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5001 | The pillars of Ashoka are a series of columns dispersed throughout the northern Indian subcontinent, and erected by Ashoka during his reign in the 3rd century BCE. Originally, there must have been many pillars of Ashoka although only ten with inscriptions still survive. Averaging between forty and fifty feet in height, and weighing up to fifty tons each, all the pillars were quarried at Chunar, just south of Varanasi and dragged, sometimes hundreds of miles, to where they were erected. The first Pillar of Ashoka was found in the 16th century by Thomas Coryat in the ruins of ancient Delhi. | Ashoka | [
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5002 | The wheel represents the sun time and Buddhist law, while the swastika stands for the cosmic dance around a fixed center and guards against evil. The Lion capital of Ashoka is a sculpture of four lions standing back to back. It was originally placed atop the Ashoka pillar at Sarnath, now in the state of Uttar Pradesh, India. The pillar, sometimes called the Ashoka Column, is still in its original location, but the Lion Capital is now in the Sarnath Museum. This Lion Capital of Ashoka from Sarnath has been adopted as the National Emblem of India and the wheel | Ashoka | [
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5003 | ("Ashoka Chakra") from its base was placed onto the center of the National Flag of India. The capital contains four lions (Indian / Asiatic Lions), standing back to back, mounted on a short cylindrical abacus, with a frieze carrying sculptures in high relief of an elephant, a galloping horse, a bull, and a lion, separated by intervening spoked chariot-wheels over a bell-shaped lotus. Carved out of a single block of polished sandstone, the capital was believed to be crowned by a 'Wheel of Dharma' (Dharmachakra popularly known in India as the "Ashoka Chakra"). The Sarnath pillar bears one of the | Ashoka | [
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5004 | Edicts of Ashoka, an inscription against division within the Buddhist community, which reads, "No one shall cause division in the order of monks." The four animals in the Sarnath capital are believed to symbolise different steps of Lord Buddha's life. Besides the religious interpretations, there are some non-religious interpretations also about the symbolism of the Ashoka capital pillar at Sarnath. According to them, the four lions symbolise Ashoka's rule over the four directions, the wheels as symbols of his enlightened rule (Chakravartin) and the four animals as symbols of four adjoining territories of India. The British restoration was done under | Ashoka | [
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5005 | guidance from Weligama Sri Sumangala. Ashoka Ashoka (; Sanskritized as ), or in contemporary Prakrit Asoka (𑀅𑀲𑁄𑀓), sometimes Ashoka the Great, was an Indian emperor of the Maurya Dynasty, who ruled almost all of the Indian subcontinent from to 232 BCE. The grandson of the founder of the Maurya Dynasty, Chandragupta Maurya, Ashoka promoted the spread of Buddhism. Considered by many to be one of India's greatest emperors, Ashoka expanded Chandragupta's empire to reign over a realm stretching from present-day Afghanistan in the west to Bangladesh in the east. It covered the entire Indian subcontinent except for parts of present-day | Ashoka | [
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5006 | American (word) The meaning of the word American in the English language varies according to the historical, geographical, and political context in which it is used. "American" is derived from "America", a term originally denoting all of the New World (also called the Americas). In some expressions, it retains this Pan-American sense, but its usage has evolved over time and, for various historical reasons, the word came to denote people or things specifically from the United States of America. In modern English, "American" generally refers to persons or things related to the United States of America; among native English speakers | "American (word)" | [
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5007 | this usage is almost universal, with any other use of the term requiring specification. However, this usage is seen by some as a semantic "misappropriation" by those who argue that "American" should be widened in English to also include people or things from anywhere in the American continents. The word can be used as either an adjective or a noun (viz. a demonym). In adjectival use, it means "of or relating to the United States"; for example, "Elvis Presley was an American singer" or "the man prefers American English". In its noun form, the word generally means a resident or | "American (word)" | [
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5008 | citizen of the US, or occasionally someone whose ethnic identity is simply "American". The noun is rarely used in American English to refer to people not connected to the United States. When used with a grammatical qualifier, the adjective "American" can mean "of or relating to the Americas", as in Latin American or Indigenous American. Less frequently, the adjective can take this meaning without a qualifier, as in "American Spanish dialects and pronunciation differ by country", or the name of the Organization of American States. A third use of the term pertains specifically to the indigenous peoples of the Americas, | "American (word)" | [
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5009 | for instance, "In the 16th century, many Americans died from imported diseases during the European conquest". Compound constructions such as "African Americans" likewise refer exclusively to people in or from the United States of America, as does the prefix "Americo-". For instance, the Americo-Liberians and their language Merico derive their name from the fact that they are descended from African American settlers, i.e. former slaves in the United States of America. French, German, Italian, Japanese, Hebrew, Arabic, and Russian speakers may use cognates of "American" to refer to inhabitants of the Americas or to U.S. nationals. They generally have other | "American (word)" | [
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5010 | terms specific to U.S. nationals, such as the German ', French ', Japanese , Arabic ' ( as opposed to ' ), and Italian "". These specific terms may be less common than the term "American". In French, ', ' or ', from ' ("United States of America"), is a rarely used word that distinguishes U.S. things and persons from the adjective "", which denotes persons and things from the United States, but may also refer to "the Americas". Likewise, German's use of ' and ' observe said cultural distinction, solely denoting U.S. things and people. Note that in normal | "American (word)" | [
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5011 | parlance, the adjective "American" and its direct cognates are usually used if the context renders the nationality of the person clear. This differentiation is prevalent in German-speaking countries, as indicated by the style manual of the "Neue Zürcher Zeitung" (one of the leading German-language newspapers in Switzerland) which dismisses the term ' as both ′unnecessary′ and ′artificial′ and recommends replacing it with "amerikanisch". The respective guidelines of the foreign ministries of Austria, Germany and Switzerland all prescribe "Amerikaner" and "amerikanisch" in reference to the United States for official usage, making no mention of ' or "". Portuguese has ', denoting | "American (word)" | [
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5012 | both a person or thing from the Americas and a U.S. national. For referring specifically to a U.S. national and things, some words used are ' (also spelled ', "United States person"), from ', and ' ("Yankee")—both usages exist in Brazil, but are uncommon in Portugal—but the term most often used, and the only one in Portugal, is ', even though it could, as with its Spanish equivalent, apply to Canadians, Mexicans, etc. as well. In Spanish, ' denotes geographic and cultural origin in the New World, as well as (infrequently) a U.S. citizen; the more common term is ' | "American (word)" | [
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5013 | ("United States person"), which derives from ' ("United States of America"). The Spanish term ' ("North American") is frequently used to refer things and persons from the United States, but this term can also denote people and things from Canada and Mexico. Among Spanish-speakers, North America generally doesn't include Central America or the Caribbean. In other languages, however, there is no possibility for confusion. For example, the Chinese word for "U.S. national" is ' () is derived from a word for the United States, ', where ' is an abbreviation for "Yàměilìjiā" ("America") and ' is "country". The name for | "American (word)" | [
