wikipedia_id stringlengths 2 8 | wikipedia_title stringlengths 1 243 | url stringlengths 44 370 | contents stringlengths 53 2.22k | id int64 0 6.14M |
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20264 | Mushroom | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Mushroom | Mushroom
Mushroom
A mushroom, or toadstool, is the fleshy, spore-bearing fruiting body of a fungus, typically produced above ground on soil or on its food source.
The standard for the name "mushroom" is the cultivated white button mushroom, "Agaricus bisporus"; hence the word "mushroom" is most often applied to those... | 49,400 |
20264 | Mushroom | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Mushroom | Mushroom
ground or its occupant surface.
Forms deviating from the standard morphology usually have more specific names, such as "bolete", "puffball", "stinkhorn", and "morel", and gilled mushrooms themselves are often called "agarics" in reference to their similarity to "Agaricus" or their order Agaricales. By extensi... | 49,401 |
20264 | Mushroom | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Mushroom | Mushroom
the gills and fall in a fine rain of powder from under the caps as a result. At the microscopic level, the basidiospores are shot off basidia and then fall between the gills in the dead air space. As a result, for most mushrooms, if the cap is cut off and placed gill-side-down overnight, a powdery impression r... | 49,402 |
20264 | Mushroom | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Mushroom | Mushroom
of mushrooms is quickly becoming molecular, the standard methods for identification are still used by most and have developed into a fine art harking back to medieval times and the Victorian era, combined with microscopic examination. The presence of juices upon breaking, bruising reactions, odors, tastes, sha... | 49,403 |
20264 | Mushroom | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Mushroom | Mushroom
more effort; one must remember that a mushroom develops from a button stage into a mature structure, and only the latter can provide certain characteristics needed for the identification of the species. However, over-mature specimens lose features and cease producing spores. Many novices have mistaken humid wa... | 49,404 |
20264 | Mushroom | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Mushroom | Mushroom
the order Agaricales produce mushroom fruit bodies, and many other gilled fungi, collectively called mushrooms, occur in other orders of the class Agaricomycetes. For example, chanterelles are in the Cantharellales, false chanterelles such as "Gomphus" are in the Gomphales, milk-cap mushrooms ("Lactarius", "La... | 49,405 |
20264 | Mushroom | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Mushroom | Mushroom
like the common fairy-ring mushroom, shiitake, enoki, oyster mushrooms, fly agarics and other Amanitas, magic mushrooms like species of "Psilocybe", paddy straw mushrooms, shaggy manes, etc.
An atypical mushroom is the lobster mushroom, which is a deformed, cooked-lobster-colored parasitized fruitbody of a "R... | 49,406 |
20264 | Mushroom | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Mushroom | Mushroom
has been used for polypores, puffballs, jelly fungi, coral fungi, bracket fungi, stinkhorns, and cup fungi. Thus, the term is more one of common application to macroscopic fungal fruiting bodies than one having precise taxonomic meaning. Approximately 14,000 species of mushrooms are described.
# Etymology.
T... | 49,407 |
20264 | Mushroom | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Mushroom | Mushroom
edible and poisonous fungi is not clear-cut, so a "mushroom" may be edible, poisonous, or unpalatable.
Cultural or social phobias of mushrooms and fungi may be related. The term "fungophobia" was coined by William Delisle Hay of England, who noted a national superstition or fear of "toadstools".
The word "to... | 49,408 |
20264 | Mushroom | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Mushroom | Mushroom
mushroom". This is how the mushroom got another of its names, "Krötenstuhl" (a less-used German name for the mushroom), literally translating to "toad-stool".
# Morphology.
A mushroom develops from a nodule, or pinhead, less than two millimeters in diameter, called a primordium, which is typically found on o... | 49,409 |
20264 | Mushroom | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Mushroom | Mushroom
and may remain as a cup, or volva, at the base of the stalk, or as warts or volval patches on the cap. Many mushrooms lack a universal veil, therefore they do not have either a volva or volval patches. Often, a second layer of tissue, the partial veil, covers the bladelike gills that bear spores. As the cap ex... | 49,410 |
20264 | Mushroom | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Mushroom | Mushroom
is typical of the genus "Cortinarius". Mushrooms lacking partial veils do not form an annulus.
