wikipedia_id stringlengths 2 8 | wikipedia_title stringlengths 1 243 | url stringlengths 44 370 | contents stringlengths 53 2.22k | id int64 0 6.14M |
|---|---|---|---|---|
20208 | Margaret Murray | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Margaret%20Murray | Margaret Murray
Elliot Smith's highly unorthodox and heavily criticised hyperdiffusionist view that Egypt was the source of all global civilisation. The book received a mixed reception from the archaeological community.
### 1953–63.
In 1953, Murray was appointed to the presidency of the Folklore Society following th... | 49,000 |
20208 | Margaret Murray | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Margaret%20Murray | Margaret Murray
own folklore in favour of that from other nations. For the autumn 1961 issue of "Folklore", the society published a "festschrift" to Murray to commemorate her 98th birthday. The issue contained contributions from various scholars paying tribute to her – with papers dealing with archaeology, fairies, Nea... | 49,001 |
20208 | Margaret Murray | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Margaret%20Murray | Margaret Murray
expressed concern about the reality of the figures. Lethbridge subsequently authored a book championing her witch-cult theory in which he sought the cult's origins in pre-Christian culture. In 1960, she donated her collection of papers – including correspondences with a wide range of individuals across ... | 49,002 |
20208 | Margaret Murray | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Margaret%20Murray | Margaret Murray
Victoria Memorial Hospital in Welwyn, Hertfordshire, where she could receive 24-hour care; she lived here for the final 18 months of her life. To mark her hundredth birthday, on 13 July 1963 a group of her friends, former students, and doctors gathered for a party at nearby Ayot St. Lawrence. Two days l... | 49,003 |
20208 | Margaret Murray | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Margaret%20Murray | Margaret Murray
year she published two books; one was "The Genesis of Religion", in which she argued that humanity's first deities had been goddesses rather than male gods. The second was her autobiography, "My First Hundred Years", which received predominantly positive reviews. She died on 13 November 1963, and her bo... | 49,004 |
20208 | Margaret Murray | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Margaret%20Murray | Margaret Murray
study of the witch trials", as well as being the first to have actually "empowered the witches" by giving the (largely female) accused both free will and a voice distinct from that of their interrogators. The theory was faulty, in part because all of her academic training was in Egyptology, with no back... | 49,005 |
20208 | Margaret Murray | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Margaret%20Murray | Margaret Murray
In particular, her approach was influenced by the work of the anthropologist James Frazer, who had argued for the existence of a pervasive dying-and-resurrecting god myth, and she was also influenced by the interpretative approaches of E. O. James, Karl Pearson, Herbert Fleure, and Harold Peake.
## Arg... | 49,006 |
20208 | Margaret Murray | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Margaret%20Murray | Margaret Murray
of Western Europe", a fertility-based faith that she also termed "the Dianic cult". She claimed that the cult had "very probably" once been devoted to the worship of both a male deity and a "Mother Goddess" but that "at the time when the cult is recorded the worship of the male deity appears to have sup... | 49,007 |
20208 | Margaret Murray | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Margaret%20Murray | Margaret Murray
they were usually dressed plainly, though they appeared in full costume for the witches' Sabbaths.
Members joined the cult either as children or adults through what Murray called "admission ceremonies"; Murray asserted that applicants had to agree to join of their own free will, and agree to devote the... | 49,008 |
20208 | Margaret Murray | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Margaret%20Murray | Margaret Murray
accounts, but who was accountable to a "Grand Master". According to Murray, the records of the coven were kept in a secret book, with the coven also disciplining its members, to the extent of executing those deemed traitors.
Describing this witch-cult as "a joyous religion", she claimed that the two pr... | 49,009 |
20208 | Margaret Murray | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Margaret%20Murray | Margaret Murray
that began at midnight, and were "primarily for business, whereas the Sabbath was purely religious". At the former, magical rites were performed both for malevolent and benevolent ends. She also asserted that the Sabbath ceremonies involved the witches paying homage to the deity, renewing their "vows of... | 49,010 |
20208 | Margaret Murray | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Margaret%20Murray | Margaret Murray
that many of its rites were designed to ensure fertility and rain-making. She claimed that there were four types of sacrifice performed by the witches: blood-sacrifice, in which the neophyte writes their name in blood; the sacrifice of animals; the sacrifice of a non-Christian child to procure magical p... | 49,011 |
20208 | Margaret Murray | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Margaret%20Murray | Margaret Murray
and "domestic familiars" used in other magic rites.