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5014 | the American continents is ', from ' plus ' ("continent"). Thus, a ' is an American in the continent sense, and a "" is an American in the U.S. sense. Conversely, in Czech, there is no possibility for disambiguation. "Američan" (m.) and "američanka" (f.) can refer to persons from the United States or from the continents of the Americas, and there is no specific word capable of distinguishing the two meanings. For this reason, the latter meaning is very rarely used, and word "američan(ka)" is used almost exclusively to refer to persons from the United States. The usage is exactly | "American (word)" | [
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5015 | parallel to the English word. Korean and Vietnamese also use unambiguous terms, with Korean having ' () for the country versus ' () for the continents, and Vietnamese having ' for the country versus ' for the continents. Japanese has such terms as well (' [ versus ' []), but they are found more in newspaper headlines than in speech, where "" predominates. In Swahili, ' means specifically the United States, and ' is a U.S. national, whereas the international form ' refers to the continents, and ' would be an inhabitants thereof. Likewise, the Esperanto word ' refers to | "American (word)" | [
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5016 | the continents. For the country there is the term '. Thus, a citizen of the United States is an ', whereas an ' is an inhabitant of the Americas. In Hungarian the term amerikai (American) refers to a person or a thing from the United States. The name "America" was coined by Martin Waldseemüller from "Americus Vespucius", the Latinized version of the name of Amerigo Vespucci (1454–1512), the Italian explorer who mapped South America's east coast and the Caribbean Sea in the early 16th century. Later, Vespucci's published letters were the basis of Waldseemüller's 1507 map, which is the first | "American (word)" | [
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5017 | usage of "America". The adjective "American" subsequently denoted the New World. 16th-century European usage of "American" denoted the native inhabitants of the New World. The earliest recorded use of this term in English is in Thomas Hacket's 1568 translation of André Thévet's book "France Antarctique"; Thévet himself had referred to the natives as "Ameriques". In the following century, the term was extended to European settlers and their descendants in the Americas. The earliest recorded use of "English-American" dates to 1648, in Thomas Gage's "The English-American his travail by sea and land: or, a new survey of the West India's". In | "American (word)" | [
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5018 | English, "American" was used especially for people in the British America. Samuel Johnson, the leading English lexicographer, wrote in 1775, before the United States declared independence: "That the Americans are able to bear taxation is indubitable." The Declaration of Independence of July 1776 refers to "[the] unanimous Declaration of the thirteen United States of America" adopted by the "Representatives of the United States of America" on July 4, 1776. The official name of the country was reaffirmed on November 15, 1777, when the Second Continental Congress adopted the Articles of Confederation, the first of which says, "The Stile of this | "American (word)" | [
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5019 | Confederacy shall be 'The United States of America'". The Articles further state: Sam Haselby, a history professor in Lebanon and Egypt, claims it was British officials who first called the colonists "Americans". When the drafters of the "Declaration"—Thomas Jefferson from Virginia, for example, or John Adams from Massachusetts—talked about "my country", they meant Virginia or Massachusetts, respectively. This situation was changed by the Revolution and the impulse toward nationalism. Jefferson, newly elected president in May 1801 wrote, "I am sure the measures I mean to pursue are such as would in their nature be approved by every American who can | "American (word)" | [
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5020 | emerge from preconceived prejudices; as for those who cannot, we must take care of them as of the sick in our hospitals. The medicine of time and fact may cure some of them." In "The Federalist Papers" (1787–88), Alexander Hamilton and James Madison used the adjective "American" with two different meanings: one political and one geographic; "the American republic" in Federalist No. 51 and in Federalist No. 70, and, in Federalist No. 24, Hamilton used "American" to denote the lands beyond the U.S.'s political borders. Early official U.S. documents show inconsistent usage; the 1778 Treaty of Alliance with France used | "American (word)" | [
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5021 | "the United States of North America" in the first sentence, then "the said United States" afterwards; "the United States of America" and "the United States of North America" derive from "the United Colonies of America" and "the United Colonies of North America". The Treaty of Peace and Amity of September 5, 1795, between the United States and the Barbary States contains the usages "the United States of North America", "citizens of the United States", and "American Citizens". U.S. President George Washington, in his 1796 "Farewell Address", declaimed that "The name of American, which belongs to you in your national capacity, | "American (word)" | [
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5022 | must always exalt the just pride of patriotism more than any appellation." Political scientist Virginia L. Arbery notes that, in his "Farewell Address": "...Washington invites his fellow citizens to view themselves now as Americans who, out of their love for the truth of liberty, have replaced their maiden names (Virginians, South Carolinians, New Yorkers, etc.) with that of “American”. Get rid of, he urges, “any appellation derived from local discriminations.” By defining himself as an American rather than as a Virginian, Washington set the national standard for all citizens. "Over and over, Washington said that America must be something set | "American (word)" | [
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5023 | apart. As he put it to Patrick Henry, 'In a word, I want an "American" character, that the powers of Europe may be convinced we act for "ourselves" and not for "others".'" As the historian Garry Wills has noted: "This was a theme dear to Washington. He wrote to Timothy Pickering that the nation 'must never forget that we are Americans; the remembrance of which will convince us we ought not to be French or English'." Washington's countrymen subsequently embraced his exhortation with notable enthusiasm. This semantic divergence among North American anglophones, however, remained largely unknown in the Spanish-American colonies. | "American (word)" | [
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5024 | In 1801, the document titled "Letter to American Spaniards"—published in French (1799), in Spanish (1801), and in English (1808)—might have influenced Venezuela's Act of Independence and its 1811 constitution. The Latter-day Saints' Articles of Faith refer to the American continents as where they are to build Zion. Common short forms and abbreviations are the "United States", the "U.S.", the "U.S.A.", and "America"; colloquial versions include the "U.S. of A." and "the States". The term "Columbia" (from the Columbus surname) was a popular name for the U.S. and for the entire geographic Americas; its usage is present today in the District | "American (word)" | [
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5025 | of Columbia's name. Moreover, the womanly personification of Columbia appears in some official documents, including editions of the U.S. dollar. Use of the term "American" for U.S. nationals is common at the United Nations, and financial markets in the United States are referred to as "American financial markets". "American Samoa" is a recognized territorial name at the United Nations. The use of "American" as a national demonym for U.S. nationals is challenged, primarily by Hispanic Americans. Spanish speakers in Spain and Latin America use the term ' to refer to people and things from the United States (from '), while | "American (word)" | [
