id stringlengths 1 5 | text stringlengths 472 972 | title stringclasses 280 values | embeddings listlengths 768 768 |
|---|---|---|---|
5201 | of another language, with a part of its vocabulary replaced by words unknown to the larger public; "argot" used in this sense is synonymous with "cant". For example, "argot" in this sense is used for systems such as "verlan" and "louchébem", which retain French syntax and apply transformations only to individual words (and often only to a certain subset of words, such as nouns, or semantic content words). Such systems are examples of "argots à clef", or "coded argots." Specific words can go from argot into common speech or the other way. For example, modern French "loufoque" 'crazy, goofy', now | Argot | [
-0.03367343172430992,
0.16586214303970337,
-0.11481641232967377,
-0.1765437126159668,
-0.029773268848657608,
0.22574307024478912,
0.3663847744464874,
0.5516307950019836,
-0.1336139738559723,
-0.5447953343391418,
-0.7717002630233765,
0.5850427746772766,
-0.2716391086578369,
-0.0308022834360... |
5202 | common usage, originates in the "louchébem" transformation of Fr. "fou" 'crazy'. "Piaf" is a Parisian argot word for "bird, sparrow". It was taken up by singer Edith Piaf as her stage name. Argot An argot (; from French "argot" 'slang') is a secret language used by various groups—e.g., schoolmates, outlaws, colleagues, gay people (Polari) among many others—to prevent outsiders from understanding their conversations. The term "argot" is also used to refer to the informal specialized vocabulary from a particular field of study, occupation, or hobby, in which sense it overlaps with jargon. The discipline of medicine has been referred to | Argot | [
0.07900528609752655,
0.1687290370464325,
-0.23278841376304626,
-0.2520938813686371,
0.11635645478963852,
0.5813727974891663,
0.6627276539802551,
0.28319236636161804,
-0.22645148634910583,
0.029809707775712013,
-0.47999832034111023,
0.6435676217079163,
-0.5109800696372986,
-0.11320734024047... |
5203 | Anisotropy Anisotropy , is the property of being directionally dependent, which implies different properties in different directions, as opposed to isotropy. It can be defined as a difference, when measured along different axes, in a material's physical or mechanical properties (absorbance, refractive index, conductivity, tensile strength, etc.) An example of anisotropy is light coming through a polarizer. Another is wood, which is easier to split along its grain than across it. In the field of computer graphics, an anisotropic surface changes in appearance as it rotates about its geometric normal, as is the case with velvet. Anisotropic filtering (AF) is | Anisotropy | [
0.3191406726837158,
-0.3169400095939636,
0.3856290876865387,
-0.04347863793373108,
-0.3803402781486511,
-0.052191413938999176,
-0.3540399670600891,
-0.4246245324611664,
0.0053670066408813,
-0.7421563267707825,
-0.19287371635437012,
0.4957990050315857,
-0.3665619492530823,
0.367233008146286... |
5204 | a method of enhancing the image quality of textures on surfaces that are far away and steeply angled with respect to the point of view. Older techniques, such as bilinear and trilinear filtering, do not take into account the angle a surface is viewed from, which can result in aliasing or blurring of textures. By reducing detail in one direction more than another, these effects can be reduced. A chemical anisotropic filter, as used to filter particles, is a filter with increasingly smaller interstitial spaces in the direction of filtration so that the proximal regions filter out larger particles and | Anisotropy | [
0.05652574077248573,
-0.21769753098487854,
0.1089940294623375,
-0.10793391615152359,
-0.3680049777030945,
-0.03885990008711815,
-0.023465203121304512,
-0.08163214474916458,
0.2904801666736603,
-1.1388251781463623,
-0.369044691324234,
0.3758545219898224,
-0.2922864854335785,
0.1143480315804... |
5205 | distal regions increasingly remove smaller particles, resulting in greater flow-through and more efficient filtration. In NMR spectroscopy, the orientation of nuclei with respect to the applied magnetic field determines their chemical shift. In this context, anisotropic systems refer to the electron distribution of molecules with abnormally high electron density, like the pi system of benzene. This abnormal electron density affects the applied magnetic field and causes the observed chemical shift to change. In fluorescence spectroscopy, the fluorescence anisotropy, calculated from the polarization properties of fluorescence from samples excited with plane-polarized light, is used, e.g., to determine the shape of a | Anisotropy | [
0.010452980175614357,
-0.34119653701782227,
0.18952664732933044,
-0.40437668561935425,
-0.4157261550426483,
-0.18428663909435272,
-0.24626341462135315,
-0.36632511019706726,
0.30076155066490173,
-0.6236799955368042,
-0.3063051402568817,
0.02505604550242424,
-0.7406578660011292,
0.657123327... |
5206 | macromolecule. Anisotropy measurements reveal the average angular displacement of the fluorophore that occurs between absorption and subsequent emission of a photon. Images of a gravity-bound or man-made environment are particularly anisotropic in the orientation domain, with more image structure located at orientations parallel with or orthogonal to the direction of gravity (vertical and horizontal). Physicists from University of California, Berkeley reported about their detection of the cosine anisotropy in cosmic microwave background radiation in 1977. Their experiment demonstrated the Doppler shift caused by the movement of the earth with respect to the early Universe matter, the source of the radiation. | Anisotropy | [
-0.04146231710910797,
-0.16210108995437622,
0.24885255098342896,
-0.3166983127593994,
-0.5301775336265564,
-0.012523854151368141,
-0.5608395338058472,
-0.08985915780067444,
0.07461030036211014,
-0.4172777235507965,
-0.05751699581742287,
0.25906887650489807,
-0.5981407165527344,
0.466846048... |
5207 | Cosmic anisotropy has also been seen in the alignment of galaxies' rotation axes and polarisation angles of quasars. Physicists use the term anisotropy to describe direction-dependent properties of materials. Magnetic anisotropy, for example, may occur in a plasma, so that its magnetic field is oriented in a preferred direction. Plasmas may also show "filamentation" (such as that seen in lightning or a plasma globe) that is directional. An "anisotropic liquid" has the fluidity of a normal liquid, but has an average structural order relative to each other along the molecular axis, unlike water or chloroform, which contain no structural ordering | Anisotropy | [
0.132608562707901,
-0.37557631731033325,
0.5048579573631287,
-0.07806360721588135,
-0.552238404750824,
-0.2042727768421173,
-0.3776456117630005,
-0.06112269312143326,
0.029948106035590172,
-0.6743634939193726,
-0.44482478499412537,
0.07804388552904129,
-0.47240757942199707,
0.7699353098869... |
5208 | of the molecules. Liquid crystals are examples of anisotropic liquids. Some materials conduct heat in a way that is isotropic, that is independent of spatial orientation around the heat source. Heat conduction is more commonly anisotropic, which implies that detailed geometric modeling of typically diverse materials being thermally managed is required. The materials used to transfer and reject heat from the heat source in electronics are often anisotropic. Many crystals are anisotropic to light ("optical anisotropy"), and exhibit properties such as birefringence. Crystal optics describes light propagation in these media. An "axis of anisotropy" is defined as the axis along | Anisotropy | [
0.09500771015882492,
-0.017699379473924637,
0.39548298716545105,
-0.13974662125110626,
-0.6550581455230713,
-0.14985701441764832,
-0.08478359133005142,
-0.16578590869903564,
0.09571767598390579,
-0.5446122288703918,
-0.4699583649635315,
0.2186579704284668,
-0.5910012125968933,
0.6744321584... |
5209 | which isotropy is broken (or an axis of symmetry, such as normal to crystalline layers). Some materials can have multiple such optical axes. Seismic anisotropy is the variation of seismic wavespeed with direction. Seismic anisotropy is an indicator of long range order in a material, where features smaller than the seismic wavelength (e.g., crystals, cracks, pores, layers or inclusions) have a dominant alignment. This alignment leads to a directional variation of elasticity wavespeed. Measuring the effects of anisotropy in seismic data can provide important information about processes and mineralogy in the Earth; indeed, significant seismic anisotropy has been detected in | Anisotropy | [
0.12444528937339783,
-0.22862306237220764,
0.08982325345277786,
-0.18322905898094177,
-0.4128296673297882,
0.06889841705560684,
0.3212251663208008,
-0.3757440745830536,
-0.1114412322640419,
-0.7349095344543457,
-0.42972493171691895,
0.5221570134162903,
-0.07067322731018066,
0.4677368104457... |
5210 | the Earth's crust, mantle and inner core. Geological formations with distinct layers of sedimentary material can exhibit electrical anisotropy; electrical conductivity in one direction (e.g. parallel to a layer), is different from that in another (e.g. perpendicular to a layer). This property is used in the gas and oil exploration industry to identify hydrocarbon-bearing sands in sequences of sand and shale. Sand-bearing hydrocarbon assets have high resistivity (low conductivity), whereas shales have lower resistivity. Formation evaluation instruments measure this conductivity/resistivity and the results are used to help find oil and gas in wells. The hydraulic conductivity of aquifers is often | Anisotropy | [
0.3151022791862488,
-0.09203498810529709,
0.06756625324487686,
-0.09154652804136276,
-0.19796548783779144,
0.005916076712310314,
-0.13807836174964905,
-0.24792003631591797,
0.3455471694469452,
-0.40906190872192383,
-0.3597402572631836,
0.6602122187614441,
-0.18290838599205017,
0.4580252766... |
5211 | anisotropic for the same reason. When calculating groundwater flow to drains or to wells, the difference between horizontal and vertical permeability must be taken into account, otherwise the results may be subject to error. Most common rock-forming minerals are anisotropic, including quartz and feldspar. Anisotropy in minerals is most reliably seen in their optical properties. An example of an isotropic mineral is garnet. Anisotropy is also a well-known property in medical ultrasound imaging describing a different resulting echogenicity of soft tissues, such as tendons, when the angle of the transducer is changed. Tendon fibers appear hyperechoic (bright) when the transducer | Anisotropy | [
0.40644967555999756,
0.025310561060905457,
0.18590955436229706,
0.10779466480016708,
-0.3494419753551483,
0.13774198293685913,
0.1590428352355957,
0.027826180681586266,
0.21138592064380646,
-0.553260862827301,
-0.530027449131012,
0.43772444128990173,
-0.4984097182750702,
0.4142132699489593... |
5212 | is perpendicular to the tendon, but can appear hypoechoic (darker) when the transducer is angled obliquely. This can be a source of interpretation error for inexperienced practitioners. Anisotropy, in Material Science, is a material's directional dependence of a physical property. Most materials exhibit anisotropic behavior. An example would be the dependence of Young's modulus on the direction of load. In such a case anisotropy could be effectively measured directly from its stiffness tensor independently of its origin which may for instance be its texture, randomness of internal composition or defects. Texture patterns are often produced during manufacturing of the material. | Anisotropy | [
0.36589691042900085,
-0.5191174745559692,
0.24528074264526367,
-0.07947051525115967,
-0.5050545334815979,
0.12690311670303345,
-0.11315890401601791,
-0.3698665201663971,
0.04142090678215027,
-0.8349822759628296,
-0.13765430450439453,
0.677908718585968,
-0.12479200959205627,
0.3828282356262... |