The stalk (also called the stipe, or stem) may be central and support the cap in the middle, or it may be off-center and/or lateral, as in species of "Pleurotus" and "Panus". In other mushrooms, a stalk may be absen... | 49,411 |
20264 | Mushroom | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Mushroom | Mushroom
in the genera "Agaricus", "Amanita", "Lepiota" and "Pluteus", among others, have free gills that do not extend to the top of the stalk. Others have decurrent gills that extend down the stalk, as in the genera "Omphalotus" and "Pleurotus". There are a great number of variations between the extremes of free and ... | 49,412 |
20264 | Mushroom | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Mushroom | Mushroom
since gill attachment may change as the mushroom matures, or with different environmental conditions.
## Microscopic features.
A hymenium is a layer of microscopic spore-bearing cells that covers the surface of gills. In the nongilled mushrooms, the hymenium lines the inner surfaces of the tubes of boletes a... | 49,413 |
20264 | Mushroom | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Mushroom | Mushroom
pits of morels. The Pyrenomycetes, tiny dark-colored fungi that live on a wide range of substrates including soil, dung, leaf litter, and decaying wood, as well as other fungi, produce minute, flask-shaped structures called perithecia, within which the asci develop.
In the Basidiomycetes, usually four spores ... | 49,414 |
20264 | Mushroom | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Mushroom | Mushroom
Basidiomycota. Many types of cystidia exist, and assessing their presence, shape, and size is often used to verify the identification of a mushroom.
The most important microscopic feature for identification of mushrooms is the spores. Their color, shape, size, attachment, ornamentation, and reaction to chemic... | 49,415 |
20264 | Mushroom | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Mushroom | Mushroom
expressions in the English language including "to mushroom" or "mushrooming" (expanding rapidly in size or scope) and "to pop up like a mushroom" (to appear unexpectedly and quickly). In reality, all species of mushrooms take several days to form primordial mushroom fruit bodies, though they do expand rapidly ... | 49,416 |
20264 | Mushroom | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Mushroom | Mushroom
by inflating preformed cells that took several days to form in the primordia.
Similarly, there are other mushrooms, like "Parasola plicatilis" (formerly "Coprinus plicatlis"), that grow rapidly overnight and may disappear by late afternoon on a hot day after rainfall. The primordia form at ground level in law... | 49,417 |
20264 | Mushroom | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Mushroom | Mushroom
slowly, and because of this combined with human collection, it is now critically endangered.
Though mushroom fruiting bodies are short-lived, the underlying mycelium can itself be long-lived and massive. A colony of "Armillaria solidipes" (formerly known as "Armillaria ostoyae") in Malheur National Forest in ... | 49,418 |
20264 | Mushroom | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Mushroom | Mushroom
fat. In a 100 gram (3.5 ounce) amount, raw mushrooms provide 22 calories and are a rich source (20% or more of the Daily Value, DV) of B vitamins, such as riboflavin, niacin and pantothenic acid, selenium (37% DV) and copper (25% DV), and a moderate source (10-19% DV) of phosphorus, zinc and potassium (table).... | 49,419 |
20264 | Mushroom | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Mushroom | Mushroom
is converted to vitamin D, a process now used intentionally to supply fresh vitamin D mushrooms for the functional food grocery market. In a comprehensive safety assessment of producing vitamin D in fresh mushrooms, researchers showed that artificial UV light technologies were equally effective for vitamin D p... | 49,420 |
20264 | Mushroom | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Mushroom | Mushroom
sold in supermarkets have been commercially grown on mushroom farms. The most popular of these, "Agaricus bisporus", is considered safe for most people to eat because it is grown in controlled, sterilized environments. Several varieties of "A. bisporus" are grown commercially, including whites, crimini, and po... | 49,421 |
20264 | Mushroom | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Mushroom | Mushroom
mushroom producer. The country produces about half of all cultivated mushrooms, and around of mushrooms are consumed per person per year by over a billion people. In 2014, Poland was the world's largest mushroom exporter, reporting an estimated annually.
Separating edible from poisonous species requires metic... | 49,422 |
20264 | Mushroom | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Mushroom | Mushroom
individuals, from a mild asthmatic response to severe anaphylactic shock. Even the cultivated "A. bisporus" contains small amounts of hydrazines, the most abundant of which is agaritine (a mycotoxin and carcinogen). However, the hydrazines are destroyed by moderate heat when cooking.
A number of species of mu... | 49,423 |
20264 | Mushroom | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Mushroom | Mushroom
confused with poisonous varieties.