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5026 | ' refers to the continents as a whole. The term ' is also accepted in many parts of Latin America to refer to a person or something from the United States, however this term may be ambiguous in certain parts. Up to and including the 1992 edition, the ', published by the Real Academia Española, did not include the United States definition in the entry for '; this was added in the 2001 edition. The Real Academia Española advised against using "" exclusively for U.S. nationals: Modern Canadians typically refer to people from the United States as "Americans", though they | "American (word)" | [
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5027 | seldom refer to the United States as "America"; they use the terms "the United States", "the U.S.", or (informally) "the States" instead. Canadians rarely apply the term "American" to themselves – some Canadians resent either being referred to as Americans because of mistaken assumptions that they are U.S. citizens or others' inability, particularly of those overseas, to distinguish Canadian from American accents. Some Canadians have protested the use of "American" as a national demonym. People of U.S. ethnic origin in Canada are categorized as "Other North American origins" by Statistics Canada for purposes of census counts. Generally, ' denotes "U.S. | "American (word)" | [
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5028 | citizen" in Portugal. Usage of ' to exclusively denote people and things of the U.S. is discouraged by the Lisbon Academy of Sciences, because the specific word ' (also ') clearly denotes a person from the United States. The term currently used by the Portuguese press is ". In Brazil, the term ' is used to address both that which pertains to both American continents and, in current speech, that which pertains to the U.S.; the particular meaning is deduced from context. Alternatively, the term ' ("North American") is also used in more informal contexts, while ' (of the U.S.) | "American (word)" | [
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5029 | is the preferred form in academia. Use of the three terms is common in schools, government, and media. The term ' is used almost exclusively for the continents, and the U.S. is called ' ("United States") or ' ("United States of America"), often abbreviated ". The Getting Through Customs website advises business travelers not to use "in America" as a U.S. reference when conducting business in Brazil. "American" in the 1994 "Associated Press Stylebook" was defined as, "An acceptable description for a resident of the United States. It also may be applied to any resident or citizen of nations in | "American (word)" | [
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5030 | North or South America." Elsewhere, the "AP Stylebook" indicates that "United States" must "be spelled out when used as a noun. Use U.S. (no space) only as an adjective." The entry for "America" in "The New York Times Manual of Style and Usage" from 1999 reads: Media releases from the Pope and Holy See frequently use "America" to refer to the United States, and "American" to denote something or someone from the United States. At least one international law uses "U.S. citizen" in defining a citizen of the United States rather than "American citizen"; for example, the English version of | "American (word)" | [
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5031 | the North American Free Trade Agreement includes: Many international treaties use the terms "American" and "American citizen": Products that are labeled, advertised, and marketed in the U.S. as "Made in the USA" must be, as set by the Federal Trade Commission (FTC), "all or virtually all made in the U.S." The FTC, to prevent deception of customers and unfair competition, considers an unqualified claim of "American Made" to expressly claim exclusive manufacture in the U.S: "The FTC Act gives the Commission the power to bring law enforcement actions against false or misleading claims that a product is of U.S. origin." | "American (word)" | [
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5032 | There are a number of alternatives to the demonym "American" as a citizen of the United States that do not simultaneously mean any inhabitant of the Americas. One uncommon alternative is "Usonian", which usually describes a certain style of residential architecture designed by Frank Lloyd Wright. Other alternatives have also surfaced, but most have fallen into disuse and obscurity. "Merriam-Webster's Dictionary of English Usage" says: Nevertheless, no alternative to "American" is common. American (word) The meaning of the word American in the English language varies according to the historical, geographical, and political context in which it is used. "American" is | "American (word)" | [
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5033 | Ada (programming language) Ada is a structured, statically typed, imperative, and object-oriented high-level computer programming language, extended from Pascal and other languages. It has built-in language support for design-by-contract, extremely strong typing, explicit concurrency, tasks, synchronous message passing, protected objects, and non-determinism. Ada improves code safety and maintainability by using the compiler to find errors in favor of runtime errors. Ada is an international standard; the current version (known as Ada 2012) is defined by ISO/IEC 8652:2012. Ada was originally designed by a team led by Jean Ichbiah of CII Honeywell Bull under contract to the United States Department of | "Ada (programming language)" | [
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5034 | Defense (DoD) from 1977 to 1983 to supersede over 450 programming languages used by the DoD at that time. Ada was named after Ada Lovelace (1815–1852), who has been credited as the first computer programmer. Ada was originally targeted at embedded and real-time systems. The Ada 95 revision, designed by S. Tucker Taft of Intermetrics between 1992 and 1995, improved support for systems, numerical, financial, and object-oriented programming (OOP). Features of Ada include: strong typing, modularity mechanisms (packages), run-time checking, parallel processing (tasks, synchronous message passing, protected objects, and nondeterministic select statements), exception handling, and generics. Ada 95 added support | "Ada (programming language)" | [
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5035 | for object-oriented programming, including dynamic dispatch. The syntax of Ada minimizes choices of ways to perform basic operations, and prefers English keywords (such as "or else" and "and then") to symbols (such as "||" and "&&"). Ada uses the basic arithmetical operators "+", "-", "*", and "/", but avoids using other symbols. Code blocks are delimited by words such as "declare", "begin", and "end", where the "end" (in most cases) is followed by the identifier of the block it closes (e.g., "if ... end if", "loop ... end loop"). In the case of conditional blocks this avoids a "dangling else" | "Ada (programming language)" | [
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5036 | that could pair with the wrong nested if-expression in other languages like C or Java. Ada is designed for development of very large software systems. Ada packages can be compiled separately. Ada package specifications (the package interface) can also be compiled separately without the implementation to check for consistency. This makes it possible to detect problems early during the design phase, before implementation starts. A large number of compile-time checks are supported to help avoid bugs that would not be detectable until run-time in some other languages or would require explicit checks to be added to the source code. For | "Ada (programming language)" | [
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5037 | example, the syntax requires explicitly named closing of blocks to prevent errors due to mismatched end tokens. The adherence to strong typing allows detection of many common software errors (wrong parameters, range violations, invalid references, mismatched types, etc.) either during compile-time, or otherwise during run-time. As concurrency is part of the language specification, the compiler can in some cases detect potential deadlocks. Compilers also commonly check for misspelled identifiers, visibility of packages, redundant declarations, etc. and can provide warnings and useful suggestions on how to fix the error. Ada also supports run-time checks to protect against access to unallocated memory, | "Ada (programming language)" | [
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5038 | buffer overflow errors, range violations, off-by-one errors, array access errors, and other detectable bugs. These checks can be disabled in the interest of runtime efficiency, but can often be compiled efficiently. It also includes facilities to help program verification. For these reasons, Ada is widely used in critical systems, where any anomaly might lead to very serious consequences, e.g., accidental death, injury or severe financial loss. Examples of systems where Ada is used include avionics, ATC, railways, banking, military and space technology. Ada's dynamic memory management is high-level and type-safe. Ada does not have generic or untyped pointers; nor does | "Ada (programming language)" | [