5213 | In the case of rolling, "stringers" of texture are produced in the direction of rolling, which can lead to vastly different properties in the rolling and transverse directions. Some materials, such as wood and fibre-reinforced composites are very anisotropic, being much stronger along the grain/fibre than across it. Metals and alloys tend to be more isotropic, though they can sometimes exhibit significant anisotropic behaviour. This is especially important in processes such as deep-drawing. Wood is a naturally anisotropic (but often simplified to be transversely isotropic) material. Its properties vary widely when measured with or against the growth grain. For example, | Anisotropy | [
0.05516163259744644,
-0.10457184910774231,
0.12854209542274475,
0.055381566286087036,
-0.6377300024032593,
0.42235133051872253,
-0.1642541140317917,
0.01873902417719364,
0.02992505393922329,
-1.1022940874099731,
-0.11872921884059906,
0.49822860956192017,
0.013974850066006184,
0.42392289638... |
5214 | wood's strength and hardness is different for the same sample measured in different orientations. In the Mechanics of Continuum Materials, isotropy and anisotropy are rigorously described through the symmetry group of the constitutive relation. Anisotropic etching techniques (such as deep reactive ion etching) are used in microfabrication processes to create well defined microscopic features with a high aspect ratio. These features are commonly used in MEMS and microfluidic devices, where the anisotropy of the features is needed to impart desired optical, electrical, or physical properties to the device. Anisotropic etching can also refer to certain chemical etchants used to etch | Anisotropy | [
0.16822172701358795,
0.3024781346321106,
0.036782387644052505,
0.02166479080915451,
-0.09536023437976837,
0.2539944052696228,
-0.2814507484436035,
-0.3389776945114136,
0.109992615878582,
-0.7901700735092163,
-0.3139037787914276,
0.5896874070167542,
-0.2059044986963272,
0.33726510405540466,... |
5215 | a certain material preferentially over certain crystallographic planes (e.g., KOH etching of silicon [100] produces pyramid-like structures) Diffusion tensor imaging is an MRI technique that involves measuring the fractional anisotropy of the random motion (Brownian motion) of water molecules in the brain. Water molecules located in fiber tracts are more likely to be anisotropic, since they are restricted in their movement (they move more in the dimension parallel to the fiber tract rather than in the two dimensions orthogonal to it), whereas water molecules dispersed in the rest of the brain have less restricted movement and therefore display more isotropy. | Anisotropy | [
-0.11254996806383133,
-0.6717604398727417,
0.20251083374023438,
0.11215531826019287,
-0.3658764958381653,
0.28735920786857605,
-0.2524189054965973,
-0.23318742215633392,
-0.07572771608829498,
-0.7131490707397461,
-0.06947250664234161,
0.3265308737754822,
-0.30729857087135315,
0.22435435652... |
5216 | This difference in fractional anisotropy is exploited to create a map of the fiber tracts in the brains of the individual. Radiance fields (see BRDF) from a reflective surface are often not isotropic in nature. This makes calculations of the total energy being reflected from any scene a difficult quantity to calculate. In remote sensing applications, anisotropy functions can be derived for specific scenes, immensely simplifying the calculation of the net reflectance or (thereby) the net irradiance of a scene. For example, let the BRDF be formula_1 where 'i' denotes incident direction and 'v' denotes viewing direction (as if from | Anisotropy | [
0.35092976689338684,
-0.5374574065208435,
0.5761137008666992,
-0.1985577493906021,
-0.6384771466255188,
-0.0231553316116333,
-0.17164452373981476,
-0.4339665472507477,
0.004057873506098986,
-0.6758719086647034,
-0.1348225623369217,
0.5651167035102844,
-0.36861756443977356,
0.26010534167289... |
5217 | a satellite or other instrument). And let P be the Planar Albedo, which represents the total reflectance from the scene. It is of interest because, with knowledge of the anisotropy function as defined, a measurement of the BRDF from a single viewing direction (say, formula_4) yields a measure of the total scene reflectance (Planar Albedo) for that specific incident geometry (say, formula_5). Anisotropy Anisotropy , is the property of being directionally dependent, which implies different properties in different directions, as opposed to isotropy. It can be defined as a difference, when measured along different axes, in a material's physical or | Anisotropy | [
0.2792607545852661,
-0.3904493749141693,
0.8809375166893005,
-0.28897902369499207,
-0.537327766418457,
0.10173261910676956,
-0.2753693163394928,
-0.4422496259212494,
-0.07591857016086578,
-0.6883119344711304,
-0.2836894989013672,
0.7160706520080566,
-0.28932708501815796,
0.2924951314926147... |
5218 | Alpha decay Alpha decay or α-decay is a type of radioactive decay in which an atomic nucleus emits an alpha particle (helium nucleus) and thereby transforms or 'decays' into a different atomic nucleus, with a mass number that is reduced by four and an atomic number that is reduced by two. An alpha particle is identical to the nucleus of a helium-4 atom, which consists of two protons and two neutrons. It has a charge of and a mass of . For example, uranium-238 decays to form thorium-234. Alpha particles have a charge , but as a nuclear equation describes | "Alpha decay" | [
0.41026803851127625,
0.10194576531648636,
-0.41223615407943726,
-0.33909088373184204,
-0.3328401446342468,
0.03859977051615715,
0.3720998764038086,
-0.17630848288536072,
0.17544487118721008,
-0.1296779364347458,
-0.3964386582374573,
-0.37625858187675476,
-0.8180207014083862,
0.496315181255... |
5219 | a nuclear reaction without considering the electrons – a convention that does not imply that the nuclei necessarily occur in neutral atoms – the charge is not usually shown. Alpha decay typically occurs in the heaviest nuclides. Theoretically, it can occur only in nuclei somewhat heavier than nickel (element 28), where the overall binding energy per nucleon is no longer a minimum and the nuclides are therefore unstable toward spontaneous fission-type processes. In practice, this mode of decay has only been observed in nuclides considerably heavier than nickel, with the lightest known alpha emitters being the lightest isotopes (mass numbers | "Alpha decay" | [
0.1959388107061386,
0.39881080389022827,
-0.21613770723342896,
-0.40678027272224426,
-0.16910016536712646,
-0.4367809295654297,
0.3397373557090759,
0.054632604122161865,
0.39110660552978516,
-0.29957422614097595,
-0.562385618686676,
-0.32977065443992615,
-0.7353392839431763,
0.315145432949... |
5220 | 106–110) of tellurium (element 52). Exceptionally, however, beryllium-8 decays to two alpha particles. Alpha decay is by far the most common form of cluster decay, where the parent atom ejects a defined daughter collection of nucleons, leaving another defined product behind. It is the most common form because of the combined extremely high binding energy and relatively small mass of the alpha particle. Like other cluster decays, alpha decay is fundamentally a quantum tunneling process. Unlike beta decay, it is governed by the interplay between both the nuclear force and the electromagnetic force. Alpha particles have a typical kinetic energy | "Alpha decay" | [
0.2517758011817932,
0.1783781200647354,
-0.13324807584285736,
-0.24717126786708832,
-0.2975090742111206,
-0.2339499145746231,
0.23158162832260132,
0.2216050773859024,
0.3063238263130188,
-0.20798876881599426,
-0.47797876596450806,
-0.31170138716697693,
-0.6769340634346008,
0.65087318420410... |
5221 | of 5 MeV (or ≈ 0.13% of their total energy, 110 TJ/kg) and have a speed of about 15,000,000 m/s, or 5% of the speed of light. There is surprisingly small variation around this energy, due to the heavy dependence of the half-life of this process on the energy produced (see equations in the Geiger–Nuttall law). Because of their relatively large mass, electric charge of and relatively low velocity, alpha particles are very likely to interact with other atoms and lose their energy, and their forward motion can be stopped by a few centimeters of air. Approximately 99% of the | "Alpha decay" | [
0.3022872805595398,
0.3425924479961395,
0.05787859857082367,
-0.24773548543453217,
-0.19437430799007416,
-0.19170570373535156,
0.7619202136993408,
0.09767910093069077,
0.28916284441947937,
-0.5787253379821777,
-0.3054548501968384,
-0.2122771292924881,
-0.49661219120025635,
0.37635594606399... |
5222 | helium produced on Earth is the result of the alpha decay of underground deposits of minerals containing uranium or thorium. The helium is brought to the surface as a by-product of natural gas production. Alpha particles were first described in the investigations of radioactivity by Ernest Rutherford in 1899, and by 1907 they were identified as He ions. By 1928, George Gamow had solved the theory of alpha decay via tunneling. The alpha particle is trapped in a potential well by the nucleus. Classically, it is forbidden to escape, but according to the (then) newly discovered principles of quantum mechanics, | "Alpha decay" | [
0.08041023463010788,
0.43429937958717346,
-0.6892017722129822,
-0.3222048282623291,
-0.24800576269626617,
0.018077276647090912,
0.6748102307319641,
-0.013547433540225029,
0.4658612906932831,
0.34042513370513916,
-0.5550603270530701,
-0.26055988669395447,
-0.688231348991394,
0.5709121823310... |
5223 | it has a tiny (but non-zero) probability of "tunneling" through the barrier and appearing on the other side to escape the nucleus. Gamow solved a model potential for the nucleus and derived, from first principles, a relationship between the half-life of the decay, and the energy of the emission, which had been previously discovered empirically, and was known as the Geiger–Nuttall law. The nuclear force holding an atomic nucleus together is very strong, in general much stronger than the repulsive electromagnetic forces between the protons. However, the nuclear force is also short range, dropping quickly in strength beyond about 1 | "Alpha decay" | [
0.13521671295166016,
0.14525623619556427,
-0.09232102334499359,
-0.46328046917915344,
-0.10804219543933868,
-0.23567453026771545,
0.575593113899231,
-0.38247159123420715,
0.2264266163110733,
-0.13939030468463898,
-0.40472081303596497,
-0.11922556161880493,
-0.6408509016036987,
0.3364222645... |
5224 | femtometre, while the electromagnetic force has unlimited range. The strength of the attractive nuclear force keeping a nucleus together is thus proportional to the number of nucleons, but the total disruptive electromagnetic force trying to break the nucleus apart is roughly proportional to the square of its atomic number. A nucleus with 210 or more nucleons is so large that the strong nuclear force holding it together can just barely counterbalance the electromagnetic repulsion between the protons it contains. Alpha decay occurs in such nuclei as a means of increasing stability by reducing size. One curiosity is why alpha particles, | "Alpha decay" | [
0.30363547801971436,
0.24837572872638702,
-0.30712002515792847,
-0.21359293162822723,
-0.23939016461372375,
-0.34119266271591187,
0.578767716884613,
0.16692350804805756,
-0.005457103252410889,
-0.4558340013027191,
-0.24235321581363678,
-0.37260890007019043,
-0.781508207321167,
0.4968775212... |
5225 | helium nuclei, should be preferentially emitted as opposed to other particles like a single proton or neutron or other atomic nuclei. Part of the answer comes from conservation of wave function symmetry, which prevents a particle from spontaneously changing from exhibiting Bose–Einstein statistics (if it had an even number of nucleons) to Fermi–Dirac statistics (if it had an odd number of nucleons) or vice versa. Single proton emission, or the emission of any particle with an odd number of nucleons would violate this conservation law. The rest of the answer comes from the very high binding energy of the alpha | "Alpha decay" | [
