentially reversed their prior positions, with HNG now claiming that Roaches breached the lease agreements, while Roaches respond that the leases have always been in full force with rentals payable to Roaches.
Roaches assert that they manifested no action which would have prevented HNG from continuing to explore under the leases, a right secured by the deposits of delay rentals with the court. In fact, say Roaches, HNG now wants to get out of the leases because the entire area, of which the leases cover a portion, consists of “dry holes” which lack sufficient mineralization to be worth developing. Furthermore, HNG no longer needs the leases because it has since severed its subsidiary which had hoped to develop the mineral interests.
HNG replies instead that a “cloud of cancellation” hovered over the leases until this court dispelled it on December 29, 1982. But by that time, the leases had expired by their own terms.
The trial court, on remand, did award damages and costs to Roaches for defending the declaratory judgment and inter-pleader actions, but not for the cost of pursuing the counterclaim of cancellation. The second trial court determined, however, that HNG should get back the consideration it had paid in, since it had lost its bargained-for right to explore. The court found that circumstances had changed since the mandate, such that HNG can no longer obtain any benefit from the leases, even if they were still in effect. The court concluded as a matter of law that the concept of tolling of the leases could not be considered because it was beyond the mandate. Finally, the district court awarded the refund to HNG under a theory of unjust enrichment, ruling that, “[i]n connection with delay rentals, every equity in this case is wholly in favor of the plaintiff HNG and wholly against the defendants Roach”.
This case is simpler than counsel would lead this Court to believe. HNG paid into the court registry the delay rentals because it believed the leases to be in effect and wanted to preserve its exploration rights. Even after the trial court had determined that the leases were cancelled, HNG tendered payment for the succeeding year to protect its options. If the primary lease had not expired by its own terms prior to the filing of this Court’s opinion, then there is no question that the leases would still be valid and that Roaches would be entitled to the delay rentals. Or, if HNG had not pursued the interpleader action, but instead had simply continued to pay the rentals to Roaches and had defended directly against Thomsons, the entire problem would not have arisen. If, as HNG contends, its decision not to explore was owing solely to considerations of prudence brought about by the cloud created by Roaches’ claim of cancellation, then that decision could have been reversed when this Court held that the leases were still in effect. But by that time, the leases had expired by their own terms. Hence, HNG argues, it has lost its bargained-for benefit. HNG sought relief from the equitable powers of the trial court, urging that the distribution of the delay rentals was merely a “housekeeping chore” to clean up a matter not expressly addressed on appeal.
What this Court held in HNG I was that the leases were still in effect and that the Thomsons had no claim to any of them. We now make explicit the logical conclusion that the rentals therefore must have been owed at all times to the Roaches. HNG made a tender to Roaches on August 28, 1981 of the delay rentals for 1981-82 because (on the advice of counsel) it correctly anticipated the decision of this Court and wished to preserve its option to continue exploration. HNG later made no effort to extend the deadline of the primary lease, but allowed it to expire on September 1, 1982 by its own terms.
Both parties have called to our attention the case of Jicarilla Apache Tribe v. Andrus, 687 F.2d 1324 (10th Cir.1982), which presents many similarities to the case at bar. In Jicarilla, the Tribe sued the Secretary of the Interior and oil and gas lessees for failure to comply with statutory requirements of notice in advertising leases on the Tribe’s reservation in New Mexico. The trial court determined that the terms of the leases should be tolled during the pendency of litigation. Furthermore, the trial court excused the lessees from payment of delay rentals during that period.
The Tenth Circuit expressed its approval of the tolling concept, but reversed on the issue of delay rentals. The court agreed that:
[A] lessee need not pay rentals while the lessor is asserting that the lease has terminated. The lessee, however, is not relieved of the liability for these payments. If the lease is subsequently held valid, the lessee is then liable for the payments and must pay them within a reasonable time.
Id. at 1342.
In “balancing the equities,” the court decided that the loss resulting from delay must fall somewhere and since the Tribe was successful in its primary claim, but not as to its choice of remedy, i.e., cancellation, it should be entitled to the rentals which had been placed in escrow even though the lessees had received no benefits during the time of tolling. Id. at 1343. Significantly, the trial court had ruled against the Tribe that a cancellation of the leases was the appropriate remedy. This ruling was upheld on appeal.
Jicarilla is consistent with the holding of this Court in HNG I, that is, that the leases remain in effect when they have been secured by the payment of delay rentals. The differences are, first, that the trial, court here did not toll the terms of the leases, so that the main one expired before this Court had rendered its opinion. Second, the trial court here erroneously ruled that cancellation of the leases was required. This did constitute a cloud on HNG’s rights to explore.
Now we are faced with a complicated situation where the equities are scattered. HNG maintains that Roaches created the cloud by counterclaiming cancellation. Roaches reply that all they ever wanted was to receive the rentals; that their bargained-for-benefit was payment, which went not to them, but into the court registry as a result of the filing of interpleader by HNG. On the remand, the trial court concluded as a matter of law that tolling was outside the scope of its mandate, and that, even if it were not,' tolling would be inequitable due to changed circumstances. The court seemed much impressed by the fact that HNG has no further use for the leases, because of the decline in oil production and the severance of HNG’s production subsidiary. Thus, the court determined that it would be a burden, rather than a benefit, to HNG if the leases were reinstated.
? note that the changed factual conditions were not caused or precipitated by any action of the Roaches and are, strictly speaking, irrelevant. HNG bargained only for the right to explore, not for certainty of a profitable operation. Just as we held that HNG was entitled to pursue its legal action in interpleader, so now we hold that Roaches were entitled to assert the counterclaim of cancellation, even though, as in Jicarilla, that remedy was legally inappropriate. Because the leases were subsequently held to be valid, HNG is liable for payments during this period. Jicarilla, 637 F.2d at 1342.
As to the issue of the tender of delay rentals while the appeal was pending, we agree with Roaches that the tender was properly made and was effective to continue the lease for another year. Ballard v. Miller, 87 N.M. 86, 529 P.2d 752 (1974). Consequently, no interest on this amount is due to Roaches. Smith v. Owens, 397 P.2d 673 (Okl.1963).
On the issue of tolling, it was the contemplation of this Court in HNG I that there would be no doubt as to the validity of the leases once our opinion had issued. The possible expiration of the primary lease by its own terms was simply not brought to the attention of this Court. It would seem that the position of HNG changed between August 28, 1981, when it tendered the rentals to keep the lease alive, and September 1, 1982, when it allowed the lease to expire without reminding this Court of the deadline.
Just as did the Tenth Circuit in Jicarilla, we must balance the equities in light of all the pertinent facts and circumstances. Like the Jicarilla Tribe, Roaches were correct in their basic position, namely their defense to the declaratory judgment action, but incorrect as to the proper remedy (cancellation) to be applied. On the other hand, unlike the Jicarilla case, HNG was also correct in its basic position, that interpleader was an acceptable (if not the preferred) procedure to avoid multiple liability and possible forfeiture of its leasehold interests.
Thus, we conclude that the delay in resolving the legal issues was the fault of neither party. Common sense supports the equitable procedure of tolling the term of the leases from the time of judgment in the declaratory judgment and interpleader action, through the date of issuance of the opinion in HNG I. Since HNG has achieved no benefit during this period, but is liable for the delay rental payments because the leases were held to be valid, an extension of the term is the appropriate remedy. HNG has paid or tendered payment of delay rentals for two years. The cloud of cancellation lasted about 18 months.
HNG did seek the equitable powers of our courts to uphold its exploration rights under the leases, and paid the delay rentals into the court registry to secure those rights. We can only give HNG the relief it sought, a determination that the leases are in effect and payable to Roaches. If those leases have now diminished in value due to changed factual circumstances, those changes are not fairly attributable either to Roaches or to the deliberative pace of the judicial process. Accordingly, it would be inequitable now to relieve HNG of an obligation which it initially asked our courts to enforce.
The proper disposition of this matter pursuant to the Opinion and Mandate of this Court in HNG I is to award to Roaches:
1. The original interplead deposit of delay rentals, plus interest at the statutory rate;
2. The amount tendered to the Amarillo National Bank on August 28, 1981, with no interest;
3. Damages and costs to Roaches in defending the declaratory judgment and interpleaded action (as already determined); and
4. Damages and costs in recovering the deposited rentals.
The judgment of the trial court is reversed and the matter remanded for proceedings consistent with this opinion including the entry of an order tolling the term of the leases from the filing of the judgment to the date of the Opinion in HNG I.
IT IS SO ORDERED.
RIORDAN, C.J., and WALTERS, J., concur.
. The trial court characterized as “frivolous” the position of Roaches that they were entitled to 100% of the delay rentals, yet that position was confirmed by the first trial court and affirmed on appeal by this Court. Even the suggestion that the proper remedy was cancellation was adopted by the first trial court, although reversed on appeal. [We note that the trial court adopted verbatim, epithets and all, the findings of fact and conclusions of law submitted by HNG.] | [
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OPINION
FEDERICI, Chief Justice.
Court-appointed attorney petitions this Court for a writ of mandamus against the Chief Public Defender, Janet Clow (Chief Public Defender), and a writ of prohibition against the Honorable Larry Johnson (Judge Johnson), District Judge of the Fifth Judicial District. The relief sought against the Chief Public Defender is to require the Public Defender Department to perform its statutory duties of providing counsel for indigents in criminal proceedings pending in the trial court when the local public defender claims to be disqualified because of a conflict of interest.
Defendant George Patton (Defendant) was initially charged by criminal information in the Magistrate Court of Lea County. In those proceedings, Defendant made application for assistance of counsel by reason of indigency and the local office of public defender was appointed by the magistrate to represent Defendant. Thereafter, the office of public defender filed notice of a conflict of interest and requested that counsel from the office of public defender be authorized to withdraw from representation of Defendant because of such conflict of interest. Subsequently Defendant was indicted by the Lea County Grand Jury and charges pending against him in the magistrate court were dismissed.
Following indictment of Defendant in the district court, the public defender was allowed to withdraw as counsel for Defendant and Attorney R.E. Richards (Petitioner) was designated by Judge Johnson to represent Defendant in the district court proceedings. Petitioner requested to be relieved of his appointed duties of representation before the district court. The request was denied by Judge Johnson.
Upon application for writ of mandamus and prohibition and issuance of alternative writ of prohibition, Judge Johnson relieved Petitioner of any duties or responsibilities of representation of Defendant, but left his successor in interest, Charles Imke, with the responsibility of providing such representation.
The issue on appeal is: What are the duties of the Chief Public Defender to provide counsel to indigents when the Public Defender Department asserts a conflict of interest or other disqualification on the part of the local office of public defender?
It is the position of Petitioner that the Chief Public Defender is under a statutory duty to provide counsel to indigents notwithstanding a conflict of interest or other disqualification on 'the part of the local public defender in a particular district. Petitioner contends that, when the Public Defender Department asserts a conflict of interest or other disqualification on behalf of the local office of public defender, the Public Defender is under a statutory duty to provide counsel other than the local counsel who asserts a conflict or other disqualification. It is further the position of Petitioner that the Chief Public Defender is under a statutory duty to provide and make arrangements for the representation of indigents from other public defenders in the Public Defender Department, including contract attorneys. We agree with Petitioner.
Under the Public Defender Act, NMSA 1978, Section 31-15-10(B) (Repl.Pamp. 1984), the office of the public defender is directed and required to “represent every person without counsel who is financially unable to obtain counsel and who is charged in any court within the district with any crime that carries a possible sentence of imprisonment * * *.” In the event that the public defender in the district is unable to represent the indigent, NMSA 1978, Section 31-15-10(D) (Repl. Pamp.1984) requires that: “[t]he district public defender shall notify the chief if, for any reason, he is unable to represent a person entitled to his representation, and the chief shall make provision for representation." (Emphasis added.)
The duties of the Public Defender Department, through the Chief Public Defender, are mandatory and clear. The courts of New Mexico have generally interpreted the term “shall” to be mandatory, in construing statutes dealing with duties of public officers. Jaramillo v. O’Toole, 97 N.M. 345, 639 P.2d 1199 (1982); State v. Davis, 97 N.M. 745, 643 P.2d 614 (Ct.App.1982). The Public Defender Department was created for the express purpose of providing representation of indigents in criminal cases through staff attorneys and contract attorneys. See NMSA 1978, § 31-15-11(C) (Repl.Pamp.1984).
We do not agree with the Chief Public Defender that all staff attorneys or contract attorneys within the State of New Mexico cannot represent a defendant merely because of a conflict of interest or disqualification of the attorneys in a particular county or judicial district. The Chief Public Defender cites in support of her contention, State v. Hernandez, 100 N.M. 501, 672 P.2d 1132 (1983); State v. Robinson, 99 N.M. 674, 662 P.2d 1341, cert. denied, 464 U.S. 851, 104 S.Ct. 161, 78 L.Ed.2d 147 (1983); State v. Valdez, 95 N.M. 70, 618 P.2d 1234 (1980). Reliance upon those cases is misplaced. The above authorities do not support the position that no public defender office within the State of New Mexico can represent Defendant by reason of the conflict of interest that may exist with particular attorneys in a local geographical area. The above cases do not support the position that the Public Defender Department, through its staff attorneys or contract attorneys in other areas of the State who are without knowledge of or participation in, or are not affected by, the alleged instances of conflict or disqualification, is disqualified from representing Defendant.
The Court recognizes that there may be instances of complete inability on the part of the Public Defender Department to represent indigents in specific cases and that this inability would extend statewide so that no public defender could be available to represent a particular indigent. In those situations, the Public Defender Department should be relieved from the responsibility of providing representation. But that relief must be granted by order of the court, upon a proper showing by the Chief Public Defender. The Chief Public Defender cannot place the responsibility of finding replacement counsel upon the judiciary. NMSA 1978, § 31-15~10(D). In the event that a conflict of interest or disqualification is claimed to exist by the Public Defender Department, the court shall: (1) determine whether a conflict of interest or other disqualification of the office of public defender in fact exists, (2) determine whether the conflict or disqualification is local or statewide, (3) if the conflict or disqualification is local, direct the Chief Public Defender to provide a staff attorney or contract attorney from another county or district to represent the indigent, and (4) if the conflict or disqualification extends beyond the county or district, then the court may appoint counsel for the indigent defendant.
We note and commend the Chief Public Defender for admitting that not all cases in which the Public Defender Department encounters a conflict should be routinely handled through court appointment.
? recognize that although the Public Defender Department is required under the Public Defender Act to provide counsel for indigents through judicial appointment, yet such court appointment of counsel is an inherent power of the judiciary, which safeguards state and federal constitutional rights to be defended by counsel. N.M.Const. art. II, § 14; Gideon v. Wainwright, 372 U.S. 335, 83 S.Ct. 792, 9 L.Ed.2d 799 (1963); Johnson v. Zerbst, 304 U.S. 458, 58 S.Ct. 1019, 82 L.Ed. 1461 (1938). In State v. Rascon, 89 N.M. 254, 259, 550 P.2d 266, 271 (1976), we stated:
The Public Defender Act is not self-executing insofar as rendition of services by the defender is concerned. The ultimate decision as to whether such services will be rendered is left to the district courts within guidelines established by statute, court rule or judicial decision. Converse ly, it is clear the decision is not left either to the person detained or to the public defender. (Emphasis added.)
Where a conflict or other disqualification arises rendering continued representation by the Public Defender Department or by contract counsel unethical, improper or illegal, and the court has so determined, then the court, under its inherent power, shall appoint counsel to represent the indigent in furtherance of the Public Defender Act. State v. Rascón.
The writ of mandamus against the Chief Public Defender is granted and made permanent. The writ against Judge Johnson is quashed. The cause is remanded to the district court for a determination consistent with this opinion as to whether the Public Defender Department should be relieved of its responsibility to provide representation for Defendant, George Patton, in this case. IT IS SO ORDERED.
SOSA, Senior Justice and WALTERS, J., concur. | [
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OPINION
WALTERS, Justice.
This case concerns the res judicata effect of a bankruptcy court decision, after a claims objection hearing, in a state district court foreclosure suit. Plaintiff State Savings initiated suit in the district court on June 30, 1983. Defendants Rendons answered the complaint but then filed a Chapter 13 bankruptcy petition, which stayed the foreclosure suit.
In the bankruptcy proceeding, State Savings filed a proof of claim. The Rendons objected to certain claimed late charges and attorney fees. Following a hearing, the bankruptcy court ruled against the Rendons. The matter was subsequently converted to a Chapter 7 proceeding and the bankruptcy judge lifted the stay.
Upon resumption of the foreclosure suit the district court, among other things, set aside a consent judgment of foreclosure and allowed the Rendons to file an amended answer and counterclaim, alleging federal and state disclosure violations. State Savings moved for summary judgment, arguing that because the Rendons failed to raise the disclosure violations as a compulsory counterclaim in the bankruptcy proceeding, the issue was precluded. State Savings claimed that the bankruptcy court’s refusal to reconsider the claims objection on new grounds of disclosure violations was res judicata on the issue in the state court suit. The court denied State Savings’ motion for summary judgment; we granted an interlocutory appeal to decide whether res judicata applied.
If the disclosure violation claim was required to be pled as a compulsory counterclaim in the bankruptcy suit, then the Rendons lost their claim by their failure to bring it in the proper court at the proper time. See Baker v. Southern Pacific Transportation, 542 F.2d 1123 (9th Cir.1976); Heffern v. First Interstate Bank, 99 N.M. 531, 660 P.2d 621 (Ct.App.1983); 3 J. Moore, Federal Practice § 13.12[1] (2d ed.1985). However, the claim may be compulsory in the bankruptcy case only if the claims objection hearing can be considered an “adversary proceeding” because only adversary proceedings are governed by Part VII of the Bankruptcy Rules of Procedure. Specifically, Bankruptcy Rule 7013 of Part VII adopts Federal Rule of Civil Procedure 13(a), which requires that all compulsory counterclaims be pled. Even if Bankruptcy Rule 7013 is applicable, however, the claim is not compulsory if it falls within the “pending action” exception of Rule 13(a), which provides:
(a) Compulsory Counterclaims. A pleading shall state as a counterclaim any claim which at the time of serving the pleading the pleader has against any opposing party, if it arises out of the transaction or occurrence that is the subject matter of the opposing party’s claim and does not require for its adjudication the presence of third parties of whom the Court cannot acquire jurisdiction. But the pleader need not state the claim if (1) at the time the action was commenced the claim was the subject of another pending action, or (2) the opposing party brought suit upon his claim by attachment or other process by which the court did not acquire jurisdiction to render a personal judgment on that claim, and the pleader is not stating any counterclaim under this Rule 13. (Emphasis supplied.)
Consequently, we must decide if the claims objection hearing in the bankruptcy action was an adversary proceeding as would require compulsory counterclaims to be pled and, if so, whether the claim is within the exception for pending actions.
Regarding the first question, State Savings contends that when the Rendons objected to excessive late charges and attorney fees, they called into question the extent of the lien; in so doing, they necessarily asked the court to determine the “validity, priority or extent of the lien.” Such a determination is a proceeding defined as an adversary proceeding by Bankruptcy Rule 7001. Since it was an adversarial proceeding, argues plaintiff, Fed.Civ.P.Rule 13(a) was applicable and Rendons should have then contested the validity and extent of the lien on grounds of the alleged disclosure violations at the time.
The Rendons respond that it was incumbent upon State Savings to specifically request the kind of relief listed in Bankruptcy Rule 7001 in order that the proceedings become adversarial. They also point out that the objection hearing was for the limited purpose of determining the amount of their payment obligation and terms of payment in the context of a bankruptcy reorganization plan.
No case specifically explains the distinction between a “contested matter” and a dispute calling for designation as a more formal “adversary proceeding.” Generally, however, the phrase “contested matter” appears to embrace routine issues which lend themselves to expedited schedules. See Bankr.Rule 7001 advisory committee note; Bankr.Rule 9014 (relief from automatic stay); see also Bankr.Rule 6004 (motion for use, sale or lease of property); Bankr.Rule 6007 (abandonment); Bankr. Rule 4003(d) (avoidance by the debtor of transfers of exempt property). In comparison, an “adversary proceeding” usually refers to a particularized kind of dispute. See e.g., In re 221A Holding Corp., 1 B.R. 506, 5 Bankr.Ct.Dec. (CRR) 949, (E.D.Pa. 1979) (turnover proceedings); Palombo Farms of Colorado, Inc. v. National Acceptance Corp., (In re Palombo Farms of Colorado, Inc.), 43 B.R. 709 (Bkrtcy.Colo. 1984) (objection to claim and motion for determination of valuation give rise to adversary proceeding); In re lj38 Meridian Place N.W., Inc., 11 B.R. 352, Bankr.L. Rep. (CCH) ¶ 68042 (Bkrtcy.D.C.1981) (to surrender possession of real property).
Simmons v. Savell (In re Simmons), 765 F.2d 547, 552, 13 Bankr.Ct.Dec. (CRR) 949 (5th Cir.1985), analogizes:
The objection to a claim initiates a contested matter unless the objection is joined with a counterclaim asking for the kind of relief specified in Bankruptcy Rule 7001____ It has been said that the filing of a proof of claim is tantamount to the filing of a complaint in a civil action, See Nortex Trading Corp. v. Newfield, 311 F.2d 163 (2d Cir.1962), and the trustee’s formal objection to the claim, the answer. See 3 Collier on Bankruptcy, § 502.01, at 502-16.
Looking at the Rendons’ objection to the claim as something akin to an answer, and the objection as uncommon, it appears to us that the hearing in bankruptcy court was an adversarial proceeding.
Notwithstanding that the proceeding was adversarial, however, a counterclaim for disclosure violations would not be compulsory in the bankruptcy suit if it was the “subject of a pending action” at the time the adversary proceeding in bankruptcy court commenced.
At the time that the appellee filed the complaint for termination of the stay, appellants’ claims [for usury, fraud, breach of contract, and negligence] concerned the subject matter of the action pending in Florida state court. Professor Moore has stated that the proviso to Rule 13 has the effect of converting an otherwise compulsory counterclaim into a permissive counterclaim. 3 J. Moore, Federal Practice § 13.14 (2d ed. 1948). [Emphasis added.]
Krause v. Essex Properties, Ltd., (In re Essex Properties, Ltd.), 430 F.Supp. 1112, 1114, 3 Bankr.Ct.Dec. (CRR) 331 (N.D.Cal.1977).
Although generally the counterclaimant has the option of asserting the claim in either forum, Union Paving Co. v. Downer Corp., 276 F.2d 468 (9th Cir.1960), some bankruptcy courts will adhere strictly to the pending action exception and dismiss the second suit, Community Savings Bank v. Canter (In re Canter), 5 Bankr. Ct.Dec. (CRR) 1001, 1 B.R. 172 (Bkrtcy. Mass.1979). Krause, 430 F.Supp. at 1115, further suggests that the then-pending claim, being permissive, calls into question the bankruptcy court’s jurisdiction to hear the claim: “Moreover, permissive counterclaims under Rule 13(b) of the Federal Rules of Civil Procedure generally require independent grounds for jurisdiction.” It follows then, that if the Rendons’ claim was the “subject matter of a pending action” at the time of the bankruptcy adversary proceeding, the bankruptcy court might have disallowed litigation of the issue — at most the counterclaim would have been permissive and the Rendons would have had the option of litigating the counterclaim in either forum.
State Savings contends that the Rendons’ counterclaim was not “pending” at the time the adversarial proceeding commenced because the answer, in the district court suit, did not yet contain the allegation of disclosure violations. The Rendons say that allowance of an amended answer and counterclaim by the district court judge effects a relation back which satisfies the requirement of a counterclaim “pending” at the time the bankruptcy adversary proceeding commenced. NMSA 1978, Civ.P.Rule 15(c) (Repl.Pamp.1980). New Mexico has not applied Rule 15(c) in the context argued, but the federal courts have had occasion to interpret its federal counterpart, Fed.Civ.P. Rule 15(c). A decision on this novel use of relation back principles also necessitates a look to the policy of Rule 15(c).