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5039 | it implicitly declare any pointer type. Instead, all dynamic memory allocation and deallocation must take place through explicitly declared "access types". Each access type has an associated "storage pool" that handles the low-level details of memory management; the programmer can either use the default storage pool or define new ones (this is particularly relevant for Non-Uniform Memory Access). It is even possible to declare several different access types that all designate the same type but use different storage pools. Also, the language provides for "accessibility checks", both at compile time and at run time, that ensures that an "access value" | "Ada (programming language)" | [
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5040 | cannot outlive the type of the object it points to. Though the semantics of the language allow automatic garbage collection of inaccessible objects, most implementations do not support it by default, as it would cause unpredictable behaviour in real-time systems. Ada does support a limited form of region-based memory management; also, creative use of storage pools can provide for a limited form of automatic garbage collection, since destroying a storage pool also destroys all the objects in the pool. A double-dash ("--"), resembling an em dash, denotes comment text. Comments stop at end of line, to prevent unclosed comments from | "Ada (programming language)" | [
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5041 | accidentally voiding whole sections of source code. Disabling a whole block of code now requires the prefixing of each line (or column) individually with "--". While clearly denoting disabled code with a column of repeated "--" down the page this renders the experimental dis/re-enablement of large blocks a more drawn out process. The semicolon (";") is a statement terminator, and the null or no-operation statement is codice_1. A single codice_2 without a statement to terminate is not allowed. Unlike most ISO standards, the Ada language definition (known as the "Ada Reference Manual" or "ARM", or sometimes the "Language Reference Manual" | "Ada (programming language)" | [
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5042 | or "LRM") is free content. Thus, it is a common reference for Ada programmers and not just programmers implementing Ada compilers. Apart from the reference manual, there is also an extensive rationale document which explains the language design and the use of various language constructs. This document is also widely used by programmers. When the language was revised, a new rationale document was written. One notable free software tool that is used by many Ada programmers to aid them in writing Ada source code is the GNAT Programming Studio. In the 1970s, the US Department of Defense (DoD) was concerned | "Ada (programming language)" | [
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5043 | by the number of different programming languages being used for its embedded computer system projects, many of which were obsolete or hardware-dependent, and none of which supported safe modular programming. In 1975, a working group, the High Order Language Working Group (HOLWG), was formed with the intent to reduce this number by finding or creating a programming language generally suitable for the department's and the UK Ministry of Defence requirements. After many iterations beginning with an original Straw man proposal the eventual programming language was named Ada. The total number of high-level programming languages in use for such projects fell | "Ada (programming language)" | [
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5044 | from over 450 in 1983 to 37 by 1996. The HOLWG working group crafted the Steelman language requirements, a series of documents stating the requirements they felt a programming language should satisfy. Many existing languages were formally reviewed, but the team concluded in 1977 that no existing language met the specifications. Requests for proposals for a new programming language were issued and four contractors were hired to develop their proposals under the names of Red (Intermetrics led by Benjamin Brosgol), Green (CII Honeywell Bull, led by Jean Ichbiah), Blue (SofTech, led by John Goodenough) and Yellow (SRI International, led by | "Ada (programming language)" | [
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5045 | Jay Spitzen). In April 1978, after public scrutiny, the Red and Green proposals passed to the next phase. In May 1979, the Green proposal, designed by Jean Ichbiah at CII Honeywell Bull, was chosen and given the name Ada—after Augusta Ada, Countess of Lovelace. This proposal was influenced by the programming language LIS that Ichbiah and his group had developed in the 1970s. The preliminary Ada reference manual was published in ACM SIGPLAN Notices in June 1979. The Military Standard reference manual was approved on December 10, 1980 (Ada Lovelace's birthday), and given the number MIL-STD-1815 in honor of Ada | "Ada (programming language)" | [
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5046 | Lovelace's birth year. In 1981, C. A. R. Hoare took advantage of his Turing Award speech to criticize Ada for being overly complex and hence unreliable, but subsequently seemed to recant in the foreword he wrote for an Ada textbook. Ada attracted much attention from the programming community as a whole during its early days. Its backers and others predicted that it might become a dominant language for general purpose programming and not just defense-related work. Ichbiah publicly stated that within ten years, only two programming languages would remain, Ada and Lisp. Early Ada compilers struggled to implement the large, | "Ada (programming language)" | [
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5047 | complex language, and both compile-time and run-time performance tended to be slow and tools primitive. Compiler vendors expended most of their efforts in passing the massive, language-conformance-testing, government-required "ACVC" validation suite that was required in another novel feature of the Ada language effort. The first validated Ada implementation was the NYU Ada/Ed translator, certified on April 11, 1983. NYU Ada/Ed is implemented in the high-level set language SETL. A number of commercial companies began offering Ada compilers and associated development tools, including Alsys, TeleSoft, DDC-I, Advanced Computer Techniques, Tartan Laboratories, TLD Systems, Verdix, and others. In 1991, the US Department | "Ada (programming language)" | [
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5048 | of Defense began to require the use of Ada (the "Ada mandate") for all software, though exceptions to this rule were often granted. The Department of Defense Ada mandate was effectively removed in 1997, as the DoD began to embrace COTS technology. Similar requirements existed in other NATO countries: Ada was required for NATO systems involving command and control and other functions, and Ada was the mandated or preferred language for defense-related applications in countries such as Sweden, Germany, and Canada. By the late 1980s and early 1990s, Ada compilers had improved in performance, but there were still barriers to | "Ada (programming language)" | [
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5049 | full exploitation of Ada's abilities, including a tasking model that was different from what most real-time programmers were used to. Because of Ada's safety-critical support features, it is now used not only for military applications, but also in commercial projects where a software bug can have severe consequences, e.g., avionics and air traffic control, commercial rockets such as the Ariane 4 and 5, satellites and other space systems, railway transport and banking. For example, the Airplane Information Management System, the fly-by-wire system software in the Boeing 777, was written in Ada. Developed by Honeywell Air Transport Systems in collaboration with | "Ada (programming language)" | [
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5050 | consultants from DDC-I, it became arguably the best-known of any Ada project, civilian or military. The Canadian Automated Air Traffic System was written in 1 million lines of Ada (SLOC count). It featured advanced distributed processing, a distributed Ada database, and object-oriented design. Ada is also used in other air traffic systems, e.g., the UK's next-generation Interim Future Area Control Tools Support (iFACTS) air traffic control system is designed and implemented using SPARK Ada. It is also used in the French TVM in-cab signalling system on the TGV high-speed rail system, and the metro suburban trains in Paris, London, Hong | "Ada (programming language)" | [