Murray asserted that a pre-Christian fertility-based religion had survived the Christianization process in Britain, although that it came to be "practised only in certain places and among certain classes of the community". She believed that folkloric ... | 49,012 |
20208 | Margaret Murray | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Margaret%20Murray | Margaret Murray
were executed for it, a claim which has been refuted by historians, especially in the case of Joan of Arc.
The later historian Ronald Hutton commented that "The Witch-Cult in Western Europe" "rested upon a small amount of archival research, with extensive use of printed trial records in 19th-century ed... | 49,013 |
20208 | Margaret Murray | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Margaret%20Murray | Margaret Murray
to provide the entry on "Witchcraft" for the "Encyclopædia Britannica", and used it to present her interpretation of the subject as if it were universally accepted in scholarship. It remained in the encyclopedia until being replaced in 1969.
Murray followed "The Witch-Cult in Western Europe" with "The ... | 49,014 |
20208 | Margaret Murray | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Margaret%20Murray | Margaret Murray
she also "cut out or toned down" many of the claims made in her previous volume which would have painted the cult in a bad light, such as those which discussed sex and the sacrifice of animals and children.
In this book she began to refer to the witches' deity as the Horned God, and asserted that it wa... | 49,015 |
20208 | Margaret Murray | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Margaret%20Murray | Margaret Murray
of Pashupati, as well as the deities Osiris and Amon in Egypt and the Minotaur of Minoan Crete. Within continental Europe, she claimed that the Horned God was represented by Pan in Greece, Cernunnos in Gaul, and in various Scandinavian rock carvings. Claiming that this divinity had been declared the Dev... | 49,016 |
20208 | Margaret Murray | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Margaret%20Murray | Margaret Murray
Golden Bough", an anthropological book that made the claim that societies all over the world sacrificed their kings to the deities of nature. In her book, she claimed that this practice had continued into medieval England, and that, for instance, the death of William II was really a ritual sacrifice.
N... | 49,017 |
20208 | Margaret Murray | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Margaret%20Murray | Margaret Murray
her theories into their work, although the latter subsequently distanced himself from the theory. For the 1961 reprint of "The Witch-Cult in Western Europe", the Medieval historian Steven Runciman provided a foreword in which he accepted that some of Murray's "minor details may be open to criticism", bu... | 49,018 |
20208 | Margaret Murray | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Margaret%20Murray | Margaret Murray
sway at the higher intellectual levels", being widely accepted among "educated people".
Rose suggested that the reason that Murray's theory gained such support was partly because of her "imposing credentials" as a member of staff at UCL, a position that lent her theory greater legitimacy in the eyes of... | 49,019 |
20208 | Margaret Murray | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Margaret%20Murray | Margaret Murray
countryside as a timeless place full of ancient secrets", the literary popularity of Pan, the widespread belief that the majority of British had remained pagan long after the process of Christianisation, and the idea that folk customs represented pagan survivals. At the same time, Hutton suggested, it s... | 49,020 |
20208 | Margaret Murray | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Margaret%20Murray | Margaret Murray
had been any witches and those, like Montague Summers, who insisted that there had been a real Satanic conspiracy against Christendom in the Early Modern period replete with witches with supernatural powers. "How refreshing", noted the historian Hilda Ellis Davidson, "and exciting her first book was "at... | 49,021 |
20208 | Margaret Murray | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Margaret%20Murray | Margaret Murray
and 1930s were largely critical. George L. Burr reviewed both of her initial books on the witch-cult for the "American Historical Review". He stated that she was not acquainted with the "careful general histories by modern scholars" and criticised her for assuming that the trial accounts accurately refl... | 49,022 |
20208 | Margaret Murray | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Margaret%20Murray | Margaret Murray
as was E. M. Loeb in his review for "American Anthropologist".
Soon after, one of the foremost specialists of the trial records, L'Estrange Ewen, brought out a series of books which rejected Murray's interpretation.
Rose suggested that Murray's books on the witch-cult "contain an incredible number of ... | 49,023 |
20208 | Margaret Murray | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Margaret%20Murray | Margaret Murray
anywhere in the intervening period. He further criticises Murray for treating pre-Christian Britain as a socially and culturally monolithic entity, whereas in reality, it contained a diverse array of societies and religious beliefs. He also challenges Murray's claim that the majority of Britons in the M... | 49,024 |
20208 | Margaret Murray | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Margaret%20Murray | Margaret Murray
despite these critical reviews, within the field of British folkloristics Murray's theories were permitted "to pass unapproved but unchallenged, either out of politeness or because nobody was really interested enough to research the topic". As evidence, she noted that no substantial research articles on... | 49,025 |
20208 | Margaret Murray | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Margaret%20Murray | Margaret Murray
were widely ignored by scholars of folkloristics.
