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5101 | in 358 "Semi-Arianism". This is considered unfair by Kelly who states that some members of the group were virtually orthodox from the start but disliked the adjective "homoousios" while others had moved in that direction after the out-and-out Arians had come into the open. The debates among these groups resulted in numerous synods, among them the Council of Sardica in 343, the Council of Sirmium in 358 and the double Council of Rimini and Seleucia in 359, and no fewer than fourteen further creed formulas between 340 and 360, leading the pagan observer Ammianus Marcellinus to comment sarcastically: "The highways | Arianism | [
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5102 | were covered with galloping bishops." None of these attempts were acceptable to the defenders of Nicene orthodoxy: writing about the latter councils, Saint Jerome remarked that the world "awoke with a groan to find itself Arian." After Constantius' death in 361, his successor Julian, a devotee of Rome's pagan gods, declared that he would no longer attempt to favor one church faction over another, and allowed all exiled bishops to return; this resulted in further increasing dissension among Nicene Christians. The Emperor Valens, however, revived Constantius' policy and supported the "Homoian" party, exiling bishops and often using force. During this | Arianism | [
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5103 | persecution many bishops were exiled to the other ends of the Empire (e.g., St Hilary of Poitiers to the Eastern provinces). These contacts and the common plight subsequently led to a rapprochement between the Western supporters of the Nicene Creed and the "homoousios" and the Eastern semi-Arians. It was not until the co-reigns of Gratian and Theodosius that Arianism was effectively wiped out among the ruling class and elite of the Eastern Empire. Theodosius' wife St Flacilla was instrumental in his campaign to end Arianism. Valens died in the Battle of Adrianople in 378 and was succeeded by Theodosius I, | Arianism | [
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5104 | who adhered to the Nicene Creed. This allowed for settling the dispute. Two days after Theodosius arrived in Constantinople, 24 November 380, he expelled the Homoiousian bishop, Demophilus of Constantinople, and surrendered the churches of that city to Gregory Nazianzus, the leader of the rather small Nicene community there, an act which provoked rioting. Theodosius had just been baptized, by bishop Acholius of Thessalonica, during a severe illness, as was common in the early Christian world. In February he and Gratian had published an edict that all their subjects should profess the faith of the bishops of Rome and Alexandria | Arianism | [
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5105 | (i.e., the Nicene faith), or be handed over for punishment for not doing so. Although much of the church hierarchy in the East had opposed the Nicene Creed in the decades leading up to Theodosius' accession, he managed to achieve unity on the basis of the Nicene Creed. In 381, at the Second Ecumenical Council in Constantinople, a group of mainly Eastern bishops assembled and accepted the Nicene Creed of 381, which was supplemented in regard to the Holy Spirit, as well as some other changes: see Comparison between Creed of 325 and Creed of 381. This is generally considered | Arianism | [
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5106 | the end of the dispute about the Trinity and the end of Arianism among the Roman, non-Germanic peoples. During the time of Arianism's flowering in Constantinople, the Gothic convert and Arian bishop Ulfilas (later the subject of the letter of Auxentius cited above) was sent as a missionary to the Gothic tribes across the Danube, a mission favored for political reasons by the Emperor Constantius II. Ulfilas' translation of the Bible in Gothic language and his initial success in converting the Goths to Arianism was strengthened by later events; the conversion of Goths led to a widespread diffusion of Arianism | Arianism | [
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5107 | among other Germanic tribes as well (Vandals, Longobards, Svevi and Burgundians). When the Germanic peoples entered the provinces of the Western Roman Empire and began founding their own kingdoms there, most of them were Arian Christians. The conflict in the 4th century had seen Arian and Nicene factions struggling for control of Western Europe. In contrast, among the Arian German kingdoms established in the collapsing Western Empire in the 5th century were entirely separate Arian and Nicene Churches with parallel hierarchies, each serving different sets of believers. The Germanic elites were Arians, and the Romance majority population was Nicene. The | Arianism | [
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5108 | Arian Germanic tribes were generally tolerant towards Nicene Christians and other religious minorities, including the Jews. However, the Vandals tried for several decades to force their Arian beliefs on their North African Nicene subjects, exiling Nicene clergy, dissolving monasteries, and exercising heavy pressure on non-conforming Nicene Christians. The apparent resurgence of Arianism after Nicaea was more an anti-Nicene reaction exploited by Arian sympathizers than a pro-Arian development. By the end of the 4th century it had surrendered its remaining ground to Trinitarianism. In Western Europe, Arianism, which had been taught by Ulfilas, the Arian missionary to the Germanic tribes, was | Arianism | [
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5109 | dominant among the Goths, Longobards and Vandals. By the 8th century, it had ceased to be the tribes' mainstream belief as the tribal rulers gradually came to adopt Nicene orthodoxy. This trend began in 496 with Clovis I of the Franks, then Reccared I of the Visigoths in 587 and Aripert I of the Lombards in 653. The Franks and the Anglo-Saxons were unlike the other Germanic peoples in that they entered the Western Roman Empire as Pagans and were forcibly converted to Chalcedonian Christianity by their kings, Clovis I and Æthelberht of Kent (see also Christianity in Gaul and | Arianism | [
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5110 | Christianisation of Anglo-Saxon England). The remaining tribes – the Vandals and the Ostrogoths – did not convert as a people nor did they maintain territorial cohesion. Having been militarily defeated by the armies of Emperor Justinian I, the remnants were dispersed to the fringes of the empire and became lost to history. The Vandalic War of 533–534 dispersed the defeated Vandals. Following their final defeat at the Battle of Mons Lactarius in 553, the Ostrogoths went back north and (re)settled in south Austria. Much of south-eastern Europe and central Europe, including many of the Goths and Vandals respectively, had embraced | Arianism | [
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5111 | Arianism (the Visigoths converted to Arian Christianity in 376), which led to Arianism being a religious factor in various wars in the Roman Empire. In the west, organized Arianism survived in North Africa, in Hispania, and parts of Italy until it was finally suppressed in the 6th and 7th centuries. Visigothic Spain converted to Catholicism at the Third Council of Toledo in 589. Grimwald, King of the Lombards (662–671), and his young son and successor Garibald (671), were the last Arian kings in Europe. Following the Protestant Reformation from 1517, it did not take long for Arian and other nontrinitarian | Arianism | [
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5112 | views to resurface. The first recorded English antitrinitarian was John Assheton, who was forced to recant before Thomas Cranmer in 1548. At the Anabaptist Council of Venice 1550, the early Italian instigators of the Radical Reformation committed to the views of Miguel Servetus, who was burned alive by the orders of John Calvin in 1553, and these were promulgated by Giorgio Biandrata and others into Poland and Transylvania. The antitrinitarian wing of the Polish Reformation separated from the Calvinist "ecclesia maior" to form the "ecclesia minor" or Polish Brethren. These were commonly referred to as "Arians" due to their rejection | Arianism | [
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5113 | of the Trinity, though in fact the Socinians, as they were later known, went further than Arius to the position of Photinus. The epithet "Arian" was also applied to the early Unitarians such as John Biddle, though in denial of the pre-existence of Christ they were again largely Socinians, not Arians. In 1683, when Anthony Ashley Cooper, 1st Earl of Shaftesbury, lay dying in Amsterdam – driven into exile by his outspoken opposition to King Charles II – he spoke to the minister Robert Ferguson, and professed himself an Arian. In the 18th century the "dominant trend" in Britain, particularly | Arianism | [