Although “relation back” is generally applied to protect against statutes of limitation, see 6 C. Wright and A. Miller, Federal Practice and Procedure, § 1496 (1971), the doctrine has been extended to other contexts, see 3 J. Moore, Federal Practice § 15.15[5] (2d ed.1985). Particularly on point is Columbia Plaza Corp. v. Security National Bank, 525 F.2d 620 (D.C.Cir.1975), where an amended complaint in federal court related back specifically to allow application of the pending action exception in a later-filed state proceeding. Plaintiff’s amended complaint in Columbia Plaza brought to light certain notes mentioned in defendant’s state court suit. The court allowed the reference to the notes to relate back to the first-filed federal action, thus making the notes the subject of a pending action when the state suit was later filed. Although there are cases wherein courts have refused to extend the “relation back” doctrine, they have been concerned with deprivation of substantial rights, e.g., United States v. Stromberg, 227 F.2d 903 (5th Cir.1955) (no relation back because denaturalization suit not ordinary civil proceeding), or would have permitted a result inconsistent with the rule’s remedial purpose, e.g., Security Insurance Co. of New Haven v. United States ex rel. Haydis, 338 F.2d 444 (9th Cir.1964) (no relation back when complaint prematurely filed).
There is an apparent split of authority on whether an omitted counterclaim will relate back to the original answer. Compare, Stoner v. Terranella, 372 F.2d 89 (6th Cir.1967), with Butler v. Poffinberger, 49 F.R.D. 8 (N.D.W.Va.1970). We are persuaded, however, that:
[T]he strong liberal amendment policy expressed in Rule 15 ... indicate[s] that an omitted counterclaim should relate back provided it arose from the same conduct, transaction, or occurrence set forth in the original pleading.
6 C. Wright and A. Miller, Federal Practice and Procedure § 1496, at 488-89.
Thus, the Rendons’ counterclaim, together with their amended answer, relates back to the original answer. Because of the relation back doctrine, therefore, we must deem the issue to have been pending in the foreclosure suit at the time of the bankruptcy court adversarial proceeding. Consequently, it was not compulsory in the bankruptcy proceeding, and thus not barred in district court by the doctrine of res judicata. For the foregoing reasons we affirm the trial court’s denial of State Savings’ motion for summary judgment.
State Savings has also asked for attorney fees incurred for services rendered subsequent to the bankruptcy court’s order. It cites Cabot v. First National Bank of Santa Fe, 81 N.M. 795, 474 P.2d 478 (1970), for the proposition that additional fees may be awarded by the appellate court under a promissory note providing for attorney fees. Cabot is not controlling, however, for apparent reasons. In Cabot we awarded additional attorney fees upon motion to this court after affirmance of a final judgment in favor of the noteholder. Here, plaintiffs request attorney fees in an interlocutory appeal. Additionally, the question of fees was not certified for appeal by the district judge, nor was it specifically mentioned in plaintiff’s Application for Order Allowing Interlocutory Appeal. Generally, contentions not raised in the trial court cannot be raised on appeal. See, e.g., Edwards v. First Federal Savings and Loan Ass’n, 102 N.M. 396, 696 P.2d 484 (Ct.App.1985).
Procedural consideration aside, or even assuming the request be considered a motion before this court, we are of the opinion that attorney fees for this appeal are inappropriate. State Savings asserted res judicata, in part, as a defense to the Rendons’ counterclaim.
In asserting a claim for attorney’s fees under an action in contract, the court may properly require a lessor to distinguish between the amount of attorney’s fees incurred for prosecution of the complaint and counsel fees for defense of a counterclaim.
State ex rel. Nichols v. Safeco Insurance Co. of America, 100 N.M. 440, 447, 671 P.2d 1151, cert. denied, 100 N.M. 327, 670 P.2d 581 (Ct.App.1983) (citing Utah Farm Production Credit Ass’n v. Cox, 627 P.2d 62, 63 (Utah 1981)). State Savings is not entitled to attorney fees under the note provision for its unsuccessful res judicata defense of the counterclaim in this interlocutory appeal. Cf. Stubbs v. Hemmert, 567 P.2d 168 (Utah 1977) (noteholder denied attorney fees in unsuccessful defense in the trial court of a counterclaim in a foreclosure suit). Even if, on remand, plaintiff could distinguish between services rendered in connection with its rebuttal of the Rendons' affirmative defense of disclosure violations as opposed to the Rendons’ counterclaim alleging disclosure violations, there remains the fact that State Savings has lost this interlocutory appeal.
We have found no case where a party who did not prevail was allowed attorney fees for an appeal simply because of a contract’s provision regarding payment of fees if application to a court be initiated to compel payments of indebtedness due. Some cases have suggested otherwise. See Annot., 52 A.L.R.2d 863 (1957).
Appellant not only did not prevail in this appeal but____ [attorney's fees are not necessarily recoverable as to any and all litigation relating to a contract that provided for attorney’s fees.
Bowman v. Kingsland Development, Inc., 432 So.2d 660, 664 (Fla.App.1983); see also Stubbs v. Hemmert. We do not believe that the provision requires payment by the obligor for opposing counsel’s unsuccessful appeal of adverse rulings. The attorney fee provision generally provides for attorney fees in connection with collection of money due on the note or mortgage, or other enforcement of the document’s terms. Even if we assume that State Savings ultimately will be successful in its foreclosure action, this appeal has done nothing to further foreclosure of the property. We therefore hold that State Savings must bear its own costs for services of its attorney in this appeal.
The order of the trial court is AFFIRMED.
FEDERICI, J., and SOSA, Senior Justice, concur.
STOWERS, J., concurring in part, dissenting in part.
RIORDAN, C.J., not participating. | [
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] |
OPINION
WALTERS, Justice.
Defendant filed an appeal in July 1983 from conviction of felony murder and armed robbery. We dismissed the matter in February 1984 for defendant’s untimeliness in filing his notice of appeal. Following a habeas corpus proceeding in federal court, the district judge entered an order directing reinstatement or allowance of a new filing of defendant’s appeal or, alternatively, ordering petitioner’s discharge from custody. The State thereupon moved for reinstatement of the appeal, which we granted.
Between May 17 and July 15, 1982, a series of nine armed robberies occurred in northeast Albuquerque. In each case the robberies were committed in the later afternoon or evening. Likewise, in every instance the victims were held at gunpoint by one of the robbers described as a black man, and they were made to give the robbers the money in their cash registers. Each time, the robbers used one .38 or .357 magnum handgun, wore masks, and escaped in a large, older model car parked a block or so from the scene of the crime. In eight of the robberies, there were two robbers. In one incident, only one man committed the robbery, and the victim was killed.
Jesse Burdex was convicted of eight of the nine robberies. Defendant Gilbert Saavedra was convicted of the other and of the murder of the victim, Earl Scott. From those convictions, Saavedra appeals.
Saavedra bases his appeal on three alleged errors in the trial court’s exclusion and admission of evidence.
A. Exclusion of Evidence of Burdex’s Crimes.
Defendant Saavedra pled innocent to the robbery charged. His defense theory was that Jesse Burdex, the man convicted of the eight similar robberies, committed this crime as well. Saavedra therefore sought at trial to introduce evidence regarding the other robberies, relying on NMSA 1978, Evid.R. 404(b) (Repl.Pamp. 1983), which provides that:
Evidence of other crimes ... may be ... admissible for [purposes other than character], such as proof of motive, opportunity, intent, preparation, plan, knowledge, identity or absence of mistake or accident.
(Emphasis added). Although Rule 404(b) is most frequently used to admit evidence of other crimes by the defendant, the State agrees and we hold that the rule is “available to criminal defendants for the purpose of demonstrating mistaken identity through evidence of contemporaneous crimes of the same pattern by some other person.” (State’s brief.)
The standard in New Mexico for “other crimes” evidence, to qualify under Rule 404(b) to prove identity, was set forth in State v. Beachum, 96 N.M. 566, 632 P.2d 1204 (Ct.App.1981). There the Court of Appeals held such evidence admissible on the issue of identity when the similarity of the other crimes to the crime charged “demonstrate[s] a unique or distinct pat tern easily attributable to one person.” Id. at 568, 632 P.2d at 1206. In this appeal the prosecution, focusing on the dissimilarities in the robberies, argues that the evidence failed to meet the Beachum standard. Our review, however, must be of the similarities because relevancy depends upon similarity. State v. Allen, 91 N.M. 759, 581 P.2d 22 (Ct.App.), cert. denied, 91 N.M. 751, 580 P.2d 972 (1978). Here, the area where the robberies were committed, the time of day, the kind of weapon used, the escape pattern and method, and the disguises used, all fall within the Beachum standard.
The State contends, however, that evidence of Burdex’s crimes also was properly excluded because reception of that evidence would prejudice and confuse the jury. We recognize that admission of evidence under Rule 404(b) is within the sound discretion of the trial court, and that court’s determination will not be disturbed on appeal in the absence of an abuse of discretion. Allen; State v. Schifani, 92 N.M. 127, 584 P.2d 174 (Ct.App.), cert. denied, 92 N.M. 180, 585 P.2d 324 (1978). But in determining whether to admit evidence under Rule 404(b), the court is required to weigh the probative value of the evidence against its prejudicial effect. NMSA 1978, Evid.R. 403 (Repl.Pamp.1983); Beachum; State v. Ross, 88 N.M. 1, 536 P.2d 265 (Ct.App.1975). Because no prejudice would have attached to defendant in this case by the admission of the excluded evidence, but would, on the other hand, have been highly probative of his identity defense, we hold that it was an abuse of discretion to deny admission of evidence crucial to his principal theory of defense.
B. Presentation of Defendant’s Felony Conviction.
During the State’s case in chief, the prosecutor elicited the following testimony from Nick Ellison, the State’s key witness:
Q. How is it that you know the defendant?
A. Well, we hung around together in the street some.
Q. Prior to May 17, 1982, how long had you known the defendant up to that point?
A. Since he got out of the penitentiary.
Throughout the trial the court had directed the parties to make certain that no mention was made of anyone’s prior record; both parties had agreed to instruct their witnesses that no references were to be made to any prior convictions of witnesses or the defendant.
The prosecutor claimed, when defendant moved for a mistrial, that he had no idea that his question regarding Ellison’s acquaintance with the defendant would elicit any reference to defendant’s prior conviction. The State now contends that the court’s admonition to the jury to disregard the answer cured any error. At the grand jury hearing, however, when the prosecutor asked the identical question, Ellison responded with an almost identical answer. Defendant argues that for the prosecution to ask the same question at trial, without preliminarily cautioning the witness about his earlier response, constituted prosecutorial misconduct. Under the circumstances of this case, we agree.
On hearing Mr. Ellison’s testimony, the defense moved for a mistrial, which the trial court denied. Defense counsel then requested that no admonition be given as it would only emphasize Ellison’s comment. Nevertheless, the prosecutor urged the court to give an admonition, and the court directed the jury members to strike the last answer from any consideration in their deliberations. Defendant contends that the error was not cured by the admonition and that the trial court abused its discretion in denying his mistrial motion.
A motion for a mistrial is addressed to the sound discretion of the trial court and is only reviewable for an abuse of discretion. State v. King, 90 N.M. 377, 563 P.2d 1170 (Ct.App.1977). The case law in New Mexico is clear and consistent in holding that erroneous admission of evidence of prior crimes of the accused is error, absent special circumstances. Casaus v. State, 94 N.M. 58, 607 P.2d 596 (1980); State v. Martinez, 94 N.M. 50, 607 P.2d 137 (Ct.App.1980). In State v. Simonson, 100 N.M. 297, 669 P.2d 1092 (1983), however, where a State witness offered testimony not previously disclosed to the defense, we restated the general rule to be that “the prompt sustaining of the objection and an admonition to disregard the answer cures any prejudicial effect of inadmissible testimony.” Id. at 301, 669 P.2d at 1096. The court’s admonition in State v. King, 90 N.M. 377, 563 P.2d 1170 (Ct.App.1977), was held to cure the error because the only objection was that the testimony was hearsay. Clearly, the prejudicial effect of those errors was not so great as that resulting from a mention of the accused’s prior record.
An error similar to the one raised in this case occurred in State v. Vialpando, 93 N.M. 289, 599 P.2d 1086 (Ct.App.), cert. denied, 93 N.M. 172, 598 P.2d 215 (1979). There, a witness testified that he had first met the defendant in the state penitentiary. Defense counsel objected and moved for a mistrial. The trial court’s denial of that motion was upheld on appeal because the admonition to the jury was held to cure the error in view of the fact that there was such other overwhelming evidence of defendant’s guilt that “under no reasonable probability could the improper evidence have induced the jury’s verdict.” Id. 93 N.M. at 297, 599 P.2d at 1094. Moreover, in holding the error cured or harmless in Vialpando, the court was “especially mindful of the lack of any improper motive preceding the witness’s umprompted utterance.” Id. at 297, 599 P.2d at 1094. In light of the answers given by Ellison before the grand jury, however, and the prosecutor’s agreement to instruct his witnesses to avoid any references or allusion to defendant’s prior conviction, a similar lack of improper motive cannot be presumed in the instant case.
Whether error can be cured by admonition is a question that must be decided according to the particular facts of each case. Simonson; Vialpando. To determine that reference to the defendant’s prior criminal record can be cured by mere admonition, the “evidence of defendant’s guilt must be so overwhelmingly persuasive that under no reasonable probability could the [inadmissible evidence] have induced the jury’s finding of guilt.” State v. Gutierrez, 93 N.M. 232, 235, 599 P.2d 385, 388 (Ct.App.1979).
Standing alone against other overpowering* evidence of guilt, the court’s admonition here might have been sufficient. But as our. discussion in Part A above points out, it cannot be said that Ellison’s reference to Saavedra’s prior conviction, when considered in conjunction with the denial of Saavedra’s identity evidence, had no influence on the jury’s verdict. We reverse the trial court's ruling on this issue.
C. State’s Failure to Request Immunity.
Defendant’s third claim of error concerns the trial court’s refusal to compel the state to grant use immunity to defendant’s witness, Ida Martinez. Defendant claims that Martinez would have testified that at the time of the crime she and the two State witnesses, who testified that they saw defendant at the scene of the robbery, were actually across town committing a separate crime. As her companions were the only witnesses to place defendant at the scene of the crime charged in this case, attempted impeachment of their testimony by Martinez would have been highly relevant indeed.
At the time of Saavedra’s trial, Martinez was awaiting trial for those separate but contemporaneous crimes in which she and the other two witnesses were involved. The State refused to grant use immunity because of its intention to proceed against Martinez on the charges against her.
In State v. Sanchez, 98 N.M. 428, 649 P.2d 496 (Ct.App.1982), the court expressly rejected the claim that the State may be required to grant use immunity to a defense witness where prosecutorial misconduct is not involved. No allegation of that kind of misconduct has been made in this case.
When faced with a similar situation — a request for immunity for an alibi witness— the Supreme Court in State v. Cheadle, 101 N.M. 282, 287, 681 P.2d 708, 713 (1983), clearly held that “in New Mexico there is no authority to demand immunity for a witness by the defense.” Thus the ruling of the trial judge, although harmful to defendant’s case, was not erroneous. We would note, however, that since the time of Saavedra’s trial, court records disclose that Martinez entered into a plea agreement and has been convicted. Consequently, on remand, Martinez’s claim to Fifth Amendment privileges will no longer be valid; it will not be necessary to seek compulsion of her testimony by grant of use immunity. This point is therefore moot insofar as a new trial is concerned.
Because of the trial court’s error in refusing to admit evidence of Jesse Burdex’s crimes and the prejudicial testimony regarding defendant’s prior criminal record, we reverse and remand for a new trial.
IT IS SO ORDERED.
FEDERICI, C.J., and SOSA, Senior Justice, concur. | [
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OPINION
WOOD, Chief Judge.
Convicted of aggravated assault after a plea of guilty, defendant appeals. Section 40A-3-2, N.M.S.A.1953 (2d Repl.Vol. 6). The issues are: (1) jurisdiction of the district court because defendant was a juvenile; (2) competency to plead; (3) validity of the guilty plea; and (4) whether the sentence imposed was an abuse of judicial discretion.
District court jurisdiction because defendant was a juvenile.
A petition was filed with the juvenile court charging defendant, then 17 years old, with matters which, if committed by an adult, would be felonies. A motion was filed asking that defendant be transferred to the district court “for proper criminal proceedings.” Defendant, his father and his court appointed attorney appeared at the hearing on the transfer motion.
The events giving rise to the charges against defendant occurred in February, 1972. The transfer hearing was held in March, 1972. The applicable statute was § 13-8-27, N.M.S.A.1953 (Repl.Vol. 3). This section provides in part:
“* * * if any child fourteen [14] years of age or older is charged in juvenile court with an offense which would be a felony if committed by an adult, and if the court after full investigation deems it contrary to the best interests of such child or of the public to retain jurisdiction, the court may in its discretion certify such child for proper criminal proceedings. * * * ”
Defendant claims that no order was entered transferring him to the district court for criminal proceedings. See Trujillo v. Cox, 75 N.M. 257, 403 P.2d 696 (1965). This is factually inaccurate. The transfer order appears in the record.
Defendant also asserts there was no “full investigation” as required by § 13 — 8— 27, supra. Absent such a full investigation, he claims he has been denied the essentials of due process which, he asserts, apply under Kent v. United States, 383 U.S. 541, 86 S.Ct. 1045, 16 L.Ed.2d 84 (1966), and Peyton v. Nord, 78 N.M. 717, 437 P.2d 716 (1968). On the basis of the asserted denial of due process, defendant claims the trial court was without jurisdiction.
The claim of no full investigation is based on remarks of the assistant district attorney concerning defendant’s prior juvenile record. Defendant’s counsel took issue with the remarks concerning this record. After defendant was transferred to district court, his counsel moved that the grand jury indictment be quashed and the matter be sent back to the juvenile court. This motion alleged that at the juvenile court transfer hearing “ * * * there were no witnesses, no sworn testimony, and no evidence nor was the defendant given the opportunity to confront or cross-examine those persons whose unsworn testimony may have been the basis for the transfer order. * * * ” Counsel did no more than repeat these grounds when the motion was argued and denied by the trial court.
The transfer order was entered after the juvenile judge stated: “I believe the official Probation File, which is No. E-7743, should be a part of this record, which I assume is where you got your information.” The assistant district attorney agreed that this was the source of his information.
This probation record is a part of the record before us for review. Its contents suggest defendant committed several crimes, all of which were felonies. These crimes were the basis for the juvenile proceedings. This record includes a statement made by defendant after being advised as to his rights and signed by defendant in the presence of his father. This statement provides a factual basis for the charges. The probation record contains a statement Of the victim and photographs of the victim indicating the extent of the beating administered by defendant. The record contains the investigative report of police officers. The probation record indicates, prima facie, a full investigation, not only of the matters leading to the juvenile proceedings but of defendant’s past conduct. There is nothing in the record indicating an absence of a full investigation and counsel has not suggested what element, if any, of a full investigation is lacking.
The essence of defendant’s complaint goes to the procedure at the transfer hearing. It is true that the transfer proceedings were informal. No witnesses were called or sworn. We do not reach the question of what is required at a transfer hearing because defendant had no objection to the procedure followed. His only objection was to the characterization of his prior record by the assistant district attorney. Defendant did not object to the inclusion of the probation record as a part of the record at the transfer hearing. Defendant did not offer any witnesses and did not ask for sworn testimony concerning the contents of the probation record.
In these circumstances, defendant waived any deficiency in the “full investigation” and in the procedure followed at the hearing resulting in the transfer order. State v. Snow, 84 N.M. 399, 503 P.2d 1177 (Ct.App.1972); State v. Raines, 78 N.M. 579, 434 P.2d 698 (Ct.App.1967).
Competency to plead.
The claim is: “Although the question of Appellant’s mental and emotional state was repeatedly raised, and a judicial determination of his competency requested * * * no hearing was ever had, nor was any disposition effected, upon such questions. * * * ” The claim is factually inaccurate.
On April 18, 1972, defendant’s counsel orally asked the court to authorize a psychiatric examination. In so doing counsel stated: " * * * I’m not suggesting, I’m not going to amend my plea and enter a plea of not guilty by reason of insanity, I don’t think we have anything like that. * * * ” Counsel sought the psychiatric examination in connection with defendant’s intent at the time of the alleged commission of the several crimes charged. The trial court denied the motion at the time and informed counsel it could be brought up at a later time.
On May 11, 1972, counsel again moved for a psychiatric examination alleging “ * * * on information and belief, it appears to such attorney that the Defendant is deeply, emotionally, and psychologically disturbed and that there is a reasonable possibility that a defense may exist to the crimes charged in the Indictment based upon the present mental state of the Defendant.”
Counsel’s statement in connection with the April 18th motion negates any claim of incompetency. The May 11th motion asserts no more than possibilities. Neither of these motions raised a question as to defendant’s mental capacity. State v. Hovey, 80 N.M. 373, 456 P.2d 206 (Ct.App.1969).
A motion for judicial determination of competency was filed May 31, 1972. The determination sought was “ * * * the competency of the Defendant to stand trial.” The three grounds alleged in support of this motion were: (1) “The Defendant has had a long history of emotional and mental disturbances for which he has been committed to the New Mexico State Hospital.” (2) “Defendant has recently been examined by Dr. A. A. Hovda, a New Mexico Psychiatrist who has indicated to the Defendant’s attorney that further testing and evaluation will be necessary for him to determine whether the Defendant is presently competent. * * * ” (3) Defendant has had three attorneys in this case, each of which is convinced that defendant is suffering from mental and emotional disturbances.
In regard to the three grounds alleged, the record shows the following. The examination at the New Mexico State Hospital was in 1969. The report of that examination was that defendant was emotionally disturbed and was experiencing a “profound depressive reaction.” The report recommended further examination and observation; the report did not state that defendant was mentally incompetent. A report of Dr. Hovda dated June 6, 1972, (subsequent to the motion), does not recommend further examination and testing. Rather, the report refers to two evaluations, recommends psychiatric treatment with medication and states an opinion that defendant was “pre-psychotic at this time.” The claim that three attorneys thought defendant to be emotionally disturbed is not supported by the record. Assuming, however, that this was the opinion of three attorneys, there is nothing showing a basis for the opinion.
We have serious doubts that under this record a “question” as to defendant’s present mental competence had been raised under § 41-13-3.1, N.M.S.A.1953 (2d Repl. Vol. 6). Here, there is no conflict in opinion as to defendant’s mental condition as in State v. Cliett, 79 N.M. 719, 449 P.2d 89 (Ct.App.1968). Nor was he hospitalized for mental illness when arrested as in Hoffman v. State, 79 N.M. 186, 441 P.2d 226 (Ct.App.1968). Compare the factual allegations in State v. Guy, 79 N.M. 128, 440 P.2d 803 (Ct.App.1968); see also State v. Velasquez, 76 N.M. 49, 412 P.2d 4 (1966), cert. denied, 385 U.S. 867, 87 S.Ct. 131, 17 L.Ed.2d 95 (1966).
In the light of the record, the motion for a judicial determination of competency rests on a history of emotional disturbance continuing into the present. We incline to the view that this is insufficient to raise a question as to present mental incompetency. See State v. Smith, 80 N.M. 742, 461 P.2d 157 (Ct.App.1969); compare Stafford v. State, 82 N.M. 365, 482 P.2d .68 (Ct.App.1971); State v. Maples, 82 N.M. 36, 474 P.2d 718 (Ct.App.1970).
We do not, however, decide this issue on the basis of whether the motion raised a question as to defendant’s present mental competence. Instead, we follow the approach used in State v. Bius, 85 N.M. 98, 509 P.2d 573 (Ct.App.1973). In Bius, supra, at the time of the guilty plea, counsel affirmatively represented to the trial court that defendant was competent to plead. This affirmative representation occurred after defendant had sought and obtained a court ordered psychiatric examination. The result of the examination was not in the record.