### Academic rejection.
Murray's work was increasingly criticised following her death in 1963, with the definitive academic rejection of the Murrayite witch-cult theory occurring during the 1970s. During these decades, a variety of scholars across Euro... | 49,026 |
20208 | Margaret Murray | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Margaret%20Murray | Margaret Murray
the basis of this research, there was "very little evidence to suggest that the accused witches were either devil-worshippers or members of a pagan fertility cult". He stated that Murray's conclusions were "almost totally groundless" because she ignored the systematic study of the trial accounts provide... | 49,027 |
20208 | Margaret Murray | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Margaret%20Murray | Margaret Murray
religion Mircea Eliade described Murray's work as "hopelessly inadequate", containing "numberless and appalling errors". In 1996, the feminist historian Diane Purkiss stated that although Murray's thesis was "intrinsically improbable" and commanded "little or no allegiance within the modern academy", sh... | 49,028 |
20208 | Margaret Murray | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Margaret%20Murray | Margaret Murray
from "sources scattered across a great extent of space and time" and then declared them to be normative of the cult as a whole. Simpson outlined how Murray had selected her use of evidence very specifically, particularly by ignoring and/or rationalising any accounts of supernatural or miraculous events ... | 49,029 |
20208 | Margaret Murray | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Margaret%20Murray | Margaret Murray
along on broomsticks or smearing hallucinogenic salves onto themselves. Concurring with this assessment, the historian Jeffrey Burton Russell, writing with the independent author Brooks Alexander, stated that "Murray's use of sources, in general, is appalling". The pair went on to claim that "today, sch... | 49,030 |
20208 | Margaret Murray | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Margaret%20Murray | Margaret Murray
"a kernel of truth". He stated his opinion that she was right in claiming that European witchcraft had "roots in an ancient fertility cult", something that he argued was vindicated by his work researching the "benandanti", an agrarian visionary tradition recorded in the Friuli district of Northeastern I... | 49,031 |
20208 | Margaret Murray | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Margaret%20Murray | Margaret Murray
period had their origins in pre-Christian fertility religions. Moreover, other historians have expressed criticism of Ginzburg's interpretation of the "benandanti"; Cohn stated that there was "nothing whatsoever" in the source material to justify the idea that the "benandanti" were the "survival of an a... | 49,032 |
20208 | Margaret Murray | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Margaret%20Murray | Margaret Murray
to "pagan times", was entirely "an inference of his own" and not one supported by the documentary evidence.
# Personal life.
On researching the history of UCL's Egyptology department, the historian Rosalind M. Janssen stated that Murray was "remembered with gratitude and immense affection by all her f... | 49,033 |
20208 | Margaret Murray | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Margaret%20Murray | Margaret Murray
extreme old age". Davidson, who also knew Murray through the Society, noted that at their meetings "she would sit near the front, a bent and seemingly guileless old lady dozing peacefully, and then in the middle of a discussion would suddenly intervene with a relevant and penetrating comment which showe... | 49,034 |
20208 | Margaret Murray | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Margaret%20Murray | Margaret Murray
ever ready to impart her vast and varied stores of specialised knowledge without reserve, or, be it said, much if any regard for the generally accepted opinions and conclusions of the experts!" Davidson described her as being "not at all assertive ... [she] never thrust her ideas on anyone. [In relation... | 49,035 |
20208 | Margaret Murray | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Margaret%20Murray | Margaret Murray
her".
Murray never married, instead devoting her life to her work, and for this reason, Hutton drew comparisons between her and two other prominent female British scholars of the period, Jane Harrison and Jessie Weston. Murray's biographer Kathleen L. Sheppard stated that she was deeply committed to pu... | 49,036 |
20208 | Margaret Murray | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Margaret%20Murray | Margaret Murray
regularly; her salary remained small and the revenue from her books was meagre.