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5114 | in Latitudinarianism, was towards Arianism, with which the names of Samuel Clarke, Benjamin Hoadly, William Whiston and Isaac Newton are associated. To quote the "Encyclopædia Britannica" article on Arianism: "In modern times some Unitarians are virtually Arians in that they are unwilling either to reduce Christ to a mere human being or to attribute to him a divine nature identical with that of the Father." However, their doctrines cannot be considered representative of traditional Arian doctrines or vice versa. A similar view was held by the ancient anti-Nicene Pneumatomachi (Greek: , "breath" or "spirit" and "fighters", combining as "fighters against | Arianism | [
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5115 | the spirit"), so called because they opposed the deifying of the Nicene Holy Ghost. However, the Pneumatomachi were adherents of Macedonianism, and though their beliefs were somewhat reminiscent of Arianism, they were a distinct group. The teachings of the first two ecumenical councils – which entirely reject Arianism – are held by the Roman Catholic Church, the Eastern Orthodox Church, the Oriental Orthodox Churches, the Assyrian Church of the East and all churches founded during the Reformation in the 16th century or influenced by it (Lutheran, Reformed/Presbyterian, and Anglican). Also, nearly all Protestant groups (such as Methodists, Baptists, and most | Arianism | [
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5116 | Pentecostals) entirely reject the teachings associated with Arianism. Modern groups which currently appear to embrace some of the principles of Arianism include Unitarians and Jehovah's Witnesses. Although the origins of their beliefs are not necessarily attributed to the teachings of Arius, many of the core beliefs of Unitarians and Jehovah's Witnesses are very similar to them. The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints doctrine concerning the nature of the God Head teaches a nontrinitarian theology. The 1st Article of Faith of The Church is: "We believe in God, the Eternal Father, and in His Son, Jesus Christ, and in | Arianism | [
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5117 | the Holy Ghost." The Doctrine and Covenants 130:22 states: "The Father has a body of flesh and bones as tangible as man’s; the Son also; but the Holy Ghost has not a body of flesh and bones, but is a personage of Spirit. Were it not so, the Holy Ghost could not dwell in us." The church's view of the Godhead breaks with Nicene Creed tradition and believes it returns to the teachings taught by Jesus. It does not accept the creed's definition of Trinity that the three are "consubstantial" nor the Athanasian Creed's statement that they are "incomprehensible", arguing | Arianism | [
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5118 | that the LDS view is self-evident in the Bible that the Father, the Son, and the Holy Ghost are separate persons—three divine beings as illustrated in Jesus' , his baptism at the hands of John, his transfiguration, and the martyrdom of Stephen. Jehovah's Witnesses are often referred to as "modern-day Arians" or they are sometimes referred to as "Semi-Arians", usually by their opponents. While there are some significant similarities in theology and doctrine, the Witnesses differ from Arians by saying that the Son can fully know the Father (something which Arius himself denied), and by their denial of personality to | Arianism | [
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5119 | the Holy Spirit. The original Arians also generally prayed directly to Jesus, whereas the Witnesses pray to God, through Jesus as a mediator. The Church of God (7th day) - Salem Conference, a line of Sabbatarian Adventists hold views similar to Arianism: Other groups which oppose the belief in the Trinity are not necessarily Arian. Arianism Arianism is a nontrinitarian Christological doctrine which asserts the belief that Jesus Christ is the Son of God who was begotten by God the Father at a point in time, a creature distinct from the Father and is therefore subordinate to him, but the | Arianism | [
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5120 | Antoninus Pius Antoninus Pius (; ; 19 September 867 March 161 AD), also known as Antoninus, was Roman emperor from 138 to 161. He was one of the Five Good Emperors in the Nerva–Antonine dynasty and the Aurelii. Born into a senatorial family, Antoninus held various offices during the reign of emperor Hadrian, acquiring favor which saw him adopted as Hadrian's son and successor shortly before Hadrian's death. He acquired the name Pius after his accession to the throne, either because he compelled the Senate to deify his adoptive father Hadrian, or because he had saved senators sentenced to death | "Antoninus Pius" | [
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5121 | by Hadrian in his later years. His reign is notable for the peaceful state of the Empire, with no major revolts or military incursions during this time, and for his governing without ever leaving Italy. A successful military campaign in southern Scotland early in his reign resulted in the construction of the Antonine Wall. Antoninus was an effective administrator, leaving his successors a large surplus in the treasury, expanding free access to drinking water throughout the Empire, encouraging legal conformity, and facilitating the enfranchisement of freed slaves. He died of illness in 161 and was succeeded by his adopted sons | "Antoninus Pius" | [
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5122 | Marcus Aurelius and Lucius Verus as co-emperors. He was born as the only child of Titus Aurelius Fulvus, consul in 86, whose family came from Nemausus (modern Nîmes). Titus Aurelius Fulvius was the son of a senator of the same name, who, as legate of Legio III Gallica, had supported Vespasian in his bid to the Imperial office and been rewarded with a suffect consulship, plus an ordinary one under Domitian in 85. The Aurelii Fulvii were therefore a relatively new senatorial family from Gallia Narbonensis whose rise to prominence was supported by the Flavians. The link between Antoninus' family | "Antoninus Pius" | [
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5123 | and their home province explains the increasing importance of the post of Proconsul of Gallia Narbonensis during the late Second Century. Antoninus was born near Lanuvium and his mother was Arria Fadilla. Antoninus’ father died shortly after his 89 ordinary consulship, and Antoninus was raised by his maternal grandfather Gnaeus Arrius Antoninus, reputed by contemporaries to be a man of integrity and culture and a friend of Pliny the Younger. The Arrii Antoninii were an older senatorial family from Italy, very influential during Nerva's reign. Arria Fadilla, Antoninus' mother, married afterwards Publius Julius Lupus, suffect consul in 98; from that | "Antoninus Pius" | [
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5124 | marriage came two daughters, Arria Lupula and Julia Fadilla. Some time between 110 and 115, Antoninus married Annia Galeria Faustina the Elder. They are believed to have enjoyed a happy marriage. Faustina was the daughter of consul Marcus Annius Verus and Rupilia Faustina (a half-sister to the Empress Vibia Sabina). Faustina was a beautiful woman, and despite (basically unproven) rumours about her character, it is clear that Antoninus cared for her deeply. Faustina bore Antoninus four children, two sons and two daughters. They were: When Faustina died in 141, Antoninus was greatly distressed. In honour of her memory, he asked | "Antoninus Pius" | [
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5125 | the Senate to deify her as a goddess, and authorised the construction of a temple to be built in the Roman Forum in her name, with priestesses serving in her temple. He had various coins with her portrait struck in her honor. These coins were scripted ‘"DIVA FAUSTINA"’ and were elaborately decorated. He further created a charity which he founded and called it "Puellae Faustinianae" or "Girls of Faustina", which assisted destitute girls of good family. Finally, Antoninus created a new "alimenta" (see Grain supply to the city of Rome). The emperor never remarried. Instead, he lived with Galena Lysistrata, | "Antoninus Pius" | [