Here, we do not have an affirmative representation by counsel. We do have the result of the examination; the report does not indicate defendant was not competent to plead. At the time of the plea, no issue was raised as to defendant’s competency. Counsel requested a pre-sentence report and stated: “ * * * There are extenuating circumstances in his background and his emotional state * * * ” of which the court should be aware before imposing sentence. The motion seeking a judicial determination of competency had been filed but was not brought to the attention of the trial court.
Defendant does not claim that he lacked the capacity to plead guilty. His claim is that the trial court erred in failing to judicially determine his mental competency. The context of this contention is that the motion was never called to the court’s attention and no ruling was invoked. Prior opinions indicate that an issue as to defendant’s mental competency may still be litigated, see State v. Guy, supra, but they do not support the view that a trial court errs in failing to decide an issue on which a ruling has not been invoked.
Defendant knew his motion for a judicial determination of his present mental competency was pending, but he did not point this out to the trial court. The trial court did not err in failing to judicially determine defendant’s present mental competency when the matter was never brought to its attention. State v. James, 76 N.M. 376, 415 P.2d 350 (1966); State v. Duran, 80 N.M. 406, 456 P.2d 880 (Ct.App.1969); compare Atol v. Schifani, 83 N.M. 316, 491 P.2d 533 (Ct.App.1971).
Validity of the guilty plea.
Defendant asserts the trial court erred in failing to question defendant concerning his understanding of the consequences of his guilty plea before accepting the plea. This claim was not raised in the trial court; it is raised here for the first time. It is not before us for review. Neller v. State, 79 N.M. 528, 445 P.2d 949 (1968) ; State v. Vigil, (Ct.App.), 85 N.M. 328, 512 P.2d 88 (1973).
Sentencing — judicial discretion.
On June 8, 1972, defendant pled guilty to aggravated assault and a nolle prosequi was entered as to other charges. On June 26, 1972, the trial court orally sentenced defendant to a fourth degree felony penitentiary term and asked the district attorney’s office to check into the possibility of part of this sentence being served in Springer [New Mexico Boys School at Springer, § 42-4-1, N.M.S.A.1953 (2d Repl.Vol. 6)]. This could not be done. Section 40A-29-13, N.M.S.A.1953 (2d Repl.Vol. 6). The sentence on June 26, 1972, was never entered of record.
On June 29, 1972, the trial court sentenced defendant to not more than sixty days in the penitentiary “for the purposes of diagnosis and report.” See § 40A-29-15(C), N.M.S.A.1953 (2d Repl.Vol. 6). The trial court remarked it had “ * * * a good pre-sentence report * * * ” and desired the diagnostic report because “ * * * I think that I need this in this case. * * * ” “ * * * [ W] e will see what happens after I get the results of these tests.”
On September 7, 1972, defendant again appeared before the court in connection with his sentence. The diagnostic report was favorable to defendant. The report recommended that defendant be placed on probation on the condition that defendant be accepted by DARE (Drug Addict Reha bilitation Enterprises) on a residential basis.
The trial court was concerned about three things. One, that DARE was a program concerned with addicts, “and you are not that, Mr. Madrigal.” Second, nothing in the pre-sentence and evaluation reports considered the victim of defendant’s crime. Third, just before the crime was committed, defendant had enlisted in the Army. The trial court sentenced defendant to not less than one nor more than five years in the penitentiary, adding that defendant would be committed to the penitentiary on September 15, 1972, unless defendant’s attorney furnished the court with two things —a statement from the victim that she did not wish the matter pursued further and a statement that the Army would accept defendant. Although not included in the formal order, the trial court remarked that if the two statements were furnished “ * * * I will then go back and dismiss these charges. * * * ”
Defendant did not meet one of the conditions — the statement from the victim. He was unable to contact the victim because she was no longer in the State. On September 18, 1972, the trial court sentenced defendant to the statutory penitentiary term for a fourth degree felony, giving defendant credit for pre-sentence confinement.
Defendant' contends this sentence was in error because the sentence was the “most drastic” sentence available to the trial court. Defendant claims we should adopt a rule requiring the sentence to be the “least drastic” within the sentencing alternatives available to the judge. He claims the error was an abuse of judicial discretion amounting to denying defendant equal protection and due process of law.
In considering this contention' two things should be noted: (1) Defendant had pled guilty. The trial court had no authority to dismiss the charge. State v. Raburn, 76 N.M. 681, 417 P.2d 813 (1966). Its authority was to sentence defendant in accordance with law. (2) The sentence imposed was authorized by law. Section 40A-29-3(D), N.M.S.A.1953 (2d Repl.Vol. 6).
Defendant recognizes that the sentencing alternatives available — a suspended or deferred sentence — were within the discretion of the trial court. State v. Serrano, 76 N.M. 655, 417 P.2d 795 (1966). Defendant claims judicial discretion was abused in this case because of defendant’s age; because- it was a first offense; and because the sentence is contrary to the psychiatric evaluation, the pre-sentence report and the diagnostic report.
Judicial discretion is a discretion “ * * * guided by law, caution, and prudence; it is an equitable determination of what is just and proper under the circumstances.” State v. Alaniz, 55 N.M. 312, 232 P.2d 982 (1951). It is “ * * * not a mere whim or caprice, but an honest attempt, in the exercise of power and duty, to see that justice is done. * * *” Independent Etc. Co. v. N.M.C.R. Co., 25 N.M. 160, 178 P. 842 (1918). Judicial discretion is abused if the action taken is arbitrary or capricious. See State v. Serrano, supra.
We cannot say the sentence in this case was arbitrary or capricious. It is in accordance with law. We cannot say it was unjust or improper in the circumstances because recommendations for a more lenient sentence were not followed. State v. Hogan, 83 N.M. 608, 495 P.2d 388 (Ct.App.1972). Nor can we say that the trial court acted from whim or caprice in imposing the statutory sentence on a seventeen year old first offender.
The situation here is one where we do not know all the factors considered by the court in sentencing as it did. We do know the court was concerned with the recommendation that defendant be placed in the care of DARE, and that the sentence was imposed for “this type of offense.” What other factors were considered we do not know. In this situation we cannot say that the court did not attempt to serve both the ends of justice and the best interests of the public as well as the defendant in sentencing as it did. Section 40A-29-15, N.M.S.A.1953 (2d Repl.Vol. 6). On the record before us, we cannot say there was an abuse of judicial discretion. State v. Serrano, supra; State v. Hogan, supra; State v. Dodson, 83 N.M. 11, 487 P.2d 921 (Ct.App.1971); State v. Follis, 81 N.M. 690, 472 P.2d 655 (Ct.App.1970).
The judgment and sentence is affirmed. It is so ordered.
HENDLEY, J., concurs.
SUTIN, J., dissented and filed opinion.
. Section 13-8-27, supra, was repealed by Laws 1972, ch. 97, § 71, effective July 1, 1972. For present law, see § 13-14-27, N.M.S.A. 1953 (1972 Int.Supp.). | [
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] |
OPINION
STEPHENSON, Justice.
Defendant (“insurer”) insured plaintiff’s house trailer, in which American Bank of Carlsbad (“the bank”) had a security interest, against physical damage. The trailer was totally destroyed by an explosion and fire and insurer refused to pay the loss. Plaintiff filed suit for actual and punitive damages for breach of the insurance contract. An answer and plaintiff’s motion for summary judgment were filed. A “summary judgment” was entered in favor of plaintiff and the bank in an amount aggregating the coverage. Plaintiff was awarded punitive damages as well.
The insurer has appealed contending that the court erred in entering summary judgment because genuine issues of material fact exist.
When the matter came on to be heard upon the motion, the court had before it the complaint, to which was attached the insurance policy, the answer of the bank setting up and incorporating its security agreement, and the answer of the insurer. So far as the issues between the plaintiff and the insurer were concerned, the answer admitted plaintiff’s ownership of the trailer, the issuance and genuineness of the policy and the total destruction of the trailer. Allegations concerning subsequent dealings between those parties were denied. No affidavits or depositions were before the court.
At the outset of the proceedings, setting the tone for what was to follow, plaintiff’s attorney made an opening statement. By the time it was concluded, seven exhibits had been admitted into evidence. Plaintiff’s attorney, after having reviewed the pleadings, outlined the remaining “questions of fact to be determined here.” All this occurred without objection or comment from the insurer’s attorney who declined the opportunity to make an opening statement.
Plaintiff’s counsel then called the plaintiff to the witness stand and examined him in respect to the disputed fact issues, following which he was cross examined by the insurer’s attorney.
Plaintiff’s counsel then called the adjuster who had functioned on behalf of the insurer to the stand and he was also extensively examined and cross examined on the insurer’s version of the facts.
During the course of the testimony various exhibits were admitted, either on motion without objection or by stipulation.
Following the testimony of the adjuster, plaintiff’s counsel indicated that he rested. Insurer did not introduce any evidence, but did not indicate that it wished to do so or ask for an opportunity to do so. It was not precluded from introducing evidence. In any case, plaintiff’s counsel then inquired of the court as to whether it wished to hear legal argument “or do you want to rule on the facts ?” This question does not seem to have been answered.
Plaintiff and insurer filed requested findings of fact and conclusions of law. The court then made its decision, adopting findings and conclusions generally consistent with the theories of the plaintiff, and entered “summary judgment” in his favor.
No citation of authority is required for the proposition that summary judgment may not be granted if a genuine issue of material fact exists. Rule 56(c) [§ 21-1-1(56) (c), N.M.S.A.1953], And a summary judgment proceeding should not be used as a substitute for trial. Shumate v. Hillis, 80 N.M. 308, 454 P.2d 965 (1969); Johnson v. J. S. & H. Construction Co., 81 N.M. 42, 462 P.2d 627 (Ct.App.1969). Resolution of disputed questions of material fact is improper in summary judgment proceedings, whether by findings of fact or otherwise. Coe v. City of Albuquerque, 81 N.M. 361, 467 P.2d 27 (1970).
The authorities seem to be of two views as to whether oral testimony is proper in summary judgment proceedings. Rule 56 does not, in terms, authorize it, but does not prohibit it. But a pleading seeking summary judgment is, after all, a motion, and Rule 43(e) [§ 21-1-1(43) (e), N.M.S.A. 1953] permits the court to hear oral testimony at a hearing on a motion. Permitting oral testimony might take the opposing party by surprise. On the other hand, the court would have the benefit of hearing cross examination and observing the witness which has certain advantages over affidavits and depositions. 6 Moore’s Federal Practice (2nd ed, 1972) § 56.11(8); 10 Wright and Miller Federal Practice and Procedure (1973) § 2723. A decision on the propriety of using oral testimony in summary judgment proceedings is unnecessary here, and having confidence in the discretion of our trial courts, we decline to adopt any hard and fast rule. Naturally we cannot countenance procedures in which the rights of parties are prejudiced or their substantive rights invaded, or in which trials are had on the issue of whether trials should be had.
All authorities seem to agree that if the parties turn the summary judgment proceedings into a trial, they will not be heard to object to that procedure. Huerta v. New Jersey Zinc Company, 84 N.M. 713, 507 P.2d 460 (Ct.App.1973); Tripp v. May, 189 F.2d 198 (7 Cir. 1951); Burnham Chemical Co. v. Borax Consolidated, 170 F.2d 569 (9 Cir. 1948); 3 Barron and Holtzoff (1958) § 1239; Moore’s Federal Practice, supra; Wright & Miller Federal Practice and Procedure, supra.
This is what happened here. The parties turned the summary judgment proceedings into a trial.
We sense no prejudice to insurer. At oral argument, a direct question as to whether it had additional evidence to present evoked equivocation, thereby spreading an aura of practicality over what we do here. If it is unclear whether any additional evidence exists, it is doubtful if any remains in insurer’s arsenal of such overwhelming power and persuasiveness as to turn the learned trial judge about.
Insurer relies heavily on the result in Huerta, but in that case the Court of Appeals was unable to determine that the case had been tried on its merits in the summary judgment proceedings. No such problem exists in this case.
As we have said, insurer’s sole contention is that genuine fact issues existed, and it wages a rather spirited attack on the trial court’s finding of fact number twenty-six to the effect that none did. Doubtless the finding means that such genuine issues of material fact as had theretofore existed had been resolved by its twenty-five predecessors.
The judgment is affirmed.
It is so ordered.
McMANUS, C. J, and MARTINEZ, J., concur. | [
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OPINION
LOPEZ, Judge.
The defendant pleaded guilty to unlawful possession of a controlled substance, to-wit: heroin, contrary to § 54-11-23, N.M.S.A.1953 (Int.Supp.1972). Defendant was sentenced to the New Mexico State Penitentiary for the term of not less than one year nor more than five years. The defendant appeals from the judgment and the sentence of the district court.
We affirm.
Defendant’s only point for reversal is: that the court’s remarks at sentencing indicated that improper and prejudicial matters were considered and the case should be remanded on the issue of sentencing.
The transcript reveals the following colloquy between the court, the defense counsel and the assistant district attorney at the time of sentencing:
“MR. WILLIAMS: This is Cause No. 22686, in which Mr. Heywood entered a plea of guilty to unlawful .possession of a controlled substance, to-wit: Heroin. He’s up for sentencing.
“THE COURT: Where is your lawyer ?
“MR. WILLIAMS: Here. He’s Mr. Horn.
“THE COURT: You’re having entered a plea of guilty in this case, it is my duty to pronounce sentence. Is there anything either you or your attorney wishes to state before the Court pronounces sentence?
“MR. HORN: Yes, sir, I would like to say a couple of words, if I may. Your Honor, this man has been in jail for five months now. He was never able to make bond. He spent five months in jail already on a charge that carries a penalty of one to five. He’s had a narcotic problem for, well, since he was sixteen years old and he’s been interviewed extensively by Mr. Swanson, here, of La Llave and also by the authorities from the Nara III. The authorities from Nara III are also here this morning and both programs seem to think that this is a type of individual that could be responsive to the type of program they have to offer, this is what his problem is. In light of the fact he’s been in jail for five months already on a charge that carries a one to five and the fact that both the Nara III and La Llava [sic] people think this is a suitable candidate for their program, we would request the Court consider sending him—
“THE COURT: You say he served time for another offense?
“MR. HORN: No, sir. He has been incarcerated on this charge for five months.
“THE COURT: But actually he was selling heroin in this case. That’s what he was charged with. '
“MR. HORN: That was the original charge.
“THE COURT: Well, that’s what he did. He had it in his possession but—
“MR. HORN: I think the charge being-possession, is, of course, what we’re here for.
“THE COURT: I’ll tell you what, I don’t think I want to hear anything from La Llave on this matter. Anybody selling this stuff, as far as I’m concerned, has no business at La Llave. What they’re doing is destroying the whole social status of the children they’re dealing with and they’re usually doing it with young people. It’s the sentence of the Court he serve not' less than one nor more than five years in the State Penitentiary. Of course, the time he served in jail, he’ll be given credit for.
“MR. HORN: For the record, I would like to make an objection for the Court sentence for sale on a charge of possession.
“THE COURT: That’s the sentence of the Court.”
The defendant contends that the court took into consideration, the original charge of selling heroin, in sentencing the defendant for possession of heroin. The defendant further contends that the court, by its remarks, indicated that it was the defendant’s sale of heroin that persuaded the court not to give a suspended sentence and that the court’s remarks were prejudicial to the defendant. We disagree with the defendant.
At the time that the defendant pleaded guilty the following colloquy took place between the court, the assistant district attorney, and the defendant’s counsel:
“MR. SHORT: Your Honor, if the Court please, this is Criminal Cause Number 22686, State of New Mexico versus Thomas Heywood, aka Flako, f-l-a-k-o.
“DEFENDANT: C-o.
“MR. SHORT: F-l-a-c-o.
“THE COURT: That means ‘thin’.
“MR. SHORT: This is an information filed by the District Attorney’s office wherein the State of New Mexico accuses Thomas Heywood, aka Flaco, of unlawful possession of a controlled substance, to-wit, heroin, contrary to Section 54-11-23, New Mexico Statutes Annotated 1953 Compilation as amended.
How do you plead to these charges?
“MR. HORN: If it please the Court, prior to entering a plea, I would like to state for the record in open court that the defendant waives his right to have this presented ho a Grand Jury, waives a preliminary hearing and is prepared to proceed immediately on a plea to the information.
“THE COURT: Is this a felony?
“MR. SHORT: Yes, Your Honor, one to five.
“THE COURT: Have you explained all of his rights to him?
“MR. HORN: Yes, Your Honor, I have. “THE COURT: I want to do it so there will be no doubt about it. Do you understand you are entitled to a jury trial in this case?
“DEFENDANT: Yes, sir.
“THE COURT: Do you understand that if you plead guilty, you may be sentenced to the State Penitentiary, this being a felony, do you understand that ?
“DEFENDANT: Yes, sir.”
The present case is controlled and disposed of by State v. Serrano, 76 N.M. 655, 417 P.2d 795 (1966) and State v. Dodson, 83 N.M. 11, 487 P.2d 921 (Ct.App.1971). In State v. Serrano, supra, the Supreme Court stated as follows:
“ . . . suspension or deferment of sentence is not a matter of right but is an act of clemency and committed to the discretion of the trial court.
“The court is at liberty to make any inquiry it feels might assist it in reaching a proper conclusion. We cannot, therefore, assume that the only investigation made by the court is that reflected by the record.
“Abuse of discretion cannot be presumed but must be affirmatively established. . It follows that if the record11 is silent as to the reasons for a ruling, regularity and correctness are presumed.
It is of the opinion of this court that the matter of sentencing within the limits of the law is peculiar to the trial judge and will not be reviewed by this court unless dictated by passion, prejudice, ill-will, or some other unworthy motive. State v. Baca, 84 N.M. 513, 505 P.2d 856 (Ct.App. 1973); Mahoney v. State, 13 Md.App. 105, 281 A.2d 421 (1971).
The sentence imposed in this case was well within the limits of the statute, and we cannot say on the record before us, that the sentence and judgment of the court was motivated by passion, ill-will, prejudice or some other unworthy motive.
The judgment and sentence of the court is affirmed.
It is so ordered.
HENDLEY and SUTIN, JJ., concur. | [
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OPINION
LOPEZ, Judge.
Defendant was indicted for fourth degree felony fraud pursuant to § 40A-16-6, N.M. S.A.1953 (2d Repl.Vol. 6) which defines fraud as follows:
“Fraud consists of the intentional misappropriation or taking of anything of value which belongs to another by means of fraudulent conduct, practices or representations.”
Defendant was convicted of the misappropriation of scrap copper from Lane Plumbing Company but the jury found that the amount taken was less than $100.00 in value. Accordingly, judgment and sentence were entered against defendant for committing a petty misdemeanor. He appeals, alleging that: (1) there was insufficient evidence to support the verdict; and, (2) that the prosecutor improperly commented on defendant’s failure to take the stand.
We affirm.
(1) The verdict was supported by substantial evidence.
In reviewing the substantial evidence issue, we must view the evidence in the light most favorable to the conviction, resolving all conflicts and indulging all inferences in favor thereof. State v. McKay, 79 N.M. 797, 450 P.2d 435 (Ct.App.1969); State v. Hinojos, 78 N.M. 32, 427 P.2d 683 (Ct.App.1967).
The defendant contends that there is no substantial evidence of misrepresentation on his part. The record indicates the contrary. The defendant approached an employee of the Lane Plumbing Company, falsely represented himself as one Nick Arnel and stated that he “ * * * was in a habit of picking up Pete’s scrap metal. * * * ”
Pete Van Winkle was the manager of the company and the person empowered to dispose of scrap metal. The employee was under the impression that someone was supposed to pick up the copper scrap that day. Therefore, he helped defendant load it on the truck.
Pete Van Winkle testified that the company always sold the scrap metal in bulk, usually to a scrap metal man in Socorro. He stated that he had not given permission for anyone to take the copper scrap that day. He testified that he had never given copper scrap to the defendant. In fact, he had never seen him before. A fraudulent representation is defined in State v. Tanner, 22 N.M. 493, 164 P. 821 (1917) as follows:
“ ‘[an intentional misrepresentation] . . . of an existing or past fact, by one who knows it not to be true, as is adapted to induce the person to whom it is made to part with something of value.’ ”
The testimony of Pete Van Winkle contains substantial evidence indicating that defendant knowingly and intentionally misrepresented the facts when he stated he was in the habit of picking up Pete’s scrap metal. The fact that defendant mentioned Pete’s name and stated that he had engaged* in similar conduct in the past induced the employee to part with the copper scrap. The fact that the employee complied with his misrepresentation to a greater extent than he thought does not excuse defendant. We hold that there was substantial evidence to support the conviction.
(2) The prosecuting attorney made no reference to defendant’s failure to take the stand which could serve as the basis for a mistrial.
In closing argument the prosecuting attorney stated:
“ . . .In this particular case, I think you’ll find all the elements of the crime of fraud as described to you by His Honor have been met. There was the State’s uncontradicted case, first that there was a positive identification.”
At this point the defendant’s attorney interposed a timely objection and moved for a mistrial on the grounds that the remark improperly referred to defendant’s failure to testify.
Neither party has seen fit to discuss State v. Aguirre, 84 N.M. 376, 503 P.2d 1154 (1972). In a rape case the prosecutor referred to the “uncontradicted testimony” concerning defendant’s actions immediately prior to the act. The court stated:
“ . . . The reference was to the uncontradicted testimony of the victim. This was not only the truth, but was nothing more than a fair comment upon the evidence. . . .”
The court therefore held that the remark was not a comment upon the defendant’s failure to testify. We do not believe that there is a material difference in the remark made in the instant case.
The judgment and sentence is affirmed.
It is so ordered.
SUTIN and HERNANDEZ, JJ., concur. | [
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OPINION
McMANUS, Chief Justice.
This suit was brought in the District Court of Santa Fe County praying for a judgment which would declare that defendants had no jurisdiction to regulate the educational activities of plaintiffs (a private school). Plaintiffs further sought an injunction against such regulation and asked for monetary damages. The parties hereto entered into a stipulation as to certain facts surrounding the case. Plaintiffs then sought a summary judgment. An order of the court was subsequently entered granting summary judgment in favor of the defendants-appellees (hereinafter Board), and the plaintiffs-appellants (hereinafter School) appeal.
The sole issue on appeal is related in the “Parties’ Stipulations of Fact,” as follows:
“Parties further stipulate that this cause be presented to the court on the sole issue of whether or not the New Mexico State Board of Education has jurisdiction to supervise or exercise control or management over private elementary and secondary schools within the State and that all other issues raised or attempted to be raised in the complaint herein be dismissed without prejudice.”
The court, after hearing the motion for summary judgment, ordered as follows:
“This matter having come before the Court on a Motion for Summary Judgment, and all material facts having been stipulated by the parties, and briefs having been filed and oral argument heard on December 1, 1972, and the Court being fully advised in the premises, and the Court finding that there is nO genuine issue as to any material fact and concluding that Article XII, Section 5 of the New Mexico Constitution provides adequate authority for the Legislature to invest the State Board of Education with certain control over non-public schools in this State and concluding that Article XII, Section 6 of the New Mexico Constitution is no bar to such investiture of power;
«* * * it IS ORDERED * * * that the Defendants to this cause be granted Summary Judgment * *
Article XII, § 5 of the New Mexico Constitution provides:
“Every child of school age and of sufficient physical and mental ability shall be required to attend a public or other school during such period and for such time as may be prescribed by law.”
The legislature, seeking to carry out this constitutional provision, provided in § 77-10-2, N.M.S.A.1953 (Supp.1973) that:
“A. Any person attaining six [6] years of age prior to September 1 of a school year and until attaining seventeen [17] years of age shall attend a public school, a private school maintaining courses of instruction approved by the state board, or a program of instruction offered by a state institution, * * *.”
It is readily apparent that this compulsory education statute does not require that every child attend public school but does requite that every child attend some recognized school — public, private, or institutional.