## Toxic mushrooms.
Many mushroom species produce secondary metabolites that can be toxic, mind-altering, antibiotic, antiviral, or bioluminescent. Although there are only a small number of deadly species, several others can cause particularly severe and unpleasant symptoms... | 49,424 |
20264 | Mushroom | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Mushroom | Mushroom
or to learn to avoid consumption altogether. In addition, due to the propensity of mushrooms to absorb heavy metals, including those that are radioactive, European mushrooms may, as late as 2008, include toxicity from the 1986 Chernobyl disaster and continue to be studied.
## Psychoactive mushrooms.
Mushroom... | 49,425 |
20264 | Mushroom | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Mushroom | Mushroom
mushrooms possess psychedelic properties. Commonly known as "magic mushrooms" or shrooms", they are openly available in smart shops in many parts of the world, or on the black market in those countries that have outlawed their sale. Psilocybin mushrooms have been reported as facilitating profound and life-chan... | 49,426 |
20264 | Mushroom | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Mushroom | Mushroom
disorder. Minute amounts have been reported to stop cluster and migraine headaches. A double-blind study, done by the Johns Hopkins Hospital, showed psychedelic mushrooms could provide people an experience with substantial personal meaning and spiritual significance. In the study, one third of the subjects rep... | 49,427 |
20264 | Mushroom | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Mushroom | Mushroom
in treating addiction, specifically with alcohol and cigarettes.
A few species in the genus "Amanita", most recognizably "A. muscaria", but also "A. pantherina", among others, contain the psychoactive compound muscimol. The muscimol-containing chemotaxonomic group of "Amanitas" contains no amatoxins or phallo... | 49,428 |
20264 | Mushroom | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Mushroom | Mushroom
diseases, particularly their extracts, including polysaccharides, glycoproteins and proteoglycans. In some countries, extracts of polysaccharide-K, schizophyllan, polysaccharide peptide, or lentinan are government-registered adjuvant cancer therapies, even though clinical evidence of efficacy in humans has not... | 49,429 |
20264 | Mushroom | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Mushroom | Mushroom
dyes. Before the invention of synthetic dyes, mushrooms were the source of many textile dyes.
Some fungi, types of polypores loosely called mushrooms, have been used as fire starters (known as tinder fungi).
Mushrooms and other fungi play a role in the development of new biological remediation techniques (e.... | 49,430 |
20264 | Mushroom | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Mushroom | Mushroom
of new biological remediation techniques (e.g., using mycorrhizae to spur plant growth) and filtration technologies (e.g. using fungi to lower bacterial levels in contaminated water).
# See also.
- Fungiculture
- List of deadly fungi
- List of poisonous fungi
- List of psilocybin mushrooms
- List of worl... | 49,431 |
343428 | Morpheus (software) | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Morpheus%20(software) | Morpheus (software)
Morpheus (software)
Morpheus was a file sharing and searching peer-to-peer client for Microsoft Windows, developed and distributed by the company StreamCast, that originally used the Opennap protocol, but later supported many different peer-to-peer protocols. On April 22, 2008, distributor StreamCa... | 49,432 |
343428 | Morpheus (software) | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Morpheus%20(software) | Morpheus (software)
Streamcastnetworks.com and NeoNetwork.com.
# Availability.
Users of the Morpheus community have set up a website (at GnutellaForums.com) where the Morpheus software can still be downloaded. At that site, there is a support forum and support chat room setup from the site and within the client.
# P... | 49,433 |
343428 | Morpheus (software) | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Morpheus%20(software) | Morpheus (software)
can be easily uninstalled with Windows Add/Remove Programs commands, however this was not the case with previous versions.
Version 5.3 didn't install adware or spyware, though it did install some Desktop shortcuts to adware websites and the Morpheus Toolbar without user approval.
# See also.
- Co... | 49,434 |
343428 | Morpheus (software) | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Morpheus%20(software) | Morpheus (software)
ed with Windows Add/Remove Programs commands, however this was not the case with previous versions.
Version 5.3 didn't install adware or spyware, though it did install some Desktop shortcuts to adware websites and the Morpheus Toolbar without user approval.
# See also.
- Comparison of file sharin... | 49,435 |
343440 | Lists of features on Phobos and Deimos | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Lists%20of%20features%20on%20Phobos%20and%20Deimos | Lists of features on Phobos and Deimos
Lists of features on Phobos and Deimos
Features on Phobos and Deimos are listed in the following articles:
- List of features on Phobos
- List of features on Deimos | 49,436 |
343436 | Slip-critical joint | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Slip-critical%20joint | Slip-critical joint
Slip-critical joint
Slip-critical joint, from structural engineering, is a type of bolted structural steel connection which relies on friction between the two connected elements rather than bolt shear or bolt bearing to join two structural elements.