Raised a devout Christian by her mother, Murray had initially become a Sunday School teacher to preach the faith, but after entering the academic profession she rejected religion, gaining a reputation among other members of... | 49,037 |
20208 | Margaret Murray | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Margaret%20Murray | Margaret Murray
she felt deserved it; in one case she cursed a fellow academic, Jaroslav Černý, when she felt that his promotion to the position of Professor of Egyptology over her friend Walter Bryan Emery was unworthy. Her curse entailed mixing up ingredients in a frying pan, and was undertaken in the presence of two... | 49,038 |
20208 | Margaret Murray | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Margaret%20Murray | Margaret Murray
British archaeology". Upon her death, Daniel referred to her as "the Grand Old Woman of Egyptology", with Hutton noting that Egyptology represented "the core of her academic career". In 2014, Thornton referred to her as "one of Britain's most famous Egyptologists". However, according to the archaeologis... | 49,039 |
20208 | Margaret Murray | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Margaret%20Murray | Margaret Murray
declined following her death, something that Whitehouse attributed to the rejection of her witch-cult theory and the general erasure of women archaeologists from the discipline's male-dominated history.
In his obituary for Murray in "Folklore", James noted that her death was "an event of unusual intere... | 49,040 |
20208 | Margaret Murray | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Margaret%20Murray | Margaret Murray
as President of the Society was a causal factor in the mistrustful attitude that many historians held toward folkloristics as an academic discipline, as they erroneously came to believe that all folklorists endorsed Murray's ideas. Similarly, Catherine Noble stated that "Murray caused considerable damag... | 49,041 |
20208 | Margaret Murray | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Margaret%20Murray | Margaret Murray
room and there was gifted a copy of Murray's "My First Hundred Years". UCL also hold two busts of Murray, one kept in the Petrie Museum and the other in the library of the UCL Institute of Archaeology. This sculpture was commissioned by one of her students, Violet MacDermot, and produced by the artist S... | 49,042 |
20208 | Margaret Murray | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Margaret%20Murray | Margaret Murray
in the archaeological world at large and especially in UCL".
The historian of archaeology Rosalind M. Janssen titled her study of Egyptology at UCL "The First Hundred Years" "as a tribute" to Murray. Murray's friend Margaret Stefana Drower authored a short biography of her, which was included as a chap... | 49,043 |
20208 | Margaret Murray | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Margaret%20Murray | Margaret Murray
of Oklahoma. Although characterising it as being "written in a clear and engaging manner", one reviewer noted that Sheppard's book focuses on Murray the "scientist" and as such neglects to discuss Murray's involvement in magical practices and her relationship with Wicca.
## In Wicca.
Murray's witch-cu... | 49,044 |
20208 | Margaret Murray | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Margaret%20Murray | Margaret Murray
Wicca's theological structure, revolving around a Horned God and Mother Goddess, was adopted from Murray's ideas about the ancient witch-cult, and Wiccan groups were named "covens" and their meetings termed "esbats", both words that Murray had popularised. As with Murray's witch-cult, Wicca's practition... | 49,045 |
20208 | Margaret Murray | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Margaret%20Murray | Margaret Murray
who wished to form their own witches' covens, "Murray may have seemed the ideal fairy godmother, and her theory became the pumpkin coach that could transport them into the realm of fantasy for which they longed". The historian Philip Heselton suggested that the New Forest coven – the oldest alleged Wicc... | 49,046 |
20208 | Margaret Murray | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Margaret%20Murray | Margaret Murray
accept Murray's witch-cult hypothesis. The duo knew each other, with Murray writing the foreword to Gardner's 1954 book "Witchcraft Today", although in that foreword she did not explicitly specify whether she believed Gardner's claim that he had discovered a survival of her witch-cult. In 2005, Noble su... | 49,047 |
20208 | Margaret Murray | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Margaret%20Murray | Margaret Murray
eagerly searched for what she believed were other surviving remnants of the Murrayite witch-cult around Britain. Valiente remained committed to a belief in Murray's witch-cult after its academic rejection, and she described Murray as "a remarkable woman". In San Francisco during the late 1960s, Murray's... | 49,048 |
20208 | Margaret Murray | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Margaret%20Murray | Margaret Murray
the Gay Counterculture", a 1978 book written by the American gay liberation activist Arthur Evans.
Members of the Wiccan community gradually became aware of academia's rejection of the witch-cult theory. Accordingly, belief in its literal truth declined during the 1980s and 1990s, with many Wiccans ins... | 49,049 |
20208 | Margaret Murray | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Margaret%20Murray | Margaret Murray
exerted a strong impact on the British Pagan community, further eroding belief in the Murrayite theory among Wiccans. Conversely, other practitioners clung on to the theory, treating it as an important article of faith and rejecting post-Murrayite scholarship on European witchcraft. Several prominent pr... | 49,050 |
20208 | Margaret Murray | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Margaret%20Murray | Margaret Murray
on matters of detail, but none defended Murray's original hypothesis completely.