0.43045762181282043,
-0.019026247784495354,
-0.17707839608192444,
-0.3562595844268799,
-0.29090720415115356,
-0.24057677388191223,
0.46884623169898987,
-0.3659989833831787,
0.24111908674240112,
-0.18322739005088806,
-0.38282305002212524,
-0.13708002865314484,
-0.9151555299758911,
0.4157952... |
5226 | particle. Computing the total disintegration energy given by the equation: Where formula_2 is the initial mass of the nucleus, formula_3 is the mass of the nucleus after particle emission, and formula_4 is the mass of the emitted particle, shows that alpha particle emission will usually be possible just with energy from the nucleus itself, while other decay modes will require additional energy. For example, performing the calculation for uranium-232 shows that alpha particle emission would need only 5.4 MeV, while a single proton emission would require 6.1 MeV. Most of this disintegration energy becomes the kinetic energy of the alpha | "Alpha decay" | [
0.21631596982479095,
0.1428184062242508,
0.008595410734415054,
-0.3640650808811188,
-0.15118463337421417,
-0.05333653464913368,
0.606314480304718,
-0.17016468942165375,
0.2719891369342804,
-0.20540407299995422,
-0.4456845819950104,
0.007094600237905979,
-0.8313509225845337,
0.4016584753990... |
5227 | particle itself, although to maintain conservation of momentum part of this energy becomes the recoil of the nucleus itself. However, since the mass numbers of most alpha emitting radioisotopes exceed 210, far greater than the mass number of the alpha particle (4) the part of the energy going to the recoil of the nucleus is generally quite small. These disintegration energies however are substantially smaller than the potential barrier provided by the nuclear force, which prevents the alpha particle from escaping. The energy needed is generally in the range of about 25 MeV, the amount of work that must be | "Alpha decay" | [
0.32577046751976013,
0.28597909212112427,
-0.06321804225444794,
-0.5211890339851379,
-0.24852122366428375,
-0.4504346549510956,
0.765950083732605,
-0.13019384443759918,
0.24247613549232483,
-0.12832051515579224,
-0.4661121666431427,
-0.07824200391769409,
-0.6797541975975037,
0.291509002447... |
5228 | done against electromagnetic repulsion to bring an alpha particle from infinity to a point near the nucleus just outside the range of the nuclear force's influence. An alpha particle can be thought of as being inside a potential barrier whose walls are 25 MeV. However, decay alpha particles only have kinetic energies of 4 MeV to about 9 MeV, far less than the energy needed to escape. Quantum mechanics, however, provides a ready explanation, via the mechanism of quantum tunnelling. The quantum tunnelling theory of alpha decay, independently developed by George Gamow and Ronald Wilfred Gurney and Edward Condon in | "Alpha decay" | [
0.10700280964374542,
0.362782746553421,
-0.3253248333930969,
-0.3866805136203766,
-0.1031971424818039,
-0.054900772869586945,
0.4618067145347595,
-0.36147502064704895,
0.3261502981185913,
-0.19070883095264435,
-0.27017635107040405,
-0.09718301892280579,
-0.700069785118103,
0.45560503005981... |
5229 | 1928, was hailed as a very striking confirmation of quantum theory. Essentially, the alpha particle escapes from the nucleus by quantum tunnelling its way out. Gurney and Condon made the following observation in their paper on it: It has hitherto been necessary to postulate some special arbitrary ‘instability’ of the nucleus; but in the following note it is pointed out that disintegration is a natural consequence of the laws of quantum mechanics without any special hypothesis... Much has been written of the explosive violence with which the α-particle is hurled from its place in the nucleus. But from the process | "Alpha decay" | [
-0.06716091185808182,
0.49054044485092163,
-0.46934106945991516,
-0.39580032229423523,
-0.06290337443351746,
-0.29559755325317383,
0.4956205487251282,
-0.07861995697021484,
0.10638357698917389,
0.1715661585330963,
-0.41535454988479614,
-0.12636137008666992,
-0.6589177250862122,
0.696946263... |
5230 | pictured above, one would rather say that the α-particle almost slips away unnoticed. The theory supposes that the alpha particle can be considered an independent particle within a nucleus that is in constant motion, but held within the nucleus by nuclear forces. At each collision with the potential barrier of the nuclear force, there is a small non-zero probability that it will tunnel its way out. An alpha particle with a speed of 1.5×10 m/s within a nuclear diameter of approximately 10 m will collide with the barrier more than 10 times per second. However, if the probability of escape | "Alpha decay" | [
0.09732095152139664,
0.1191004067659378,
0.07709728926420212,
-0.30569517612457275,
-0.13010811805725098,
-0.09020718187093735,
0.6904851198196411,
-0.09821010380983353,
-0.09644555300474167,
-0.44258782267570496,
-0.20553378760814667,
-0.20722557604312897,
-0.7562997341156006,
0.466691017... |
5231 | at each collision is very small, the half-life of the radioisotope will be very long, since it is the time required for the total probability of escape to reach 50%. As an extreme example, the half-life of the isotope bismuth-209 is 1.9 x 10 years. The isotopes in beta-decay stable isobars that are also stable with regards to double beta decay with mass number "A" = 5, "A" = 8, 143 ≤ "A" ≤ 155, 160 ≤ "A" ≤ 162, and "A" ≥ 165 are theorized to undergo alpha decay ("5" decay to helium-4 and a proton or a neutron, | "Alpha decay" | [
0.17703063786029816,
0.24102376401424408,
-0.14796577394008636,
-0.2601116895675659,
-0.23237887024879456,
-0.16638243198394775,
0.6983435153961182,
-0.08902984857559204,
0.3246369957923889,
-0.33189699053764343,
-0.14808069169521332,
-0.08473917096853256,
-0.7312527298927307,
0.4776323139... |
5232 | and "8" decay to two helium-4, the half-life of them (helium-5, lithium-5, and beryllium-8) are very short, unlike the half-life for all other such nuclides with "A" ≤ 209, which are very long. All other such nuclides with "A" ≤ 209 are primordial nuclides except "A" = 146). However, only such nuclides with "A" = 5, 8, 144, 146, 147, 148, 151, 186, and ≥ 209 has been observed (the decay has also been searched for such nuclides with "A" = 145, 149, 182, 183, 184, 192, 204, and 208). All other mass numbers (isobars) has exactly one theoretically stable | "Alpha decay" | [
0.07862547785043716,
0.24946759641170502,
-0.13868866860866547,
-0.3157055974006653,
-0.33295518159866333,
0.058979883790016174,
0.5148907899856567,
0.06707048416137695,
0.2159937024116516,
0.03358658030629158,
-0.357974648475647,
-0.06956485658884048,
-0.613866925239563,
0.654048800468444... |
5233 | nuclide, except possible spontaneous fission for "A" ≥ 93, which has never been observed, and possible proton decay, which has also never been observed) Working out the details of the theory leads to an equation relating the half-life of a radioisotope to the decay energy of its alpha particles, a theoretical derivation of the empirical Geiger–Nuttall law. Americium-241, an alpha emitter, is used in smoke detectors. The alpha particles ionize air in an open ion chamber and a small current flows through the ionized air. Smoke particles from fire that enter the chamber reduce the current, triggering the smoke detector's | "Alpha decay" | [
0.34813249111175537,
0.3586147427558899,
-0.2309342920780182,
-0.27565842866897583,
-0.08269666135311127,
-0.6094051003456116,
0.6093848943710327,
-0.26739922165870667,
0.5334419012069702,
0.013668649829924107,
-0.24603959918022156,
0.21496860682964325,
-0.7055468559265137,
0.1916780769824... |
5234 | alarm. Alpha decay can provide a safe power source for radioisotope thermoelectric generators used for space probes and were used for artificial heart pacemakers. Alpha decay is much more easily shielded against than other forms of radioactive decay. Static eliminators typically use polonium-210, an alpha emitter, to ionize air, allowing the 'static cling' to dissipate more rapidly. Highly charged and heavy, alpha particles lose their several MeV of energy within a small volume of material, along a very short mean free path. This increases the chance of double-strand breaks to the DNA in cases of internal contamination, when ingested, inhaled, | "Alpha decay" | [
0.6622161269187927,
0.1836000680923462,
-0.1438419222831726,
-0.09621317684650421,
-0.020628390833735466,
-0.5241098999977112,
0.5479973554611206,
-0.052283186465501785,
0.5631389021873474,
-0.4003947973251343,
-0.5745552182197571,
0.021844683215022087,
-0.6628416180610657,
0.2021858692169... |
5235 | injected or introduced through the skin. Otherwise, touching an alpha source is typically not harmful, as alpha particles are effectively shielded by a few centimeters of air, a piece of paper, or the thin layer of dead skin cells that make up the epidermis; however, many alpha sources are also accompanied by beta-emitting radio daughters, and both are often accompanied by gamma photon emission. RBE relative biological effectiveness quantifies the ability of radiation to cause certain biological effects, notably either cancer or cell-death, for equivalent radiation exposure. Alpha radiation has high linear energy transfer (LET) coefficient, which is about one | "Alpha decay" | [
0.7362959384918213,
0.23406018316745758,
-0.21292757987976074,
-0.3271479308605194,
-0.04876965284347534,
-0.6811109781265259,
0.6494303941726685,
-0.20713381469249725,
0.6074663996696472,
-0.35426637530326843,
-0.27644193172454834,
0.19035330414772034,
-0.5578890442848206,
0.1262264251708... |
5236 | ionization of a molecule/atom for every angstrom of travel by the alpha particle. The RBE has been set at the value of 20 for alpha radiation by various government regulations. The RBE is set at 10 for neutron irradiation, and at 1 for beta radiation and ionizing photons. However, the recoil of the parent nucleus (alpha recoil) gives it a significant amount of energy, which also causes ionization damage (see ionizing radiation). This energy is roughly the weight of the alpha (4 u) divided by the weight of the parent (typically about 200 u) times the total energy of the | "Alpha decay" | [
0.28907638788223267,
0.2686115503311157,
0.0048822071403265,
-0.43105584383010864,
-0.07072612643241882,
-0.4676511883735657,
0.6540236473083496,
-0.33642590045928955,
0.24172720313072205,
-0.1673053801059723,
-0.299888014793396,
-0.13228464126586914,
-0.7141340970993042,
0.275896787643432... |
5237 | alpha. By some estimates, this might account for most of the internal radiation damage, as the recoil nucleus is part of an atom that is much larger than an alpha particle, and causes a very dense trail of ionization; the atom is typically a heavy metal, which preferentially collect on the chromosomes. In some studies, this has resulted in an RBE approaching 1,000 instead of the value used in governmental regulations. The largest natural contributor to public radiation dose is radon, a naturally occurring, radioactive gas found in soil and rock. If the gas is inhaled, some of the radon | "Alpha decay" | [
0.7260234951972961,
0.43980395793914795,
-0.4350197911262512,
-0.1370975524187088,
-0.12238506972789764,
-0.4833536744117737,
0.45773759484291077,
0.09896454215049744,
0.30101534724235535,
-0.22937016189098358,
-0.2879617512226105,
0.07278561592102051,
-0.705055296421051,
0.259867936372756... |
5238 | particles may attach to the inner lining of the lung. These particles continue to decay, emitting alpha particles, which can damage cells in the lung tissue. The death of Marie Curie at age 66 from aplastic anemia was probably caused by prolonged exposure to high doses of ionizing radiation, but it is not clear if this was due to alpha radiation or X-rays. Curie worked extensively with radium, which decays into radon, along with other radioactive materials that emit beta and gamma rays. However, Curie also worked with unshielded X-ray tubes during World War I, and analysis of her skeleton | "Alpha decay" | [