Shear (and tension) loads can be transferred bet... | 49,437 |
343436 | Slip-critical joint | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Slip-critical%20joint | Slip-critical joint
control bolts or compressible washer tension indicating type bolts, are tensioned to a minimum required amount to generate large enough friction forces between the faying surfaces such that the shear (or tension) load is transferred by the structural members and not by the bolts(in shear) and the co... | 49,438 |
343436 | Slip-critical joint | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Slip-critical%20joint | Slip-critical joint
shear and connection plate bearing. Thus a slippage failure of a slip-critical connection is not necessarily a catastrophic failure. However, slippage of a slip-critical connection in columns may lead to column instability. Slippage of a slip critical joint in a roof truss could result in unintended... | 49,439 |
343441 | Tessa Allen | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Tessa%20Allen | Tessa Allen
Tessa Allen
Tessa Allen (born August 7, 1996) is an American actress.
# Career.
Allen made her motion picture debut in "Enough" starring as Gracie, the young daughter of Jennifer Lopez's character. Before "Enough", Allen appeared in many commercials, the first of which when she was only four months old i... | 49,440 |
343441 | Tessa Allen | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Tessa%20Allen | Tessa Allen
discontinued in December 2002. She was the third Hannah Hansen and the first non-twin role. "Providence" co-stars Melina Kanakaredes and Seth Peterson have said that it was easy to be upstaged by Allen with her wacky outfits, her perfect timing and her cuteness because the camera loved her.
After "Providen... | 49,441 |
343441 | Tessa Allen | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Tessa%20Allen | Tessa Allen
and then in February 2004, she landed a small part on "General Hospital" playing Molly Farrell, a young girl trapped with her young brother in a hotel fire. After this short stint, Allen was asked to return to the show to play Luke and Laura Spencer's daughter Lesley Lu (Lulu) Spencer, a change that require... | 49,442 |
343441 | Tessa Allen | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Tessa%20Allen | Tessa Allen
she was reunited with on-screen mom Karen Geraghty who had also played Allen's mother in her 2003 Jif commercial. Karen stated after filming "Walls of Jericho" that "I have worked with many kids before through commercials, short films, etc. but none compare to Tessa. I love working with her and would do so ... | 49,443 |
343441 | Tessa Allen | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Tessa%20Allen | Tessa Allen
early 2007, Allen shot another short film, this time a USC grad film entitled "Open House", where she plays a younger version of the main character. In March 2007, Allen shot a Doritos commercial which featured the music group The Black Eyed Peas. In October 2007, Allen began filming another USC grad film c... | 49,444 |
343441 | Tessa Allen | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Tessa%20Allen | Tessa Allen
ctober 2007, Allen began filming another USC grad film called "Sunnier Days," where she plays the lead character on a road trip with her falling-apart family. "Sunnier Days" (now called "Little Canyon") won awards at the UCLA Directors Spotlight. In May 2008, Allen booked and shot another lead role in a stu... | 49,445 |
343454 | Ford Aspire | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Ford%20Aspire | Ford Aspire
Ford Aspire
The Ford Aspire nameplate has been used by the American automobile manufacturer Ford for the following cars, in the following markets:
- Ford Festiva, in North America from 1993 to 1997
- Ford Figo, a rebadged third generation Ford Ka, in India since 2015 | 49,446 |
20297 | MOS Technology 6502 | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=MOS%20Technology%206502 | MOS Technology 6502
MOS Technology 6502
The MOS Technology 6502 (typically ""sixty-five-oh-two"" or ""six-five-oh-two"") is an 8-bit microprocessor that was designed by a small team led by Chuck Peddle for MOS Technology. When it was introduced in 1975, the 6502 was, by a considerable margin, the least expensive micro... | 49,447 |
20297 | MOS Technology 6502 | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=MOS%20Technology%206502 | MOS Technology 6502
the Atari 2600, Atari 8-bit family, Apple II, Nintendo Entertainment System, Commodore 64, Atari Lynx, BBC Micro and others, used the 6502 or variations of the basic design. Soon after the 6502's introduction, MOS Technology was purchased outright by Commodore International, who continued to sell th... | 49,448 |
20297 | MOS Technology 6502 | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=MOS%20Technology%206502 | MOS Technology 6502
at Motorola.