The School contends, however, that the Board does not have the constitutional authority to approve the program of instruction since the second constitutional provision here involved, N.M.Const., art. XII, § 6, provides:
“A. There is hereby created a ‘state department of public education’ and a ‘state board of education.’ The state board of education shall determine public school policy and vocational educational policy and shall have control, management and direction of all public schools, pursuant to authority and powers provided by law. * * * ”
It is true that the constitutional authority of the Board under this provision to make regulations for and supervise schools only mentions public schools. However, the Board may exert such authority in the supervision and control of private schools as is conferred by the legislature in the proper exercise of State police power. The police power of the State has been defined by this court in State v. Cleveland, 47 N.M. 230, 242, 141 P.2d 192, 200 (1943) as follows:
“The police power ‘is not a rule; it is an evolution.’ 28 R.C.L. 742, § 36; State v. Mountain Timber Co., 75 Wash. 581, 135 P. 645, L.R.A.1917D, 10. Laws providing for preservation of the public peace, health and safety are essentially police measures and represent an exercise of this inherent power. It is the broadest power possessed by governments and rests fundamentally on the ancient maxim ‘salus populi est suprema lex.’ Traditionally, it was limited in its operation to laws concerned with the public health, safety and morals. This historic field for its operation now has been extended to embrace laws for the promotion of the general welfare, prosperity, comfort and convenience. * * * »
The same type of problem confronting us in the instant case was considered by the New York Courts in Packer Collegiate Inst. v. University of State of N. Y., 273 App.Div. 203, 76 N.Y.S.2d 499, 503 (1948), and the language from that decision, which we approve, is as follows:
“It may be observed that the only direction to the legislature in the state constitution concerning education, aside from the continuance of a state university and regents, is to maintain a system of free common schools (Article II, sec. 1). Nothing is said about the regulation of private schools, and if such regulation is to be assumed it can only be justified as an exercise of police power. * * * It is, we think, an indisputable fact also that all schools, public or private, are affected with a public interest, and hence subject to reasonable regulation under the police power of the state. The fact that prior to 1939 the state had never entered the field of regulating private nursery schools and kindergartens is not a sound reason for denying its power to do so now. * * * ”
At page 504, the same court reasoned as follows:
“ * * * That the state, as parens patriae of immature children, may legislate for their safety, health, morals and general welfare, is a proposition not open to dispute. People v. Ewer, 141 N.Y. 129, 36 N.E. 4, 25 L.R.A. 794, 38 Am.St.Rep. 788; People v. Braunstein, 248 N.Y. 308, 162 N.E. 89. * * * In addition we think the state may impose minimum scholastic and training standards, including qualifications for teachers, for both public and private nurseries, kindergartens and elementary schools. Above and beyond such minimum standards the private institution may furnish a better curriculum, training and teaching if it desires to do so. But the state has a preeminent interest in basic or minimum standards. The assertion of this interest does not deny a choice of schools, or a reasonable choice as to training and curriculum. We reach the conclusion therefore that the statute requiring registration by private schools in the categories specified is not beyond the police power of the state, and that the regulations promulgated thereunder are not arbitrary and unreasonable. * * * The statute on its face bears the mark of a legitimate purpose, viz: to legislate for the health, safety, and general welfare of children.”
We approve of the above-quoted language but it might be noted that Packer, supra, was later reversed on the grounds that even though the legislature has a limited right to regulate private schools under the police power, the legislature cannot hand over to the school board (as it did in New York) an unlimited, unrestrained and undefined power to make such regulations as it may desire. As indicated above, there is no constitutional authority granted to the Board to supervise or exercise control or management over private elementary and secondary schools, which is the sole issue in this case.
Assuming that the legislature had authority to enact § 77-10-2, supra, and assuming further that this statute is an effective grant of power to the Board under the police power, this compulsory education statute only gives the Board authority to approve the courses of instruction in private schools. The stipulated issue before us is to determine if the Board has the authority to “supervise or exercise control or management over private schools.” This stipulation goes beyond what § 77-10-2, supra, provides.
In view of the limited issue acted upon by the trial court, we reverse the summary judgment in favor of the Board and remand the cause to the trial court with instructions to enter judgment in favor of the school consistent with the stipulation of the parties concerning the sole issue involved and the views expressed in this opinion. It is so ordered.
OMAN, STEPHENSON, MONTOYA and MARTINEZ, JJ., concur. | [
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OPINION
SUTIN, Judge.
This appeal involves termination of parental rights of a mother to her four year old son, pursuant to § 22-2-23, N.M.S.A. 1953 (Vol. 5, Supp.1971). “Termination of Parental Rights” is § 4 of the 1971 “Adoption Act.”
The trial court terminated the mother’s rights to her son, and she appeals.
We reverse.
(1) Section 22-2-23, supra, Entitled "Termination of Parental Rights" is Invalid.
At the opening of trial, a serious discussion between the trial court and counsel arose over the meaning and effect of the judgment provision of “Termination of Parental Rights.” Section 22-2-23 provides for, (A) causes of termination; (B) who may initiate termination (hereinafter called “initiator”); (C) the contents of the application; (D) the time and place for hearing, and notice thereof with a copy of the application to be given to the parents of the minor, and then (E) the provisions for judgment. Subsection E reads as follows:
E. The court after hearing may grant or deny a judgment terminating parental rights. A judgment of the court terminating parental rights has the same effect as an adoption judgment has in terminating the parent-child relationship, including terminating parental rights, dispensing with the consent, and with any required notice of an adoption proceeding of a parent whose relationship is terminated by the judgment. [Emphasis added]
“The same effect” means the same result or the same consequences, Taylor v. Midland Valley R. Co., 197 F. 323 (D.Okl. (1912), as that provided for in § 22-2-33(A), supra, entitled “Effect of Judgment of Adoption . . .”
Subsection (A) provides in part:
A judgment of adoption . . . has the following effect as to matters within the jurisdiction or before the court:
(1) to relieve the natural parents of all parental rights and responsibilities; and
(2) to create the relationship of parent and child between the petitioner and the individual to be adopted, as if the individual adopted were a legitimate blood descendant of the petitioner for all purposes .... [Emphasis added]
“Termination of Parental Rights,” therefore, not only relieves “the natural parents of all parental rights and responsibilities,” but it also creates “the relationship of parent and child between the [initiator] and the individual to be adopted, . . . dispensing with the consent, and with any required notice of an adoption proceeding .” [Emphasis added]
The trial court believed termination meant “the child has no parents.” The mother’s attorney believed “this child is in limbo.” Huey’s attorney believed “that once the court spoke then we could forthwith bring our adoption petition.”
We are confronted with the usual statutory problems which arise under tangled, mixed-up language. Although no similar legislation has been cited to assist in statutory construction, we have found none with language similar to that set forth under § 22-2-23 (E), supra.
“Termination of Parental Rights” statutes are an innovation in New Mexico. A model termination act was drafted by the Children’s Bureau, United States Department of Health, Education and Welfare. See, Katz, Judicial and Statutory Trends in the Law of Adoption, 51 Georgetown L.J. 64 (1962). For other states which have set up statutory procedures to terminate parental rights to a child, see, Ritz, Termination of Parental Rights to Free Child for Adoption, 32 N.Y.U.L.J.' 579, 590 (1957).
In 1970, Arizona adopted statutory authority for “Termination of Parent-Child Relationship.” Section 8-531 to 8-537, Arizona Revised Statutes, Supplement- 1972. It appears to follow the Model Termination Act. This statute creates a bifurcated proceeding for termination and adoption. Upon termination the juvenile court must: “1. Appoint an individual as guardian of the child’s person;” or “2. Appoint an individual as guardian of the child’s person and vest legal custody in another individual or in an authorized agency.”
The purpose of this bifurcated proceeding is “to reduce, if not completely eliminate, contested adoption.” Frondorf and Harper, Arizona’s New Face of Adoption, A.S.U.L.J., 1972, No. 1, 127 at 149.
The New Mexico statute on “Termination of Parental Rights” is not a bifurcated proceeding. It does not provide for disposition of the child’s custody prior to an adoption proceeding. It appears to be, in effect, an adoption proceeding within an adoption statute. Its interpretation was confusing in the court below. It is vague, indefinite, impractical, and unrealistic in this court.
Section 22-2-23, supra, is invalid for the following reasons:
First: The purpose of this section was to .terminate parental rights with respect to a minor child. It was not intended to create a parent-child relationship between the “initiator” of the application and the minor child. This adoptive parent-child relationship is the purpose of the adoption statute. By declaring “Termination” to be- “adoption,” the statute forces the natural parents and the adoptive parents to endure the pains of a contested adoption by “initiators” not allowed to adopt a minor child.
The “initiator” of the application for termination of parental rights is not a person who may adopt under § 22-2-24, supra, of the “Adoption Act.”
An “initiator” under § 22-2-23 (B) (2), (3), supra, may be “the custodian of a minor” or “an agency.”
The “custodian” is defined as “ . a person having custody of an individual, a guardian of the person of an individual, and a guardian ad litem for an individual;” Section 22-2-21 (J), N.M.S.A.1953 (Vol. 5, Supp.1971).
“An agency” is defined as “any person certified, licensed or otherwise specially empowered by law to place minors for adoption.” Section 22-2-21 (C), supra.
It is obvious that such “initiators” are not allowed by law to terminate a natural parent’s rights in order to create an artificial adoptive parent-child relationship. The “initiators” are allowed only to seek termination.
The vague and indefinite language of the statute makes § 22-2-23, supra, unconstitutional. State v. Prince, 52 N.M. 15, 189 P.2d 993 (1948). A person seeking “termination of parental rights” should know whether such proceeding results in adoption. State v. McMaster, 259 Or. 291, 486 P.2d 567, 576 (Or.1971) [concurring opinion].
Second: Section 22-2-23, supra, sets forth three reasons under which the court can terminate parental rights. Termination is the only issue in the proceedings. The qualification of the “initiator” is not an issue. Any unfit person in actual phys ical custody of a minor child, can initiate proceedings to terminate a mother’s right to her own son. If successful, the “initiator” becomes the parent of the child.
Third: Section 22-2-23, supra, provides for a judgment by adoption without consent of the parents. “Parental rights” is defined as “. . . all rights of a parent with reference to a minor, including parental right to control, or to withhold consent to an adoption, or to receive notice of a hearing on a petition for adoption;” [Emphasis added] Section 22-2-21(1), supra. Consent is at the very foundation of adoption statutes. Before the trial court can consider the merits of an adoption proceeding, the court must first determine whether the consent of the parent has been given or dispensed with. Nevelos v. Railston, 65 N.M. 250, 335 P.2d 573 (1959).
A statute which deprives a parent permanently of his child without consent, or without notice or opportunity to be heard, is void as an unconstitutional deprivation of right without due process of law. In re Mayernik, 292 S.W.2d 562 (Mo. 1956); Armstrong v. Manzo, 380 U.S. 545, 85 S.Ct. 1187, 14 L.Ed.2d 62 (1965). See, Stanley v. Illinois, 405 U.S. 645, 92 S.Ct. 1208, 31 L.Ed.2d 551 (1972). In re Adoption of K., 417 S.W.2d 702, 709 (Mo.App. 1967); Annot. 45 A.L.R.2d 1379, 1380 (1956). In re Adoption of K. said:
Adoption involves the dissolution of a constitutionally protected relationship, and unless the parents consent, or there is a substantial showing of some condition dispensing with the necessity of consent, the court has no power to enter a decree of adoption. Adoption may not be decreed simply to enhance the moral and temporal welfare of the child.
Fourth: The judgment of the trial court reads:
IT IS HEREBY ORDERED, ADJUDGED AND DECREED that the parental rights of Respondent ... to the minor child ... be and they are hereby terminated.
Under this judgment, the sole question was whether the facts warrant the court in completely severing all ties between the mother and her son. The welfare of the child is not controlling.
“Effect of Judgment of Adoption” was not included in the judgment. This is ■ a clear indication that § 22-2-23 is vague, indefinite and uncertain. The child has been placed in limbo, without natural or adoptive parents, and without custody or guardianship. It denies the child the possibility of being placed in a new home and becoming part of a family. For many years, he may be cared for in an institution or be transferred from foster home to foster home. The judgment against respondent is a violation of the due process clause of Art. II, § 18 of the Constitution of New Mexico. See, Robinson v. State, 34 N.M. 557, 287 P. 288 (1930); Annot. 76 A.L.R. 662.
Furthermore, if § 22-2-23 is only a statutory proceeding for “Terminating Parental Rights,” and hot an “Adoption,” it does not come within the scope of the title of the Act and violates Art. IV, § 16 of the New Mexico Constitution.
Other reasons could be stated which declare § 22-2-23, supra, invalid. We do not deem it necessary.
(2) The Trial Court Lacked Jurisdiction to Terminate the Mother’s Rights to her son.
The mother requested the trial court to find “that Respondent will not consent to her child’s adoption by Applicants or by anyone else.” The trial court made no finding on consent and did not “refuse” this request as provided by § 21 — 1— 1(52) (B) (a) (5), N.M.S.A.1953 (Repl.Vol. 4). The undisputed evidence supports this requested finding and we affirm it. Boswell v. Rio De Oro Uranium Mines, Inc., 68 N.M. 457, 362 P.2d 991 (1961); Lamonica v. Bosenberg, 73 N.M. 452, 389 P.2d 216 (1964).
Consent to adoption is a jurisdictional requirement. Courts are powerless to alter the natural parent-child relationship and create an artificial one unless consent is unnecessary or waived. Barwin v. Reidy, 62 N.M. 183, 307 P.2d 175 (1957); Hill v. Patton, 43 N.M. 21, 85 P.2d 75 (1938); Onsrud v. Lehman, 56 N.M. 289, 243 P.2d 600 (1952).
The trial court did not find that consent was unnecessary, dispensed with of relinquished. The trial court lacked jurisdiction to terminate the mother’s right to her son.
(3) The Judgment of the Trial court was Contrary to Public Policy.
The judgment terminating the mother’s rights to her son was contrary to public policy because the Hueys, as applicants, knowingly and willfully violated a formal written agreement with the Department of Public Welfare, entitled “Child Welfare Services Agreement for Foster Family Care.”
On June 2, 1969, the Hueys as foster father and foster mother, signed the agreement, supra. They agreed to comply with ' all the conditions relating to the placement with them of foster children. Of the ten provisions stated, the following are pertinent:
******
2. Leave to the agency the making of plans for foster children, including . . . return to parents. .
3. Engage in no adoptive planning for foster children except with agency authorization.
* - * * * * *
7. Report promptly illnesses, behavior and adjustment problems of foster children, and consult with the agency on their medical need.
******
9. Treat information about foster children and their families in strictest confidence, to be shared only with the agency.
The Hueys obtained the son as foster parents under the above agreement. They retained a copy of the agreeement. They read it before they signed it. They understood it. They agreed to comply with it. They were aware that the minor child was to be permanently returned to the mother on Friday, March 10, 1972. They were told that the foster plan was terminating. Through Health and Social Services, the mother had been picking up her child on Friday for week ends, and the caseworker told Mrs. Huey that the Department had decided the mother wanted her child and it was going to give him to her right away. On March 13, 1972, in violation of the written agreement, the Hueys filed their application for termination of the mother’s rights to her own son.
When Mrs. Huey was asked if her petition was a breach of the agreement, she said:
No, ma’am. But you can’t take a child and keep him for three years and not grow to love him. Especially when his mother has never had him in the first place.
The trial court questioned Mr. Huey about why he refused to follow the direction of the Welfare Department that the child be returned to his mother. His first sentence of a long explanation was:
We had been, have been with the child for three years and all and we felt that he had grown to be part of our family and all.
He elaborated on illnesses, behavior and adjustment problems, but this all' required consultation with the Department of Public Welfare. Instead of treating their information in strictest confidence, they filed an application for termination of the mother’s rights under § 22-2-23(A) (3), supra. This section reads as follows:
(3) The minor is without proper parental care and control, or subsistence, education or other care or control necessary for his physical, mental or emotional health or inorals, by reason of the misconduct, faults or habits of the parent or the neglect or refusal of the parent, when able to do so, to provide them or by reason of physical or mental incapacity of the parent to provide necessary parental and other care for the minor, if the court finds that the conditions and causes of such behavior, neglect or incapacity are irremediable or will not be remedied by the parent, and that by reason thereof the minor is suffering or will probably suffer serious physical, mental or emotional harm.
The trial court made findings of fact and conclusions of law which cover only the provisions of subsection (A)(3), supra. On appeal, the mother challenged most of the findings. There is merit to the challenges. But we are concerned with the failure of the trial court to adopt certain requested findings of the mother as Respondent which challenge the right of the trial court, as a matter of public policy, to hear an application filed by Huey.
The requested findings are as follows:
10. That in August, 1971, at a full staff meeting, the New Mexico Depart-' ment of Health and Social Services made a decision to return the child permanently to Respondent. That in this regard, a plan of reacquainting the child with his family through increased visiting was begun.
11. That Applicants acquiesced in this plan, and cooperated fully by preparing the child to visit his family, and encouraging and approving of the visits. That the plan was successful and March- 10, 1972 was the date fixed to permanently return the child to his home.
******
21. That prior to accepting [the minor child] into their foster home, Applicants Gerald Huey and Bonnie Huey signed an agreement with the New Mexico Department of Health and Social Services, agreeing, in part, to:
2. Leave to the agency the making of plans for foster children, including parental visiting, placement changes, and return to parents and relatives, and cooperate with the agency in carrying out these plans.
3. Engage in no adoptive planning for foster children except with agency authorization.
These requests were not “refused” as provided by § 21-1-52(B) (a) (5), supra, and since the undisputed evidence supports these requests, we affirm them.
The question now arises: Is the judgment of the trial court contrary to public policy in New Mexico. We say “yes.”
The public policy of this state is derived directly or by clear implication from the established law of the state as found in its constitution, statutes and judicial opinions. Barwin v. Reidy, supra.
There was “unjust overreaching” here by foster parents, as there was by natural parents in Barwin v. Reidy, supra.
Under the statutes of our state, the mother is the natural guardian of her children, and shall have the duty of care and education of her children. Section 32-1-1; N.M.S.A.19S3 (Vol. 5). The Department of Public Welfare is charged with administration and supervision of all child welfare activities, service to children placed for adoption, service and care for children in foster family homes. It formulates detailed plans. It makes rules and regulations, and it may take such action deemed necessary or desirable to carry out the provisions of the Welfare Act, which are not inconsistent with it. Section 13-l-4(c), (d), N.M.S.A.1953 (Repl.Vol. 3). In addition, the provisions of the Adoption Act assist in the protection of parental rights.
On the issue of contracts, it is improper for courts to relieve either party to a contract from its binding effect where it has been entered into without fraud or imposition, and is not due to mistake against which equity will afford relief. In re Tocci, 45 N.M. 133, 112 P.2d 515 (1941); Herrera v. C & R Paving Company, 73 N.M. 237, 387 P.2d 339 (1963).
The Hueys were bound by their agreement with the Department of Public Welfare. As between the two, the Department of Public Welfare was entitled to the pos session of the minor child. New Mexico Department of Public Welfare v. Cromer, 52 N.M. 331, 197 P.2d 902 (1948).
The minor child was born April 7, 1968. Because the mother and son were ill, the Department of Public Welfare advised the mother it would be helpful if she would allow someone to care for the child until she got well. On July 3, 1968, the mother executed a “Release For Placement and Transportation.” By this document, the mother consented to boarding her son in a home selected by the Department, and consented to medical care for her son by a physician. No consent was given for adoption. Thereafter, the Hueys became foster parents pursuant to the agreement entered into with the Department. The mother of the child, being the third party beneficiary of the Huey agreement, was entitled to its benefits. McKinney v. Davis, 84 N.M. 352, 503 P.2d 332 (1972).
In addition, we have adopted the philosophical principle that “ ‘ . . . the primal instincts and the natural and legal rights of the parents may not be lightly brushed aside . . . ’ All courts recognize that . . . best interest of the child is not measured altogether by material and economic factors — parental love and affection must find some place in the scheme and we all know this item covers a multitude of weaknesses.” Hill v. Patton, supra.
The judgment of the trial court is reversed, the proceedings to terminate the mother’s right to her son is dismissed, and the son must be returned to the mother forthwith.
It is so ordered.
LOPEZ, J., concurs.
HERNANDEZ, J., specially concurs. | [
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] |
OPINION
HERNANDEZ, Judge.
This is an appeal from a decision and order by the Commissioner of Revenue denying appellant’s protest of an assessment levied pursuant to § 72-16A-7(A) (2), N.M.S.A.1953 (Vol. 10, pt. 2, 1971 Supp.) which provides for a compensating tax for the privilege of using property in New Mexico acquired outside of the State.
Three points of error are asserted: (1) No tax is due because the appellant did not purchase the personal property in question; (2) the decision of the commissioner is not supported by “competent evidence”; (3) appellant is not subject to this tax.
We affirm.
Appeals from an order of the Commissioner of Revenue are governed by § 72-13-39, N.M.S.A.1953 (Vol. 10, pt. 2, 1971 Supp.) which reads in pertinent part: “Upon appeal, the court shall set aside a decision and order of the commissioner only if found to be (1) arbitrary, capricious or an abuse of discretion, (2) not supported by substantial evidence in the record, or (3) otherwise not in accordance with law.” We also call attention to § 72-13-32(C), N.M.S.A.1953 (Vol. 10, pt. 2, 1971 Supp.) “any assessment of taxes made by the bureau is presumed to be correct”, and § 72-13-38(F), N.M.S.A.1953 (Vol. 10, pt. 2, 1971 Supp.) "In hearings before the commissioner or his delegate, the technical rules of evidence shall not apply, but in ruling on the admissibility of evidence, the commissioner or his delegate may require reasonable substantiation of statements or records tendered, the accuracy or truth of which is in reasonable doubt.”
As to point (1) the record discloses that on August 31, 1970 appellant entered into a purchase agreement with Vought Helicopter Incorporated for the purchase of a helicopter for the sum of $216,230.00. A deposit of $10,000 was made and the balance was paid by a promissory note. The sum due by the note was secured by a security agreement. The helicopter was delivered to appellant, who then used it in New Mexico. It was appellant’s position that since only the initial deposit of $10,000 had been paid that the purchase agreement had not been consummated. Therefore there had been no sale and accordingly no tax was due. Appellant’s argument is without merit. The purchase agreement was not an executory document and failure to make any of the subsequent payments after the deposit did not render it executory. See §§ 50A-2-106(l) and 50A-2-401(2), N.M.S.A.1953 (Repl. Vol. 8, pt. 1). “But a sale once complete in law does not change to or become some other sort of transaction because the purchaser later fails or refuses to pay as agreed.” Knowles v. Jones, 63 N.M. 391, 320 P.2d 744 (1958).
The basis of appellant’s second point is that hearsay evidence was admitted to prove the authenticity of the documents discussed above and other documents, and that these documents are hearsay because they were offered to prove the truth of the recitals therein. Appellant’s second point is not well taken. The “technical rules of evidence” do not apply in hearings before the Commissioner. The oral evidence provided reasonable substantiation [§ 72-13-38(F), supra] of the documents. They were properly admitted. Further, even if the documents introduced by the Bureau were not considered, the inferences from the oral testimony support the applicability of the compensating tax and, thus, support the denial of appellant’s claim that he did not purchase the helicopter. See Torridge Corporation v. Commissioner of Revenue, 84 N.M. 610, 506 P.2d 354 (Ct.App.1973); Archuleta v. O’Cheskey, 84 N.M. 428, 504 P.2d 638 (Ct.App.1972).
Appellant’s claim of exemption, set forth as its third point of error, is that their business is subject to the Resources Excise Tax Act (§ 72-16A-20 to § 72-16A-29, N.M.S.A.1953 (Vol. 10, pt. 2, 1971 Supp.)) and therefore exempt from the Compensating Tax Act by reason of § 72-16A-12.23, N.M.S.A.1953 (Vol. 10, pt. 2, 1971 Supp.). The evidence was insufficient to show that appellant was engaged in activities which subjected it to the resources excise tax. Appellant failed to show it was entitled to the claim exemption. Rock v. Commissioner of Revenue, 83 N.M. 478, 493 P.2d 963 (Ct.App.1972).
The decision and order of the Commissioner is affirmed.
WOOD, C. J., and HENDLEY, J., concur. | [
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OPINION
OMAN, Justice.