0.24102577567100525,
0.43034037947654724,
-0.499512642621994,
-0.1338375061750412,
0.06369338184595108,
0.046190641820430756,
0.4389991760253906,
-0.08852089941501617,
0.1560821831226349,
-0.4587387442588806,
-0.1517050415277481,
-0.257920503616333,
-0.5602308511734009,
0.4994561970233917,... |
5239 | during a reburial showed a relatively low level of radioisotope burden. The Russian dissident Alexander Litvinenko's 2006 murder by radiation poisoning is thought to have been carried out with polonium-210, an alpha emitter. Alpha decay Alpha decay or α-decay is a type of radioactive decay in which an atomic nucleus emits an alpha particle (helium nucleus) and thereby transforms or 'decays' into a different atomic nucleus, with a mass number that is reduced by four and an atomic number that is reduced by two. An alpha particle is identical to the nucleus of a helium-4 atom, which consists of two | "Alpha decay" | [
0.3537861406803131,
0.12921595573425293,
-0.5781899690628052,
-0.16331343352794647,
-0.11569953709840775,
-0.06555256992578506,
0.46162188053131104,
-0.08007019013166428,
0.23830659687519073,
-0.09884364157915115,
-0.479951411485672,
-0.27406737208366394,
-0.8438630700111389,
0.37038838863... |
5240 | Extreme poverty Extreme poverty, abject poverty, absolute poverty, destitution, or penury, was originally defined by the United Nations in 1995 as "a condition characterized by severe deprivation of basic human needs, including food, safe drinking water, sanitation facilities, health, shelter, education and information. It depends not only on income but also on access to services." In 2018, extreme poverty widely refers to making below the international poverty line of $1.90/day (in 2011 prices, ), set by the World Bank. This measure is the equivalent to making $1.00 a day in 1996 US prices, hence the widely used expression, living on | "Extreme poverty" | [
0.20667752623558044,
-0.23930723965168,
-0.5554167628288269,
0.04077823460102081,
0.009670873172581196,
0.6681710481643677,
0.6512353420257568,
0.4535047113895416,
-0.11324180662631989,
-0.28490811586380005,
-0.4478970170021057,
-0.09551454335451126,
-0.449940025806427,
0.937603771686554,
... |
5241 | "less than a dollar a day". The vast majority of those in extreme poverty – 96% – reside in South Asia, Sub-Saharan Africa, The West Indies, East Asia and the Pacific; nearly half live in India and China alone. As of 25 June 2018, Nigeria became the poverty capital of the world with more than 86 million of its citizens living in extreme poverty despite abundant resources. The reduction of extreme poverty and hunger was the first Millennium Development Goal (MDG1), as set by 189 United Nations Member States in 2000. Specifically, MDG1 set a target of reducing the extreme | "Extreme poverty" | [
-0.1544630378484726,
-0.21584661304950714,
-0.3875032961368561,
0.13549205660820007,
0.05356829613447189,
0.645706832408905,
0.5596690773963928,
0.8757256269454956,
-0.7228571772575378,
-0.49162301421165466,
-0.16236960887908936,
-0.28601938486099243,
-0.7303500771522522,
0.953767240047454... |
5242 | poverty rate in half by 2015, a goal that was met 5 years ahead of schedule. This goal was created to end poverty in all its forms everywhere, and the international community, including the UN, the World Bank and the United States, has set a target of ending extreme poverty by 2030. Extreme poverty is defined by the International Community as making less than $1.25 a day, as measured in 2005 international prices. Originally, the international poverty line was set at making $1 a day when the Millennium Development Goals were first published. However, in 2008, the World Bank pushed | "Extreme poverty" | [
-0.005730016622692347,
-0.32119932770729065,
-0.10073614865541458,
0.4262627959251404,
-0.03405486047267914,
0.3836861848831177,
0.4074733555316925,
0.5620392560958862,
-0.28415748476982117,
-0.5595083832740784,
-0.08644353598356247,
0.04928187280893326,
-0.5462321043014526,
0.796893477439... |
5243 | the line to $1.25 to recognize higher price levels in several developing countries than previously estimated. , according to the UN, roughly 836 million people remain in extreme poverty based on this metric. In 2010 the number had been measured at 1.2 billion. Despite the significant number of individuals still making below the international poverty line, these figures represents significant progress for the international community, as the current number is over one billion fewer than the number living in extreme poverty in 1990 – 1.9 billion. As highlighted in the next section, though there are many criticisms of a purely | "Extreme poverty" | [
-0.02054624818265438,
-0.25838935375213623,
-0.33923760056495667,
0.14065855741500854,
-0.0296073779463768,
0.6666310429573059,
0.6854571104049683,
0.5110787749290466,
-0.5702739357948303,
-0.5006362795829773,
-0.1250455230474472,
0.18192355334758759,
-0.43424203991889954,
0.93851518630981... |
5244 | income-based approach to measuring extreme poverty, the $1.25/day line remains the most widely used metric as it is easily accessible to the public at large and increases awareness of those in the most severe conditions. On September 23, 2015, the UK-based "Financial Times" reported that the World Bank intends to revise its income-based benchmark upward, to $1.90 a day based on 2011 prices. As differences in the cost of living across the world evolve, the global poverty line has to be periodically updated to reflect these changes. The new global poverty line uses updated price data to portray the costs | "Extreme poverty" | [
0.06827381998300552,
-0.31589144468307495,
0.12780140340328217,
0.23703119158744812,
-0.1760900467634201,
0.6850319504737854,
0.26402178406715393,
0.35746780037879944,
-0.17860351502895355,
-0.5512824058532715,
-0.10278145223855972,
0.30220329761505127,
-0.32195621728897095,
0.742396593093... |
5245 | of basic food, clothing, and shelter needs around the world as accurately as possible. In other words, the real value of $1.90 in 2011 prices is the same as $1.25 was in 2005. Although widely used by most international organizations, the $1.25/day extreme poverty line has come under scrutiny from a variety of factors. For example, when used to measure headcount ratio (i.e. the percentage of people living below the line), the $1.25/day line is unable to capture other important measures such as depth of poverty, relative poverty and how people view their own financial situation (known as the socially | "Extreme poverty" | [
0.08417661488056183,
-0.2576846480369568,
-0.19778378307819366,
0.3706912100315094,
-0.18612456321716309,
0.5630922913551331,
0.4375592768192291,
0.25191715359687805,
-0.19581784307956696,
-0.47315120697021484,
-0.1551094651222229,
0.18898823857307434,
-0.33898112177848816,
0.5099303722381... |
5246 | subjective poverty line). Moreover, the calculation of the poverty line relies on several debatable assumptions about purchasing power parity, homogeneity of household size and makeup, and consumer prices used to determine a basket of essential goods. There may also be missing data from the poorest and most fragile countries. To address these problems, several alternative instruments for measuring extreme poverty have been suggested which incorporate other factors such as malnutrition and lack of access to a basic education. Thus, the 2010 Human Development Report introduced the Multidimensional Poverty Index (MPI), which measures not only income, but also basic needs. Using | "Extreme poverty" | [
-0.07552868872880936,
-0.4102451205253601,
-0.5332716703414917,
0.429280549287796,
-0.08958879113197327,
0.6741029620170593,
0.45558422803878784,
0.02232995070517063,
-0.522348165512085,
-0.5104398727416992,
-0.19244420528411865,
0.22630876302719116,
-0.6811859607696533,
0.5754163861274719... |
5247 | this tool, the United Nations Development Programme (UNDP) estimated that roughly 1.5 billion people remained in extreme poverty as opposed to the conventional figure of 1.2 billion. This figure may shed new light on relative deprivation within a country. For example, in Ethiopia, 39% of the population is considered extremely poor under conventional measures, but 90% are in multidimensional poverty. Another version of the MPI, known as the Alkire-Foster Method, created by Sabina Alkire and James Foster of the Oxford Poverty & Human Development Initiative (OPHI), can be broken down to reflect both the incidence and the intensity of poverty. | "Extreme poverty" | [
-0.08250578492879868,
-0.3016795516014099,
-0.5860647559165955,
0.056989431381225586,
-0.10435596853494644,
0.786561906337738,
0.701992928981781,
-0.07904871553182602,
-0.5921096801757812,
-0.28882351517677307,
-0.4424201548099518,
-0.014696421101689339,
-0.5337849855422974,
0.562638640403... |
5248 | This tool is useful as development officials, using the M0 measure of the method (which is calculated by multiplying the fraction of people in poverty by the fraction of dimensions they are deprived in), can determine the most likely causes of poverty within a region. For example, in the Gaza Strip of Palestine, using the M0 measure of the Alkire-Foster method reveals that poverty in the region is primarily caused by a lack of access to electricity and drinking water, in addition to widespread overcrowding. In contrast, data from the Chhukha District of Bhutan reveals that income is a much | "Extreme poverty" | [
0.11384408921003342,
-0.18841247260570526,
-0.4690192639827728,
0.1166616901755333,
0.010997422970831394,
0.45500099658966064,
0.5306523442268372,
0.3195517361164093,
-0.41706934571266174,
-0.5513858795166016,
-0.6281545758247375,
-0.33474060893058777,
-0.34078189730644226,
0.6610589623451... |
5249 | larger contributor to poverty as opposed to other dimensions within the region. In public opinion around the world people surveyed tend to incorrectly think extreme poverty hasn't decreased. Using the World Bank definition of $1.9/day, , roughly 766 million people remained in extreme poverty (or roughly 1 in 10 people). Nearly half live in India and China, with more than 85% living in just 20 countries. Since the mid-1990s, there has been a steady decline in both the worldwide poverty rate and the total number of extreme poor. In 1990, the percentage of the global population living in extreme poverty | "Extreme poverty" | [
0.03971223905682564,
-0.25952404737472534,
-0.41550716757774353,
0.16621674597263336,
-0.04171350598335266,
0.6340207457542419,
0.5109260678291321,
0.8014025688171387,
-0.547459602355957,
-0.4626297652721405,
-0.21895918250083923,
-0.17122997343540192,
-0.6038522124290466,
1.20959568023681... |
5250 | was 43%, but in 2011, that percentage had dropped down to 21%. This halving of the extreme poverty rate falls in line with the first millennium development goal (MDG1) proposed by former UN Secretary-General Kofi Annan, who called on the international community at the turn of the century to reduce the percentage of people in extreme poverty by half by 2015. This reduction in extreme poverty took place most notably in China, Indonesia, India, Pakistan and Vietnam. These five countries accounted for the alleviation of 715 million people out of extreme poverty between 1990 and 2010 – more than the | "Extreme poverty" | [
-0.10996252298355103,
-0.2642880976200104,
-0.5569632053375244,
0.19640161097049713,
-0.0014038329245522618,
0.8128066658973694,
0.4457102417945862,
0.7363747358322144,
-0.5858122706413269,
-0.35529762506484985,
-0.10984441637992859,
-0.2404153198003769,
-0.5884485244750977,
0.770427763462... |
5251 | global net total of roughly 700 million. This statistical oddity can be explained by the fact that the number of people living in extreme poverty in Sub-Saharan Africa rose from 290 million to 414 million over the same period. However, there have been many positive signs for extensive, global poverty reduction as well. Since 1999, the total number of extreme poor has declined by 50 million per year, on average. Moreover, in 2005, for the first time in recorded history, poverty rates began to fall in every region of the world, including Africa. Although this is largely due to a | "Extreme poverty" | [