## In literature.
Simpson noted that the publication of the Murray thesis in the "Encyclopædia Britannica" made it accessible to "journalists, film-makers popular novelists and thriller writers", who adopted it "enthusias... | 49,051 |
20208 | Margaret Murray | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Margaret%20Murray | Margaret Murray
in appreciation, with the two meeting for lunch shortly after. There was nevertheless some difference in their depictions of the witch-cult; whereas Murray had depicted an organised pre-Christian cult, Warner depicted a vague family tradition that was explicitly Satanic.
In 1927, Warner lectured on the... | 49,052 |
20208 | Margaret Murray | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Margaret%20Murray | Margaret Murray
s Murray had depicted an organised pre-Christian cult, Warner depicted a vague family tradition that was explicitly Satanic.
In 1927, Warner lectured on the subject of witchcraft, exhibiting a strong influence from Murray's work. Analysing the relationship between Murray and Warner, the English literat... | 49,053 |
20292 | Multiplan | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Multiplan | Multiplan
Multiplan
Multiplan was an early spreadsheet program developed by Microsoft. Known initially by the code name "EP" (for "Electronic Paper"), it was introduced in 1982 as a competitor for VisiCalc.
Multiplan was released first for computers running CP/M; it was developed using a Microsoft proprietary p-code ... | 49,054 |
20292 | Multiplan | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Multiplan | Multiplan
with a CP/M card. In France, Multiplan was also released for the Thomson computers in 1986.
Despite the release of Microsoft Chart, a graphics companion program, Multiplan continued to be outsold by Lotus 1-2-3. It was replaced by Microsoft Excel, which followed some years later on both the Apple Macintosh (... | 49,055 |
20292 | Multiplan | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Multiplan | Multiplan
machines and as a result, "We decided to let [Lotus] have the character-based DOS market while we would instead focus on the next generation--graphical software on the Macintosh and Windows."
Around 1983, during the development of the first release of Windows, Microsoft had plans to make a Windows version. H... | 49,056 |
20292 | Multiplan | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Multiplan | Multiplan
straightforward than A1-style formulae for instance, "RC[-1]" (meaning "current row, previous column") is expressed as "A1" in cell B1, then "A2" in cell B2, etc. most spreadsheet users prefer the A1 addressing style introduced by VisiCalc.
Microsoft carried Multiplan's R1C1 legacy forward into Microsoft Exc... | 49,057 |
20292 | Multiplan | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Multiplan | Multiplan
e is not enough room in this article to mention all the mathematical operations performed ... Documentation is lengthy but well written". A second review in the magazine noted the limitation of the computer's 40-column screen, but praised the ability to stop any ongoing action. It also praised the documentati... | 49,058 |
20299 | MOS Technology 6510 | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=MOS%20Technology%206510 | MOS Technology 6510
MOS Technology 6510
The MOS Technology 6510 is an 8-bit microprocessor designed by MOS Technology. It is a modified form of the very successful 6502. The 6510 was only widely used in the Commodore 64 home computer and its variants.
The primary change from the 6502 was the addition of an 8-bit gene... | 49,059 |
20299 | MOS Technology 6510 | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=MOS%20Technology%206510 | MOS Technology 6510
sensing and write data lines; the read data line went to another I/O chip). It was possible, by writing the correct bit pattern to the processor at address $01, to completely expose almost the full 64 KB of RAM in the C64, leaving no ROM or I/O hardware exposed except for the processor I/O port itse... | 49,060 |
20299 | MOS Technology 6510 | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=MOS%20Technology%206510 | MOS Technology 6510
official debut in 1987, appearing in a motherboard using the new 85xx HMOS chipset.
## MOS 7501/8501.
The 7501/8501 variant of the 6510 was introduced in 1984. Compared to the 6510, this variant extends the number of I/O port pins from 6 to 8, but omits the pins for non-maskable interrupt and cloc... | 49,061 |
20299 | MOS Technology 6510 | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=MOS%20Technology%206510 | MOS Technology 6510
1 and 8501 CPUs is that they were manufactured with slightly different processes: 7501 was manufactured with HMOS-1 and 8501 with HMOS-2.
## MOS 8502.
The 2 MHz-capable 8502 variant was used in the Commodore 128. All these CPUs are opcode compatible (including undocumented opcodes).