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5126 | one of Faustina's freed women. Concubinage was a form of female companionship sometimes chosen by powerful men in Ancient Rome, especially widowers like Vespasian, and Marcus Aurelius. Their union could not produce any legitimate offspring who could threaten any heirs, such as those of Antoninus. Also, as one could not have a wife and an official concubine (or two concubines) at the same time, Antoninus avoided being pressed into a marriage with a noblewoman from another family (later, Marcus Aurelius would also reject the advances of his former fiancée Ceionia Fabia, Lucius Verus's sister, on the grounds of protecting his | "Antoninus Pius" | [
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5127 | children from a stepmother, and took a concubine instead). Having filled the offices of quaestor and praetor with more than usual success, he obtained the consulship in 120. He was next appointed by the Emperor Hadrian as one of the four proconsuls to administer Italia, then greatly increased his reputation by his conduct as proconsul of Asia, probably during 134–135. He acquired much favor with Hadrian, who adopted him as his son and successor on 25 February 138, after the death of his first adopted son Lucius Aelius, on the condition that Antoninus would in turn adopt Marcus Annius Verus, | "Antoninus Pius" | [
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5128 | the son of his wife's brother, and Lucius, son of Lucius Aelius, who afterwards became the emperors Marcus Aurelius and Lucius Verus. On his accession, Antoninus' name and style became "Imperator Caesar Titus Aelius Hadrianus Antoninus Augustus Pontifex Maximus". One of his first acts as Emperor was to persuade the Senate to grant divine honours to Hadrian, which they had at first refused; his efforts to persuade the Senate to grant these honours is the most likely reason given for his title of "Pius" (dutiful in affection; compare "pietas"). Two other reasons for this title are that he would support | "Antoninus Pius" | [
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5129 | his aged father-in-law with his hand at Senate meetings, and that he had saved those men that Hadrian, during his period of ill-health, had condemned to death. Immediately after Hadrian's death, Antoninus approached Marcus and requested that his marriage arrangements be amended: Marcus' betrothal to Ceionia Fabia would be annulled, and he would be betrothed to Faustina, Antoninus' daughter, instead. Faustina's betrothal to Ceionia's brother Lucius Commodus would also have to be annulled. Marcus consented to Antoninus' proposal. Antoninus built temples, theaters, and mausoleums, promoted the arts and sciences, and bestowed honours and financial rewards upon the teachers of rhetoric | "Antoninus Pius" | [
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5130 | and philosophy. Antoninus made few initial changes when he became emperor, leaving intact as far as possible the arrangements instituted by Hadrian. Epigraphical and prosopographical research has revealed that Antoninus' imperial ruling team centered around a group of closely knit senatorial families, most of them members of the priestly congregation for the cult of Hadrian, the "sodales Hadrianales". According to the German historian H.G. Pflaum, prosopographical research of Antoninus' ruling team allows us to grasp the deeply conservative character of the ruling senatorial caste. There are no records of any military related acts in his time in which he participated. | "Antoninus Pius" | [
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5131 | One modern scholar has written "It is almost certain not only that at no time in his life did he ever see, let alone command, a Roman army, but that, throughout the twenty-three years of his reign, he never went within five hundred miles of a legion". His reign was the most peaceful in the entire history of the Principate, notwithstanding the fact that there were several military disturbances throughout the Empire in his time. Such disturbances happened in Mauretania – where a senator was named as governor of Mauretania Tingitana in place of the usual equestrian procurator and cavalry | "Antoninus Pius" | [
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5132 | reinforcements from Pannonia were brought in, towns such as Sala and Tipasa being fortified. Similar disturbances took place in Judea, and amongst the Brigantes in Britannia, none of them being considered serious. It was however in Britain that Antoninus decided to follow a new, more aggressive path, with the appointment of a new governor in 139, Quintus Lollius Urbicus, a native of Numidia and previously governor of Germania Inferior. Under instructions from the emperor, Lollius undertook an invasion of southern Scotland, winning some significant victories, and constructing the Antonine Wall from the Firth of Forth to the Firth of Clyde. | "Antoninus Pius" | [
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5133 | The wall, however, was soon gradually decommissioned during the mid-150s and eventually abandoned late during the reign (early 160s), for reasons that are still not quite clear. Antonine's Wall is mentioned in just one literary source, Antoninus' biography in the Historia Augusta. Pausanias makes a brief and confused mention of a war in Britain. In one inscription honoring Antoninus, erected by Legio II Augusta, which participated in the building of the Wall, a relief showing four naked prisoners, one of them beheaded, seems to stand for some actual warfare. Although Antonine's Wall was, in principle, much shorter and at first | "Antoninus Pius" | [
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5134 | sight more defensible than Hadrian's Wall, the additional area that it enclosed within the Empire was barren, with the effect that supply lines to it were strained enough that the costs from maintaining the additional territory outweighed the benefits of doing so. It has been therefore speculated that the invasion of Lowland Scotland and the building of the wall had to do mostly with internal politics, that is, offering Antoninus an opportunity to gain some modicum of necessary military prestige at the start of his reign. Actually, the campaign in Britannia was followed by an Imperial salutation – that is, | "Antoninus Pius" | [
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5135 | by Antoninus formally taking for the second (and last) time the title of Imperator – in 142. The fact that around the same time coins were struck announcing a victory in Britain points to Antoninus' need to publicize his achievements. The orator Fronto was later to say that, although Antoninus bestowed the direction of the British campaign to others, he should be regarded as the helmsman who directed the voyage, whose glory, therefore, belonged to him. That this quest for some military achievement responded to an actual need is proved by the fact that, although generally peaceful, Antoninus' reign was | "Antoninus Pius" | [
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5136 | not free from attempts at usurpation: Historia Augusta mentions two, made by the senators Cornelius Priscianus (by the way, Lollius Urbicus' successor as governor of Britain) and Atilius Rufius Titianus – both confirmed by the Fasti Ostienses as well as by the erasing of Priscianus' name from an inscription. In both cases, Antoninus was not in formal charge of the ensuing repression: Priscianus committed suicide and Titianus was found guilty by the Senate, with Antoninus abstaining from sequestering their families' properties. There were also some troubles in Dacia Inferior which required the granting of additional powers to the procurator governor | "Antoninus Pius" | [
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5137 | and the dispatch of additional soldiers to the province. On the Northern Black Sea coast, the Greek city of Olbia was held against the Scythians. Also during his reign the governor of Upper Germany, probably Caius Popillius Carus Pedo, built new fortifications in the Agri Decumates, advancing the Limes Germanicus fifteen miles forward in his province and neighboring Raetia. In the East, Roman suzerainty over Armenia was retained by the choice in AD 140 of Arsacid scion Sohaemus as client king. Nevertheless, Antoninus was virtually unique among emperors in that he dealt with these crises without leaving Italy once during | "Antoninus Pius" | [
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5138 | his reign, but instead dealt with provincial matters of war and peace through their governors or through imperial letters to the cities such as Ephesus (of which some were publicly displayed). This style of government was highly praised by his contemporaries and by later generations. Antoninus was the last Roman Emperor recognised by the Indian Kingdoms. Raoul McLaughlin quotes Aurelius Victor as saying "The Indians, the Bactrians and the Hyrcanians all sent ambassadors to Antoninus. They had all heard about the spirit of justice held by this great emperor, justice that was heightened by his handsome and grave countenance, and | "Antoninus Pius" | [