This cause is before us on a writ of certiorari directed to the New Mexico Court of Appeals. The writ was issued solely for the purpose of clarifying our opinion in State v. Felter, 85 N.M. 619, 515 P.2d 138 (1973).
Our opinion in the Felter case has apparently been construed by some as requiring a showing by a defendant in a criminal case of a particularized need for the grand jury testimony of a witness who has actually appeared and testified for the State at the criminal trial. This is not what was said or meant by us in the Felter case. However, we apparently created some confusion by the language we used in that portion of our opinion in which we expressed our disagreement with the opinion of the Court of Appeals in State v. Sparks, 85 N.M. 429, 512 P.2d 1265 (Ct.App.1973), insofar as it was stated therein that Mascarenas v. State, 80 N.M. 537, 458 P.2d 789 (1969), modifies State v. Tackett, 78 N.M. 450, 432 P.2d 415, 20 A.L.R.3d 1 (1967), cert. denied, 390 U.S. 1026, 88 S.Ct. 1414, 20 L.Ed.2d 283 (1968).
In an earlier case we held:
“ * * * [O] nee the witness has testified publicly at the criminal trial, any privilege that he had with respect to his testimony on the same subject before the grand jury is lost. * * * ” State v. Morgan, 67 N.M. 287, 290, 354 P.2d 1002, 1004 (1960).
“ * * *. The state has no interest in denying the accused access to all evidence that can throw light on issues in the case, and, in particular, the state should have no interest in convicting on the testimony of witnesses who have not been as rigorously cross-examined and as thoroughly impeached as the evidence permits.” State v. Morgan, supra, at 67 N.M. 292, 354 P.2d 1006; see also State v. Sparks, supra.
There can be no valid reason for requiring the defendant to show a particularized need for the grand jury testimony of a witness who has already appeared and testified publicly in the criminal trial. In this regard we quote and reaffirm the following from our opinion in State v. Felter, supra, at 85 N.M. 620, 515 P.2d 139:
“ * * *. We agree with the decision of the Court of Appeals under the particular facts of that case, [State v. Sparks, supra], and agree with the statement in its opinion that ‘once the witness has testified at the criminal trial about that which he testified before the grand jury, the accused is entitled to an order permitting examination of that portion of the witness’ grand jury testimony relating to the crime for which defendant is charged.’
“Attention is particularly called to the fact that the accused’s examination of the grand jury testimony of the witness should be confined to matters relating to the offense' with which the accused is charged and for which he is being tried, and about which the witness testified before the grand jury. We anticipate that ordinarily this will include all of the witness’ testimony before the grand jury. However, we can readily conceive of cases in which the grand jury testimony of a witness will cover far more than matters relating to the offense with which the accused is charged and for which he is being tried. In those cases the examination of the grand jury testimony should be confined solely to matters relating to the offense with which the accused is charged and for which he is on trial. The reasons for making this portion of the grand jury testimony of a trial witness available for examination by the accused are set forth in the opinion of the Court of Appeals in State v. Sparks, supra.”
The decision of the Court of Appeals is hereby affirmed.
It is so ordered.
McMANUS, C. J., and STEPHENSON, MONTOYA and MARTINEZ, JJ., concur. | [
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OPINION
STEPHENSON, Justice.
This action was brought by Eula Jean Allgood (“plaintiff”) against Roy Orason (“defendant”) in the District Court of Santa Fe County for modification of their California child custody order regarding visitation rights.
After trial to the court, the California decree was modified as to custody, visitation rights, and expenses, with a restraining order being placed on both parties. Defendant appeals.
The developments of this case, particularly the California battles over visitation, are rather remarkable even in the field of domestic relations. An interlocutory judgment of dissolution of marriage was entered by the Superior Court of California, County of Santa Clara in August 197(5. Pursuant to stipulation, custody of the children was given to plaintiff subject to defendant’s visitation rights. The judgment further provided that prior to permanent removal of either child from residence in California, the party so removing should secure the written ■ consent of the other or a further order of the court.
The same restrictions were carried forward into the final judgment of dissolution entered in October 1970. But even prior to the entry of the final judgment, problems were arising concerning visitation. A hearing was held in September 1970 on a petition of plaintiff to permanently remove the children to Texas, and defendant’s request for modification of the custody provisions and a contempt order against plaintiff. All relief sought by either party was denied in November 1970.
By January, 1971, plaintiff was back in court with another petition, this time to define the visitation rights and to obtain permission to remove the children from the Bay area. An order was entered spelling out the visitation rights more fully, and permitting plaintiff to take the children out of California for vacations of up to one month.
On February 20, 1971 plaintiff married Mr. Allgood and two days later left California. The Allgoods and the children have resided in Santa Fe since February 25th of that year.
In April, 1971, we again find plaintiff in the Superior Court of California again seeking to loosen the restrictions on where she may keep the children and tighten the visitation rights. On May 28, 1971 the California court entered the order with which we are primarily concerned, and will call the “California order.” Notable features of the order include:
1. A change in custody provisions. Custody was awarded jointly to the parents, with plaintiff having “physical custody.”
2. An even more elaborate spelling out of defendant’s visitation rights during school holidays and weekends, consuming in all about three pages of the order, and providing for the exercise of those rights both in California and in Santa Fe.
3. Provision for the sharing between the parties of certain expenses of the children’s travel to California and return when the visitation rights are exercised there, and of defendant’s travel expenses when they are exercised in New Mexico. This is the provision which precipitated this proceeding.
The California order was not appealed, nor has plaintiff sought to have it modified.
Following entry of the California order, defendant commenced a continuous effort to exercise his visitation rights, but with indifferent success. He was able to see his daughters only twice, once in California and once in New Mexico, being met with a barrage of excuses by, and passive resistance on the part of, the plaintiff. Although the record is not entirely clear, apparently defendant initiated a contempt proceeding in California. He claims that plaintiff secured a continuance of it and then filed this proceeding on November 3, 1971. So far as we know, there have been no further hearings in California since the order.
A good deal is said in the briefs about whether the California order was res judicata and should be given full faith and credit under U.S.Const, art. IV, § 1. The foundation of our law with respect to enforcement of foreign custody decrees was laid in Ex parte Mylius v. Cargill, 19 N.M. 278, 142 P. 918 (1914). Mylius was a habeas corpus proceeding by the father to enforce a Texas decree giving custody rights to both the mother and the father and prohibiting the removal of the children from the State of Texas without consent of the court. The mother had removed the children to New Mexico without consent of the court and had thereby deprived the father of his custody rights. In determining whether the Texas decree was entitled to full faith and credit, this court said:
“ ‘Under [the full faith and credit clause of] our national Constitution, this order is plainly a record to which, if the court has jurisdiction, the same faith and effect permitted it in the state of its rendition must be given in every other state. And the true rule in the state of its rendition is that it is res judicata concluding the question. But it does not conclude the question for all time, since new facts may create new issues * * *’. 2 Bishop on Marriage and Divorce (2nd Ed.) 1189.
(< * * %
“The soundness of this doctrine is apparent. The relation of parent and child is a status and may be changed with changing circumstances. The welfare of the child is always the paramount considera tion for the court in awarding the custody of children to one parent or the other in cases of divorce or separation. The welfare of the child may be best sub-served at one time by awarding its custody to one parent, and at another time just the opposite course should be taken. These judgments are, necessarily, provisional and temporary in character and are, ordinarily, not res judicata, either in the same court or that of a foreign jurisdiction, except as to facts before the court at the time of the judgment.”
We have consistently followed the principles established in Mylius by holding that foreign custody decrees are entitled to full faith and credit; and this means such decrees are res judicata, but only as to the facts before the court rendering the decree; Smith v. South, 59 N.M. 312, 283 P. 2d 1073 (1955); and that upon a showing of changed circumstances indicating the welfare of the child will best be served by a change of custody, the full faith and credit clause does not prohibit a modification of the foreign decree. Tuft v. Tuft, 82 N.M. 461, 483 P.2d 935 (1971) and the cases cited therein; Terry v. Terry, 82 N.M. 113, 476 P.2d 772 (1970). The controlling consideration is the welfare of the child. See e. g. Terry v. Terry, supra; Fox v. Doak, 78 N.M. 743, 438 P.2d 153 (1968); Smith v. South, supra; Albright v. Albright, 45 N.M. 302, 115 P.2d 59 (1941); Ex parte Mylius v. Cargill, supra.
As to the degree and kind of change in circumstances, we said in Albright v. Albright, supra:
“The changed circumstances must be substantial, and ‘only a change in circumstances and conditions materially affecting the existing welfare of the minor, occurring since the former adjudication, may properly become the subject of inquiry and the basis of a change in the vaward of the minor’s custody,’ * * * Evens v. Keller, supra [35 N.M. 659, 6 P.2d 200].”
The moving party has the burden of proving that a legally sufficient change of circumstances has occurred. We said in Merrill v. Merrill, 82 N.M. 458, 483 P.2d 932 (1971):
“In a proceeding to modify a provision for the custody of minor children, the burden is on the moving party to satisfy the court that circumstances have so changed as to justify the modification. Every presumption is in favor of the reasonableness of the original decree. Kerley v. Kerley, 69 N.M. 291, 366 P.2d 141 (1961).”
Naturally, the trial court has considerable discretion in child custody awards. Merrill v. Merrill, supra; Kotrola v. Kotrola, 79 N.M. 258, 442 P.2d 570 (1968). But a generality concerning the breadth of the trial court’s discretion cannot be permitted to serve as a device for circumventing the constitutional requirements of full faith and credit, the common law doctrine of res judicata and the requirements laid down in our precedents regarding .the sufficiency of a supposed change in circumstances.
With these principles in view, the legal issue presented here is limited in scope. Has there been a change of circumstances which is substantial, which materially effects the children’s welfare and which occurred between May 28 and November 3, 1971 ? Only an affirmative answer to these questions will permit us to sustain the trial court’s order.
Quite a lot of the petition and evidence was taken up with assorted alleged delinquencies and shortcomings of defendant. Most of this had more or less evaporated by the time the proof was in and does not concern us. The petition, in summary, alleges that the California order is “burdensome and oppressive” in requiring plaintiff to share visitation expenses; that plaintiff cannot comply with it; that the traveling is bad for the children; that defendant is able to pay these expenses; and so on.
Most of the proof, which could be material here consisted merely of inveighing against the California order — that it was bad, unworkable and expensive. The trial court in its findings said the California order was “burdensome for the children and for the plaintiff.” It also found:
“That a material change in the circumstances of the parties has occurred since the entry of the order aforesaid requiring a change in the provisions of the said order for the best interests and welfare of the said minor children.”
The trial court then gave the visitation provisions of the California order a general overhaul. Our inquiry is not whether the New Mexico order is better than the California one. We are inclined to think it probably is. Rather the question is whether the finding as to a material change in circumstances is supported by substantial evidence.
Plaintiff has precisely stated in her brief a summary of the evidence she relies upon to show a change of circumstances, reiterated upon oral argument by specific reference to the brief. This summary (in plaintiff’s words, but separated and numbered for convenience and, with our comments interspersed) is as follows:
1. Mrs. Allgood is simply not financially able to comply with the terms of the order requiring her to pay transportation expense.
This is merely an attack on the order. No change is involved except for the better. She was not employed on May 28, but was on November 3, 1971.
2. Mrs. Allgood was remarried on February 20, 1971, and she and her husband and children have resided in New Mexico since February 25, 1971.
These matters antedate both the hearing on the California order and the order itself.
3. Between April 16, 1971 and August 1971 the appellee was unemployed. April 16, 1971 was the date of hearing on the California order. The only material change here was for the better, as mentioned under item numbered one.
4. There have been quite visible changes in the children since they moved to New Mexico in that they have become well adjusted, they are and appear to be very happy children, they are making extremely good grades in school and are generally well adjusted happy little girls. This is another change for the better during the period with which we are concerned.
5. -The children, when they go to California to see their father miss out on weekends and the activities which are going on, and on a couple of occasions have missed school plays which they cannot be in because they have to go somewhere else and they feel as if they are being deprived having to come out of school.
This is another attack on the California order and its workings. No change of circumstances seems involved. The matters stated are neither substantial nor material. There is no evidence that such interference with minor childish pleasures worked to the disadvantage of the children’s welfare or that they are not offset by the benefits of association with their father.
6. There has been a great deal of hostility which has developed between the parties since the decree was modified in April in California, and this hostility also involves the stepfather of the children.
This is not evidence but a comment by the court prior to announcing its ruling. Changes which might have occurred prior to May 28 are immaterial. There is evidence of hostility but none that it has been worse since May 28 than before. There is a lack of evidence that this hostility had any substantial effect on, or that it is material to the welfare of the chil dren. Moreover there is a lack of evidence that the hostility was more the fault of the defendant than of the plaintiff. The court did not so find, and we would be sorry to see the defendant’s visitation rights impaired or adversely effected on this account.
7. It would not be in the best interest of the children for them to fly to California and back by themselves once each month, and therefore, all the visitation rights are to be exercised in Santa Fe.
This is another comment by the court rather . than evidence, but in any case, it does not even infer any change of circumstances, whether material, substantial or otherwisé. It is merely an attack on the California order.
8. It is not going to work any hardship upon the appellant to pay the transportation for his children to visit him or to pay his own fare from California when he visits the children.
This is another comment by the court rather than evidence and is subject to the same comment.
In Merrill v. Merrill, supra, we. were presented with an analogous situation. A divorce decree confirming a prior custody agreement giving custody of the children to the mother had previously been entered. The father, plaintiff in the action, subsequently remarried and sought to modify the custody agreement. In holding that the trial court abused its discretion in changing custody of the children to the plaintiff, we said:
“We cannot say that plaintiff’s remarriage, having a stable home, that defendant may move to Albuquerque (citation omitted) or the fact that the defendant did not force the children to visit the plaintiff, constitutes a sufficient change in circumstances to warrant a modification of the original divorce decree. The record has been searched and it does not reveal a material change of circumstances hearing upon the necessity or the justice of modifying the custody provision contained in the original divorce decree."
Similarly, the record in this case, if it reveals any change in circumstances, presents no evidence of a change of a substantial or material nature affecting the children’s welfare or justifying the modification of the California order. Accordingly, we hold that the order appealed from must be reversed.
Appellee relies on Hoefer v. Hoefer, 67 N.M. 180, 353 P.2d 1066 (1960), in which we held that the domicile in good faith in New Mexico of the mother is sufficient basis for jurisdiction in New Mexico to enter a decree confirming a prior Kansas custody decree granting custody to the mother, even though during the pendency of the New Mexico proceeding, the Kansas decree had been modified. In Hoefer, we held only that New Mexico had jurisdiction to confirm a foreign custody order existing at the time domicile was established in New Mexico, and we stated that there was no issue of changing a prior custody order of a sister state.
■Defendant also contends that the trial court erred in refusing to rule upon his request that the children be required to use the name “Orason,” their legal name, rather than the name “Allgood,” the name of their stepfather. He advanced no legal basis for this assertion, either at the trial court or here. Accordingly the decision of the trial court refusing the request is affirmed.
The order from which this appeal is taken is reversed. The case is remanded to the district court with directions to dismiss plaintiff’s petition. Plaintiff is allowed $500.00 for the services of her attorneys in this court.
It is so ordered.
MONTOYA and MARTINEZ, JJ., concur. | [
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Original Proceeding on Certiorari
Ordered that petition for writ of certiorari be and the same is hereby denied.
Further ordered that the record in Court of Appeals Cause No. 990, 85 N.M. 20, 508 P.2d 1317, be and the same is hereby returned to the Clerk of the Court of Appeals. | [
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OPINION
WOOD, Chief Judge.
Convicted of robbery, § 40A-16-2, N.M.S.A.1953 (2d Repl. Vol. 6), defendant appeals. Use or threatened use of force is an essential element of robbery under § 40A-16-2, supra. State v. Walsh, 81 N.M. 65, 463 P.2d 41 (Ct.App.1969). Defendant contends the evidence concerning force is insufficient to sustain his conviction. We disagree.
The victim was walking on the sidewalk on the north side of Central Avenue in Albuquerque, just west of the railroad underpass. ,At this point, the sidewalk is several feet above the street. The victim had some one dollar bills in the breast pocket of his jacket. Defendant grabbed this money, ripping the pocket. The victim yelled, “ ‘Give me back my money.’ ” Defendant hit the victim, knocking him against the railing separating the sidewalk from the street. The victim grabbed the railing to keep from falling into the street. The victim and defendant then began fighting.
Defendant claims there was only a snatching or sudden taking of the money, and relies on State v. Sanchez, 78 N.M. 284, 430 P.2d 781 (Ct.App.1967) and State v. Baca, 83 N.M. 184, 489 P.2d 1182 (Ct. App.1971). Here, there was more than a "mere snatching” and the facts differ from those in State v. Sanchez, supra, and State v. Baca, supra.
The use or threatened use of force “ * * * must be the lever by which the thing of value is separated * * * ” from the victim. State v. Baca, supra. The amount or degree of force is not the determinative factor. Evidence of jostling or causing the victim to fall as property is taken is a sufficient showing to establish the use of force. State v. Segura, 81 N.M. 673, 472 P.2d 387 (Ct.App.1970).
Here, the ripping of the jacket pocket in grabbing the money, and knocking the victim against the railing, was a showing of sufficient use of force to sustain the conviction. Thus, we need not consider the fight that followed.
The judgment and sentence is affirmed.
It is so ordered.
HERNANDEZ and LOPEZ, JJ„ concur. | [
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OPINION
STEPHENSON, Justice.
We are called upon to decide several procedural issues stemming from a suit brought by appellees (“plaintiffs”) in the District Court of Grant County to establish an easement over appellants’ (“defendants”) land. Defendants answered setting up affirmative defenses and counterclaimed on the theory that plaintiffs and various employees of Grant County conspired to trespass upon their property. Plaintiffs were allowed to amend their complaint, adding the theory of easement by prescription to the original theories of apparent easement or visible servitude and easement by necessity. In their answer to the amended complaint, defendants did not reassert the counterclaim. A pretrial hearing was held and an order entered.
The case was tried to a jury. At the conclusion of the hearing of testimony, which included the evidence relating to the counterclaim, plaintiffs moved to dismiss the counterclaim for lack of jurisdiction. The trial court granted the motion. The jury returned a verdict by interrogatories in which it answered affirmatively the interrogatory inquiring as to the existence of an easement by prescription, but negatively responded to the interrogatory pertaining to easement by necessity. Defendants then moved for judgment or for a new trial based upon affidavits of jurors stating that the written form of answers to the interrogatories was not in fact what the jury had decided. The motion was denied and judgment entered for plaintiffs.
The easement with which we are concerned is upon lands involved in the case of Norero v. Board of County Commissioners of Grant County, 82 N.M. 300, 481 P.2d 88 (1971) but that case is immaterial to the present problem.
The first issue raised by defendants is whether the trial court. properly granted plaintiffs’ motion to dismiss the counterclaim. In granting the motion, the district court relied in part upon Rule 15(e) [§ 21-1-1(15)(e), N.M.S.A.1953] as applied in Griego v. Roybal, 79 N.M. 273, 442 P.2d 585 (1968). Rule 15(e) states:
“In every complaint, answer, or reply, amendatory or supplemental, the party shall set forth in one [1] entire pleading all matters which, by the rules of pleading, may be set forth in such pleading, and which may be necessary to the proper determination of the action or defense.”
In Griego, we said:
“ * * * [T]he failure to re-allege allegations of an original pleading constitutes an abandonment of those allegations not re-alleged. See Primus v. Clark, 58 N.M. 588, 273 P.2d 963. Since Rule 7(a) requires a counterclaim to be a part of an answer, it is apparent to us that Rule 15(e) requires a counterclaim, if there is one, to be a part of an amended answer.”
Defendant argues that Griego is distinguishable in that it involved an amended answer rather than an answer to an amended complaint. Although this distinction is factually correct, it is not determinative, since Rule 15(e) applies to “every complaint, answer, or reply, amendatory or supplemental.”
The factual setting confronting us here is more complex than in Griego. In this case, the trial court entered a pretrial or der pursuant to Rule 16 [§ 21-1-1(16), N. M.S.A.1953] which states in part:
“The court shall make an order which recites the action taken at the conference, the amendments allowed to the pleadings, and the agreements made by the parties as to any of the matters considered, and which limits the issues for trial to those not disposed of by admissions or agreements of counsel; and such order when entered controls the subsequent course of the action, unless modified at the trial to prevent manifest injustice.”
The pretrial order in this case, under the heading “GENERAL NATURE OF THE CLAIMS OF THE PARTIES,” states:
“Defendants have filed a counterclaim asking for damages in the way of attorney’s fees, trespasses and mental anguish resulting from a conspiracy on the part of the plaintiffs and also asking for exemplary damages for the malicious actions of plaintiffs.”
And under the heading “CONTESTED ISSUES OR FACT,” the order tells us that “Defendants counterclaim for damages; the plaintiffs deny the damages.” Plaintiff’s attorney was present at the pretrial conference and approved the pretrial order. It is thus inconceivable that defendants’ failure to reassert their counterclaim in their answer to the amended complaint prejudiced plaintiffs. Moreover, many federal cases interpreting the federal counterpart of our Rule 16 hold that an issue stated in the pretrial order is properly tried even though not raised in the pleadings and that the pretrial order supersedes the pleadings. See 3 Moore’s Federal Practice § 16.19 (2nd Ed. 1972); 6 Wright and Miller Federal Practice and Procedure: Civil § 1522 (1971).
Even assuming that defendants’ counterclaim was not in the pleadings, Rule 15(b) [§ 21-1-1(15) (b), N.M.S.A.1953] provides in relevant part:
“When issues not raised by the pleadings are tried by express or implied consent of the parties, they shall be treated in all respects as if they had been raised in the pleadings.”
Adherence to the principle of Rule 15(b) is well established in New Mexico. Berkstresser v. Voight, 63 N.M. 470, 321 P.2d 1115 (1958). The counterclaim was tried by implied consent of the parties.
Discourse between the court and counsel indicates that all were somewhat troubled by the interplay of Rule 15(b), Rule 15(e) and Rule 16. Perhaps this was caused by the fact that Rule 15(b) and 16 are based upon the federal rules, but the source of Rule 15(e) is Laws 1897, Ch. 73 § 89. Its purpose was doubtless to prevent surprise and prejudice (features entirely lacking here) and to serve the convenience of court, counsel and litigants by avoiding the necessity of rummaging through court files to discover operative pleadings scattered about therein. Rule 15(e) is a rule of civil procedure and ought to be followed, and we decline to overrule or modify Griego. However, slavish application of the rule seems inappropriate in this case.
We hold that in situations where there is neither surprise nor prejudice, or where the pretrial order regularly entered states the issues of a counterclaim to be pending for trial, or where such issues are actually tried without objection, failure to incorporate a previously filed counterclaim into an amended answer is not a sound basis for its dismissal. Under circumstances in which Rule 15(e) conflicts with Rule 15(b) and 16, Rule 15(e) must stand aside in deference to oui; general policy of providing maximum opportunity for each claim to be decided on its merits rather than on procedural technicalities. See 2 Moore’s, supra, § 1.13; 4 Wright and Miller, supra, § 1029. See also, Rule 13(f) [§ 21-1-1(13) (f), N.M.S.A.1953.] Accordingly, we hold that the counterclaim was tried in accordance with the Rules of Civil Procedure and that it would have been error for the trial court to dismiss it based solely on the violation of Rule 15(e).
Although plaintiffs’ motion, made after the close of presentation of evidence, was in the form of a motion to dismiss for lack of jurisdiction, the record indicates that the court treated it in the alternative as a motion for directed verdict allowed by Rule 50(a) [§ 21-1-1 (50) (a), N.M.S.A. 1953] and sustained it on that additional ground. Defendants also challenge the district court’s refusal to submit the counterclaim to the jury on this ground.
In denying the jury an opportunity to decide the counterclaim, the court’s statements in the record make clear that it considered that there had been an entire failure of proof of certain of its material allegations, viz: conspiracy or damage. The court grounded its dismissal of the counterclaim not only upon Rule 15(e) but on the failure of proof as well.