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5051 | Kong and New York City. The language became an ANSI standard in 1983 (ANSI/MIL-STD 1815A), and after translation in French and without any further changes in English became an ISO standard in 1987 (ISO-8652:1987). This version of the language is commonly known as Ada 83, from the date of its adoption by ANSI, but is sometimes referred to also as Ada 87, from the date of its adoption by ISO. Ada 95, the joint ISO/ANSI standard (ISO-8652:1995) was published in February 1995, making Ada 95 the first ISO standard object-oriented programming language. To help with the standard revision and future | "Ada (programming language)" | [
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5052 | acceptance, the US Air Force funded the development of the GNAT Compiler. Presently, the GNAT Compiler is part of the GNU Compiler Collection. Work has continued on improving and updating the technical content of the Ada programming language. A Technical Corrigendum to Ada 95 was published in October 2001, and a major Amendment, ISO/IEC 8652:1995/Amd 1:2007 was published on March 9, 2007. At the Ada-Europe 2012 conference in Stockholm, the Ada Resource Association (ARA) and Ada-Europe announced the completion of the design of the latest version of the Ada programming language and the submission of the reference manual to the | "Ada (programming language)" | [
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5053 | International Organization for Standardization (ISO) for approval. ISO/IEC 8652:2012 was published in December 2012. Other related standards include ISO 8651-3:1988 "Information processing systems—Computer graphics—Graphical Kernel System (GKS) language bindings—Part 3: Ada". Ada is an ALGOL-like programming language featuring control structures with reserved words such as "if", "then", "else", "while", "for", and so on. However, Ada also has many data structuring facilities and other abstractions which were not included in the original ALGOL 60, such as type definitions, records, pointers, enumerations. Such constructs were in part inherited from or inspired by Pascal. A common example of a language's syntax is the | "Ada (programming language)" | [
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5054 | Hello world program: with Ada.Text_IO; use Ada.Text_IO; procedure Hello is begin end Hello; This program can be compiled by using the freely available open source compiler GNAT, by executing gnatmake hello.adb Ada's type system is not based on a set of predefined primitive types but allows users to declare their own types. This declaration in turn is not based on the internal representation of the type but on describing the goal which should be achieved. This allows the compiler to determine a suitable memory size for the type, and to check for violations of the type definition at compile time | "Ada (programming language)" | [
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5055 | and run time (i.e., range violations, buffer overruns, type consistency, etc.). Ada supports numerical types defined by a range, modulo types, aggregate types (records and arrays), and enumeration types. Access types define a reference to an instance of a specified type; untyped pointers are not permitted. Special types provided by the language are task types and protected types. For example, a date might be represented as: type Day_type is range 1 .. 31; type Month_type is range 1 .. 12; type Year_type is range 1800 .. 2100; type Hours is mod 24; type Weekday is (Monday, Tuesday, Wednesday, Thursday, Friday, | "Ada (programming language)" | [
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5056 | Saturday, Sunday); type Date is Types can be refined by declaring subtypes: subtype Working_Hours is Hours range 0 .. 12; -- at most 12 Hours to work a day subtype Working_Day is Weekday range Monday .. Friday; -- Days to work Work_Load: constant array(Working_Day) of Working_Hours -- implicit type declaration Types can have modifiers such as "limited, abstract, private" etc. Private types can only be accessed and limited types can only be modified or copied within the scope of the package that defines them. Ada 95 adds additional features for object-oriented extension of types. Ada is a structured programming language, | "Ada (programming language)" | [
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5057 | meaning that the flow of control is structured into standard statements. All standard constructs and deep level early exit are supported so the use of the also supported 'go to' commands is seldom needed. -- while a is not equal to b, loop. while a /= b loop end loop; if a > b then else end if; for i in 1 .. 10 loop end loop; loop end loop; case i is end case; for aWeekday in Weekday'Range loop -- loop over an enumeration end loop; Among the parts of an Ada program are packages, procedures and functions. Example: | "Ada (programming language)" | [
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5058 | Package specification (example.ads) package Example is end Example; Package body (example.adb) with Ada.Text_IO; package body Example is -- package initialization executed when the package is elaborated begin end Example; This program can be compiled, e.g., by using the freely available open source compiler GNAT, by executing gnatmake -z example.adb Packages, procedures and functions can nest to any depth and each can also be the logical outermost block. Each package, procedure or function can have its own declarations of constants, types, variables, and other procedures, functions and packages, which can be declared in any order. Ada has language support for task-based | "Ada (programming language)" | [
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5059 | concurrency. The fundamental concurrent unit in Ada is a "task", which is a built-in limited type. Tasks are specified in two parts – the task declaration defines the task interface (similar to a type declaration), the task body specifies the implementation of the task. Depending on the implementation, Ada tasks are either mapped to operating system threads or processes, or are scheduled internally by the Ada runtime. Tasks can have entries for synchronisation (a form of synchronous message passing). Task entries are declared in the task specification. Each task entry can have one or more "accept" statements within the task | "Ada (programming language)" | [
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5060 | body. If the control flow of the task reaches an accept statement, the task is blocked until the corresponding entry is called by another task (similarly, a calling task is blocked until the called task reaches the corresponding accept statement). Task entries can have parameters similar to procedures, allowing tasks to synchronously exchange data. In conjunction with "select" statements it is possible to define "guards" on accept statements (similar to Dijkstra's guarded commands). Ada also offers "protected objects" for mutual exclusion. Protected objects are a monitor-like construct, but use guards instead of conditional variables for signaling (similar to conditional critical | "Ada (programming language)" | [
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5061 | regions). Protected objects combine the data encapsulation and safe mutual exclusion from monitors, and entry guards from conditional critical regions. The main advantage over classical monitors is that conditional variables are not required for signaling, avoiding potential deadlocks due to incorrect locking semantics. Like tasks, the protected object is a built-in limited type, and it also has a declaration part and a body. A protected object consists of encapsulated private data (which can only be accessed from within the protected object), and procedures, functions and entries which are guaranteed to be mutually exclusive (with the only exception of functions, which | "Ada (programming language)" | [
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5062 | are required to be side effect free and can therefore run concurrently with other functions). A task calling a protected object is blocked if another task is currently executing inside the same protected object, and released when this other task leaves the protected object. Blocked tasks are queued on the protected object ordered by time of arrival. Protected object entries are similar to procedures, but additionally have "guards". If a guard evaluates to false, a calling task is blocked and added to the queue of that entry; now another task can be admitted to the protected object, as no task | "Ada (programming language)" | [