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5139 | his slim and vigorous figure." Due to the outbreak of the Antonine epidemic and wars against northern Germanic tribes, the reign of Marcus Aurelius was forced to alter the focus of foreign policies, and matters relating to the Far East were increasingly abandoned in favour of those directly concerning the Empire's survival. Antoninus was regarded as a skilled administrator and as a builder. In spite of an extensive building directive – the free access of the people of Rome to drinking water was expanded with the construction of aqueducts, not only in Rome but throughout the Empire, as well as | "Antoninus Pius" | [
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5140 | bridges and roads – the emperor still managed to leave behind a sizable public treasury of around two and a half million sesterces (Rome would not witness another Emperor leaving his successor with a surplus for a long time). But this treasury was depleted almost immediately after Antoninus's reign due to the plague brought back by soldiers after the Parthian victory. The Emperor also famously suspended the collection of taxes from cities affected by natural disasters, such as when fires struck Rome and Narbona, and earthquakes affected Rhodes and the Province of Asia. He offered hefty financial grants for rebuilding | "Antoninus Pius" | [
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5141 | and recovery of various Greek cities after two serious earthquakes: the first, "circa" 140, which affected mostly Rhodes and other islands; the second, in 152, which hit Cyzicus (where the huge and newly built Temple to Hadrian was destroyed), Ephesus, and Smyrna. Antoninus' financial help earned him praise by Greek writers such as Aelius Aristides and Pausanias. These cities received from Antoninus the usual honorific accolades, such as when he commanded that all governors of Asia should enter the province, when taking office, by way of Ephesus. Ephesus was specially favoured by Antoninus, who confirmed and upheld its first place | "Antoninus Pius" | [
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5142 | in the list of imperial honor titles, as opposed to Smyrna and Pergamon. In his dealings with Greek-speaking cities, Antoninus followed the policy adopted by Hadrian of ingratiating himself with local elites, especially with local intellectuals: philosophers, teachers of literature, rhetoricians and physicians were explicitly exempted from any duties involving private spending for civic purposes – a privilege granted by Hadrian that Antoninus confirmed by means of an edict preserved in the Digest (27.1.6.8). Antoninus also created a chair for the teaching of rhetoric in Athens. Antoninus was known as an avid observer of rites of religion and of formal | "Antoninus Pius" | [
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5143 | celebrations – both Roman and foreign. He is known for having increasingly formalized the official cult offered to the Great Mother, which from his reign onwards included a bull sacrifice, a taurobolium, formerly only a private ritual, now being also performed for the sake of the Emperor's welfare. Antoninus also offered patronage to the worship of Mithras, to whom he erected a temple in Ostia. In 148, he presided over the celebrations of the 900th anniversary of the founding of Rome. Antoninus tried to portray himself as a magistrate of the "res publica", no matter how extended and ill-defined his | "Antoninus Pius" | [
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5144 | competencies were. He is credited with the splitting of the imperial treasury, the Fiscus. This splitting had to do with the division of imperial properties into two parts: firstly, the fiscus itself – or "patrimonium", meaning the properties of the "Crown", the hereditary properties of each succeeding person that sat on the throne, transmitted to his successors in office, regardless of their membership in the imperial family; secondly, the "res privata", the "private" properties tied to the personal maintenance of the Emperor and his family. An anecdote in the Historia Augusta biography, where Antoninus replies to Faustina – who complained | "Antoninus Pius" | [
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5145 | about his stinginess – that "we have gained an empire [and] lost even what we had before" possibly relates to Antoninus' actual concerns at the creation of the "res privata". While still a private citizen, Antoninus had increased his personal fortune greatly by mean of various legacies, the consequence – we are told – of his caring scrupulously for his relatives. The "res privata" lands could be sold and/or given away, while the "patrimonium" properties were regarded as public. It was a way of pretending that the Imperial function – and most properties attached to it – was a public | "Antoninus Pius" | [
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5146 | one, formally subject to the authority of the Senate and the Roman people. That the distinction played no part in subsequent political history – that the "personal" power of the princeps absorbed his role as office-holder – proves that the autocratic logic of the imperial order had already subsumed the old republican institutions. Of the public transactions of this period there is only the scantiest of information, but, to judge by what is extant, those twenty-two years were not remarkably eventful in comparison to those before and after the reign. However, Antoninus did take a great interest in the revision | "Antoninus Pius" | [
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5147 | and practice of the law throughout the empire. One of his chief concerns was to having local communities conform their legal procedures to existing Roman norms: in a case concerning repression of banditry by local police officers ("irenarchs") in Asia Minor, Antoninus ordered that these officers should not treat suspects as already condemned, and also keep a detailed copy of their interrogations, to be used in the possibility of an appeal to the Roman governor. Also, although Antoninus was not an innovator, he would not always follow the absolute letter of the law; rather he was driven by concerns over | "Antoninus Pius" | [
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5148 | humanity and equality, and introduced into Roman law many important new principles based upon this notion. In this, the emperor was assisted by five chief lawyers: L. Fulvius Aburnius Valens, an author of legal treatises; L. Ulpius Marcellus, a prolific writer; and three others. These last three included L. Volusius Maecianus, a former military officer turned by Antoninus into a civil procurator, and who, in view of his subsequent career (discovered on the basis of epigraphical and prosopographical research), was the Emperor's most important legal adviser. Maecianus would eventually be chosen to occupy various prefectures (see below) as well as | "Antoninus Pius" | [
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5149 | to conduct the legal studies of Marcus Aurelius. He was also the author of a large work on Fidei Commissa (Testamentary Trusts). As a hallmark of the increased connection between jurists and the imperial government, Antoninus' reign also saw the appearance of the "Institutes of Gaius", an elementary legal manual for beginners (see Gaius (jurist)). Antoninus passed measures to facilitate the enfranchisement of slaves. Mostly, he favoured the principle of "favor libertatis", giving the putative freedman the benefit of the doubt when the claim to freedom was not clearcut. Also, he punished the killing of a slave by his/her master | "Antoninus Pius" | [
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5150 | without previous trial and determined that slaves could be forcibly sold to another master by a proconsul in cases of consistent mistreatment. Antoninus upheld the enforcement of contracts for selling of female slaves forbidding their further employment in prostitution. In criminal law, Antoninus introduced the important principle that accused persons are not to be treated as guilty before trial – as in the case of the irenarchs (see above). He also asserted the principle that the trial was to be held, and the punishment inflicted, in the place where the crime had been committed. He mitigated the use of torture | "Antoninus Pius" | [