We agree with the trial court that there was a failure of proof as to essential allegations of the counterclaim. Thus any error inhering in the court’s action in respect to Rule 15(e) was harmless, and hence not reversible. Morris v. Merchant, 77 N.M. 411, 423 P.2d 606 (1967).
Defendants also assert that the trial court erred in refusing to enter judgment for them, or in the alternative grant them a new trial, on the basis of affidavits of seven jurors which tend to indicate that the affirmative answer to the interrogatory as to an easement by prescription did not reflect the actual decision of the jury.
Affidavits of jurors tending to impeach, impugn or vitiate their verdicts will not be received, admitted or considered. City of Albuquerque v. Ackerman, 82 N.M. 360, 482 P.2d 63 (1971). Defendants argue that our cases dealing with impeachment of verdicts are not instructive in that they pertain to improprieties in juror conduct or the method used by the jury in reaching its .decision, but that the issue here is whether the verdict reflects the actual decision of the jury. The thrust of the argument is that the verdict sheet mistakenly recorded the decision of the jury.
It is true that most of the cases in this state on the subject of impeachment of jury verdicts involve situations as to juror conduct and jury methods. See City of Albuquerque v. Ackerman, supra, (use by jurors during deliberation of notes taken during trial); Skeet v. Wilson, 76 N.M. 697, 417 P.2d 889 (1966) (jurors visiting scene of accident in violation of court’s order); Garcia v. Sanchez, 68 N.M. 394, 362 P.2d 779 (1961) and Scofield v. J. W. Jones Construction Co., 64 N.M. 319, 328 P.2d 389 (1958) (jury considering a fact not properly before it); State v. Embrey, 62 N.M. 107, 305 P.2d 723 (1956) (separation of two jurors from the rest of the jury); Sena v. Sanders, 54 N.M. 83, 214 P.2d 226 (1950) and Talley v. Greear, 34 N.M. 26, 275 P. 378 (1928) (jury reaching a quotient verdict); and Goldenberg v. Law, 17 N.M. 546, 131 P. 499 (1913) (jury deciding amount of damages by flip of coin). But in McKinney v. Smith, 63 N.M. 477, 322 P.2d 110 (1958) we applied the principle in question to a situation in which the jurors unanimously signed an affidavit to the effect that the amount of damages announced in their verdict should have been $515.00 rather than $1500.00. In holding that the verdict could not be impeached through affidavits of jurors we reviewed the reasons for the principle as we stated them in Goldenberg v. Law, supra:
“The reason for the rule is stated as follows, in Graham & Waterman on New Trials, vol. 3, p. 1428 and quoted in the note to the above case [Crawford v. State, Tenn., 24 Am.Dec. 467]: ‘(1) Because they would defeat their own solemn acts under oath. (2) Because their admission would open the door to tamper with jurymen after they had given their verdict. (3) Because they would be the means, in the hands of dissatisfied juror, to destroy a verdict at any time after he had assented to it.’ ”
These reasons are applicable whether the allegations are of juror misconduct or improper jury methods as in most of the cases to which we have referred, or mistake in rendering the verdict as in McKinney v. Smith, supra, and this case. We therefore hold that the trial court did not err in refusing to allow impeachment of the verdict by affidavits of jurors.
Finally, defendants challenge the correctness of the portion of the trial court’s judgment which finds the width of the easement to be seventeen feet. Defendants’ challenge is predicated upon plaintiffs’ expert surveyor’s testimony that the easement was seven feet wide. Plaintiffs rebut by asserting that the record mistakenly reflects the testimony as indicating seven feet when in fact the witness testified to seventeen feet. Seventeen feet finds some support in the record, but more to the point is plaintiff’s testimony that the width is “about six paces or eighteen steps * * * that’s approximate, I have never measured it” and that a fourteen foot culvert had previously been laid across the road. Although the evidence relied upon by the parties is conflicting, there is substantial evidence to support the judgment, as to the width of the easement.
As we have mentioned, the jury in answer to an interrogatory, stated that plaintiffs had an easement by prescription, but, not by necessity, across defendants’ property and judgment was entered in their favor predicated upon an easement by prescription. They have cross-appealed contending that the jury’s negative answer to the latter interrogatory is unsupported by substantial evidence. They ask us to set aside the verdict insofar as that answer is concerned.
In view of the disposition we are making of the appeal, the issues tendered by the cross-appeal are moot. It would add nothing to plaintiffs’ rights or legal position to strike down the jury’s answer and would have no effect on the outcome of this case. We therefore express no opinion in respect to the cross-appeal.
The judgment of the district court is affirmed.
It is so ordered.
OMAN and MONTOYA, JJ., concur. | [
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OPINION
WOOD, Chief Judge.
The Municipal Court in the City of Hobbs convicted defendant of operating a motor vehicle while under the influence of intoxicants, in violation of a city ordinance. Defendant appealed to the District Court. After trial in District Court, defendant was again found guilty. Defendant, pro se, has appealed to this Court. The City has not appeared in this Court and neither brief nor argument has been submitted on behalf of the City.
Defendant states no points relied on for reversal. His argument is directed to the following matters:
1. He argues the sufficiency of the evidence. We have reviewed the testimony. The testimony of the police officer is sufficient to sustain the conviction. City of Portales v. Shiplett, 67 N.M. 308, 355 P.2d 126 (1960).
2. He asserts he was denied the right to introduce evidence in his own behalf. The record shows he testified in his own behalf. He was given the opportunity to question the police officer but declined to do so. There were no other witnesses. There is nothing showing defendant desired to call additional witnesses or present evidence other than that which was presented. The transcript reference in support of this point shows the trial court instructed defendant not to argue with the court. It does not show he was denied the right to introduce evidence.
3. He contends there is no such thing as “a plain DWL” Defendant made this contention in the trial court after which the trial court stated it had read the city ordinance. Defendant persisted in his argument; the trial court instructed defendant not to argue. Defendant’s contention is that the city ordinance conflicted with State law. The claim apparently is that the city ordinance conflicted with the provisions of the Implied Consent Law. See § 64-22-2.6. N.M.S.A. 1953 (2d Repl. Vol. 9, pt. 2). Section 64-22-2.6, supra, deals with inplied consent to tests for determining the alcoholic content of blood if arrested for certain offenses committed while driving a vehicle while under the influence of intoxicating liquor. Section 64-22-2.6, supra, does not define the offense for which defendant was convicted. There is nothing in the record before us which shows a conflict between § 64 — 22-2.-6, supra, and the city ordinance involved in this case. See City of Hobbs v. Biswell, 81 N.M. 778, 473 P.2d 917 (Ct.App.1970).
4. Defendant states he has reason to believe that the results of a breath test were altered; that his constitutional rights were violated because the "... hospital, the State Board of Health, and the police department refused to give me the results of my test of blood or breath. . ” These contentions were never presented to nor ruled on by the trial court. Under existing rules of appellate practice they may not be raised for the first time on appeal. The fact that defendant appears pro se does not alter the applicability of appellate rules. Wilson v. Albuquerque Board of Realtors, 82 N.M. 717, 487 P.2d 145 (Ct.App.1971).
The judgment and sentence of the District Court is affirmed.
It is so ordered.
HERNANDEZ J., concurs.
SUTIN, J. dissenting. | [
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OPINION
WOOD, Chief Judge.
This appeal, from denial of a motion for post-conviction relief under § 21-1-1(93), N.M.S.A.1953 (Repl.Vol. 4), divides into two parts: (1) issues raised'in the post-conviction motion and (2) issues raised for the first time on appeal.
In 1961, defendant pled guilty to assault with intent to commit rape and was sentenced to not more than fifty years in the penitentiary. Section 40-6-9, N.M.S.A. 1953 (Orig.Vol. 6), subsequently repealed. All but six months of the sentence was suspended; the six months was served, by order of the court, in the county jail.
In 1964, a jury convicted defendant of aggravated assault contrary to § 40A-3-2, N.M.S.A.1953 (2d Repl.Vol. 6). Defendant was sentenced to the statutory penitentiary term for a fourth degree felony. An order was entered revoking the suspended sentence in the 1961 conviction. The sentence for the 1964 conviction was to run concurrently with the balance of the sentence for the 1961 conviction.
The motion for post-conviction relief was filed in 1971. It attacks the validity of the proceedings' leading to the revocation of the suspended sentence. This motion bears the case number of the 1964 sentence, which is not attacked. We disregard the question as to the appropriate case number and consider the contents of the motion.
Issues raised in the motion.
Defendant makes conclus.ionary charges that his constitutional rights were violated in the revocation proceedings. These are insufficient to provide a basis for post-conviction relief. State v. Kenney, 81 N.M. 368, 467 P.2d 34 (Ct.App.1970).
Defendant’s specific allegations are that he was represented by “inadequate” counsel and did not effectively waive the right to trial by jury on the question of his identity. The trial court found that defendant “. . . was ably represented by competent counsel throughout the revocation proceedings.” It also found that defendant admitted his identity in open court and waived trial by jury as to his identity. These findings are not attacked; they are the facts before us on appeal. State v. Reid, 79 N.M. 213, 441 P.2d 742 (1968).
Defendant contends he was entitled to an evidentiary hearing on the matters raised in his motion. Since his conclusionary charges did not entitle him to relief and since he does not attack the findings made by the trial court on the basis of “the file and transcript of proceedings,” no evidentiary hearing was required.
Issues raised for the first time on appeal.
In his brief, defendant claims: (1) he was not given credit for the elapsed time between his release after serving his six months jail sentence and the time the suspended sentence was revoked; (2) he was coerced by his counsel to plead guilty in the 1961 case; and (3) his counsel exceeded his- authority in waiving a jury trial on the question of his identity in the revocation proceeding.
Defendant asserts the trial court erred in not giving him an evidentiaryhearing on these claims. Since the matters were not raised in his post-conviction motion, the trial court had no knowledge of them and, thus, could not have erred in not considering them. These matters, being raised for the first time on appeal, are not before us for review. State v. Ranne, 83 N.M. 241, 490 P.2d 683 (Ct.App.1971).
The order denying the motion is affirmed.
It is so ordered.
SUTIN and HERNANDEZ, JJ., concur. | [
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OPINION
LOPEZ, Judge.
On May 11, 1972, a grocery store in Lovington, New Mexico, was robbed. The police arrived quickly and pursued the vehicle in which the robber had fled. Shots were exchanged before the occupants of the vehicle were apprehended. Defendant was not the person who entered the store; he was, however, one of the occupants of the vehicle fleeing from the scene.
Defendant was charged and convicted of armed robbery as an accessory, see §§ 40A-16-2 and 40A-1-14, N.M.S.A. 1953 (2d Repl. Vol. 6), and of assault with intent to commit a violent felony upon a peace officer, see § 40A-22-22, N.M.S.A. 1953 (2d Repl. Vol. 6). He raises five points for reversal. Point One alleges error in the admission of in-court identifications of defendant since he was not afforded a pretrial lineup. Defendant never requested a pretrial lineup; nor did he object to the identification testimony. Points Three and Four relate to the admission of certain evidence to which no objection was taken. In Point Five defendant complains that the court failed to instruct the jury on certain matters. However, defendant tendered no requested instructions covering those matters. Each of these four points are raised here for the first time and, under § 21-2-1(20), N.M.S.A. 1953 (Repl. Vol. 4), are not before us for review.
Point Two challenges the sufficiency of the evidence to support the armed robbery conviction. In addition, defendant asserts all of the errors alleged amount to fundamental error. We consider these contentions.
Defendant and the robber were passengers in the car being pursued by the police. This car came to a stop, defendant got out and fired three shots at the police car. These facts are established by direct evidence.
Defendant was convicted of armed robbery on the theory of aiding and abetting that crime. Evidence of aiding and abetting is as broad and varied as are the means of communicating thought from one individual to another. Defendant’s view is that there is no evidence that he knew of the robbery until after its commission and, thus, could not have been an aider and abetter. Shooting at the pursuing police car is evidence that defendant approved the robbery and shared the robber’s criminal intent. The evidence is sufficient to sustain the armed robbery convictions. See State v. Martinez, 85 N.M. 198, 510 P.2d 916 (Ct.App.1973) and cases therein cited.
The evidence being sufficient to sustain the armed robbery conviction and the evidence of the assault on the police officer not being challenged, there is no basis for the claim of fundamental error. See State v. Sedillo, 81 N.M. 47, 462 P.2d 632 (Ct.App.1969).
The judgment and sentence is affirmed.
It is so ordered.
WOOD, C. J., and HENDLEY, J., concur. | [
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] |
OPINION
SUTIN, Judge.
Plaintiff filed a claim for relief in Bernalillo County to set aside a deed purportedly conveying real estate from plaintiff to defendant. The case was tried to the court •and a judgment in favor of plaintiff entered setting aside the deed and declaring it void. Defendant appeals. We affirm.
The trial court made 38 findings of fact and 12 conclusions of law. In the statement of proceedings, the defendant did not set forth “a concise, chronological summary of such findings as are material to the review with appropriate references to the transcript.” Section 21-2-1(15) (16) (b), N.M.S.A.1953 (Repl.Vol. 4). Defendant only challenged findings No. 9 and 20, and conclusions No. 1, 2 and 3. Defendant did not copy in her brief, at any place, the findings of fact made by the trial court or those challenged. Neither did defendant, at any place in her brief, attempt to copy or summarize the facts as found by the trial court. This cannot be condoned. Petty v. Williams, 71 N.M. 338, 378 P.2d 376 (1963); Trujillo v. Tanuz, 85 N.M. 35, 508 P.2d 1332 (Ct.App.1973).
Findings challenged are:
9. The plaintiff made no delivery of any deeds to his home on September 11, 1968, or at any other time prior to leaving for Australia.
* * * * * *
20. The completion of the deed on January 2, 1969, conveying the plaintiff’s home to defendant was not authorized by the plaintiff; and plaintiff was not informed in January, 1969 that the deed was completed.
Conclusions challenged are:
1. The plaintiff never signed a memorandum with respect to the sale or conveyance of his home to the defendant.
2. No valid or enforceable contract existed for the sale and conveyance of the plaintiff’s home to the defendant.
3. The completion of a deed by the defendant to convey to herself the plaintiff’s home was without consideration, was not done to further any contract between the parties, and was improper under the Statute of Frauds. [Emphasis added]
Defendant contends the findings above are not supported by the evidence. However, the trial court did find that the transactions entered into between plaintiff and defendant, together with executed documents relating to his home, were to enable defendant to manage plaintiff’s property while he was in Australia; that the documents were not completed and were entrusted to defendant; that the parties discussed the possibility that defendant would purchase plaintiff’s home if it were not sold pursuant to the real estate listing, and the parties did not execute any memorandum or agreement evidencing a contract of sale; that on January 2,- 1969, defendant caused the warranty deed executed in blank by plaintiff to be completed to make a conveyance of plaintiff’s home to the defendant, and caused an acknowledgment to be completed, signed and sealed; that on August 19, 1969, defendant recorded the deed, and plaintiff first learned of completion and recordation of the warranty deed in November or December, 1969.
The above findings were not challenged. They are sufficient to sustain the challenged findings. Defendant’s only authority was to manage plaintiff’s property while he was in Australia. Defendant’s concealment of the fact that the blank deed had been completed, acknowledged, and recorded, without any authority to do so, effectively concludes her challenge to the findings made. A deed executed in blank is not valid unless the blank spaces are filled in by the grantor or his agent in accordance with instructions or authority. Vosburg v. Carter, 34 N.M. 194, 197, 279 P. 563 (1929); Scheer v. Stolz, 41 N.M. 585, 588, 72 P.2d 606 (1937).
The statute of frauds is not applicable in this case. After opening statements were made, defendant admitted that her defense was not involved with any oral or written agreement between plaintiff and defendant over the sale of plaintiff’s home to defendant. She only relied on an alleged statement that, in the attorney’s office, the parties met and a deed was delivered.
Defendant contends the trial court erred in determining that the transaction was within the statute of frauds. The trial court did not make this; determination.
In its conclusion No. 3, supra, the trial court merely stated that completion of the deed under the circumstances “was improper under the Statute of Frauds.” These words are vague and indefinite. But a reasonable inference can be drawn that the circumstances under which the defendant completed the deed was improper because it was a means of perpetrating a fraud on plaintiff; that it was wrongful procedure for defendant to follow. “ . . . The statute of frauds is intended to protect against a fraud . . ..” Aragon v. Boyd, 80 N.M. 14, 17, 450 P.2d 614, 617 (1969).
The statute of frauds is an affirmative defense. Section 21-1-1 (8) (c), N.M.S.A. 1953 (Repl.Vol. 4). The trial court did not conclude that the statute of frauds was a bar to defendant’s claims.
Affirmed.
It is so ordered.
LOPEZ, J., concurs,
HERNANDEZ, J. (specially concurring), | [
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OPINION
MARTINEZ, Justice.
Appellees brought this action in the District Court of Bernalillo County on December 2, 1969 to recover damages by way of inverse condemnation pursuant to § 22-9-22, N.M.S.A.1953 (Supp.1971). Appellees alleged that appellant’s construction of a portion of Interstate 40 created a detour and interfered with their right of access which damaged their curio shop, service station, snake house, cafe, garage and two residential buildings. Because of this, they claimed that their businesses had to be closed and the value of their property diminished.
The trial court found that, prior to this highway construction, appellees had unlimited access to U.S. Highway 66 for travel in east and west directions. Upon the commencement of construction in late September or early October 1968, the appellant’s servants closed the westbound traffic lane of U.S. Highway 66 and prevented access to the eastbound lane which had been converted into a two-lane service road running parallel to Interstate 40 then under construction. Consequently, in order to reach Albuquerque from their property, appellees were forced to travel west 7.5 miles on the westbound lane of U.S. Highway 66 to the Rio Puerco interchange and return east to Albuquerque thus making an additional distance of fifteen miles each way of the trip. In similar fashion, appellees were forced to travel an additional fifteen miles from Albuquerque to return to their property. The trial court further found that this condition existed for more than one year, and that such denial of access to the appellees was unreasonable and resulted in a $31,000 loss of market value to appellees’ property.
Appellant has raised three points on appeal: the first and dispositive point being that temporary interference with access to property, by reason of construction activities on public highways, is not compensable unless it is pleaded and proved that such interference was unreasonable because not necessitated by the work to be done.
Section 22-9-22, N.M.S.A.1953 (Supp. 1971) reads in part:
“The state of New Mexico or any agency or political subdivision thereof, including the state highway commission and any person, firm or corporation authorized by the Constitution or laws of this state to exercise the right of eminent domain who has heretofore taken or damaged or who may hereafter take or damage any private property for public use without making just compensation therefor or without instituting and prosecuting to final judgment in a court of competent jurisdiction any proceeding for condemnation thereof, shall be liable to the owner of such property, * * (Emphasis added)
New Mexico cases involving § 22-9-22, supra, invariably encompass some physical permanent taking or damage to property. See Kaiser Steel Corporation v. W. S. Ranch Company, 81 N.M. 414, 467 P.2d 986 (1970); Buresh v. City of Las Cruces, 81 N.M. 89, 463 P.2d 513 (1969). The injury complained of in the instant case is not a permanent physical injury to property but is a temporary denial of access from appellees’ property to the general highway system. Therefore, the issue becomes whether or not the right to access as a property right, temporarily obstructed and interfered with by appellant, was damaged and compensable pursuant to § 22-9-22, supra.
This Court has recognized that the right of access is a property right, and may not be taken or damaged without the payment of compensation. State ex rel. State Highway Comm. v. Chavez, 77 N.M., 104, 419 P.2d 759, aff’d as State ex rel. State Highway Commission v. Chavez, 80 N.M. 394, 456 P.2d 868 (1969); State v. Silva, 71 N.M. 350, 378 P.2d 595 (1962). The right of access has been defined as, “ * * * a right of ingress to and egress from land on an abutting street or highway and therefrom to the system of public roads, subject to reasonable traffic regulations and not affected by diversion of traffic or reasonable circuity of travel.” State v. Danfelser, 72 N.M. 361, 369, 384 P.2d 241, 246 (1963). New Mexico cases dealing with a denial of access demonstrate clearly that a “taking,” the actual physical severance and appropriation of the party’s land, is not required in order that the landowner be entitled to compensation. A landowner is entitled to compensation if there are consequential “damages” resulting from the denial of access. Board of County Com’rs, Lincoln County v. Harris, 69 N.M. 315, 366 P.2d 710 (1961). In that case, this Court recognized that the lowering of the grade of a highway approximately 20 inches damaged the appellant’s property which abutted the highway. There, the damages inflicted were not a temporary nature, but were the consequence of the lowering of the highway’s grade. This Court further noted that the change of the grade was material. The Court acknowledged that “ * * * not every change of grade * * * would be compensable.” Id. at 318, 366 P.2d at 712. This Court further stated that:
“The line between non-compensable damages through an exercise of the police power, and damage for which payment must be made for a taking under eminent domain is one not easily drawn; nevertheless, we are clear that under the facts of this case the lowering of the grade cannot be supported as an exercise of police power.”
Id. at 318, 366 P.2d at 712.
In the instant case, no grade was lowered, and no permanent interference with appellees’ right of access to U.S. Highway 66 occurred. The appellees’ access to U.S. Highway 66 was unchanged physically by this construction. What occurred was the use of the new Interstate 40 as the main highway to and from Albuquerque, and the conversion of U.S. Highway 66 to a serv ice road. It is the position of this Court that the abutting landowner has no vested right in the flow of traffic, Board of County Com’rs v. Slaughter, 49 N.M. 141, 158 P.2d 859 (1945).
There are no New Mexico cases which deal with the question of whether or not the appellant’s action which produced a temporary interference with access was compensable. In this sense, the instant case is one of first impression before this Court. However, other states have faced this issue and have established a workable framework which this Court can readily adopt.
The Court of Appeals of Ohio has held that in order to prove damages for the denial of access, a party must demonstrate that the temporary interference was unduly prolonged, not merely that it was annoying, noisy, or inconvenient. Masheter v. Yake, 9 Ohio App.2d 327, 224 N.E.2d 540 (1967). The state of Idaho has expressed the following rule: “If the temporary obstruction is a result of unreasonable, unnecessary, arbitrary or capricious acts or conduct by the one in charge of the improvement or construction, the abutting landowner has a right of action for damages resulting from such interference with access to his property.” Hadfield v. State, 86 Idaho 561, 567, 388 P.2d 1018, 1022 (1964). See Rymkevitch v. State, 42 Misc.2d 1021, 249 N.Y.S.2d 514 (1964). Generally, damages caused by temporary obstruction of streets during the period of construction of a public project are not compensable. 5 Nichols, Eminent Domain, § 16.1011(1). In the instant case, the trial court found that appellees were forced to travel additional distances from their property for more than one year. However, the trial record fails to indicate that this interference was the result of unreasonable, unnecessary, arbitrary or capricious conduct by appellant, or that construction of Interstate 40 was unduly prolonged. The trial court’s findings to the contrary are not supported by substantial evidence. This being the case, the trial court’s conclusions of law predicated on these findings also lack support.
Therefore, the judgment of the trial court is reversed and the cause remanded with instructions that judgment be entered for the defendant.
It is so ordered.
OMAN and MONTOYA, JJ., concur. | [
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] |
OPINION
HENDLEY, Judge.
Convicted of burglary as an accessory contrary to §§ 40A-16-3 and 40A-1-14, N. M.S.A. 1953 (2d Repl.Vol. 1972), defendant appeals. His points for reversal are: (1) that the verdict is not supported by substantial evidence; (2) that the trial court erred in allowing testimony concerning weapons found in defendant’s car after his arrest; (3) that the trial court erred in denying a portion of a requested instruction; and (4) that the court erred by failing to instruct on an essential element of the crime charged. Point four has been disposed of by the Supreme Court. (See State v. Gunzelman, 85 N.M. 295, 512 P.2d 55, filed July 6, 1973, withdrawing opinion similarly styled filed May 25, 1973, and reversing State v. Gunzelman, 84 N.M. 451, 504 P.2d 1084 (Ct.App. 1972)).