-0.06035776808857918,
-0.32765960693359375,
-0.6141415238380432,
0.033563558012247086,
-0.12144957482814789,
0.5427796840667725,
0.6464600563049316,
0.7051844596862793,
-0.6638808250427246,
-0.6372617483139038,
-0.028665196150541306,
-0.1063612550497055,
-0.6529273986816406,
1.009425044059... |
5252 | change in the 2000 UN Millennium Declaration, extending the plan period backward to 1990, it was previously 1996. Changing the date took advantage of rapid population growth and a huge poverty reduction in China during the 1990s. As aforementioned, the number of people living in extreme poverty has reduced from 1.9 billion to 766 million over the span of the last decades. If we remain on our current trajectory, many economists predict we could reach global zero by 2030–2035, thus ending extreme poverty. Global zero entails a world in which fewer than 3% of the global population lives in extreme | "Extreme poverty" | [
-0.08085567504167557,
-0.29241451621055603,
-0.2520277202129364,
0.23246578872203827,
-0.03963878005743027,
0.31803855299949646,
0.5245587229728699,
0.6187476515769958,
-0.48989060521125793,
-0.7400025725364685,
-0.07088793069124222,
-0.21008865535259247,
-0.5440371632575989,
0.99576354026... |
5253 | poverty (projected under most optimistic scenarios to be fewer than 200 million people). This zero figure is set at 3% in recognition of the fact that some amount of frictional (temporary) poverty will continue to exist, whether it is caused by political conflict or unexpected economic fluctuations, at least for the foreseeable future. However, the Brookings Institution notes that any projection about poverty more than a few years into the future runs the risk of being highly uncertain. This is because changes in consumption and distribution throughout the developing world over the next two decades could result in monumental shifts | "Extreme poverty" | [
0.09700673818588257,
-0.3194265067577362,
-0.1261759102344513,
0.23008230328559875,
0.27032971382141113,
0.49576741456985474,
0.3401196599006653,
0.47702422738075256,
-0.5553852319717407,
-0.6496779918670654,
-0.30845820903778076,
-0.250324010848999,
-0.4978224039077759,
0.8319313526153564... |
5254 | in global poverty, for better or worse. Others are more pessimistic about this possibility, with many predicting a range of 193 million to 660 million people living in extreme poverty by 2035. Additionally, some believe the rate of poverty reduction will slow down in the developing world, especially in Africa, and as such it will take closer to five decades to reach global zero. Despite these reservations, several prominent international and national organizations, including the UN, the World Bank and the United States Federal Government (via USAID), have set a target of reaching global zero by the end of 2030. | "Extreme poverty" | [
0.03576724976301193,
-0.33413615822792053,
0.013184632174670696,
0.30391326546669006,
0.1569465696811676,
0.301349401473999,
0.3939635157585144,
0.5955120921134949,
-0.5689164400100708,
-0.8023720383644104,
-0.11443090438842773,
-0.2542722821235657,
-0.5624342560768127,
0.8223851919174194,... |
5255 | There are a variety of factors that may reinforce or instigate the existence of extreme poverty, such as weak institutions, cycles of violence and a low level of growth. Recent World Bank research shows that some countries can get caught in a "fragility trap", in which the above factors prevent the poorest nations from emerging from low-level equilibrium in the long run. Moreover, most of the reduction in extreme poverty over the past twenty years has taken place in countries that have not experienced a civil conflict or have had governing institutions with a strong capacity to actually govern. Thus, | "Extreme poverty" | [
0.1207311749458313,
-0.2114894539117813,
-0.6415669322013855,
0.34078288078308105,
0.03211745247244835,
0.37594807147979736,
0.6585500240325928,
0.5792507529258728,
-0.6108602285385132,
-0.5999312400817871,
-0.4434676468372345,
-0.11034972220659256,
-0.6633195877075195,
0.7841327786445618,... |
5256 | to end extreme poverty, it is also important to focus on the interrelated problems of fragility and conflict. USAID defines fragility as a government's lack of both legitimacy (the perception the government is adequate at doing its job) and effectiveness (how good the government is at maintaining law and order, in an equitable manner). As fragile nations are unable to equitably and effectively perform the functions of a state, these countries are much more prone to violent unrest and mass inequality. Additionally, in countries with high levels of inequality (a common problem in countries with inadequate governing institutions), much higher | "Extreme poverty" | [
0.06513912230730057,
-0.2944473624229431,
-0.5348055362701416,
0.40583714842796326,
-0.06148669868707657,
0.24437931180000305,
0.9349345564842224,
0.2423498034477234,
-0.36327067017555237,
-0.414124995470047,
-0.5368916988372803,
0.22603756189346313,
-0.5902626514434814,
0.4706772863864898... |
5257 | growth rates are needed to reduce the rate of poverty when compared with other nations. Not to mention, after removing China and India from the equation, up to 70% of the world's poor live in fragile states by some definitions of fragility. Looking further, some analysts project extreme poverty will be increasingly concentrated in fragile, low-income states like Haiti, Yemen and the Central African Republic over the coming years. However, some academics, such as Andy Sumner, assert that extreme poverty will be increasingly found concentrated in Middle Income Countries, creating a paradox where the World's poor don't actually live in | "Extreme poverty" | [
0.07025719434022903,
-0.3923411965370178,
-0.384857177734375,
0.35792621970176697,
0.16915442049503326,
0.36184823513031006,
0.5680458545684814,
0.8019232749938965,
-0.6578953266143799,
-0.5480933785438538,
-0.4072110652923584,
-0.30944231152534485,
-0.6456277966499329,
1.0173877477645874,... |
5258 | the poorest countries. Despite this debate, addressing the problem of fragility remains a very real issue. To help low-income, fragile states make the transition towards peace and prosperity, the New Deal for Engagement in Fragile States, endorsed by roughly forty countries and multilateral institutions, was created in 2011. This represents an important step towards redressing the problem of fragility as it was originally articulated by self-identified fragile states who called on the international community to not only "do things differently", but to also "do different things". On the other hand, civil conflict also remains a prime cause for the perpetuation | "Extreme poverty" | [
-0.06438694894313812,
-0.4500630795955658,
-0.42330703139305115,
0.3213391602039337,
-0.2193751335144043,
0.5254706740379333,
0.4347516894340515,
0.5676857829093933,
-0.31563207507133484,
-0.3147728741168976,
-0.26318973302841187,
0.20694322884082794,
-0.6473206281661987,
0.763237953186035... |
5259 | of poverty throughout the developing world. Armed conflict can have severe effects on economic growth for a plethora of reasons – it destroys assets, creates unwanted mass migration, destroys livelihoods and diverts public resources towards war fighting. Significantly, a country that experienced major violence during 1981–2005 had extreme poverty rates 21 percentage points higher than a country with no violence. On average, a civil conflict will also cost a country roughly 30 years of GDP growth. Therefore, a renewed commitment from the international community to address the deteriorating situation in highly fragile states is necessary to both prevent the mass | "Extreme poverty" | [
-0.05097518861293793,
0.05729783698916435,
-0.5941950082778931,
0.3458138704299927,
-0.024845827370882034,
0.5801324248313904,
0.6508622169494629,
0.5278139710426331,
-0.6000124216079712,
-0.5933204889297485,
-0.2652517557144165,
0.1425662338733673,
-0.5928658246994019,
0.8731595873832703,... |
5260 | loss of life, but to also prevent the vicious cycle of extreme poverty. In 2013, a prevalent finding in a report by the World Bank was that extreme poverty is most prevalent in what they call low income countries. In these countries the World Bank found that progress in poverty reduction is slowest, the poor live under terrible conditions and the most affected persons are children age 12 and under. In September 2000, world leaders gathered at the Millennium Summit held in New York, launching the United Nations Millennium Project suggested by then UN Secretary-General Kofi Annan. Prior to the | "Extreme poverty" | [
-0.042610470205545425,
-0.18109633028507233,
-0.5874596238136292,
0.24985437095165253,
-0.3106899559497833,
0.24841195344924927,
0.2933405935764313,
0.2931969463825226,
-0.31274887919425964,
-0.26244625449180603,
-0.2488943189382553,
-0.021856296807527542,
-0.6350685954093933,
0.8639870285... |
5261 | launch of the conference, the office of Secretary-General Annan released a report entitled We The Peoples: The Role of the United Nations in the 21st Century. In this document, now widely known as the Millennium Report, Kofi Annan called on the international community to reduce the proportion of people in extreme poverty by half by 2015, a target that would affect over 1 billion people. Citing the close correlation between economic growth and the reduction of poverty in poor countries, Annan urged international leaders to indiscriminately target the problem of extreme poverty across every region. In charge of managing the | "Extreme poverty" | [
0.3277227580547333,
-0.218463733792305,
-0.5025590062141418,
0.08297806233167648,
-0.25813648104667664,
0.4417368471622467,
0.31793996691703796,
0.16819165647029877,
-0.3848161995410919,
-0.4147730767726898,
-0.24744103848934174,
0.049805816262960434,
-0.6618597507476807,
0.51591956615448,... |
5262 | project was Jeffrey Sachs, a noted development economist, who in 2005 released a plan for action called "Investing in Development: A Practical Plan to Achieve the Millennium Development Goals." The 2005 World Summit, held in September and was organized to measure international progress towards fulfilling the Millennium Development Goals (MDGs). Notably, the conference brought together more than 170 Heads of State. While world leaders at the summit were encouraged by the reduction of poverty in some nations, they were concerned by the uneven decline of poverty within and among different regions of the globe. However, at the end of the | "Extreme poverty" | [
0.08175823092460632,
-0.15699991583824158,
-0.6110547184944153,
0.27346232533454895,
-0.2549305260181427,
0.23369573056697845,
0.3098409175872803,
0.10775632411241531,
0.02332409843802452,
-0.039606980979442596,
0.013007138855755329,
0.49889129400253296,
-0.5221677422523499,
0.368307411670... |
5263 | summit, the conference attendees reaffirmed the UN's commitment to achieve the MDGs by 2015 and urged all supranational, national and non-governmental organizations to follow suit. With the expiration of the Millennium Development Goals approaching in 2015, the international community is focused on accelerating efforts to achieve the goals laid out in the original MDGs. Overall, there has been significant progress towards reducing extreme poverty, with the MDG 1 target of reducing extreme poverty rates by half being met five years early, representing 700 million people being lifted out of extreme poverty from 1990 to 2010, with 1.2 billion people still | "Extreme poverty" | [
-0.13132503628730774,
-0.201948881149292,
-0.04903927072882652,
0.07697819173336029,
-0.2706890106201172,
0.27237436175346375,
0.35846176743507385,
0.27074068784713745,
-0.5245198011398315,
-0.38430532813072205,
-0.18701006472110748,
0.20971165597438812,
-0.6574961543083191,
0.531537413597... |