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5151 | in examining slaves by certain limitations. Thus he prohibited the application of torture to children under fourteen years, though this rule had exceptions. However, it must be stressed that Antoninus "extended", by means of a rescript, the use of torture as a means of obtaining evidence to pecuniary cases, when it had been applied up until then only in criminal cases. Also, already at the time torture of free men of low status ("humiliores") had become legal, as proved by the fact that Antoninus exempted town councillors expressly from it, and also free men of high rank ("honestiores") in general. | "Antoninus Pius" | [
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5152 | One highlight during his reign occurred in 148, with the nine-hundredth anniversary of the foundation of Rome being celebrated by the hosting of magnificent games in Rome. It lasted a number of days, and a host of exotic animals were killed, including elephants, giraffes, tigers, rhinoceroses, crocodiles and hippopotami. While this increased Antoninus’s popularity, the frugal emperor had to debase the Roman currency. He decreased the silver purity of the denarius from 89% to 83.5% — the actual silver weight dropping from 2.88 grams to 2.68 grams. Scholars name Antoninus Pius as the leading candidate for an individual identified as | "Antoninus Pius" | [
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5153 | a friend of Rabbi Judah the Prince. According to the Talmud (Avodah Zarah 10a-b), Rabbi Judah was very wealthy and greatly revered in Rome. He had a close friendship with "Antoninus", possibly Antoninus Pius, who would consult Rabbi Judah on various worldly and spiritual matters. In 156, Antoninus Pius turned 70. He found it difficult to keep himself upright without stays. He started nibbling on dry bread to give him the strength to stay awake through his morning receptions. Marcus Aurelius had already been created consul with Antoninus in 140, receiving the title of Caesar – i.e., heir apparent. As | "Antoninus Pius" | [
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5154 | Antoninus aged, Marcus would take on more administrative duties, more still after the deathin 156 or 157of one of Antoninus' most trusted advisers, Gavius Maximus, who had been praetorian prefect (an office that was as much secretarial as military) for twenty years. Gavius Maximus, who had been one of the most important members of Antoninus' "team" of long standing advisers, had been awarded with the consular insignia and the honors due a senator. He had developed a reputation as a most strict disciplinarian ("vir severissimus", according to "Historia Augusta") as well as some lasting grudges among fellow equestrian procurators – | "Antoninus Pius" | [
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5155 | one of them, by predeceasing Gavius and vilifying him in his will, created a serious embarrassment to one of the heirs, the orator Fronto. Gavius Maximus' death offered the opportunity to a welcome change in the ruling team, and it has been speculated that it was the legal adviser Volusius Maecianus who—after a brief spell as Praefect of Egypt, and a subsequent term as Praefectus annonae in Rome – assumed the role of grey eminence precisely in order to prepare the incoming – and altogether new – joint succession. In 160, Marcus and Lucius were designated joint consuls for the | "Antoninus Pius" | [
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5156 | following year. Perhaps Antoninus was already ill; in any case, he died before the year was out. Two days before his death, the biographer reports, Antoninus was at his ancestral estate at Lorium, in Etruria, about twelve miles (19 km) from Rome. He ate Alpine Gruyere cheese at dinner quite greedily. In the night he vomited; he had a fever the next day. The day after that, 7 March 161, he summoned the imperial council, and passed the state and his daughter to Marcus. The emperor gave the keynote to his life in the last word that he uttered: when | "Antoninus Pius" | [
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5157 | the tribune of the night-watch came to ask the password, he responded, "aequanimitas" (equanimity). He then turned over, as if going to sleep, and died. His death closed out the longest reign since Augustus (surpassing Tiberius by a couple of months). His record for the second-longest reign would be unbeaten for 168 years, until 329 when it was surpassed by Constantine the Great. Antoninus Pius' funeral ceremonies were, in the words of the biographer, "elaborate". If his funeral followed the pattern of past funerals, his body would have been incinerated on a pyre at the Campus Martius, while his spirit | "Antoninus Pius" | [
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5158 | would rise to the gods' home in the heavens. However, it seems that this was not the case: according to his Historia Augusta biography (which seems to reproduce an earlier, detailed report) Antoninus' body (and not his ashes) was buried in Hadrian's mausoleum. After a seven-day interval ("justitium"), Marcus and Lucius nominated their father for deification. In contrast to their behavior during Antoninus' campaign to deify Hadrian, the senate did not oppose the emperors' wishes. A "flamen", or cultic priest, was appointed to minister the cult of the deified Antoninus, now "Divus Antoninus". A column was dedicated to Antoninus on | "Antoninus Pius" | [
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5159 | the Campus Martius, and the temple he had built in the Forum in 141 to his deified wife Faustina was rededicated to the deified Faustina and the deified Antoninus. It survives as the church of San Lorenzo in Miranda. The first group of people claiming to be an ambassadorial mission of Romans to China was recorded in 166 AD by the "Hou Hanshu". The embassy came to Emperor Huan of Han China from "Andun" (; Emperor Antoninus Pius), "king of Daqin" (Rome). As Antoninus Pius died in 161, leaving the empire to his adoptive son Marcus Aurelius (Antoninus), and the | "Antoninus Pius" | [
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5160 | envoy arrived in 166, confusion remains about who sent the mission given that both Emperors were named 'Antoninus'. The Roman mission came from the south (therefore probably by sea), entering China by the frontier province of Jiaozhi at Rinan or Tonkin (present-day northern Vietnam). It brought presents of rhinoceros horns, ivory, and tortoise shell, probably acquired in Southern Asia. The text specifically states that it was the first time there had been direct contact between the two countries. Furthermore, a piece of Republican-era Roman glassware has been found at a Western Han tomb in Guangzhou along the South China Sea, | "Antoninus Pius" | [
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5161 | dated to the early 1st century BC. Roman golden medallions made during the reign of Antoninus Pius and perhaps even Marcus Aurelius have been found at Óc Eo in southern Vietnam, then part of the Kingdom of Funan near the Chinese province of Jiaozhi. This may have been the port city of Kattigara, described by Ptolemy (c. 150) as being visited by a Greek sailor named Alexander and laying beyond the Golden Chersonese (i.e., Malay Peninsula). Roman coins from the reigns of Tiberius to Aurelian have been discovered in Xi'an, China (site of the Han capital Chang'an), although the significantly | "Antoninus Pius" | [
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5162 | greater amount of Roman coins unearthed in India suggest the Roman maritime trade for purchasing Chinese silk was centered there, not in China or even the overland Silk Road running through ancient Iran. The only intact account of his life handed down to us is that of the "Augustan History", an unreliable and mostly fabricated work. Nevertheless, it still contains information that is considered reasonably sound – for instance, it is the only source that mentions the erection of the Antonine Wall in Britain. Antoninus is unique among Roman emperors in that he has no other biographies. Antoninus in many | "Antoninus Pius" | [
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5163 | ways was the ideal of the landed gentleman praised not only by ancient Romans, but also by later scholars of classical history, such as Edward Gibbon or the author of the article on Antoninus Pius in the "Encyclopædia Britannica" Eleventh Edition. Some historians have a less positive view of his reign. According to the historian J. B. Bury, German historian Ernst Kornemann has had it in his "Römische Geschichte" [2 vols., ed. by H. Bengtson, Stuttgart 1954] that the reign of Antoninus comprised "a succession of grossly wasted opportunities," given the upheavals that were to come. There is more to | "Antoninus Pius" | [