Regarding defendant’s first point, we have reviewed the record and conclude that there is substantial evidence to support the verdict. State v. Moser, 80 N.M. 404, 456 P.2d 878 (1969).
Regarding defendant’s second point his argument is that the testimony was not relevant to any issue raised by the indictment. This argument is without merit. State v. Everitt, 80 N.M. 41, 450 P.2d 927 (Ct.App. 1969).
Regarding defendant’s third point, his argument is that this was a theory of the case instruction which was improperly denied. This is incorrect. The refused instruction stated there was no presumption that defendant was an accessory and that defendant did not have the burden of proving that he was not an accessory. The trial court instructed on the presumption of innocence and the state’s burden of proof. The refused instruction did not state a theory of the case; instructions given covered the presumption of innocence and burden of proof. Point three is without merit. State v. Mireles, 84 N.M. 146, 500 P.2d 431 (Ct.App. 1972); State v. Zarafonetis, 81 N.M. 674, 472 P.2d 388 (Ct.App. 1970).
Affirmed.
It is so ordered.
WOOD, C. J., and LOPEZ, J., concur. | [
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] |
OPINION
WOOD, Chief Judge.
The jury returned a verdict for Scarsella on his counterclaim for malicious prosecution. Plaintiffs’ appeal raises questions as to: (1) determination of probable cause by the trial court; (2) evidence as to probable cause; (3) excessive damages.
Determination of probable cause by the trial court.
The elements to be proved in an action for malicious prosecution are stated in Meraz v. Valencia et al., 28 N.M. 174, 210 P. 225 (1922). One of the elements, to be proved by a preponderance of the evidence, is “that no probable cause existed for the prosecution.” Meraz v. Valencia et al., supra.
At trial, plaintiffs contended “. . . that the question of probable cause is properly decided by the Court and should not be submitted to the Jury. . . .” The trial court refused to decide the question as a matter of law and, on instructions which are not challenged, submitted the issue of probable cause to the jury. Plaintiffs contend this was error.
Several New Mexico decisions have stated that “. . , what constitutes probable cause is a question of law for the trial court to determine. . . .” We examine the factual context of those statements. In Bokum v. Elkins, 67 N.M. 324, 355 P.2d 137 (1960) and Brown v. Village of Deming, 56 N.M. 302, 243 P.2d 609 (1952), the issue of probable cause was submitted to the jury without objection; thus, the appellant could not complain of the trial court not having ruled on the issue. In Marchbanks v. Young, 47 N.M. 213, 139 P.2d 594 (1943) the facts alleged showed there was probable cause as a matter of law and the complaint was properly dismissed. Compare Apodaca v. Miller, 79 N.M. 160, 441 P.2d 200 (1968). In Hughes v. Van Bruggen, 44 N.M. 534, 105 P.2d 494 (1940) the evidence was insufficient to support a verdict for malicious prosecution. Leyser v. Field, 5 N.M. 356, 23 P. 173 (1890) quotes the following:
“ ‘. . . The question of probable cause is a question of law and fact. Whether the circumstances alleged to show probable cause are true, and exist, is a matter of fact; but supposing them to be, whether they amount to probable cause, is a question of law.
Leyser, supra, states: “This doctrine is generally adopted.” Meraz v. Valencia et al., supra, states:
“. . , Whether the facts adduced constitute probable cause or lack of it is usually a question of law for the court. . The motion to instruct admitted all facts proved by plaintiff and all inferences reasonably deducible therefrom, and the question now is whether such facts and inferences were sufficient as a matter of law to prove malice and lack of probable cause. We have recited the facts in this opinion, and find they are sufficient as a matter of law to permit a recovery, when standing unrebutted by any evidence on the part of the defendants. On a retrial of this case, should the evidence be conflicting, the determination of these questions would eventually be a matter within the province of the jury.”
Vincioni v. Phelps Dodge Corp., 35 N.M. 81, 290 P. 319 (1930) states: “. . . the facts being undisputed, the question [of probable cause] is one of law for the court. . . .” In Kumor v. Graham, 39 N.M. 245, 44 P.2d 722 (1935) the trial court found a lack of probable cause as a fact; our Supreme Court held the finding was supported by substantial evidence.
In the false imprisonment portion of Stienbaugh v. Payless Drug Store, Inc., 75 N.M. 118, 401 P.2d 104 (1965) it is stated:
“. . . if the question of reasonable or probable cause for the detention of a customer is undisputed, it is one of law for the court, but if the evidence is conflicting, it is a mixed question of law and fact, ... In other words, it is for the trier of the facts to determine which of the conflicting stories is true.
In our opinion, there is no conflict in the above cited New Mexico decisions. Taking as true the facts relied on to show an absence of probable cause, the trial court is to determine whether those facts are sufficient to prove an absence of probable cause as a matter of law. Whether disputed or undisputed, if the facts are insufficient, this determination disposes of the probable cause issue. If the facts are sufficient to show an absence of probable cause and are not disputed, this determination disposes of the probable cause issue. If the facts are sufficient to show an absence of probable cause but are disputed, probable cause is a question to be decided by the finder of fact. The discussion in the next point shows the trial court properly submitted the issue of probable cause to the jury.
Evidence as t'o probable cause.
The question of the sufficiency of the evidence was presented to the trial court by motion for a directed verdict and by a motion for judgment notwithstanding the verdict. In ruling on these motions, the trial court was to consider the evidence in the light most favorable to Scarsella, who was resisting the motions. Garcia v. Barber’s Super Markets, Inc., 81 N.M. 92, 463 P.2d 516 (Ct.App.1969). Although the evidence is conflicting, we consider only the evidence favorable to Scarsella.
Yucca (Yucca Ford, Inc.) operates an automobile repair garage. Clear is Yucca’s general manager and acted within the scope of his employment. Scarsella asked Clifton, Yucca’s service manager, what it would cost to repair a steering problem on Scarsella’s pickup. Clifton stated he could not give a cost estimate without taking the steering apart because there were a lot of parts inside. According to Scarsella, he left his pickup with Yucca the next day so that an estimate could be made. When Scarsella telephoned for the estimate, the pickup had been repaired. When Scarsella pointed out there was no authorization to repair the pickup, relations between the parties deteriorated.
According to Scarsella, Clear stated he was going “ ‘. . . to tear it apart and I am going to take out the parts and I am going to charge you for tearing it down and inspecting it. . . .’” When Scarsella agreed to this, Clear stated: “ ‘. . . I will tell you something else, I am going to take your truck and I am going to lock it up in the back and when we get time to fix it we will fix it. . . .’” Thereafter, over Clear’s objections, Scarsella got in his truck and drove it off. Clear said: “ T am going to have the police after you.’ ” Scarsella said “ T live right up the road.’ ”
Clear called the police, gave the license number and description of the pickup “and asked them to pick it up.” He was told that he would have to get a warrant. Clear then called the magistrate “. . . and told him I wanted a man picked [up] or my money or the truck.” Clear was angry at the time. Clear met the magistrate at the courthouse and signed a criminal complaint charging Scarsella with “[u]nlawful [t]aking of a vehicle” contrary to § 64-9-4, N.M.S.A.1953 (2nd Repl.Vol. 9, pt. 2). A warrant was issued on the basis of the criminal complaint and Scarsella was arrested. This occurred on July 29th. The magistrate dismissed the charge on the following August 6th.
Clear did not remember what he told the magistrate. "... I explained to him that he [Scarsella] ran off with the truck without paying the bill and how much detail I went into I don’t know because I wanted to hurry and get the man picked up before he left town.” “. . . I don’t know the particular or anything of it. I know I was only in his office a few minutes.”
Section 64-9-4, supra, makes it a felony to take a vehicle intentionally and without the consent of the owner. This section also makes it a felony to steal any automobile tire, part, accessory, equipment or tool from an automobile. This section does not pertain to liens for repair of motor vehicles. Such liens are provided for in § 61— 3-1, N.M.S.A.1953 (Repl.Vol. 9, pt. 1) and the removal of property “from the possession of a person that possesses a lien” under § 61-3-1, supra, is declared to be a misdemeanor by § 61-3-2.1, N.M.S.A.1953 (Repl.Vol. 9, pt. 1, Supp.1971).
Probable cause is an honest belief on the part of the prosecutor in the guilt of the accused, based on reasonable grounds. Marchbanks v. Young, supra. “Reasonable grounds” pertain to facts and circumstances which would warrant a prudent and cautious person in believing that the one arrested was guilty of an offénse. People v. Carlton, 58 Ill.App.2d 163, 206 N.E.2d 824 (1965), cert. denied, 384 U.S. 910, 86 S.Ct. 1351, 16 L.Ed.2d 362 (1966).
The above evidence, considered in the light most favorable to Scarsella, is that the pickup was left for a cost repair estimate; that the pickup was repaired without authorization; and that the pickup was to be detained at the convenience of Yucca because Scarsella disputed and did not offer to pay for the unauthorized repairs. This was evidence that Yucca had no reasonable grounds to believe Scarsella had committed a violation of either § 64— 9-4, supra, or § 61-3-2.1, supra. In the light of this evidence, the trial court did not err in denying the motion for a directed verdict or the motion for judgment notwithstanding the verdict.
Yucca seems to assert that it did not initiate the criminal charge against Scarsella but relied on the advice of the magistrate. See Hughes v. Van Bruggen, supra. On this basis they argue that probable cause for the criminal charge existed as a matter of law. In support of this contention they refer to selected testimony of Clear. However, in other testimony, Clear said that he did not know that the magistrate recommended the criminal charge that was filed. We have previously referred to testimony where Clear said he did not remember what he told the magistrate. With this conflict, the motions could not have been granted on the basis of the rule in Hughes v. Van Bruggen, supra.
Excessive damages.
Plaintiffs contend the verdict of $5,000.00 was excessive. The issue is not before us for decision.
On January 28, 1972, after the jury returned its verdict, plaintiffs moved for judgment notwithstanding the verdict on the basis of the probable cause issues previously discussed in this opinion. In addition, plaintiffs moved “. . . the Court to declare a mistrial or grant to it a new trial or grant a remittur [sic] of a portion of the damages, and in support of such motion shows to the Court that the damages assessed by the Jury were excessive and cannot be allowed to stand as a matter of law.”
The trial court reserved ruling on these motions. On July 10, 1972, it entered an order denying the motion for judgment notwithstanding the verdict. The record does not show that the motion directed to the amount of damages was called to the trial court’s attention;- the trial court did not rule on this motion. Not having invoked a ruling on the damage motion, it is not before us for review. Dahl v. Turner, 80 N.M. 564, 458 P.2d 816, 39 A.L.R.3d 207 (Ct.App.1969).
As to the merits of the damage question, see Sweitzer v. Sanchez, 80 N.M. 408, 456 P.2d 882 (Ct.App.1969); compare Montgomery Ward v. Larragoite, 81 N.M. 383, 467 P.2d 399, 42 A.L.R.3d 859 (1970).
The judgment is affirmed.
It is so ordered.
HENDLEY, J., concurs.
SUTIN, J., specially concurring. | [
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] |
OPINION
WOOD, Chief Judge.
Plaintiffs sued for property damage allegedly resulting from the detonation of explosives by Brown (Brown Construction Company) while constructing a highway. The highway construction was pursuant to a contract with the Commission (New Mexico State Highway Commission). The contract required Brown to carry “ . adequate regular protective public liability and property damage insurance required by the Commission.” Plaintiffs sued both Brown and the insurer, Mountain States Mutual Casualty Company. The trial court entered a summary judgment dismissing the complaint against the insurer with prejudice. That judgment was final under § 21-1-1(54)(b), N.M.S.A. 1953. (Repl.Vol. 4). The amendment to that section, in April, 1973, is not applicable. Plaintiffs challenge the propriety of the summary judgment. The issues are: (1) whether direct action is permitted against the insurance company and, if not, (2) whether a dismissal with prejudice was proper.
Direct action.
“It is generally held that, in the absence of a contractual or statutory provision authorizing a direct action against or the joinder of a liability insurer, an injured person * * * has no right of action at law against the insurer and cannot join the insured and the liability insurer as parties defendant. * * * ” Olokele Sugar Co. v. McCabe, Hamilton & Renny Co., 53 Haw. 69, 487 P.2d 769 (1971).
In Lopez v. Townsend, 37 N.M. 574, 25 P.2d 809, 96 A.L.R. 342 (1933) a statute specifically authorized a direct action. In Breeden v. Wilson, 58 N.M. 517, 273 P.2d 376 (1954) a city ordinance conditioned the issuance of a license to operate a taxicab upon the filing of an insurance policy conditioned to pay all losses and damages proximately caused by negligent operation. Breeden, supra, held that this requirement authorized a direct action against the insurer. See Deeg v. Lumbermen’s Mutual Casualty Co., 279 F.2d 491 (10th Cir. 1960).
The parties agree there is nothing in the insurance contract which authorizes a direct action against the insurer. They also agree there is no statutory provision specifically authorizing a direct action, as in Lopez v. Townsend, supra, or requiring a policy conditioned to pay all losses, as in Breeden v. Wilson, supra.
Plaintiffs assert the absence of such provisions does not bar their suit against the insurance company. They contend direct action against the insurer is proper where public policy requires insurance for the benefit of the public. This argument assumes public policy may be found in other than statutes and, thus, goes further than the view adopted in Breeden v. Wilson, supra, which is:
“ * * * That an insurance policy procured by force of legislative enactment inures to the benefit of any injured member of the public, and the insurance company is a proper party defendant in a suit for damages by that injured party, unless the statute or ordinance in its terms negatives the idea of such joinder. * * * ”
The argument is plausible under the facts of this case. Involved here are the April, 1963 Interim Specifications of the Commission. Those specifications required “ * * * protective public liability and property damage insurance. * * * ” The Commission is established by N.M. Const. Art. V, § 14. As that provision read in 1963, the Commission was “ * * * empowered and charged with the duty of determining all matters of policy relating to the design, construction, location and maintenance of state highways and public roads. * * . * ” (Our emphasis).
Accordingly, we assume, but do not decide, that an insurance policy procured by force of the policy of the Commission can properly be considered to inure to the benefit of an injured member of the public.
The foregoing assumption does not dispose of the question of whether plaintiffs may bring a direct action against the insurer. Breeden v. Wilson, supra, indicates the direct action is proper “ * * * unless the statute or ordinance in its terms negatives the idea of such joinder. * * * ” Under the assumption we have made, the direct action would be proper unless the policy of the Commission negates such joinder.
The Commission specifications apply to Brown because they were incorporated into the construction contract between the Commission and Brown. In addition to requiring liability insurance, the specifications provide that “ * * * the terms and conditions of the insurance hereby required may be changed or amended.” The parties have stipulated that the specifications were modified by the construction contract between the Commission and Brown.
The modification is an addition to the section of the specifications entitled “Legal Relations and Responsibility to the Public.” This is the section in the specifications which requires liability insurance. The modification reads:
“ ‘ * * * It is specifically agreed between the parties executing this contract that it is not intended by any of the provisions of any part of the contract to create the public or any member thereof a third party beneficiary under this contract, or to authorize any one not a party to this contract to maintain a suit for personal injuries or property damage pursuant to the terms or provisions of this contract.’ ”
We have assumed that an insurance policy, procured by force of Commission policy, could be considered to inure to the benefit of an injured member of the public. Commission policy, expressed by the modified specifications incorporated into the construction contract, specifically negates any direct action against the insurer. Breeden v. Wilson, supra.
The trial court correctly ruled that plaintiffs’ direct action against the insurance company should be dismissed.
Dismissal with prejudice.
The dismissal of the insurance company in the summary judgment was “with prejudice.” Although the dismissal was proper, the question arises whether the dismissal is in the proper form. Specifically, the question is whether the judgment in this case, if affirmed as worded, would be a bar to any suit seeking to require the insurance company to pay in accordance with the terms of its policy. Satterwhite v. Stolz, 79 N.M. 320, 442 P.2d 810 (Ct.App.1968).
A summary judgment is a final judgment. Satterwhite, supra. Generally speaking, “ * * * dismissal with prejudice * * * constitutes an adjudication of the merits and is thus res judicata of the issues between the parties and their privies. * * *” Chalmers v. Hughes, 83 N.M. 314, 491 P.2d 531 (1971); Pueblo de Taos v. Archuleta, 64 F.2d 807 (10th. Cir. 1933). See also Gilman v. Osborn, 78 N.M. 498, 433 P.2d 83 (1967); Curtis Manufacturing Company v. Barela, 76 N.M. 392, 415 P.2d 361 (1966); Eager v. Belmore, 53 N.M. 299, 207 P.2d 519 (1949); City of Roswell v. Holmes, 44 N.M. 1, 96 P.2d 701 (1939).
The insurance policy provides that no action shall lie against the insurance company until the amount of the insured’s obligation to pay has been finally determined, either by judgment or written agreement. Our decision under the first point of this opinion gives effect to this provision. The policy also provides a person who has obtained a judgment or written agreement, as provided in the policy, “ ‘ * * * shall thereafter be entitled to recover under this policy to the extent of the insurance afforded by this policy. * * * In their complaints, plaintiffs not only incorporated the policy terms by reference, but alleged this agreement of the insurance company to compensate, to the extent of the coverage, for acts of Brown that the policy insured. The summary judgment dismissing this claim with prejudice would dispose of this claim before there has been any determination of whether Brown is liable to plaintiffs. See Satterwhite v. Stolz, supra. The summary judgment is not in proper form.
The dismissal of Mountain States Mutual Casualty Company as a party to this action is affirmed. Because this dismissal is in the form of a final judgment constituting an adjudication of the merits of plaintiffs’ prospective claim against the insurance company, the cause is remanded with instructions to set the summary judgment aside, and enter a new judgment dismissing plaintiffs’ claims without prejudice to further claims against the insurance company.
It is so ordered.
HENDLEY and HERNANDEZ, JJ., concur. | [
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] |
OPINION
LOPEZ, Judge.
Defendant appeals following his conviction of the crimes of unlawful possession of marijuana, § 54-9-3, N.M.S.A.1953 (Repl. Vol. 8, pt. 2, Supp.1971); unlawful possession of LSD (Lysergic .Acid Diethylamide) § 54-6-51 (F), N.M.S.A.1953 (Repl. Vol. 8, pt. 2, Supp.1971); unlawful possession of Pentobarbital, § 54-6-38(B) (3), N.M.S.A.1953 (Repl. Vol. 8, pt. 2, Supp.1971).
We affirm.
Defendant asserts three points in his appeal: (1) that the trial court erred in denying defendant’s motion to suppress the evidence seized because it was the fruit of an unlawful search subsequent to an unlawful arrest; (2) that the trial court erred in refusing his instruction No. 1 pertaining to knowledge, possession, quantity and usability of the narcotic substances; (3) that the search and seizure of the evidence after his arrest constituted fundamental error.
(1) It was not error to deny defendant’s motion to suppress.
Defendant contends he:
“ . . . was arrested without being shown any arrest warrant and without being informed of any charges against him and without probable, cause to believe that he had either committed a felony or was engaged in the commission of a misdemeanor at the time of arrest. Such arrest was illegal and where the evidence seized was a product of illegal arrest and tainted by that illegal act, the District Court committed a reversible error in denying [defendant’s] pre-trial motion to suppress such evidence.”
The record on the motion to suppress discloses the following. Defendant was arrested on January 3, 1972 by Officer Romero of the Gallup Police Department. Of ficer Romero was on routine patrol when he overheard on his car radio, a call to the police station by two detectives who had just seen the defendant. The detectives sought information as to whether there were any outstanding warrants on the defendant at that time. The radio dispatcher replied that there were outstanding warrants on the defendant. Officer Romero then advised the detectives of his location and asked if they wanted him (Romero) to pick up the defendant. The detectives said yes.
Officer Romero proceeded to the courthouse parking lot where he spotted the defendant walking on the sidewalk. Officer Romero called the defendant over to his unit and asked him if he was David Grijalva; defendant responded in the affirmative and then Officer Romero advised the defendant of the warrants for his arrest and the numbers of the warrants.
Defendant then made an inquiry as to what the warrants were for and Officer Romero obliged him by attempting to call the police station. At this moment, defendant walked away from the officer. Officer Romero then got out of his car and pursued the defendant until he caught him. Officer Romero then proceeded to take the defendant to the police station.
Defendant was riding in the back seat of the police car and the officer told him “ . . . if he had something that he wanted to get rid of, if he had anything, to do it before we got to the police station — ”
Defendant was observed by Officer Romero “ . . . pushing something, or taking something out of his pockets and appeared to be shoving it down there.”
Subsequently, the back seat of the police car was searched and the marijuana, LSD and pentobarbital was found.
(a) The arrest was legal.
Relying on State v. Miller, 76 N.M. 62, 412 P.2d 240 (1966), defendant contends that “[t]he arresting officer had probable cause to stop Appellant [defendant] if he believed that there were outstanding warrants for Appellant’s [defendant’s] arrest only if those warrants were valid. . . . ” On appeal, defendant for the first time challenges the validity of the warrants. He does this on the basis that they were not produced. At the motion to suppress defendant’s trial counsel admitted the existence of at least one warrant and did not challenge its validity. Not having presented this to the trial court defendant cannot raise it for the first time on appeal. Section 21-2-1(20) (1), N.M.S.A.1953 (Repl. Vol. 4).
Defendant next asserts that the failure of the officer to have the arrest warrant in his possession makes the arrest illegal. Implicit in State v. Miller, supra, is that if the warrant is valid or its validity is not questioned, possession of the warrant is not essential. See also Whiteley v. Warden of Wyoming Penitentiary, 401 U. S. 560, 91 S.Ct. 1031, 28 L.Ed.2d 306 (1971). Accordingly, we hold that physical possession of the warrant is not essential to a lawful arrest when the validity of the arrest warrant is not involved.
Having determined the arrest to be legal and assuming defendant to have been in possession of the drugs and marijuana, we necessarily conclude the seizure to be incident to a lawful arrest. See State v. Rose, 79 N.M. 277, 442 P.2d 589 (1968), cert. denied, 393 U.S. 1028, 89 S.Ct. 626, 21 L.Ed. 2d 571 (1969).
(2) The court did not err in refusing defendant’s instruction No. 1.
The defendant tendered instruction No. 1 which read as follows and which was rightfully refused by the trial court:
“DEFENDANT’S REQUESTED INSTRUCTION NUMBER 1
“You are instructed that possession of any of the substances which are the basis of the charges made against the Defendant to constitute a crime must have been with actual knowledge of the narcotic character of the objects possessed and the amounts possessed must have been sufficient in quantity to be applied to the uses commonly made of such sub stances. Proof of possession of amounts so small as to be incapable of such use would not constitute the crime charged.”
Defendant contends that unless there is sufficient quantity and quality of a controlled substance so as to be usable he cannot be convicted for possession of a controlled substance.
The statutes under which defendant was charged do not require possession of any certain quality or quantity of the marijuana or drugs. The power to define crimes is a legislative function. State v. Moss, 83 N.M. 42, 487 P.2d 1347 (Ct.App.1971).
Penal statutes are strictly construed and should be of sufficient certainty so that a person will know that his act is criminal when he commits the act. State v. Collins, 80 N.M. 499, 458 P.2d 225 (1969). Statutory words are presumed to be used in their ordinary and usual sense. Bettini v. City of Las Cruces, 82 N.M. 633, 485 P.2d 967 (1971). In the absence of any language to the contrary, we construe § 54-9-3, supra, § 54-6-38(B) (3), supra, and § 54-6-51 (F), supra, to mean that the mere possession of any amount of the prohibited substance is enough to violate the statutory proscription.
(3) The trial court did not commit fundamental error.'
The defendant filed a motion to incorporate an additional point relative to fundamental error. The state did not oppose the motion and, accordingly, we grant the motion and consider the point of fundamental error. The defendant claims that the arrest, search and seizure violated the Fourth and Fourteenth Amendments of the United States Constitution and N.M.Const. Art. II, § 10. We cannot agree with defendant on this point.