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5063 | is currently executing inside the protected object. Guards are re-evaluated whenever a task leaves the protected object, as this is the only time when the evaluation of guards can have changed. Calls to entries can be "requeued" to other entries with the same signature. A task that is requeued is blocked and added to the queue of the target entry; this means that the protected object is released and allows admission of another task. The "select" statement in Ada can be used to implement non-blocking entry calls and accepts, non-deterministic selection of entries (also with guards), time-outs and aborts. The | "Ada (programming language)" | [
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5064 | following example illustrates some concepts of concurrent programming in Ada. with Ada.Text_IO; use Ada.Text_IO; procedure Traffic is begin end Traffic; A pragma is a compiler directive that conveys information to the compiler to allow specific manipulation of compiled output. Certain pragmas are built into the language while others are implementation-specific. Examples of common usage of compiler pragmas would be to disable certain features, such as run-time type checking or array subscript boundary checking, or to instruct the compiler to insert object code in lieu of a function call (as C/C++ does with inline functions). Ada (programming language) Ada is a | "Ada (programming language)" | [
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5065 | Alfonso Cuarón Alfonso Cuarón Orozco (; ; born 28 November 1961) is a Mexican film director, screenwriter, producer, and editor. He is best known for his dramas "A Little Princess" (1995) and "Y Tu Mamá También" (2001), the fantasy film "Harry Potter and the Prisoner of Azkaban" (2004), and the science fiction thrillers "Children of Men" (2006) and "Gravity" (2013). Cuarón is the first Latino and Mexican director to win the Academy Award for Best Director. Most of Cuarón's work has been acclaimed by critics. He has been nominated for six Academy Awards, including Best Original Screenplay for "Y Tu | "Alfonso Cuarón" | [
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5066 | Mamá También" and Best Adapted Screenplay and Best Film Editing for "Children of Men". He was awarded the BAFTA Award for Best Film Not in the English Language as producer of "Pan's Labyrinth". For "Gravity", Cuarón received several major accolades for his achievement in directing, winning the Academy Award for Best Director and Best Film Editing, the Golden Globe Award for Best Director, the BAFTA Award for Best Direction and the Directors Guild of America Award for Outstanding Directing – Feature Film. Alfonso Cuarón Orozco was born in Mexico City on 28 November 1961, the son of Alfredo Cuarón, a | "Alfonso Cuarón" | [
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5067 | nuclear physicist who worked for the United Nations' International Atomic Energy Agency for many years. He has two brothers, Carlos, also a filmmaker, and Alfredo, a conservation biologist. Cuarón studied philosophy at the National Autonomous University of Mexico (UNAM) and filmmaking at CUEC (Centro Universitario de Estudios Cinematográficos), a school within the same university. There, he met the director Carlos Marcovich and cinematographer Emmanuel Lubezki, and they made what would be his first short film, "Vengeance Is Mine". Cuarón began working on television in Mexico, first as a technician and then as a director. His television work led to assignments | "Alfonso Cuarón" | [
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5068 | as an assistant director for several film productions including "La Gran Fiesta", "" and "Romero", and in 1991, he landed his first big-screen directorial assignment. "Sólo con Tu Pareja" is a sex comedy about a womanizing businessman (played by Daniel Giménez Cacho) who, after having sex with an attractive nurse, is fooled into believing he's contracted AIDS. In addition to writing, producing and directing, Cuarón co-edited the film with Luis Patlán. It is somewhat unusual for directors to be credited co-editors, although the Coen Brothers and Robert Rodriguez have both directed and edited nearly all of their films. Cuarón continued | "Alfonso Cuarón" | [
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5069 | this close involvement in editing on several of his later films. The film, which also starred cabaret singer Astrid Hadad and model/actress Claudia Ramírez (with whom Cuarón was linked between 1989 and 1993), was a big hit in Mexico. After this success, director Sydney Pollack hired Cuarón to direct an episode of "Fallen Angels", a series of neo-noir stories produced for the Showtime premium cable network in 1993; other directors who worked on the series included Steven Soderbergh, Jonathan Kaplan, Peter Bogdanovich and Tom Hanks. In 1995, Cuarón released his first feature film produced in the United States, "A Little | "Alfonso Cuarón" | [
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5070 | Princess", an adaptation of Frances Hodgson Burnett's classic novel. Cuarón's next feature was also a literary adaptation, a modernized version of Charles Dickens's "Great Expectations" starring Ethan Hawke, Gwyneth Paltrow and Robert De Niro. Cuarón's next project found him returning to Mexico with a Spanish-speaking cast to film "Y Tu Mamá También", starring Gael García Bernal, Diego Luna and Maribel Verdú. It was a provocative and controversial road comedy about two sexually obsessed teenagers who take an extended road trip with an attractive married woman who is much older than them. The film's open portrayal of sexuality and frequent rude | "Alfonso Cuarón" | [
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5071 | humor, as well as the politically and socially relevant asides, made the film an international hit and a major success with critics. Cuarón shared an Academy Award nomination for Best Original Screenplay with co-writer and brother Carlos Cuarón. In 2004, Cuarón directed the third film in the successful "Harry Potter" series, "Harry Potter and the Prisoner of Azkaban". Cuarón faced criticism from some "Harry Potter" fans for his approach to the film. At the time of the movie's release, however, author J. K. Rowling, who had seen and loved Cuarón's film "Y Tu Mamá También", said that it was her | "Alfonso Cuarón" | [
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5072 | personal favorite from the series so far. Critically, the film was also better received than the first two instalments, with some critics remarking its new tone and for being the first "Harry Potter" film to truly capture the essence of the novels. Cuarón's feature "Children of Men", an adaptation of the P. D. James novel starring Clive Owen, Julianne Moore and Michael Caine, received wide critical acclaim, including three Academy Award nominations. Cuarón himself received two nominations for his work on the film in Best Film Editing (with Alex Rodríguez) and Best Adapted Screenplay (with several collaborators). He created the | "Alfonso Cuarón" | [
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5073 | production and distribution company Esperanto Filmoj ("Esperanto Films", named because of his support for the international language Esperanto), which has credits in the films "Duck Season", "Pan's Labyrinth", and "Gravity". Cuarón also directed the controversial public service announcement "I Am Autism" for Autism Speaks that was criticized by disability rights groups for its negative portrayal of autism. In 2010, Cuarón began to develop the film "Gravity", a drama set in space. He was joined by producer David Heyman, with whom Cuarón worked on "Harry Potter and the Prisoner of Azkaban". Starring Sandra Bullock and George Clooney, the film was released | "Alfonso Cuarón" | [
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5074 | in the fall of 2013 and opened the 70th Venice International Film Festival in August. On 12 January 2014, Alfonso accepted the Golden Globe Award in the category of Best Director. The film received ten Academy Award nominations, including Best Picture and Best Director. Cuarón won for Best Directing, becoming the first Latin American to win the award, while he and Mark Sanger shared the award for Best Film Editing. In 2013, Cuarón created "Believe", a science fiction/fantasy/adventure series that was broadcast as part of the 2013–14 United States network television schedule on NBC as a mid-season entry. The series | "Alfonso Cuarón" | [