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5164 | this argument, given that the Parthians in the East were themselves soon to make no small amount of mischief after Antoninus' passing. Kornemann's brief is that Antoninus might have waged preventive wars to head off these outsiders. Michael Grant agrees that it is possible that had Antoninus acted decisively sooner (it appears that, on his death bed, he was preparing a large-scale action against the Parthians), the Parthians might have been unable to choose their own time, but current evidence is not conclusive. Grant opines that Antoninus and his officers did act in a resolute manner dealing with frontier disturbances | "Antoninus Pius" | [
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5165 | of his time, although conditions for long-lasting peace were not created. On the whole, according to Grant, Marcus Aurelius' eulogistic picture of Antoninus seems deserved, and Antoninus appears to have been a conservative and nationalistic (although he respected and followed Hadrian's example of Philhellenism moderately) Emperor who was not tainted by the blood of either citizen or foe, combined and maintained Numa Pompilius' good fortune, pacific dutifulness and religious scrupulousness, and whose laws removed anomalies and softened harshnesses. Krzysztof Ulanowski argues that the claims of military inability are exaggerated, considering that although the sources praise Antoninus' love for peace and | "Antoninus Pius" | [
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5166 | his efforts "rather to defend, than enlarge the provinces", he could hardly be considered a pacifist, as shown by the conquest of the Lowlands, the building of the Antonine Wall and the expansion of Germania Superior. Ulianowski also praises Antoninus for being successful in deterrence by diplomatic means. Although only one of his four children survived to adulthood, Antoninus came to be ancestor to four generations of prominent Romans, including the Emperor Commodus. Hans-Georg Pflaum has identified five direct descendants of Antoninus and Faustina who were consuls in the first half of the third century. Antoninus Pius Antoninus Pius (; | "Antoninus Pius" | [
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5167 | Advanced Encryption Standard The Advanced Encryption Standard (AES), also known by its original name Rijndael (), is a specification for the encryption of electronic data established by the U.S. National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST) in 2001. AES is a subset of the Rijndael block cipher developed by two Belgian cryptographers, Vincent Rijmen and Joan Daemen, who submitted a proposal to NIST during the AES selection process. Rijndael is a family of ciphers with different key and block sizes. For AES, NIST selected three members of the Rijndael family, each with a block size of 128 bits, but three | "Advanced Encryption Standard" | [
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5168 | different key lengths: 128, 192 and 256 bits. AES has been adopted by the U.S. government and is now used worldwide. It supersedes the Data Encryption Standard (DES), which was published in 1977. The algorithm described by AES is a symmetric-key algorithm, meaning the same key is used for both encrypting and decrypting the data. In the United States, AES was announced by the NIST as U.S. FIPS PUB 197 (FIPS 197) on November 26, 2001. This announcement followed a five-year standardization process in which fifteen competing designs were presented and evaluated, before the Rijndael cipher was selected as the | "Advanced Encryption Standard" | [
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5169 | most suitable (see Advanced Encryption Standard process for more details). AES became effective as a federal government standard on May 26, 2002, after approval by the Secretary of Commerce. AES is included in the ISO/IEC 18033-3 standard. AES is available in many different encryption packages, and is the first (and only) publicly accessible cipher approved by the National Security Agency (NSA) for top secret information when used in an NSA approved cryptographic module (see Security of AES, below). The Advanced Encryption Standard (AES) is defined in each of: AES is based on a design principle known as a substitution–permutation network, | "Advanced Encryption Standard" | [
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5170 | and is efficient in both software and hardware. Unlike its predecessor DES, AES does not use a Feistel network. AES is a variant of Rijndael which has a fixed block size of 128 bits, and a key size of 128, 192, or 256 bits. By contrast, Rijndael "per se" is specified with block and key sizes that may be any multiple of 32 bits, with a minimum of 128 and a maximum of 256 bits. AES operates on a 4 × 4 column-major order array of bytes, termed the "state". Most AES calculations are done in a particular finite field. | "Advanced Encryption Standard" | [
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5171 | For instance, if there are 16 bytes, formula_1, these bytes are represented as this two-dimensional array: The key size used for an AES cipher specifies the number of transformation rounds that convert the input, called the plaintext, into the final output, called the ciphertext. The number of rounds are as follows: Each round consists of several processing steps, including one that depends on the encryption key itself. A set of reverse rounds are applied to transform ciphertext back into the original plaintext using the same encryption key. In the SubBytes step, each byte formula_3 in the "state" array is replaced | "Advanced Encryption Standard" | [
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5172 | with a SubByte formula_4 using an 8-bit substitution box. This operation provides the non-linearity in the cipher. The S-box used is derived from the multiplicative inverse over , known to have good non-linearity properties. To avoid attacks based on simple algebraic properties, the S-box is constructed by combining the inverse function with an invertible affine transformation. The S-box is also chosen to avoid any fixed points (and so is a derangement), i.e., formula_5, and also any opposite fixed points, i.e., formula_6. While performing the decryption, the InvSubBytes step (the inverse of SubBytes) is used, which requires first taking the inverse | "Advanced Encryption Standard" | [
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5173 | of the affine transformation and then finding the multiplicative inverse. The ShiftRows step operates on the rows of the state; it cyclically shifts the bytes in each row by a certain offset. For AES, the first row is left unchanged. Each byte of the second row is shifted one to the left. Similarly, the third and fourth rows are shifted by offsets of two and three respectively. In this way, each column of the output state of the ShiftRows step is composed of bytes from each column of the input state. The importance of this step is to avoid the | "Advanced Encryption Standard" | [
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5174 | columns being encrypted independently, in which case AES degenerates into four independent block ciphers. In the MixColumns step, the four bytes of each column of the state are combined using an invertible linear transformation. The MixColumns function takes four bytes as input and outputs four bytes, where each input byte affects all four output bytes. Together with ShiftRows, MixColumns provides diffusion in the cipher. During this operation, each column is transformed using a fixed matrix (matrix left-multiplied by column gives new value of column in the state): Matrix multiplication is composed of multiplication and addition of the entries. Entries are | "Advanced Encryption Standard" | [
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5175 | 8-bit bytes treated as coefficients of polynomial of order formula_8. Addition is simply XOR. Multiplication is modulo irreducible polynomial formula_9. If processed bit by bit, then, after shifting, a conditional XOR with 1B should be performed if the shifted value is larger than FF (overflow must be corrected by subtraction of generating polynomial). These are special cases of the usual multiplication in formula_10. In more general sense, each column is treated as a polynomial over formula_10 and is then multiplied modulo formula_12 with a fixed polynomial formula_13. The coefficients are displayed in their hexadecimal equivalent of the binary representation of | "Advanced Encryption Standard" | [
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5176 | bit polynomials from formula_14. The MixColumns step can also be viewed as a multiplication by the shown particular MDS matrix in the finite field formula_10. This process is described further in the article Rijndael MixColumns. In the AddRoundKey step, the subkey is combined with the state. For each round, a subkey is derived from the main key using Rijndael's key schedule; each subkey is the same size as the state. The subkey is added by combining each byte of the state with the corresponding byte of the subkey using bitwise XOR. On systems with 32-bit or larger words, it is | "Advanced Encryption Standard" | [