5264 | remaining under those conditions. One notable exception to this trend was in Sub-Saharan Africa, the only region where the number of people living in extreme poverty rose from 290 million in 1990 to 414 million in 2010, comprising more than a third of those living in extreme poverty worldwide. With the aforementioned in mind, the UN convened a High Level Panel (HLP) of Eminent Persons, to advise on a Post-2015 Development Agenda. The HLP report, entitled A New Global Partnership: Eradicate Poverty and Transform Economies Through Sustainable Development, was published in May 2013. In the report, the HLP wrote that: | "Extreme poverty" | [
-0.14945536851882935,
-0.2997407019138336,
-0.5306050181388855,
0.1151110976934433,
-0.0532275028526783,
0.5795978903770447,
0.5912991762161255,
0.4577248990535736,
-0.5553463101387024,
-0.25826355814933777,
-0.2707521617412567,
-0.11434082686901093,
-0.6667750477790833,
0.7144540548324585... |
5265 | Thus, the report determined that a central goal of the Post-Millennium Development agenda is to eradicate extreme poverty by 2030. However, the report also emphasized that the MDGs were not enough, as they did not "focus on the devastating effects of conflict and violence on development…the importance to development of good governance and institution…nor the need for inclusive growth..." Consequently, there now exists synergy between the policy position papers put forward by the United States (through USAID), the World Bank and the UN itself in terms of viewing fragility and a lack of good governance as exacerbating extreme poverty. However, | "Extreme poverty" | [
0.012885517440736294,
-0.2556036412715912,
-0.21439827978610992,
0.4454779624938965,
0.039276693016290665,
0.2723771035671234,
0.526269793510437,
0.4191071093082428,
-0.3343375623226166,
-0.697917640209198,
-0.26379188895225525,
0.18514776229858398,
-0.6381908059120178,
0.6480739116668701,... |
5266 | in a departure from the views of other organizations, the commission also proposed that the UN focus not only on extreme poverty (a line drawn at $1.25), but also on a higher target, such as $2. The report notes this change could be made to reflect the fact that escaping extreme poverty is only a first step. In addition to the UN, a host of other supranational and national actors such as the European Union and the African Union have published their own positions or recommendations on what should be incorporated in the Post-2015 agenda. The European Commission's communication, published | "Extreme poverty" | [
0.18654993176460266,
-0.4030607044696808,
-0.1456274539232254,
0.2456253170967102,
-0.060914717614650726,
0.33817172050476074,
0.2768338620662689,
0.2818959951400757,
-0.3640696704387665,
-0.5484112501144409,
-0.17040292918682098,
0.08526025712490082,
-0.45344024896621704,
0.41852906346321... |
5267 | in A decent Life for all: from vision to collective action, affirmed the UN's commitment to "eradicate extreme poverty in our lifetime and put the world on a sustainable path to ensure a decent life for all by 2030". A unique vision of the report was the Commission's environmental focus (in addition to a plethora of other goals such as combating hunger and gender inequality). Specifically, the Commission argued, "long-term poverty reduction…requires inclusive and sustainable growth. Growth should create decent jobs, take place with resource efficiency and within planetary boundaries, and should support efforts to mitigate climate change." The African | "Extreme poverty" | [
0.18851761519908905,
-0.25795778632164,
-0.5621024966239929,
0.26454851031303406,
0.004824492614716291,
0.14812450110912323,
0.4739987254142761,
-0.02710678242146969,
-0.27643489837646484,
-0.5220178365707397,
-0.16578365862369537,
0.17773300409317017,
-0.5420110821723938,
0.24454478919506... |
5268 | Union's report, entitled Common African Position (CAP) on the Post-2015 Development Agenda, likewise encouraged the international community to focus on eradicating the twin problems of poverty and exclusion in our lifetime. Moreover, the CAP pledged that "no person – regardless of ethnicity, gender, geography, disability, race or other status – is denied universal human rights and basic economic opportunities". The UN Least Developed Country (LDC) conferences were a series of summits organized by the UN over the past few decades, which sought to promote the substantial and even development of so-called third-world countries. 1st UN LDC Conference Held between September | "Extreme poverty" | [
0.057588789612054825,
-0.4074770510196686,
-0.4122491776943207,
0.3200594186782837,
-0.07918970286846161,
0.07958319783210754,
0.3138412833213806,
0.31142956018447876,
-0.19940820336341858,
-0.4263937473297119,
-0.32882535457611084,
0.34664613008499146,
-0.7697941064834595,
0.4691154360771... |
5269 | 1 and September 14, 1981, in Paris, the first UN LDC Conference was organized to finalize the UN's "Substantial New Programme of Action" for the 1980s in Least Developed Countries. This program, which was unanimously adopted by the conference attendees, argued for internal reforms in LDCs (meant to encourage economic growth) to be complemented by strong international measures. However, despite the major economic and policy reforms initiated many of these LDCs, in addition to strong international aid, the economic situation of these countries worsened as a whole in the 1980s. This prompted the organization of a 2nd UN LDC conference | "Extreme poverty" | [
-0.17359331250190735,
-0.3602549433708191,
-0.4263002872467041,
0.1773597151041031,
-0.25271257758140564,
0.24279719591140747,
0.18622532486915588,
0.24520748853683472,
-0.2317451536655426,
-0.1865856647491455,
-0.15718339383602142,
0.3335539996623993,
-0.5960909724235535,
0.55208396911621... |
5270 | almost a decade later. 2nd UN LDC Conference Held between September 3 and September 14, 1990, once again in Paris, the second UN LDC Conference was convened to measure the progress made by the LDCs towards fulfilling their development goals during the 1980s. Recognizing the problems that plagued the LDCs over the past decade, the conference formulated a new set of national and international policies to accelerate the growth rates of the poorest nations. These new principles were embodied in the "Paris Declaration and Programme of Action for the Least Developed Countries for the 1990s". 4th UN LDC Conference The | "Extreme poverty" | [
-0.26885178685188293,
-0.4273063540458679,
-0.461971253156662,
0.24343761801719666,
-0.2879558503627777,
0.264324814081192,
0.26707249879837036,
0.25228750705718994,
-0.2993304431438446,
-0.31183019280433655,
-0.1422915756702423,
0.5478534698486328,
-0.569331169128418,
0.5931929349899292,
... |
5271 | most recent conference, held in May 2011 in Istanbul, recognized that the nature of development had fundamentally changed since the 1st conference held almost 30 years earlier. In the 21st century, the capital flow into emerging economies has increasingly become dominated by foreign direct investment and remittances, as opposed to bilateral and multilateral assistance. Moreover, since the 80s, significant structural changes have taken place on the international stage. With the creation of the G-20 conference of the largest economic powers, including many nations in the Global South, formerly undeveloped nations are now able to have a much larger say in | "Extreme poverty" | [
-0.18482953310012817,
-0.4538213610649109,
-0.5970523357391357,
0.37355735898017883,
0.023235155269503593,
0.37622150778770447,
0.37030377984046936,
0.5997581481933594,
-0.48699867725372314,
-0.44769278168678284,
-0.4772037863731384,
0.14875884354114532,
-0.6836898326873779,
0.901834547519... |
5272 | international relations. Furthermore, the conference recognized that in the midst of a deep global recession, coupled with multiple crises (energy, climate, food, etc.), the international community would have fewer resources to aid the LDCs. Thus, the UN considered the participation of a wide range of stakeholders (not least the LDCs themselves), crucial to the formulation of the conference. In 2013, the Board of Governors of the World Bank Group (WBG) set two overriding goals for the WBG to commit itself to in the future. First, to end extreme poverty by 2030, an objective that echoes the sentiments of the UN | "Extreme poverty" | [
-0.016855238005518913,
-0.4632740914821625,
-0.18996386229991913,
0.2670329809188843,
0.11387303471565247,
0.1483500897884369,
0.26451197266578674,
0.4011201858520508,
-0.25701066851615906,
-0.5261847376823425,
-0.3286486268043518,
0.16026651859283447,
-0.5425505042076111,
0.70639836788177... |
5273 | and the Obama administration. Additionally, the WBG set an interim target of reducing extreme poverty to below 9 percent by 2020. Second, to focus on growth among the bottom 40 percent of people, as opposed to standard GDP growth. This commitment ensures that the growth of the developing world lifts people out of poverty, rather than exacerbating inequality. As the World Bank's primary focus is on delivering economic growth to enable equitable prosperity, its developments programs are primarily commercial-based in nature, as opposed to the UN. Since the World Bank recognizes better jobs will result in higher income and thus, | "Extreme poverty" | [
-0.06918790936470032,
-0.35725629329681396,
-0.17803718149662018,
0.5210912227630615,
0.12214267253875732,
0.35137271881103516,
0.3189621865749359,
0.4952477812767029,
-0.27419769763946533,
-0.708152174949646,
-0.304683119058609,
0.2979721128940582,
-0.5612665414810181,
0.6066877245903015,... |
5274 | less poverty, the WBG seeks to support employment training initiatives, small business development programs and strong labor protection laws. However, since much of the growth in the developing world has been inequitable, the World Bank has also begun teaming with client states to map out trends in inequality and to propose public policy changes that can level the playing field. Moreover, the World Bank engages in a variety of nutritional, transfer payments and transport-based initiatives. Children who experience under-nutrition from conception to two years of age have a much higher risk of physical and mental disability. Thus, they are often | "Extreme poverty" | [
0.08757337182760239,
-0.23874531686306,
-0.3619489073753357,
0.3523785471916199,
0.0500054769217968,
0.335517942905426,
0.1864878088235855,
0.40785056352615356,
-0.2504613995552063,
-0.7973241209983826,
-0.2499256134033203,
0.37674757838249207,
-0.3051864504814148,
0.649357795715332,
-0.... |
5275 | trapped in poverty and are unable to make a full contribution to the social and economic development of their communities as adults. The WBG estimates that as much as 3% of GDP can be lost as a result of under-nutrition among the poorest nations. To combat undernutrition, the WBG has partnered with UNICEF and the WHO to ensure all small children are fully fed. The WBG also offers conditional cash transfers to poor households who meet certain requirements such as maintaining children's healthcare or ensuring school attendance. Finally, the WBG understands investment in public transportation and better roads is key | "Extreme poverty" | [
0.043386925011873245,
-0.08179042488336563,
-0.436486154794693,
0.23552799224853516,
0.028555002063512802,
0.4612593650817871,
0.5413855314254761,
0.3271927237510681,
-0.36489996314048767,
-0.6254279017448425,
-0.24565038084983826,
0.17285914719104767,
-0.2772643566131592,
0.71801227331161... |
5276 | to breaking rural isolation, improving access to healthcare and providing better job opportunities for the World's poor. 1. OCHA (Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs) The Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs (OCHA) of the United Nations works to synchronize the disparate international, national and non-governmental efforts to contest poverty. The OCHA seeks to prevent "confusion" in relief operations and to ensure that the humanitarian response to disaster situations has greater accountability and predictability. To do so, OCHA has begun deploying Humanitarian Coordinators and Country Teams to provide a solid architecture for the international community to work through. | "Extreme poverty" | [