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5075 | was created by Cuarón for Bad Robot Productions and Warner Bros. Television. In 2014, "TIME" placed him in its list of "100 Most Influential People in the World" – Pioneers. In May 2015, Cuarón was announced as the President of the Jury for the 72nd Venice International Film Festival. Cuarón next wrote and directed "Roma", his eighth film, a semi-autobiographical project focusing on a housekeeper for a middle class Mexican family, like his own, in 1970s Mexico City. Production began in fall 2016, and "Roma" premiered at the 75th Venice International Film Festival, where it received critical acclaim and won | "Alfonso Cuarón" | [
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5076 | the Golden Lion. The project was produced by Cuarón, Gabriela Rodríguez and Nicolás Celis. On 3 November 2016, it was revealed that the crew was robbed on set during filming. Cuarón is a vegetarian and has been living in London since 2000. He was 20 when his girlfriend at the time became pregnant with Jonás. He was married to Italian actress and freelance journalist Annalisa Bugliani from 2001 to 2008. They have two children: daughter Tess Bu Cuarón (born 2002) and son Olmo Teodoro Cuarón (born 2005). Alfonso Cuarón Alfonso Cuarón Orozco (; ; born 28 November 1961) is a | "Alfonso Cuarón" | [
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5077 | Arianism Arianism is a nontrinitarian Christological doctrine which asserts the belief that Jesus Christ is the Son of God who was begotten by God the Father at a point in time, a creature distinct from the Father and is therefore subordinate to him, but the Son is also God (i.e. God the Son). Arian teachings were first attributed to Arius (c. AD 256–336), a Christian presbyter in Alexandria of Egypt. The teachings of Arius and his supporters were opposed to the theological views held by Homoousian Christians, regarding the nature of the Trinity and the nature of Christ. The Arian | Arianism | [
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5078 | concept of Christ is based on the belief that the Son of God did not always exist but was begotten within time by God the Father. There was a dispute between two interpretations of Jesus' divinity (Homoousianism and Arianism) based upon the theological orthodoxy of the time, one trinitarian and the other non-trinitarian, and both of them attempted to solve its respective theological dilemmas. So there were, initially, two equally orthodox interpretations which initiated a conflict in order to attract adepts and define the new orthodoxy. The two interpretations initiated a broader conflict as to which belief was the successor | Arianism | [
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5079 | of Christian theology from its inception. The former was formally affirmed by the first two Ecumenical Councils, and in the past several centuries, Arianism has continued to be viewed as "the heresy or sect of Arius". As such, all mainstream branches of Christianity now consider Arianism to be heterodox and heretical. The trinitarianism, or homoousianism viewpoint, was promulgated by Athanasius of Alexandria, who insisted that Homoousianism theology was both the true nature of God and the teaching of Jesus. Arius stated: "If the Father begat the Son, then he who was begotten had a beginning in existence, and from this | Arianism | [
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5080 | it follows there was a time when the Son was not." Nonetheless, the Ecumenical First Council of Nicaea of 325, convened by Emperor Constantine to ensure Church unity, deemed Arianism to be a heresy." According to Everett Ferguson, "The great majority of Christians had no clear views about the nature of the Trinity and they did not understand what was at stake in the issues that surrounded it." Ten years later, however, Constantine the Great, who was himself baptized by the Arian bishop Eusebius of Nicomedia, convened another gathering of Church leaders at the regional First Synod of Tyre in | Arianism | [
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5081 | 335 (attended by 310 bishops), to address various charges mounted against Athanasius by his pro-Arius detractors, such as "murder, illegal taxation, sorcery, and treason", following his refusal to readmit Arius into fellowship. Athanasius was exiled to Trier (near modern-day Luxembourg) following his conviction at Tyre of conspiracy, and Arius was, effectively, exonerated. Athanasius eventually returned to Alexandria in 346 A.D., two years after the deaths of both Arius and Constantine; though "Arianism" had spread, Athanasius and other trinitarian Church leaders crusaded against the theology, and Arius was again anathemised and pronounced a heretic once more at the Ecumenical First Council | Arianism | [
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5082 | of Constantinople of 381 (attended by 150 bishops). The Roman Emperors Constantius II (337–361) and Valens (364–378) were Arians or Semi-Arians, as was the first King of Italy, Odoacer (433?–493), and the Lombards were also Arians or Semi-Arians until the 7th century. Visigothic Spain was Arian until 581. Arianism is also used to refer to other nontrinitarian theological systems of the 4th century, which regarded Jesus Christ—the Son of God, the Logos—as either a begotten creature (as in Arianism proper and Anomoeanism) or as neither uncreated nor created in the sense other beings are created (as in Semi-Arianism). Arius had | Arianism | [
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5083 | been a pupil of Lucian of Antioch at Lucian's private academy in Antioch and inherited from him a modified form of the teachings of Paul of Samosata. He taught that God the Father and the Son of God did not always exist together eternally. Arians taught that the Logos was a divine being begotten by God the Father before the creation of the world, made him a medium through whom everything else was created, and that the Son of God is subordinate to God the Father. A verse from Proverbs was also used: "The Lord created me at the beginning | Arianism | [
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5084 | of his work" (Proverbs ). Therefore, the Son was rather the very first and the most perfect of God's creatures, and he was made "God" only by the Father's permission and power. Controversy over Arianism arose in the late 3rd century and persisted throughout most of the 4th century. It involved most church members—from simple believers, priests, and monks to bishops, emperors, and members of Rome's imperial family. Two Roman emperors, Constantius II and Valens, became Arians or Semi-Arians, as did prominent Gothic, Vandal, and Lombard warlords both before and after the fall of the Western Roman Empire. Such a | Arianism | [
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5085 | deep controversy within the Church during this period of its development could not have materialized without significant historical influences providing a basis for the Arian doctrines. Of the roughly three hundred bishops in attendance at the Council of Nicea, two bishops did not sign the Nicene Creed that condemned Arianism. Emperor Constantine also ordered a penalty of death for those who refused to surrender the Arian writings: Reconstructing what Arius actually taught, and why, is a formidable task, both because little of his own work survives except in quotations selected for polemical purposes by his opponents, and also because there | Arianism | [
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5086 | is no certainty about what theological and philosophical traditions formed his thought. Arians do not believe in the traditional doctrine of the Trinity. The letter of Arian Auxentius regarding the Arian missionary Ulfilas gives a picture of Arian beliefs. Arian Ulfilas, who was ordained a bishop by Arian Eusebius of Nicomedia and returned to his people to work as a missionary, believed: God, the Father, ("unbegotten" God; Almighty God) always existing and who is the only true God (). The Son of God, Jesus Christ, ("only-begotten God"), Mighty God (); begotten before time began (, , ) and who is | Arianism | [
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5087 | Lord/Master (). The Holy Spirit (the illuminating and sanctifying power, who is neither God the Father nor Lord/Master. was cited as proof text: The creed of Arian Ulfilas (c. 311–383), which concludes a letter praising him written by Auxentius, distinguishes God the Father ("unbegotten"), who is the only true God from Son of God ("only-begotten"), who is Lord/Master; and the Holy Spirit, the illuminating and sanctifying power, who is neither God the Father nor Lord/Master: A letter from Arius (c. 250–336) to the Arian Eusebius of Nicomedia (died 341) succinctly states the core beliefs of the Arians: Principally, the dispute | Arianism | [