## MOS 6510T.... | 49,062 |
20272 | Minicomputer | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Minicomputer | Minicomputer
Minicomputer
A minicomputer, or colloquially mini, is a class of smaller computers that was developed in the mid-1960s and sold for much less than mainframe and mid-size computers from IBM and its direct competitors. In a 1970 survey, "The New York Times" suggested a consensus definition of a minicomputer... | 49,063 |
20272 | Minicomputer | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Minicomputer | Minicomputer
switching as distinct from calculation and record keeping. Many were sold indirectly to original equipment manufacturers (OEMs) for final end use application. During the two decade lifetime of the minicomputer class (1965–1985), almost 100 companies formed and only a half dozen remained.
When single-chip ... | 49,064 |
20272 | Minicomputer | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Minicomputer | Minicomputer
ISA and Itanium-based systems from Oracle, IBM and Hewlett-Packard.
# History.
The term "minicomputer" developed in the 1960s to describe the smaller computers that became possible with the use of transistors and core memory technologies, minimal instructions sets and less expensive peripherals such as t... | 49,065 |
20272 | Minicomputer | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Minicomputer | Minicomputer
PDP-8, which was built using discrete transistors and cost from upwards when launched in 1964. Later versions of the PDP-8 took advantage of small-scale integrated circuits. The important precursors of the PDP-8 include the PDP-5, LINC, the TX-0, the TX-2, and the PDP-1. DEC gave rise to a number of minico... | 49,066 |
20272 | Minicomputer | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Minicomputer | Minicomputer
was used to launch the computer-aided design (CAD) industry and other similar industries where a smaller dedicated system was needed.
The 7400 series of TTL integrated circuits started appearing in minicomputers in the late 1960s. The 74181 arithmetic logic unit (ALU) was commonly used in the CPU data pat... | 49,067 |
20272 | Minicomputer | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Minicomputer | Minicomputer
making major system components and architecture evident to the naked eye. Starting in the 1980s, many minicomputers used VLSI circuits.
At the launch of the MITS Altair 8800 in 1975, "Radio Electronics" magazine referred to the system as a "minicomputer", although the term microcomputer soon became usual ... | 49,068 |
20272 | Minicomputer | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Minicomputer | Minicomputer
emerging higher performance superminis were 32-bit.
## Mid-1980s and 1990s decline.
The decline of the minis happened due to the lower cost of microprocessor-based hardware, the emergence of inexpensive and easily deployable local area network systems, the emergence of the 68020, 80286 and the 80386 micr... | 49,069 |
20272 | Minicomputer | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Minicomputer | Minicomputer
was cemented by the development of several versions of Unix and Unix-like systems that ran on the Intel x86 microprocessor architecture, including Solaris, Linux, FreeBSD, NetBSD and OpenBSD. Also, the Microsoft Windows series of operating systems, beginning with Windows NT, now included server versions th... | 49,070 |
20272 | Minicomputer | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Minicomputer | Minicomputer
the leading minicomputer manufacturer, at one time the second-largest computer company after IBM. But as the minicomputer declined in the face of generic Unix servers and Intel-based PCs, not only DEC, but almost every other minicomputer company including Data General, Prime, Computervision, Honeywell and ... | 49,071 |
20272 | Minicomputer | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Minicomputer | Minicomputer
of the myriad lines of 'legacy code' (programs) written, 'AS' stands for 'Application System'. Great efforts were made by IBM to enable programs originally written for the System/34 and System/36 to be moved to the AS/400. The AS/400 was replaced by the iSeries, which was subsequently replaced by the Syste... | 49,072 |
20272 | Minicomputer | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Minicomputer | Minicomputer
computing, was acquired by Compaq, and a few years afterward the combined entity merged with Hewlett Packard. The NSK-based NonStop product line was re-ported from MIPS processors to Itanium-based processors branded as 'HP Integrity NonStop Servers'. As in the earlier migration from stack machines to MIPS ... | 49,073 |
20272 | Minicomputer | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Minicomputer | Minicomputer
tools like Visual Studio and Eclipse.
## Industrial impact and heritage.
A variety of companies emerged that built turnkey systems around minicomputers with specialized software and, in many cases, custom peripherals that addressed specialized problems such as computer-aided design, computer-aided manufa... | 49,074 |
20272 | Minicomputer | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Minicomputer | Minicomputer
although today's PCs and servers are clearly microcomputers physically, architecturally their CPUs and operating systems have developed largely by integrating features from minicomputers.