-0.010149921290576458,
0.01956384815275669,
-0.41452687978744507,
0.30531492829322815,
-0.015923986211419106,
0.08552942425012589,
0.3297581672668457,
0.2904548943042755,
-0.3361802101135254,
-0.6478578448295593,
-0.4560950696468353,
0.35004639625549316,
-0.5124080777168274,
0.434399545192... |
5277 | 2. UNICEF (United Nations Children's Fund) The United Nation's Children's Fund (UNICEF) was created by the UN to provide food, clothing and healthcare to European children facing famine and disease in the immediate aftermath of World War II. After the UN General Assembly extended UNICEF's mandate indefinitely in 1953, it actively worked to help children in extreme poverty in more than 190 countries and territories to overcome the obstacles that poverty, violence, disease and discrimination place in a child's path. Its current focus areas are 1) Child survival & development 2) Basic education & gender equality 3) Children and HIV/AIDS | "Extreme poverty" | [
0.14591990411281586,
-0.26518744230270386,
-0.41020503640174866,
0.11413151770830154,
-0.14552295207977295,
0.5265352129936218,
0.41188284754753113,
0.18968527019023895,
-0.2301650196313858,
-0.40710538625717163,
-0.4250416159629822,
-0.05066482350230217,
-0.31843578815460205,
0.7261465787... |
5278 | and 4) Child protection. 3. UNHCR (The UN Refugee Agency) The UN Refugee Agency (UNHCR) is mandated to lead and coordinate international action to protect refugees worldwide. Its primary purpose is to safeguard the rights of refugees by ensuring anyone can exercise the right to seek asylum in another state, with the option to return home voluntarily, integrate locally or resettle in a third country. The UNHCR operates in over 125 countries, helping approximately 33.9 million persons. 4. WFP (World Food Program) The World Food Program (WFP) is the largest agency dedicated to fighting hunger worldwide. On average, WFP brings | "Extreme poverty" | [
0.08481764048337936,
-0.06717248260974884,
-0.28979796171188354,
0.23493057489395142,
0.3077274560928345,
0.3834652602672577,
0.4384779930114746,
0.27587711811065674,
-0.5085389018058777,
-0.45767900347709656,
-0.4959174692630768,
0.1895621418952942,
-0.4474901556968689,
0.738480806350708,... |
5279 | food assistance to more than 90 million people in 75 countries. The WFP not only strives to prevent hunger in the present, but also in the future by developing stronger communities which will make food even more secure on their own. The WFP has a range of expertise from Food Security Analysis, Nutrition, Food Procurement and Logistics. 5. WHO (World Health Organization) The World Health Organization (WHO) is responsible for providing leadership on global health matters, shaping the health research agenda, articulating evidence-based policy decisions and combating diseases that are induced from poverty, such as HIV/AIDS, malaria and tuberculosis. Moreover, | "Extreme poverty" | [
0.18234847486019135,
-0.11526167392730713,
-0.24558594822883606,
0.12282349169254303,
0.11806997656822205,
0.26802942156791687,
0.32812389731407166,
0.18635804951190948,
-0.22637657821178436,
-0.7246429920196533,
-0.32293760776519775,
0.2362734079360962,
-0.29446300864219666,
0.72743922472... |
5280 | the WHO deals with pressing issues ranging from managing water safety, to dealing with maternal and newborn health. The U.S. Agency for International Development (USAID) is the lead U.S. government agency dedicated to ending extreme poverty. Currently the largest bilateral donor in the world, the United States channels the majority of its development assistance through USAID and the U.S. Department of State. In President Obama's 2013 State of the Union address, he declared "So the United States will join with our allies to eradicate such extreme poverty in the next two decades...which is within our reach." In response to Obama's | "Extreme poverty" | [
0.011303847655653954,
-0.25093361735343933,
-0.5864658355712891,
0.5221462249755859,
0.22536100447177887,
0.5452998280525208,
0.2812855541706085,
0.6050035357475281,
-0.26549679040908813,
-0.45677056908607483,
-0.459667831659317,
-0.06929925084114075,
-0.4665827751159668,
0.833849787712097... |
5281 | call to action, USAID has made ending extreme poverty central to its mission statement. Under its New Model of Development, USAID seeks to eradicate extreme poverty through the use of innovation in science and technology, by putting a greater emphasis on evidence based decision-making, and through leveraging the ingenuity of the private sector and global citizens. A major initiative of the Obama Administration is Power Africa, which aims to bring energy to 20 million people in Sub-Saharan Africa. By reaching out to its international partners, whether commercial or public, the US has leveraged over $14 billion in outside commitments after | "Extreme poverty" | [
0.1854562759399414,
-0.432841032743454,
-0.5434412956237793,
0.5573794841766357,
0.369167685508728,
0.10175691545009613,
0.304278701543808,
0.22706222534179688,
-0.27279314398765564,
-0.5808587074279785,
-0.2521171569824219,
0.1617441028356552,
-0.6007187962532043,
0.36748772859573364,
-... |
5282 | investing only US$7 billion of its own. To ensure that Power Africa reaches the region's poorest, the initiative engages in a transaction based approach to create systematic change. This includes expanding access to electricity to more than 20,000 additional households which already live without power. In terms of specific programming, USAID works in a variety of fields from preventing hunger, reducing HIV/AIDS, providing general health assistance and democracy assistance, as well as dealing with gender issues. To deal with food security, which affects roughly 842 million people (who go to bed hungry each night), USAID coordinates the Feed the Future | "Extreme poverty" | [
0.15538491308689117,
-0.5025746822357178,
-0.2832546532154083,
0.41096797585487366,
0.31384238600730896,
0.42081189155578613,
0.2951459586620331,
0.21322305500507355,
-0.32081839442253113,
-0.704444408416748,
-0.18676529824733734,
0.22068846225738525,
-0.4917967915534973,
0.525744199752807... |
5283 | Initiative (FtF). FtF aims to reduce poverty and undernutrition each by 20 percent over five years. Thanks to the President's Emergency Plan for AIDS Relief (PEPFAR) and a variety of congruent actors, the incidence of AIDS and HIV, which used to ravage Africa, has reduced in scope and intensity. Through PEPFAR, the United States has ensured over five million people have received life-saving antiviral drugs, a significant proportion of the eight million people receiving treatment in relatively poor nations. In terms of general health assistance, USAID has worked to reduce maternal mortality by 30 percent, under-five child mortality by 35 | "Extreme poverty" | [
-0.14303883910179138,
-0.3277212083339691,
-0.31668466329574585,
0.16139046847820282,
0.2032472938299179,
0.3708899915218353,
0.4214611053466797,
0.3761593997478485,
-0.45319411158561707,
-0.5402340888977051,
-0.1942891627550125,
0.13456717133522034,
-0.6367887854576111,
0.4987278282642364... |
5284 | percent, and has accomplished a host of other goals. USAID also supports the gamut of democratic initiatives, from promoting human rights and accountable, fair governance, to supporting free and fair elections and the rule of law. In pursuit of these goals, USAID has increased global political participation by training more than 9,800 domestic election observers and providing civic education to more than 6.5 million people. Since 2012, the Agency has begun integrating critical gender perspectives across all aspects of its programming to ensure all USAID initiatives work to eliminate gender disparities. To do so, USAID seeks to increase the capability | "Extreme poverty" | [
-0.15669196844100952,
-0.25717249512672424,
-0.40290960669517517,
0.5988889932632446,
0.09272754937410355,
0.36913424730300903,
0.4732929766178131,
0.36517736315727234,
-0.38797637820243835,
-0.5446504950523376,
-0.2814469337463379,
0.39998722076416016,
-0.43903684616088867,
0.274568647146... |
5285 | of women and girls to realize their rights and determine their own life outcomes. Moreover, USAID supports additional programs to improve women's access to capital and markets, builds theirs skills in agriculture, and supports women's desire to own businesses. The Department for International Development (DfID) is the UK's lead agency for eradicating extreme poverty. To do so, DfID focuses on the creation of jobs, empowering women and rapidly responding to humanitarian emergencies. Some specific examples of DfID projects include governance assistance, educational initiatives, and funding cutting-edge research. In 2014 alone, DfID will help to ensure free and fair elections in | "Extreme poverty" | [
0.08243224769830704,
-0.5014705061912537,
-0.2674705982208252,
0.2908041179180145,
-0.032510802149772644,
0.3393080234527588,
0.2891835570335388,
0.3191147744655609,
-0.2672885060310364,
-0.4549432396888733,
-0.8987779021263123,
0.15423136949539185,
-0.42488428950309753,
0.2605878710746765... |
5286 | 13 countries. DfID will also help provide 10 million women with access to justice through strengthened judicial systems and will help 40 million people make their authorities more accountable. By 2015, DfID will have helped 9 million children attend primary school, at least half of which will be girls. Furthermore, through the Research4Development (R4D) project, DfID has funded over 35,000 projects in the name of creating new technologies to help the world's poorest. These technologies include: vaccines for diseases of African cattle, better diagnostic methods for tuberculosis, new drugs for combating malaria, and developing flood-resistant rice. In addition to technological | "Extreme poverty" | [
0.053942423313856125,
-0.26964062452316284,
-0.498910516500473,
0.38699251413345337,
0.27265965938568115,
0.7534605264663696,
0.49418529868125916,
0.4482514560222626,
-0.4582260549068451,
-0.41211628913879395,
-0.34746894240379333,
0.17256563901901245,
-0.39886027574539185,
0.7058629393577... |
5287 | research, the R4D is also used to fund projects that seek to understand what, specifically, about governance structures can be changed to help the world's poorest. A multitude of non-governmental organizations operate in the field of extreme poverty, actively working to alleviate the poorest of the poor of their deprivation. To name but a few notable organizations: Save the Children, The Overseas Development Institute, Concern Worldwide, ONE, trickleUP and Oxfam have all done a considerable amount of work in extreme poverty. Save the Children is the leading international organization dedicated to helping the World's indigent children. In 2013 alone, Save | "Extreme poverty" | [
0.2431005984544754,
-0.21699078381061554,
-0.4500569999217987,
0.363029807806015,
-0.2590598165988922,
0.4019463360309601,
0.42639538645744324,
0.42668747901916504,
-0.3131730258464813,
-0.2753145694732666,
-0.3128538131713867,
0.06130153685808182,
-0.329366534948349,
0.6486338376998901,
... |
5288 | the Children reached over 143 million children through their work, including over 52 million children directly. Save the Children also recently released their own report titled "Getting to Zero", in which they argued the international community could feasibly do more than lift the world's poor above $1.25/day. The Overseas Development Institute (ODI) is the premier UK based think tank on international development and humanitarian issues. ODI is dedicated to alleviating the suffering of the world's poor by providing high-quality research and practical policy advice to the World's development officials. ODI also recently released a paper entitled, "The Chronic Poverty Report | "Extreme poverty" | [
0.13000375032424927,
-0.4205440878868103,