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5088 | between Trinitarianism and Arianism was about: Arianism had several different variants, including Eunomianism and Homoian Arianism. Homoian Arianism is associated with Akakius and Eudoxius. Homoian Arianism avoided the use of the word "ousia" to describe the relation of Father to Son, and described these as "like" each other. Hanson lists twelve creeds that reflect the Homoian faith: In 321, Arius was denounced by a synod at Alexandria for teaching a heterodox view of the relationship of Jesus to God the Father. Because Arius and his followers had great influence in the schools of Alexandria—counterparts to modern universities or seminaries—their theological | Arianism | [
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5089 | views spread, especially in the eastern Mediterranean. By 325, the controversy had become significant enough that the Emperor Constantine called an assembly of bishops, the First Council of Nicaea, which condemned Arius's doctrine and formulated the original Nicene Creed of 325. The Nicene Creed's central term, used to describe the relationship between the Father and the Son, is Homoousios (), or Consubstantiality, meaning "of the same substance" or "of one being" (the Athanasian Creed is less often used but is a more overtly anti-Arian statement on the Trinity). The focus of the Council of Nicaea was the nature of the | Arianism | [
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5090 | Son of God and his precise relationship to God the Father (see Paul of Samosata and the Synods of Antioch). Arius taught that Jesus Christ was divine/holy and was sent to earth for the salvation of mankind but that Jesus Christ was not equal to God the Father (infinite, primordial origin) in rank "and" that God the Father and the Son of God were not equal to the Holy Spirit (power of God the Father). Under Arianism, Christ was instead not consubstantial with God the Father since both the Father and the Son under Arius were made of "like" essence | Arianism | [
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5091 | or being (see homoiousia) but not of the same essence or being (see homoousia). In the Arian view, God the Father is a Deity and is divine "and" the Son of God is not a Deity but divine (I, the LORD, am Deity alone. Isaiah 46:9). God the Father sent Jesus to earth for salvation of mankind (John 17:3). Ousia is essence or being, in Eastern Christianity, and is the aspect of God that is completely incomprehensible to mankind and human perception. It is all that subsists by itself and which has not its being in another, God the Father | Arianism | [
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5092 | and God the Son and God the Holy Spirit all being uncreated. According to the teaching of Arius, the preexistent Logos and thus the incarnate Jesus Christ was a begotten being; only the Son was directly begotten by God the Father, before ages, but was of a distinct, though similar, essence or substance from the Creator. His opponents argued that this would make Jesus less than God and that this was heretical. Much of the distinction between the differing factions was over the phrasing that Christ expressed in the New Testament to express submission to God the Father. The theological | Arianism | [
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5093 | term for this submission is kenosis. This Ecumenical council declared that Jesus Christ was a distinct being of God in existence or reality (hypostasis), which the Latin fathers translated as persona. Jesus was God in essence, being and nature (ousia), which the Latin fathers translated as substantia. Constantine is believed to have exiled those who refused to accept the Nicean creed—Arius himself, the deacon Euzoios, and the Libyan bishops Theonas of Marmarica and Secundus of Ptolemais—and also the bishops who signed the creed but refused to join in condemnation of Arius, Eusebius of Nicomedia and Theognis of Nicaea. The Emperor | Arianism | [
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5094 | also ordered all copies of the "Thalia", the book in which Arius had expressed his teachings, to be burned. However, there is no evidence that his son and ultimate successor, Constantius II, who was a Semi-Arian Christian, was exiled. Although he was committed to maintaining what the church had defined at Nicaea, Constantine was also bent on pacifying the situation and eventually became more lenient toward those condemned and exiled at the council. First, he allowed Eusebius of Nicomedia, who was a protégé of his sister, and Theognis to return once they had signed an ambiguous statement of faith. The | Arianism | [
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5095 | two, and other friends of Arius, worked for Arius's rehabilitation. At the First Synod of Tyre in AD 335, they brought accusations against Athanasius, now bishop of Alexandria, the primary opponent of Arius. After this, Constantine had Athanasius banished since he considered him an impediment to reconciliation. In the same year, the Synod of Jerusalem under Constantine's direction readmitted Arius to communion in AD 336. Arius died on the way to this event in Constantinople. Some scholars suggest that Arius may have been poisoned by his opponents. Eusebius and Theognis remained in the Emperor's favor, and when Constantine, who had | Arianism | [
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5096 | been a catechumen much of his adult life, accepted baptism on his deathbed, it was from Eusebius of Nicomedia. The historian Jacob Burckhardt wrote of the Council: The Council of Nicaea did not end the controversy, as many bishops of the Eastern provinces disputed the "homoousios", the central term of the Nicene Creed, as it had been used by Paul of Samosata, who had advocated a monarchianist Christology. Both the man and his teaching, including the term "homoousios", had been condemned by the Synods of Antioch in 269. Hence, after Constantine's death in 337, open dispute resumed again. Constantine's son | Arianism | [
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5097 | Constantius II, who had become Emperor of the eastern part of the Empire, actually encouraged the Arians and set out to reverse the Nicene Creed. His advisor in these affairs was Eusebius of Nicomedia, who had already at the Council of Nicea been the head of the Arian party, who also was made the bishop of Constantinople. Constantius used his power to exile bishops adhering to the Nicene Creed, especially St Athanasius of Alexandria, who fled to Rome. In 355 Constantius became the sole Emperor and extended his pro-Arian policy toward the western provinces, frequently using force to push through | Arianism | [
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5098 | his creed, even exiling Pope Liberius and installing Antipope Felix II. The third Council of Sirmium in 357 was the high point of Arianism. The Seventh Arian Confession (Second Sirmium Confession) held that both "homoousios" (of one substance) and "homoiousios" (of similar substance) were unbiblical and that the Father is greater than the Son. (This confession was later known as the Blasphemy of Sirmium.) But since many persons are disturbed by questions concerning what is called in Latin "substantia", but in Greek "ousia", that is, to make it understood more exactly, as to 'coessential,' or what is called, 'like-in-essence,' there | Arianism | [
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5099 | ought to be no mention of any of these at all, nor exposition of them in the Church, for this reason and for this consideration, that in divine Scripture nothing is written about them, and that they are above men's knowledge and above men's understanding; As debates raged in an attempt to come up with a new formula, three camps evolved among the opponents of the Nicene Creed. The first group mainly opposed the Nicene terminology and preferred the term "homoiousios" (alike in substance) to the Nicene "homoousios", while they rejected Arius and his teaching and accepted the equality and | Arianism | [
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5100 | co-eternality of the persons of the Trinity. Because of this centrist position, and despite their rejection of Arius, they were called "semi-Arians" by their opponents. The second group also avoided invoking the name of Arius, but in large part followed Arius' teachings and, in another attempted compromise wording, described the Son as being like ("homoios") the Father. A third group explicitly called upon Arius and described the Son as unlike ("anhomoios") the Father. Constantius wavered in his support between the first and the second party, while harshly persecuting the third. Epiphanius of Salamis labeled the party of Basil of Ancyra | Arianism | [
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0.5391136407852173,
0.12684623897075653,
-0.07063767313957214,
-0.22624975442886353,
0.1307789832353592,
0.3908238410949707,
-0.9438371658325195,
0.2717660367488861,... |
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