In the software context, the relatively simple OSs for early microcomputers were usually inspired by minicomputer OSs ... | 49,075 |
20272 | Minicomputer | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Minicomputer | Minicomputer
first generation of PC programmers were educated on minicomputer systems.
# Notable examples.
- Control Data's CDC 160A and CDC 1700
- DEC PDP and VAX series
- Data General Nova
- Hewlett-Packard HP 3000 series and HP 2100 series
- Honeywell-Bull DPS 6/DPS 6000 series
- IBM midrange computers
- Int... | 49,076 |
20272 | Minicomputer | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Minicomputer | Minicomputer
otable examples.
- Control Data's CDC 160A and CDC 1700
- DEC PDP and VAX series
- Data General Nova
- Hewlett-Packard HP 3000 series and HP 2100 series
- Honeywell-Bull DPS 6/DPS 6000 series
- IBM midrange computers
- Interdata 7/32 and 8/32
- Norsk Data Nord-1, Nord-10, and Nord-100
- Texas Inst... | 49,077 |
20282 | Mechanized infantry | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Mechanized%20infantry | Mechanized infantry
Mechanized infantry
Mechanized infantry are infantry units equipped with armored personnel carriers (APCs) or infantry fighting vehicles (IFVs) for transport and combat (see also mechanized force).
Mechanized infantry is distinguished from motorized infantry in that its vehicles provide a degree o... | 49,078 |
20282 | Mechanized infantry | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Mechanized%20infantry | Mechanized infantry
for mechanized infantry are also provided with motorized transport, or they are built directly into combat vehicles to keep pace with the mechanized infantry in combat. For units equipped with most types of APC or any type of IFV, fire support weapons, such as machine guns, autocannons, small-bore d... | 49,079 |
20282 | Mechanized infantry | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Mechanized%20infantry | Mechanized infantry
comparatively larger proportion of manpower is required to crew and maintain the vehicles. For example, most APCs mount a section of seven or eight infantrymen but have a crew of two. Most IFVs carry only six or seven infantry but require a crew of three. To be effective in the field, mechanized uni... | 49,080 |
20282 | Mechanized infantry | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Mechanized%20infantry | Mechanized infantry
All machine-gun-armed A7V tanks carried two small flame throwers for their dismounts to use. A7V tank would often carry a second officer to lead the assault team.
During the Battle of St. Quentin, A7Vs were accompanied by 20 storm roopers from Rohr Assault Battalion, but it is unspecified if they w... | 49,081 |
20282 | Mechanized infantry | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Mechanized%20infantry | Mechanized infantry
and attack them with grenades.
Towards the end of World War I, all the armies involved were faced with the problem of maintaining the momentum of an attack. Tanks, artillery, or infiltration tactics could all be used to break through an enemy defense, but almost all offensives launched in 1918 grou... | 49,082 |
20282 | Mechanized infantry | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Mechanized%20infantry | Mechanized infantry
could maintain rapid movement, but their trucks required either a good road network or firm open terrain, such as desert. They were unable to traverse a battlefield obstructed by craters, barbed wire, and trenches. Tracked or all-wheel drive vehicles were to be the solution.
Following the war, deve... | 49,083 |
20282 | Mechanized infantry | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Mechanized%20infantry | Mechanized infantry
building "tank fleets", other, such as Heinz Guderian in Germany, Adna R. Chaffee Jr. in the United States, and Mikhail Tukhachevsky in the Soviet Union, recognized that tank units required close support from infantry and other arms and that such supporting arms needed to maintain the same pace as t... | 49,084 |
20282 | Mechanized infantry | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Mechanized%20infantry | Mechanized infantry
support units, this gave both armies highly mobile combined-arms formations. The German doctrine was to use them to exploit breakthroughs in "Blitzkrieg" offensives, whereas the French envisaged them being used to shift reserves rapidly in a defensive battle.
## World War II.
As World War II progr... | 49,085 |
20282 | Mechanized infantry | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Mechanized%20infantry | Mechanized infantry
The US armored infantry was fully equipped with M2 and M3 halftracks. In the British and Commonwealth armies, "Type A armoured brigades," intended for independent operations or to form part of armored divisions, had a "motor infantry" battalion mounted in Bren Carriers or later in lend-lease halftra... | 49,086 |
20282 | Mechanized infantry | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Mechanized%20infantry | Mechanized infantry
objectives but showed that mechanized infantry could incur far fewer casualties than dismounted troops in set-piece operations.