The instant case is identical with and is disposed of by State v. Till, 78 N.M. 255, 430 P.2d 752 (1967) wherein our Supreme Court stated:
“At the hour of oral argument before this court, the appellant submitted a Supplemental Brief and requested leave for filing. Leave was granted and the Attorney General was given time to file an Answer Brief. This departure from § 21-2-1 (15) (2), N.M.S.A.1953, was permitted since it was represented that there was fundamental error. We have examined the Supplemental Brief and find that no fundamental error is disclosed. It is therefore disregarded.
The judgment and sentence of the lower court is affirmed.
It is so ordered.
HENDLEY and HERNANDEZ, JJ., concur. | [
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OPINION
MONTOYA, Justice.
This is an appeal from a judgment awarding damages to plaintiff-appellee Gallup Gamerco Coal Company (appellee) for the failure of defendant-appellant City of Gallup (appellant) to supply an adequate amount of water to appellee. Appellee cross appeals for damages for expenses in repairing the water well, which is the subject of this controversy, and for equitable relief to require appellant to comply with the terms of the lease of the well.
Appellee corporation is the owner of a water well, together with an electric power plant and other property, which was leased to appellant in March 1945 by appellee’s predecessor. That lease agreement was modified and extended in September 1950, extending the term of the lease of the water well until March 31, 1975. The contractual arrangements of the parties were further modified in April 1963. However, the provisions of the original lease, at least so far as this controversy is concerned, were not altered by the 1950 and 1963 modifications and extensions. The obligations of the parties concerning the water well in question, insofar as material to this appeal, are contained in the following provisions of the lease:
“3. Lessee shall be obligated to maintain said well in good and proper condition, and Lessor shall be under no obligation to repair or furnish additional equipment for the proper operation of the same, and shall not be responsible for any failure of such well to supply sufficient water for the operation of said power plant or for any other failure or breakdown of said well.
“13. On termination of this lease by any method hereinbefore provided, Lessee shall yield possession of the said water well and other personal property, the ownership of which has been reserved to Lessor, but the use of which is permitted Lessee, in good condition.
“9. The City agrees to continue to maintain, repair and operate the well of the Company located at Gamerco, New Mexico, reasonable wear excepted, and to furnish the Company water under the present terms and conditions existing between the parties at the time of this Agreement; * *
The facts of the case are as follows. From the inception of the lease in 1945 and until 1965 the well produced water in sufficient quantities to cause neither of the parties any alarm to the extent of undertaking any major testing or repairing of the well, and no such work was done. In 1965 the water production fell off sharply, causing appellee in November of that year to ask appellant to act to remedy the failure. Appellant made no reasonable effort to have the well tested or examined by experts, or do anything of any consequence until November 1968, which followed another drop in production in mid-1968, of which appellee again complained to appellant. During the times that the well was producing at a decreased rate, or was out of production for repair and testing after November 1968, appellee, in order to adequately meet its water needs, was required to purchase water from appellant at higher rates than applied to water taken from the well, the subject of this suit, expending $8,022.74 more than it would have had to pay if the water was obtainable from the well in question and paid for at the lower rate. Following further complaint by appellee, appellant had some work done on the well which did not improve its production to any appreciable extent. Thereafter, from late 1968 through 1970, the parties were in disagreement over the steps to be taken and the parties’ obligation to take steps to improve the well’s production, but they did agree in May 1970, to have the well tested and repaired, sharing the costs. This agreement was entered into with the specific provision that none of the rights of the parties under the lease would be waived by the agreement. Appellee was awarded judgment in the amount of $8,022.74 and cross-appeals for the amounts expended above and beyond the repair agreement in the amount of $2,323.84. The cross appeal alleges the trial court committed error in holding that there was an accord and satisfaction by reason of the agreement between the parties as to the testing and repair of the well, which agreement was reached on May 15, 1970.
Appellant contends that the obligation of appellant, as specified in the pertinent provisions of the lease, was to return the water well in good condition, reasonable wear and tear excepted, at the termination of the lease agreement.
Appellant further contends that the court erred in denying its motion to dismiss for failure to state a claim upon which relief could be granted, for the reason that its obligation to repair did not become enforceable until the expiration of the lease and that no cause of action accrues to the appellee until that time. In support of its contention, appellant couples the repair provisions and the provision that the City is to yield.up possession of the water well in good condition, upon the termination of the lease. Appellant then cites Cruzan v. Franklin Stores Corporation, 72 N.M. 42, 380 P.2d 190 (1963). In that case, an action was brought by lessors for damages for breach of a covenant in a ten-year-building lease for failure to make repairs and return the premises in good order and condition as when entered upon, ordinary wear excepted. The court, speaking through Justice Noble, stated (72 N.M. at 47, 380 P.2d at 194):
“ * * *. The covenant of the lease, with which we are concerned, is one to make the ordinary and usual repairs and to surrender the building in good condition, less ordinary wear. Feuerberg v. Polsky, 180 N.Y.S. 103 (S.Ct.1920) held that a covenant to keep in repair and to surrender the premises in good order and condition obligates the lessee to repair the premises prior to or at the time of termination of the lease. A covenant to surrender the leased premises in as good order and condition as when entered upon relates to the end of the term of the lease and cannot be asserted before expiration of the term. [Citations omitted.] * *
However, like any other written contract, real estate leases must be interpreted as a whole to effectuate the intention of the parties, with meaning and significance given to each part in context of the entire agreement. Waxler v. Humble Oil & Refining Company, 82 N.M. 8, 474 P.2d 494 (1970); Thigpen v. Rothwell, 81 N.M. 166, 464 P.2d 896 (1970). That is what must be done with respect to the provisions of this lease, and particularly provisions 3 and 13, supra. Consequently, we are impressed with appellee’s argument that the lease of a water well can better be likened to an oil and gas lease covering an oil well. Courts have construed oil and gas leases on the theory that oil and gas wells are sui generis, and that a land lease contemplates the use of the surface for lessees’ own purposes in consideration of payment for rent, while the prime objective of an oil and gas lease is the extraction of subsurface oil and gas for the mutual benefit of the parties. In this respect, some of the cases have held that the rights of landlords and tenants do not apply to oil and gas leases. 38 Am.Jur.2d Gas and Oil, § 54 at 529 (1968).
The lease in question is similar to, and should be governed by the doctrines relating to, oil and gas leases. There is precedent in this court for such construction. Darr v. Eldridge, 66 N.M. 260, 346 P.2d 1041, 77 A.L.R.2d 1052 (1959). This is particularly so in the instant case where both appellee and appellant received the benefits of the water produced.
Under the provisions of the lease, appellant is required to operate, maintain and repair the well during the term of the lease, and to make reasonable efforts to supply appellee with water as may be needed by appellee for industrial, mining and domestic uses, at the cost of producing that water. Under its terms, appellant would have exclusive possession of the well and appellee would have no obligation of any nature to repair. Although not identical, this situation is analogous to an oil and gas lease under which the lessor of the property is to be furnised gas by the lessee, either for free or for pay from gas produced on the leased premises. For breach of the duty to furnish gas, the lessor has recourse against the lessee. 38 Am.Jur.2d Gas and Oil, § 84 at 551 (1968), and cases cited therein. Here appellant has not used reasonable efforts to furnish water to appellee, and for breach of its covenants to operate, maintain and repair the well, causes of action arose and were not prematurely brought by the appellee.
The substance of appellant’s third and fourth contentions are that the decrease in production from the well was a result of ordinary wear and tear and deterioration from use and thus excluded appellant from liability. Appellant’s contention is that, based on the testimony of appellee’s expert witness Mr. Leonard C. Halpenny, the deterioration at a lower segment of the pipe was due to corrosion, and that corrosion is ordinary wear. Thus, appellant is excluded from liability. Again, we think appellant misconstrues the effect of the testimony. In his testimony, Mr. Halpenny was asked:
“Q. Now, Mr. Halpenny, maintenance would prevent the deterioration, was that your statement, sir ?
“A. No, ' maintenance probably would not prevent deterioration of a well casing. It would offset the effects of deterioration.
“Q. All right, sir; the deterioration would go on and if it were deteriorated, it would have to be replaced,, would it not ?
“A. Replaced in the sense that it no longer served its original function. By that I mean, not pulled out and the same diameter replaced, but a smaller diameter put inside.”
We find it difficult to accept appellant's position. Taking its theory to its final conclusion would mean that corrosion is ordinary wear and may proceed unchecked and without maintenance, and that it was excused from all liability when the well ceased production. Clearly this was not the intent of the parties as expressed in the lease. Appellant had the duty to repair and maintain the well, according to the terms of the lease hereinbefore quoted. The testimony of Mr. Halpenny indicates that, with proper investigation in 1965, proper maintenance and repair would have continued the well in full production and, though now much more expensive, proper maintenance and repair could restore the well to full production. This is what appellant should have done and what it must do under the terms of the lease.
Appellee, in its cross appeal, alleges that the agreement of May 15, 1970, was incorrectly construed by the district court as an accord and satisfaction, except as to the claimed damages for lack of water. We think appellee’s point is well taken.
Under our Rule of Civil Procedure 8(c), (§ 21-1-1 (8) (c), N.M.S.A., 1953 Comp.), accord and satisfaction is an affirmative defense which must be affirmatively pled, and upon which the party so alleging has the burden of proof. An affirmative defense must be pleaded, and if not pleaded or otherwise properly raised, it is waived. Fredenburgh v. Allied Van Lines, Inc., 79 N.M. 593, 446 P.2d 868 (1968). See 2A Moore’s Federal Practice, para. 8.27 [3] at 1853 (2d Ed. 1972). Accord and satisfaction was neither affirmatively pled in appellant’s answer, nor was it argued at any stage of the proceedings. It is, therefore, waived.
In view of the foregoing, we deem it unnecessary to decide appellee’s second point on cross appeal, that it is entitled to a mandatory injunction requiring appellant to comply with the terms and conditions of the lease. However, as already stated, appellant is obliged- to properly repair, restore and maintain the well at a level of full production.
We, therefore, hold that the part of the decision awarding damages to appellee in the amount of $8,022.74 is affirmed. That portion of the court’s decision set forth in its conclusion of law No. 2, ruling that an accord and satisfaction was reached by the parties, is reversed. Accordingly, the cause is remanded to the trial court to set aside its former judgment and to award appellee damages in the amount of $8,022.-74 because of the higher rates paid for water, and for determination of additional damages suffered by appellee and cross appellant for amounts necessarily expended above and beyond the repair agreement between the parties in an attempt to rehabilitate the well, to enter judgment accordingly, and to further proceed in a manner consistent with this opinion.
It is so ordered.
McMANUS, C. J., and OMAN, J., concur. | [
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] |
OPINION
OMAN, Justice.
Plaintiffs brought suit against defendant to recover an admittedly unpaid balance owing on a promissory note executed by defendant and her former husband, who is now deceased. The trial court sustained defendant’s motion for judgment on the pleadings and ordered plaintiffs’ complaint dismissed with prejudice. Plaintiffs appealed. We reverse.
On November 30, 1957, defendant and her then husband executed, in favor of plaintiffs, a promissory note secured by a mortgage lien on real estate. On May 24, 1966, plaintiffs brought suit [hereinafter referred to as the prior suit] to recover the amount of $3,637.64 allegedly unpaid and owing on the principal and interest of the note, together with interest thereon and attorney’s fees as provided in the note, and for a decree of foreclosure of the lien upon the real estate.
On June 24, 1966, defendant’s husband, who was an attorney at law, signed and filed on behalf of himself and defendant, as their attorney, an answer wherein they admitted the execution of the note and mortgage but denied the amount of $3,637.-64 was owing thereon. They affirmatively alleged and prayed:
“1. That since execution of the promissory note and mortgage described in Plaintiffs’ Complaint in the sum of $3,700.00, the Defendants have paid a total of THREE THOUSAND SIX HUNDRED THIRTY-THREE ($3,633.-00) DOLLARS on said note, ONE THOUSAND TWO HUNDRED SIXTY-NINE AND NINETEEN HUNDREDTHS ($1,269.19) DOLLARS of which was or should have been applied to interest and TWO THOUSAND THREE HUNDRED SIXTY-THREE AND EIGHTY-ONE HUNDREDTHS ($2,363.81) DOLLARS of which was or should have been applied to the principal, leaving a balance due on said promissory note in the sum of ONE THOUSAND THREE HUNDRED THIRTY-SIX AND NINETEEN HUNDREDTHS ($1,336.19) DOLLARS.
“2. That the defendants are ready, willing and able [to pay] and hereby tender the sum of ONE THOUSAND THREE HUNDRED THIRTY-SIX AND NINETEEN HUNDREDTHS ($1,336.19) DOLLARS in full payment of the balance due to the Plaintiffs.
“WHEREFORE, having fully answered Plaintiffs’ Complaint the Defendants pray the Judgment be entered in the sum of ONE THOUSAND THREE HUNDRED THIRTY-SIX AND NINETEEN HUNDREDTHS ($1,336.19) DOLLARS plus allowed interest from January 29, 1964, the date on which the last payment was made; and for such other and further relief as to the Court may seem just and proper in the premises.”
Defendant’s deceased husband, as one of the defendants in that prior suit, disqualified the resident district judge pursuant to the provisions of § 21-5-8 N.M.S.A. 1953 (Repl. Vol. 4, 1970). This judge’s term of office expired on December 31, 1967, and his successor took office. The defendant’s husband died in January 1970, and on November 9, 1970 the then district judge dismissed the case, on the court’s own motion, for lack of prosecution.
The present suit was filed in the same district court on March 22, 1972. By their amended complaint in this present suit, plaintiffs sought recovery of the amount of $1,336.19, together with interest thereon at. the rate of 6% per annum from January 24, 1964, which was admittedly due and owing, as shown- by the above quoted language from the answer filed by plaintiff and her deceased husband in the prior suit. They also sought attorney’s fees, as provided by the note, and costs of suit.
By her answer filed April 5, 1972, defendant admitted the material allegations of plaintiffs’ amended complaint, except for the allegations that:
“No part of the unpaid sum of $1,336.-19 has been paid, and there is now due and owing to Plaintiffs the sum of ONE THOUSAND THREE HUNDRED THIRTY-SIX DOLLARS AND NINETEEN CENTS ($1,336.19) plus interest at the rate of SIX PER CENT (6%) per annum from January 29, 1964, plus attorney’s fees in the amount of TEN PER CENT (10%) of the total of the unpaid sum and interest.”
Defendant also filed on April 5, 1972 a motion pursuant to Rule 12(b) of the Rules of Civil Procedure [§ 21-1-1(12) (b), N.M.S.A. 1953 (Repl. Vol. 4, 1970)]. She thereby sought dismissal of the present suit for lack of jurisdiction over the subject matter. Her stated grounds for this motion were:
“ * * * that the same cause of action was initiated by Plaintiffs against the Defendant, then known as Bettye R. Chase in Cause Number 11170 [prior suit] in the District Court of Otero County, New Mexico; that the Court therein having first obtained jurisdiction of the parties and the subject matter therein, this Court is without jurisdiction to proceed further.”
In addition to her answer and motion to dismiss filed in the present suit, defendant also filed on April 5, 1972 two motions in the prior suit to dismiss plaintiffs’ complaint therein. One of these motions is of no significance to a determination of the issues presented on this appeal. The other motion was filed pursuant to Rule 41 (e) of the Rules of Civil Procedure [§ 21 — 1— 1(41) (e), N.M.S.A.1953 (Repl. Vol. 4, 1970)]. The prior suit had already been dismissed for lack of prosecution by the order entered on the court’s own motion on November 9, 1970. It is apparent defendant’s action in filing the motion under Rule 41(e), supra, was taken for the purpose of securing a dismissal with prejudice of plaintiffs’ complaint in the prior case.
The resident district judge, who entered the order of dismissal on November 9, 1970, entered an order on April 25, 1972, pursuant to Rule 41(e), supra, purporting to dismiss “with prejudice” plaintiffs’ complaint in the prior suit.
This judge had been disqualified in the present suit on April 11, 1972, under § 21-5-8, supra, and another district judge was designated to preside over all proceedings in this case. On August 30, 1972, an order was entered in which the court found and ordered as follows:
“1. The issues joined by pleadings in this cause are identical to the issues joined in Cause No. 11170, in the District Court of Otero County, which is a prior pending action.
“2. There is identity of parties in the present action and the prior pending action.
“3. Cause No. 11170 was dismissed for failure of prosecution on November 9, 1970, and a further order of dismissal with prejudice was entered in such action on April 25, 1972.
“4. By reason of such disposition the issues in the present case are res judicata.
“IT IS THEREFORE ORDERED, that the Complaint of Plaintiffs herein be dismissed with prejudice.”
It is from this order that plaintiffs have taken this appeal.
Both sides in this cause concede that the order of November 9, 1970 was a valid order of dismissal. However, at one point in her argument, defendant contends this was of necessity a dismissal under Rule 41(e), supra, and at another point apparently contends it was entered pursuant to the inherent power of the court to dismiss for failure to prosecute, and, thus, was voidable. She urges that the motion of April 5, 1972 to dismiss the prior suit under Rule 41(e), supra, was filed “ * * * in anticipation of a possible motion by plaintiff to set aside the order of November 9, 1970, * * *»
The order of November 9, 1970 was not entered pursuant to the provisions of Rule 41(e), supra. This was an order entered sua sponte by the trial court. No motion whatever was filed by defendants in' that suit, no hearing was conducted, and none of the other procedures contemplated by Rule 41(e), supra, were followed. For a discussion of the procedures contemplated under Rule 41(e), supra, see State ex rel. Reynolds v. Molybdenum Corp. of Amer., 83 N.M. 690, 496 P.2d 1086 (1972).
A trial court does have the inherent power to dismiss a cause for failure of prosecution. Southwest Underwriters v. Montoya, 80 N.M. 107, 452 P.2d 176 (1969); Foster v. Schwartzman, 75 N.M. 632, 409 P.2d 267 (1965); City of Roswell v. Holmes, 44 N.M. 1, 96 P.2d 701 (1939). The order or judgment entered pursuant to this inherent power is final and effectively terminates a case, unless and until it is properly reinstated. See Martin v. Leonard Motor-El Paso, 75 N.M. 219, 402 P.2d 954 (1965). No action was requested of or taken by the trial court in the prior case to vacate the judgment of November 9, 1970 or to reinstate that cause. Thus, the finding of the trial court in the present case that cause No. 11170 “is a prior pending action” is unsupported by the record, as is the finding that “a further order of dismissal with prejudice was entered in such action [cause No. 11170] on April 25, 1972.” It is true a purported order was filed, but this order had no effect, since the case was not then pending and there was no case to dismiss with prejudice pursuant to Rule 41(e), supra, or pursuant to any other power of the court. The court had no jurisdiction to enter this order of April 25, 1972. Compare In re Field’s Estate, 40 N.M. 423, 60 P.2d 945 (1936); Chavez v. Ade, 38 N.M. 389, 34 P.2d 670 (1934).
The trial court’s finding, that “[b]y reason of such disposition [the disposition of the prior suit by the order of November 9, 1970 and the purported order of April 25, 1972], the issues in the present case are res judicata,” is also unsupported by the record. The order of dismissal entered sua sponte by the trial court did not constitute an adjudication upon the merits. Hence, the doctrine of res judicata is not applicable to the issues presented in the case now before us on this appeal. Otero v. Sandoval, 60 N.M. 444, 292 P.2d 319 (1956).
Defendant relies upon the case of Eager v. Belmore, 53 N.M. 299, 207 P.2d 519 (1949). However, her reliance thereon is predicated upon her contention that the order of November 9, 1970 was entered pursuant to Rule 41(e), supra, and we have already rejected this contention.
There is still another reason why the order of November 9, 1970 did not constitute an adjudication of the issues now before us in the present suit and the doctrine of res judicata is not applicable thereto. The present suit is founded upon the admission in the answer filed by defendant and her then husband in the prior suit. This admission is quoted above. Section 23-1-16, N.M.S.A. 1953 (Supp. 1971) provides in pertinent part:
“Causes of action founded upon contract shall be revived by the making of any partial or instalment payment thereon or by an admission that the debt is unpaid, as well as by a new promise to pay the same; but such admission or new promise must be in writing, signed by the party to be charged therewith. Such a cause of action shall be deemed to have accrued upon the date of such partial or instalment payment, admission of indebtedness or promise to pay. * * * »
Insofar as here pertinent, the full title to this section of our statutes as adopted by our Legislature is:
“An Act to Provide for Revival of Causes of Action Founded Upon Contract by the Making of Payments and Relating to the Accrual of Causes of Action Revived by Payment; Admission of Debt or Promise to Pay * * N. M.Laws 1957, Ch. 170.
Clearly this statute provides that a cause of action revived by an admission of a debt, “shall be deemed to have accrued upon the date of such admission.” Thus, the cause of action arising from the admission in the answer filed in the prior suit, which is the cause of action upon which plaintiffs brought the present suit, is a new cause of action and not the same cause upon which plaintiffs brought their prior suit, which was dismissed by the order of November 9, 1970. See Cain v. Bonner et al., 108 Tex. 399, 194 S.W. 1098, 3 A.L.R. 874 (1917); compare McCormick v. Brown, 36 Cal. 180, 95 Am.Dec. 170 (1868); Custy v. Donlan, 159 Mass. 245, 34 N.E. 360 (1893).
Although apparently not raised in the court below, on appeal defendant claims that since she did not personally sign the answer in the prior suit, in which appears the admission of the debt now sued upon, she is not bound by the admission. It is true she did not personally sign the answer in the prior suit, but in her answer in the present suit she admits her deceased husband signed the answer in the prior suit as attorney for her and himself. No question has been raised as to his authority to sign the answer as her attorney or to make the admission on her behalf. Under these circumstances, his signature on her behalf to the answer in the prior suit had the same effect as if she had personally signed. See Rule 11 of the Rules of Civil Procedure [§ 21-1-1(11), N.M.S. A. 1953 (Repl. Vol. 4, 1970)]. See also § 18-1-10, N.M.S.A. 1953 (Repl. Vol. 4, 1970) as to the authority of an attorney to act on behalf of a client. The language of this section of our statutes has been adopted as Supreme Court Rule 3-5 (A) by order entered July 10, 1973, and which rule shall become effective September 1, 1973.
As stated in Coldwater Cattle Co. v. Portales Valley Project, Inc., 78 N.M. 41, 45, 428 P.2d 15, 19 (1967):
“It is a general rule, subject, however, to certain exceptions, not applicable here, that an agency may be created for the performance of any lawful act, including acts done under the authority of a statute. I Mechem on Agency, 2nd Ed., § 80. In order to determine that a right conferred by statute shall only be exercised personally and cannot be delegated to an agent something must be found in the Act by express enactment or necessary implication which prevents an agent from acting. State ex rel. Hansen v. Schall, 126 Conn. 536, 12 A.2d 767 (1940); Mansfield v. Scully, 129 Conn. 494, 29 A.2d 444 (1942); Ludwig v. Cory, 158 Ind. 582, 64 N.E. 14 (1902); I Mechem on Agency, 2nd Ed., § 125, n. 21.”
Insofar as an agent’s acts are within his authority, they are the acts of the principal within the contemplation of law and are binding upon the principal. Ronald A. Coco, Inc. v. St. Paul’s Methodist Church, 78 N.M. 97, 428 P.2d 636 (1967).
Plaintiffs further contend that since they, as well as defendant, filed a motion for judgment on the pleadings, it is obvious neither side believes there is any genuine issue of fact to be resolved and, therefore, plaintiffs are entitled to judgment. We cannot agree.
It is obvious that the trial court dismissed the complaint for the reasons stated in its order, which is quoted above. It is also obvious that defendant denied plaintiffs’ allegation in their amended complaint that no part of the amount admittedly owing at the time of the filing of the answer in the prior suit has been paid.
The order of dismissal is reversed and the cause remanded to the district court for such further proceedings as are necessary to bring this cause to a conclusion consistent with the views expressed in this opinion.
It is so ordered.
STEPHENSON and MONTOYA, JJ., concur. | [
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