-0.20109958946704865,
0.20449474453926086,
-0.16690078377723694,
0.47871655225753784,
0.2173796445131302,
0.614942193031311,
-0.3430185317993164,
-0.24689725041389465,
-0.29812660813331604,
0.10616514831781387,
-0.3783365488052368,
0.74569523334503... |
5289 | 2014–2015: The road to zero extreme poverty", in which its authors assert that though the international communities' goal of ending extreme poverty by 2030 is laudable, much more targeted resources will be necessary to reach said target. The report states that "To eradicate extreme poverty, massive global investment is required in social assistance, education and pro-poorest economic growth". Concern Worldwide is an international humanitarian organization whose mission is to end extreme poverty by influencing decision makers at all levels of government (local -> international). Concern has also produced a report on extreme poverty in which they explain their own conception | "Extreme poverty" | [
0.4889228343963623,
-0.24409805238246918,
0.008184049278497696,
0.3827887177467346,
-0.15917670726776123,
0.08855446428060532,
0.238136887550354,
0.0866699367761612,
-0.1634582132101059,
-0.30237677693367004,
-0.15762509405612946,
0.1593952775001526,
-0.3726441562175751,
0.4651251435279846... |
5290 | of extreme poverty from a NGO's standpoint. In this paper, named "How Concern Understands Extreme Poverty]", the report's creators write that extreme poverty entails more than just living under $1.25/day, it also includes having a small number of assets and being vulnerable to severe negative shocks (whether natural or man made). ONE, the organization cofounded by Bono, is a non-profit organization funded almost entirely by foundations, individual philanthropists and corporations. ONE's goals include raising public awareness and working with political leaders to fight preventable diseases, increase government accountability and increase investment in nutrition. Finally, trickleUp is a microenterprise development program | "Extreme poverty" | [
0.3745934069156647,
-0.20289407670497894,
-0.35065364837646484,
0.40990227460861206,
0.18293334543704987,
0.35246914625167847,
0.23747068643569946,
0.4282045066356659,
-0.2381323277950287,
-0.3546823561191559,
0.08056937158107758,
0.10417210310697556,
-0.2627953290939331,
0.011972178705036... |
5291 | targeted at those living on under $1.25/day, which provides the indigent with resources to build a sustainable livelihood through both direct financing and considerable training efforts. Another NGO that works to end extreme poverty is Oxfam. This non-governmental organization works prominently in Africa; their mission is to improve local community organizations and it works to reduce impediments to the development of the country. Oxfam helps families suffering from poverty receive food and healthcare to survive. There are many children in Africa experiencing growth stunting, and this is one example of an issue that Oxfam targets and aims to resolve. Extreme | "Extreme poverty" | [
0.3808767795562744,
-0.04385172948241234,
-0.465453565120697,
0.5123918652534485,
-0.11020245403051376,
0.19667039811611176,
0.5129678249359131,
0.44452181458473206,
-0.4201723337173462,
-0.48091641068458557,
-0.21504488587379456,
0.12550324201583862,
-0.411070317029953,
0.550815999507904,... |
5292 | Analytical Engine The Analytical Engine was a proposed mechanical general-purpose computer designed by English mathematician and computer pioneer Charles Babbage. It was first described in 1837 as the successor to Babbage's difference engine, a design for a mechanical computer. The Analytical Engine incorporated an arithmetic logic unit, control flow in the form of conditional branching and loops, and integrated memory, making it the first design for a general-purpose computer that could be described in modern terms as Turing-complete. In other words, the logical structure of the Analytical Engine was essentially the same as that which has dominated computer design in | "Analytical Engine" | [
-0.5177465677261353,
0.08965425938367844,
0.005573084577918053,
0.13850322365760803,
-0.2360936999320984,
0.7199009656906128,
-0.0004953661700710654,
-0.5712459683418274,
0.5249670147895813,
-0.15480729937553406,
-0.009412507526576519,
0.47142302989959717,
-0.5714195966720581,
0.2325522601... |
5293 | the electronic era.. The Analytical Engine is one of the most successful achievements of Charles Babbage. Babbage was never able to complete construction of any of his machines due to conflicts with his chief engineer and inadequate funding. It was not until the late 1940s that the first general-purpose computers were actually built, more than a century after Babbage had proposed the pioneering Analytical Engine in 1837. Babbage's first attempt at a mechanical computing device, the Difference Engine, was a special-purpose machine designed to tabulate logarithms and trigonometric functions by evaluating finite differences to create approximating polynomials. Construction of this | "Analytical Engine" | [
-0.35328784584999084,
0.17981664836406708,
0.25705936551094055,
0.3436303734779358,
-0.4006533920764923,
0.42122283577919006,
-0.07700108736753464,
-0.3331220746040344,
0.355442076921463,
-0.3768133819103241,
-0.1021181270480156,
0.6585597991943359,
-0.4240063428878784,
0.1322980672121048,... |
5294 | machine was never completed; Babbage had conflicts with his chief engineer, Joseph Clement, and ultimately the British government withdrew its funding for the project. During this project, he realized that a much more general design, the Analytical Engine, was possible. The work on the design of the Analytical Engine started in c. 1833. The input, consisting of programs and data ("formulae" and "data") was to be provided to the machine via punched cards, a method being used at the time to direct mechanical looms such as the Jacquard loom. For output, the machine would have a printer, a curve plotter | "Analytical Engine" | [
-0.156677708029747,
0.04298508167266846,
0.21320608258247375,
0.24784885346889496,
-0.1003003790974617,
0.6802900433540344,
-0.17495225369930267,
-0.35753095149993896,
0.27155831456184387,
-0.3762972056865692,
-0.14809326827526093,
0.42985662817955017,
-0.2910075783729553,
0.17103078961372... |
5295 | and a bell. The machine would also be able to punch numbers onto cards to be read in later. It employed ordinary base-10 fixed-point arithmetic. There was to be a store (that is, a memory) capable of holding 1,000 numbers of 40 decimal digits each (ca. 16.2 kB). An arithmetic unit (the "mill") would be able to perform all four arithmetic operations, plus comparisons and optionally square roots. Initially (1838) it was conceived as a difference engine curved back upon itself, in a generally circular layout, with the long store exiting off to one side. Later drawings (1858) depict a | "Analytical Engine" | [
-0.362395703792572,
0.06839517503976822,
0.23792320489883423,
0.22832798957824707,
-0.15751752257347107,
0.7212080955505371,
-0.03468696400523186,
-0.5938952565193176,
0.1811913698911667,
0.06833244115114212,
0.23059703409671783,
0.5240318775177002,
-0.14452706277370453,
0.2480289340019226... |
5296 | regularized grid layout. Like the central processing unit (CPU) in a modern computer, the mill would rely upon its own internal procedures, to be stored in the form of pegs inserted into rotating drums called "barrels", to carry out some of the more complex instructions the user's program might specify. The programming language to be employed by users was akin to modern day assembly languages. Loops and conditional branching were possible, and so the language as conceived would have been Turing-complete as later defined by Alan Turing. Three different types of punch cards were used: one for arithmetical operations, one | "Analytical Engine" | [
-0.26122093200683594,
-0.01805683970451355,
-0.2216004580259323,
0.25202497839927673,
-0.19359886646270752,
0.669664740562439,
-0.08678317815065384,
-0.31524768471717834,
0.24377593398094177,
0.03272314369678497,
0.14758911728858948,
0.6977877020835876,
-0.450920432806015,
-0.0735290572047... |
5297 | for numerical constants, and one for load and store operations, transferring numbers from the store to the arithmetical unit or back. There were three separate readers for the three types of cards. Babbage developed some two dozen programs for the Analytical Engine between 1837 and 1840, and one program later. These programs treat polynomials, iterative formulas, Gaussian elimination, and Bernoulli numbers. In 1842, the Italian mathematician Luigi Federico Menabrea published a description of the engine based on a lecture by Babbage in French. In 1843, the description was translated into English and extensively annotated by Ada Lovelace, who had become | "Analytical Engine" | [
-0.7071107625961304,
0.027836257591843605,
-0.01768459938466549,
0.08772881329059601,
-0.1490769386291504,
0.6484404802322388,
0.0641278624534607,
-0.6255106329917908,
0.34975317120552063,
-0.37196844816207886,
-0.0025533500593155622,
0.5087935924530029,
-0.5158762335777283,
0.114888392388... |
5298 | interested in the engine eight years earlier. In recognition of her additions to Menabrea's paper, which included a way to calculate Bernoulli numbers using the machine (widely considered to be the first complete computer program), she has been described as the first computer programmer. Late in his life, Babbage sought ways to build a simplified version of the machine, and assembled a small part of it before his death in 1871. In 1878, a committee of the British Association for the Advancement of Science described the Analytical Engine as "a marvel of mechanical ingenuity", but recommended against constructing it. The | "Analytical Engine" | [
-0.23758874833583832,
0.057076070457696915,
-0.07043269276618958,
0.03453505039215088,
-0.1284441202878952,
0.44804784655570984,
0.11633569747209549,
-0.5606945753097534,
0.2538159489631653,
-0.26120299100875854,
0.09568692743778229,
0.5091442465782166,
-0.21897156536579132,
0.390486150979... |
5299 | committee acknowledged the usefulness and value of the machine, but could not estimate the cost of building it, and were unsure whether the machine would function correctly after being built. Intermittently from 1880 to 1910, Babbage's son Henry Prevost Babbage was constructing a part of the mill and the printing apparatus. In 1910 calculated a (faulty) list of multiples of pi. This constituted only a small part of the whole engine; it was not programmable and had no storage. (Popular images of this section have sometimes been mislabelled, implying that it was the entire mill or even the entire engine.) | "Analytical Engine" | [
-0.048467446118593216,
0.12725280225276947,
-0.16368603706359863,
0.05405649170279503,
0.011792308650910854,
0.7211074829101562,
0.24558579921722412,
-0.4555729627609253,
0.02662188932299614,
-0.17622950673103333,
0.020713452249765396,
0.41521114110946655,
-0.3114362061023712,
0.3122312128... |
5300 | Henry Babbage's "Analytical Engine Mill" is on display at the Science Museum in London. Henry also proposed building a demonstration version of the full engine, with a smaller storage capacity: "perhaps for a first machine ten (columns) would do, with fifteen wheels in each". Such a version could manipulate 20 numbers of 25 digits each, and what it could be told to do with those numbers could still be impressive. "It is only a question of cards and time", wrote Henry Babbage in 1888, "... and there is no reason why (twenty thousand) cards should not be used if necessary, | "Analytical Engine" | [
-0.2679682672023773,
-0.09101294726133347,
0.13261628150939941,
0.038977183401584625,
0.017245106399059296,
0.6114948391914368,
-0.024207497015595436,
-0.47038736939430237,
-0.2466183304786682,
-0.19324995577335358,
-0.0083491001278162,
0.1756616234779358,
-0.27223923802375793,
0.348253875... |
Subsets and Splits
No community queries yet
The top public SQL queries from the community will appear here once available.