The German Army, having introduced mechanized infantry in its "Panzer" divisions, later named them "Panzergrenadier" units. In the middle of the war, it created entire mec... | 49,087 |
20282 | Mechanized infantry | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Mechanized%20infantry | Mechanized infantry
infantry and could undertake infantry missions when it was needed. The Allies generally used jeeps, armored cars, or light tanks for reconnaissance.
The Red Army began the war while still in the process of reorganizing its armored and mechanized formations, most of which were destroyed during the f... | 49,088 |
20282 | Mechanized infantry | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Mechanized%20infantry | Mechanized infantry
Army also created several cavalry mechanized groups in which tanks, mechanized infantry and horsed cavalry were mixed. They were also used in the exploitation and pursuit phases of offensives. Red Army mechanized infantry were generally carried on tanks or trucks, with only a few dedicated lend-leas... | 49,089 |
20282 | Mechanized infantry | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Mechanized%20infantry | Mechanized infantry
34 captured and refurbished Soviet armored tractors, 27 German-made armored half-tracks of the Sd.Kfz. 250 and Sd.Kfz. 251 types, over 200 Czechoslovak Tatra, Praga and Skoda trucks (the Tatra trucks were a model which was specifically built for the Romanian Army) as well as 300 German Horch 901 4x4... | 49,090 |
20282 | Mechanized infantry | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Mechanized%20infantry | Mechanized infantry
the exception of airborne formations, the Red Army mechanized all its infantry formations. Initially, wheeled APCs, like the BTR-152, were used, some of which lacked overhead protection and were therefore vulnerable to artillery fire. It still gave the Soviet Army greater strategic flexibility becau... | 49,091 |
20282 | Mechanized infantry | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Mechanized%20infantry | Mechanized infantry
(it still had nuclear, biological, and chemical protection).
In the Vietnam War, the M113 was often fitted with extra armament and used as an "ad hoc" infantry fighting vehicle. Early operations by the Army of the Republic of Vietnam using the vehicle showed that troops were far more effective whil... | 49,092 |
20282 | Mechanized infantry | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Mechanized%20infantry | Mechanized infantry
as the West German Marder and American M2 Bradley. Unlike the APC, which was intended merely to transport the infantry from place to place under armor, the IFV possessed heavy firepower that could support the infantry in attack or defense. Many IFVs were also equipped with firing ports from which th... | 49,093 |
20282 | Mechanized infantry | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Mechanized%20infantry | Mechanized infantry
tracked BMP-1 IFV. The "light" regiments were intended to make dismounted attacks on the division's flanks, and the BMP-equipped "heavy" regiment remained mounted and supported the division's tank regiment on the main axis of advance. Both types of infantry regiment still were officially titled "mot... | 49,094 |
20282 | Mechanized infantry | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Mechanized%20infantry | Mechanized infantry
strength, as the BMD could carry only three or at most four paratroopers in addition to its three-man crew. They were used in that role in the Soviet invasion of Afghanistan in 1979.
# Present day.
At present, almost all infantry units from industrialized nations are provided with some type of mot... | 49,095 |
20282 | Mechanized infantry | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Mechanized%20infantry | Mechanized infantry
airborne) formations; and also about the slowness of deploying regular armored units. The experience led the U.S. Army to form combat brigades based on the Stryker wheeled IFV.
In the British Army, "heavy" units equipped with the Warrior IFV are described as "armoured infantry", and units with the ... | 49,096 |
20282 | Mechanized infantry | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Mechanized%20infantry | Mechanized infantry
Army, which has used the LAV III wheeled IFV in fighting in Afghanistan. The Italian, Spanish and Swedish armies are adopting (and exporting) new indigenous-produced tracked IFVs. The Swedish CV90 IFV in particular has been adopted by several armies.
A recent trend seen in the Israel Defense Forces... | 49,097 |
20282 | Mechanized infantry | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Mechanized%20infantry | Mechanized infantry
vehicles were introduced for fighting in urban areas, where the risk from short range infantry anti-tank weapons, such as the RPG-7, is highest, after Russian tank and motor infantry units suffered heavy losses fighting insurgents in Grozny during the First Chechen War in 1995.
Many APCs and IFVs c... | 49,098 |
20282 | Mechanized infantry | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Mechanized%20infantry | Mechanized infantry
size and weight. Some of the latest designs (such as the German Puma) are intended to allow a light, basic model vehicle, which is air-transportable, to be fitted in the field with additional protection, thereby ensuring both strategic flexibility and survivability.
# Combined arms operations.
It ... | 49,099 |
Subsets and Splits
No community queries yet
The top public SQL queries from the community will appear here once available.