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5177 | possible to speed up execution of this cipher by combining the SubBytes and ShiftRows steps with the MixColumns step by transforming them into a sequence of table lookups. This requires four 256-entry 32-bit tables (together occupying 4096 bytes). A round can then be performed with 16 table lookup operations and 12 32-bit exclusive-or operations, followed by four 32-bit exclusive-or operations in the AddRoundKey step. Alternatively, the table lookup operation can be performed with a single 256-entry 32-bit table (occupying 1024 bytes) followed by circular rotation operations. Using a byte-oriented approach, it is possible to combine the SubBytes, ShiftRows, and MixColumns | "Advanced Encryption Standard" | [
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5178 | steps into a single round operation. Until May 2009, the only successful published attacks against the full AES were side-channel attacks on some specific implementations. The National Security Agency (NSA) reviewed all the AES finalists, including Rijndael, and stated that all of them were secure enough for U.S. Government non-classified data. In June 2003, the U.S. Government announced that AES could be used to protect classified information: The design and strength of all key lengths of the AES algorithm (i.e., 128, 192 and 256) are sufficient to protect classified information up to the SECRET level. TOP SECRET information will require | "Advanced Encryption Standard" | [
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5179 | use of either the 192 or 256 key lengths. The implementation of AES in products intended to protect national security systems and/or information must be reviewed and certified by NSA prior to their acquisition and use. AES has 10 rounds for 128-bit keys, 12 rounds for 192-bit keys, and 14 rounds for 256-bit keys. By 2006, the best known attacks were on 7 rounds for 128-bit keys, 8 rounds for 192-bit keys, and 9 rounds for 256-bit keys. For cryptographers, a cryptographic "break" is anything faster than a brute-force attack – i.e., performing one trial decryption for each possible key | "Advanced Encryption Standard" | [
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5180 | in sequence (see Cryptanalysis). A break can thus include results that are infeasible with current technology. Despite being impractical, theoretical breaks can sometimes provide insight into vulnerability patterns. The largest successful publicly known brute-force attack against a widely implemented block-cipher encryption algorithm was against a 64-bit RC5 key by distributed.net in 2006. The key space increases by a factor of 2 for each additional bit of key length, and if every possible value of the key is equiprobable, this translates into a doubling of the average brute-force key search time. This implies that the effort of a brute-force search increases | "Advanced Encryption Standard" | [
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5181 | exponentially with key length. Key length in itself does not imply security against attacks, since there are ciphers with very long keys that have been found to be vulnerable. AES has a fairly simple algebraic framework. In 2002, a theoretical attack, named the "XSL attack", was announced by Nicolas Courtois and Josef Pieprzyk, purporting to show a weakness in the AES algorithm, partially due to the low complexity of its nonlinear components. Since then, other papers have shown that the attack, as originally presented, is unworkable; see XSL attack on block ciphers. During the AES selection process, developers of competing | "Advanced Encryption Standard" | [
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5182 | algorithms wrote of Rijndael's algorithm "...we are concerned about [its] use ... in security-critical applications." In October 2000, however, at the end of the AES selection process, Bruce Schneier, a developer of the competing algorithm Twofish, wrote that while he thought successful academic attacks on Rijndael would be developed someday, he did not "believe that anyone will ever discover an attack that will allow someone to read Rijndael traffic". In 2009, a new related-key attack was discovered that exploits the simplicity of AES's key schedule and has a complexity of 2. In December 2009 it was improved to 2. This | "Advanced Encryption Standard" | [
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5183 | is a follow-up to an attack discovered earlier in 2009 by Alex Biryukov, Dmitry Khovratovich, and Ivica Nikolić, with a complexity of 2 for one out of every 2 keys. However, related-key attacks are not of concern in any properly designed cryptographic protocol, as a properly designed protocol (i.e., implementational software) will take care not to allow related keys, essentially by constraining an attacker's means of selecting keys for relatedness. Another attack was blogged by Bruce Schneier on July 30, 2009, and released as a preprint on August 3, 2009. This new attack, by Alex Biryukov, Orr Dunkelman, Nathan Keller, | "Advanced Encryption Standard" | [
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5184 | Dmitry Khovratovich, and Adi Shamir, is against AES-256 that uses only two related keys and 2 time to recover the complete 256-bit key of a 9-round version, or 2 time for a 10-round version with a stronger type of related subkey attack, or 2 time for an 11-round version. 256-bit AES uses 14 rounds, so these attacks aren't effective against full AES. The practicality of these attacks with stronger related keys has been criticized, for instance, by the paper on "chosen-key-relations-in-the-middle" attacks on AES-128 authored by Vincent Rijmen in 2010. In November 2009, the first known-key distinguishing attack against a | "Advanced Encryption Standard" | [
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5185 | reduced 8-round version of AES-128 was released as a preprint. This known-key distinguishing attack is an improvement of the rebound, or the start-from-the-middle attack, against AES-like permutations, which view two consecutive rounds of permutation as the application of a so-called Super-Sbox. It works on the 8-round version of AES-128, with a time complexity of 2, and a memory complexity of 2. 128-bit AES uses 10 rounds, so this attack isn't effective against full AES-128. The first key-recovery attacks on full AES were due to Andrey Bogdanov, Dmitry Khovratovich, and Christian Rechberger, and were published in 2011. The attack is a | "Advanced Encryption Standard" | [
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5186 | biclique attack and is faster than brute force by a factor of about four. It requires 2 operations to recover an AES-128 key. For AES-192 and AES-256, 2 and 2 operations are needed, respectively. This result has been further improved to 2 for AES-128, 2 for AES-192 and 2 for AES-256, which are the current best results in key recovery attack against AES. This is a very small gain, as a 126-bit key (instead of 128-bits) would still take billions of years to brute force on current and foreseeable hardware. Also, the authors calculate the best attack using their technique | "Advanced Encryption Standard" | [
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5187 | on AES with a 128 bit key requires storing 2 bits of data. That works out to about 38 trillion terabytes of data, which is more than all the data stored on all the computers on the planet in 2016. As such, this is a seriously impractical attack which has no practical implication on AES security. The space complexity has later been improved to 2 bits, which is 9007 terabytes. According to the Snowden documents, the NSA is doing research on whether a cryptographic attack based on tau statistic may help to break AES. At present, there is no known | "Advanced Encryption Standard" | [
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5188 | practical attack that would allow someone without knowledge of the key to read data encrypted by AES when correctly implemented. Side-channel attacks do not attack the cipher as a black box, and thus are not related to cipher security as defined in the classical context, but are important in practice. They attack implementations of the cipher on hardware or software systems that inadvertently leak data. There are several such known attacks on various implementations of AES. In April 2005, D.J. Bernstein announced a cache-timing attack that he used to break a custom server that used OpenSSL's AES encryption. The attack | "Advanced Encryption Standard" | [
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5189 | required over 200 million chosen plaintexts. The custom server was designed to give out as much timing information as possible (the server reports back the number of machine cycles taken by the encryption operation); however, as Bernstein pointed out, "reducing the precision of the server's timestamps, or eliminating them from the server's responses, does not stop the attack: the client simply uses round-trip timings based on its local clock, and compensates for the increased noise by averaging over a larger number of samples." In October 2005, Dag Arne Osvik, Adi Shamir and Eran Tromer presented a paper demonstrating several cache-timing | "Advanced Encryption Standard" | [
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5190 | attacks against the implementations in AES found in OpenSSL and Linux's codice_1 partition encryption function. One attack was able to obtain an entire AES key after only 800 operations triggering encryptions, in a total of 65 milliseconds. This attack requires the attacker to be able to run programs on the same system or platform that is performing AES. In December 2009 an attack on some hardware implementations was published that used differential fault analysis and allows recovery of a key with a complexity of 2. In November 2010 Endre Bangerter, David Gullasch and Stephan Krenn published a paper which described | "Advanced Encryption Standard" | [
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5191 | a practical approach to a "near real time" recovery of secret keys from AES-128 without the need for either cipher text or plaintext. The approach also works on AES-128 implementations that use compression tables, such as OpenSSL. Like some earlier attacks this one requires the ability to run unprivileged code on the system performing the AES encryption, which may be achieved by malware infection far more easily than commandeering the root account. In March 2016, Ashokkumar C., Ravi Prakash Giri and Bernard Menezes presented a very efficient side-channel attack on AES implementations that can recover the complete 128-bit AES key | "Advanced Encryption Standard" | [
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5192 | in just 6–7 blocks of plaintext/ciphertext which is a substantial improvement over previous works that require between 100 and a million encryptions. The proposed attack requires standard user privilege as previous attacks and key-retrieval algorithms run under a minute. Many modern CPUs have built-in hardware instructions for AES, which would protect against timing-related side-channel attacks. The Cryptographic Module Validation Program (CMVP) is operated jointly by the United States Government's National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST) Computer Security Division and the Communications Security Establishment (CSE) of the Government of Canada. The use of cryptographic modules validated to NIST FIPS 140-2 | "Advanced Encryption Standard" | [
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5193 | is required by the United States Government for encryption of all data that has a classification of Sensitive but Unclassified (SBU) or above. From NSTISSP #11, National Policy Governing the Acquisition of Information Assurance: "Encryption products for protecting classified information will be certified by NSA, and encryption products intended for protecting sensitive information will be certified in accordance with NIST FIPS 140-2." The Government of Canada also recommends the use of FIPS 140 validated cryptographic modules in unclassified applications of its departments. Although NIST publication 197 ("FIPS 197") is the unique document that covers the AES algorithm, vendors typically approach | "Advanced Encryption Standard" | [
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5194 | the CMVP under FIPS 140 and ask to have several algorithms (such as Triple DES or SHA1) validated at the same time. Therefore, it is rare to find cryptographic modules that are uniquely FIPS 197 validated and NIST itself does not generally take the time to list FIPS 197 validated modules separately on its public web site. Instead, FIPS 197 validation is typically just listed as an "FIPS approved: AES" notation (with a specific FIPS 197 certificate number) in the current list of FIPS 140 validated cryptographic modules. The Cryptographic Algorithm Validation Program (CAVP) allows for independent validation of the | "Advanced Encryption Standard" | [
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5195 | correct implementation of the AES algorithm at a reasonable cost. Successful validation results in being listed on the NIST validations page. This testing is a pre-requisite for the FIPS 140-2 module validation described below. However, successful CAVP validation in no way implies that the cryptographic module implementing the algorithm is secure. A cryptographic module lacking FIPS 140-2 validation or specific approval by the NSA is not deemed secure by the US Government and cannot be used to protect government data. FIPS 140-2 validation is challenging to achieve both technically and fiscally. There is a standardized battery of tests as well | "Advanced Encryption Standard" | [
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5196 | as an element of source code review that must be passed over a period of a few weeks. The cost to perform these tests through an approved laboratory can be significant (e.g., well over $30,000 US) and does not include the time it takes to write, test, document and prepare a module for validation. After validation, modules must be re-submitted and re-evaluated if they are changed in any way. This can vary from simple paperwork updates if the security functionality did not change to a more substantial set of re-testing if the security functionality was impacted by the change. Test | "Advanced Encryption Standard" | [
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5197 | vectors are a set of known ciphers for a given input and key. NIST distributes the reference of AES test vectors as AES Known Answer Test (KAT) Vectors. High speed and low RAM requirements were criteria of the AES selection process. As the chosen algorithm, AES performed well on a wide variety of hardware, from 8-bit smart cards to high-performance computers. On a Pentium Pro, AES encryption requires 18 clock cycles per byte, equivalent to a throughput of about 11 MB/s for a 200 MHz processor. On a 1.7 GHz Pentium M throughput is about 60 MB/s. On Intel Core | "Advanced Encryption Standard" | [
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5198 | i3/i5/i7 and AMD Ryzen CPUs supporting AES-NI instruction set extensions, throughput can be multiple GB/s (even over 10 GB/s). Advanced Encryption Standard The Advanced Encryption Standard (AES), also known by its original name Rijndael (), is a specification for the encryption of electronic data established by the U.S. National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST) in 2001. AES is a subset of the Rijndael block cipher developed by two Belgian cryptographers, Vincent Rijmen and Joan Daemen, who submitted a proposal to NIST during the AES selection process. Rijndael is a family of ciphers with different key and block sizes. For | "Advanced Encryption Standard" | [
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5199 | Argot An argot (; from French "argot" 'slang') is a secret language used by various groups—e.g., schoolmates, outlaws, colleagues, gay people (Polari) among many others—to prevent outsiders from understanding their conversations. The term "argot" is also used to refer to the informal specialized vocabulary from a particular field of study, occupation, or hobby, in which sense it overlaps with jargon. The discipline of medicine has been referred to as having its own argot which includes abbreviations, acronyms, and "technical colloquialisms". Author Victor Hugo was one of the first to research and compile terms from criminal argot. In his 1862 novel | Argot | [
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5200 | "Les Misérables," he refers to that argot as both "the language of the dark" and "the language of misery." The earliest known record of the term "argot" in this context was in a 1628 document. The word was probably derived from the contemporary name "les argotiers", given to a group of thieves at that time. Under the strictest definition, an "argot" is a proper language with its own grammar and style. But such complete secret languages are rare because the speakers usually have some public language in common, on which the argot is largely based. Such argots are mainly versions | Argot | [
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0.7441308498382568,
-0.4638286232948303,
-0.111963167786598... |
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