The 6502 was designed by many of the same engineers that had designed the Motorola 6800 microprocessor family. Motorola started the 6800 microprocessor project in 1971 with Tom Bennett as the main architect. The chip layout began in late 1972, the first 6800 chips were fabricated in Fe... | 49,449 |
20297 | MOS Technology 6502 | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=MOS%20Technology%206502 | MOS Technology 6502
and later he was the principal designer of the 6820 Peripheral Interface Adapter (PIA). Motorola's engineers could run analog and digital simulations on an IBM 370-165 mainframe computer. Bennett hired Chuck Peddle in 1973 to do architectural support work on the 6800 family products already in progr... | 49,450 |
20297 | MOS Technology 6502 | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=MOS%20Technology%206502 | MOS Technology 6502
early 1974, they provided engineering samples of the chips so that customers could prototype their designs. Motorola's "total product family" strategy did not focus on the price of the microprocessor, but on reducing the customer's total design cost. They offered development software on a timeshare ... | 49,451 |
20297 | MOS Technology 6502 | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=MOS%20Technology%206502 | MOS Technology 6502
that customers were put off by the high cost of the microprocessor chips. To lower the price, the IC chip size would have to shrink so that more chips could be produced on each silicon wafer. This could be done by removing inessential features in the 6800 and using a newer fabrication technology, "d... | 49,452 |
20297 | MOS Technology 6502 | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=MOS%20Technology%206502 | MOS Technology 6502
displeased with the upcoming relocation to Austin.
Motorola's Semiconductor Products Division management was overwhelmed with problems and showed no interest in Peddle's low-cost microprocessor proposal. Chuck Peddle was frustrated with Motorola's management for missing this new opportunity. In a N... | 49,453 |
20297 | MOS Technology 6502 | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=MOS%20Technology%206502 | MOS Technology 6502
for a source of funding for this new project and found a small semiconductor company in Pennsylvania. In August 1974, Chuck Peddle, Bill Mensch, Rod Orgill, Harry Bawcom, Ray Hirt, Terry Holdt and Wil Mathys left Motorola to join MOS Technology. (Mike James joined later.) Of the seventeen chip desig... | 49,454 |
20297 | MOS Technology 6502 | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=MOS%20Technology%206502 | MOS Technology 6502
this cut the chip area nearly in half and doubled the speed. The faster parts were available in July 1976. This was followed by the 6802 which added 128 bytes of RAM and an on-chip clock oscillator circuit.
## Moving to MOS Technology.
MOS Technology was formed in 1969 by three executives from Gen... | 49,455 |
20297 | MOS Technology 6502 | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=MOS%20Technology%206502 | MOS Technology 6502
moved into MOS Technology's headquarters at Valley Forge, Pennsylvania. The goal was to design and produce a low cost microprocessor for embedded applications and to target as wide as possible a customer base. This would be possible only if the microprocessor was low cost—and in the semiconductor bu... | 49,456 |
20297 | MOS Technology 6502 | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=MOS%20Technology%206502 | MOS Technology 6502
into the same socket as the Motorola 6800, while the 6502 would work with 6800 family peripherals and have an on-chip clock oscillator. These processors would not run 6800 software because they had a different instruction set, different registers, and mostly different addressing modes. A September 1... | 49,457 |
20297 | MOS Technology 6502 | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=MOS%20Technology%206502 | MOS Technology 6502
the following architectural changes in the Motorola CPU…
The second "B" accumulator was omitted. The 16-bit 6800 index register with an 8-bit offset in the instruction was replaced with two 8-bit index registers with an 8-bit or 16-bit offset. Three-state control was eliminated from the address bus... | 49,458 |
20297 | MOS Technology 6502 | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=MOS%20Technology%206502 | MOS Technology 6502
The layout consisted of thousands of polygon shapes on six different drawings; one for each layer of the semiconductor fabrication process. Rod Orgill was responsible for the 6501 design; he had assisted John Buchanan at Motorola on the 6800. Bill Mensch did the 6502; he was the designer of the 6820... | 49,459 |
20297 | MOS Technology 6502 | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=MOS%20Technology%206502 | MOS Technology 6502
are generally randomly but uniformly scattered across the wafer area. So the more chips per wafer, the smaller the ratio of defective chips to total wafer chips. The original 6800 chips were intended to be 180 x 180 mils but layout was completed at 212 x 212 mils (5.4 x 5.4 mm) or an area of 29.0 mm... | 49,460 |
20297 | MOS Technology 6502 | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=MOS%20Technology%206502 | MOS Technology 6502
Technology's microprocessor introduction was quite different from the traditional months-long product launch. The first run of a new integrated circuit is normally used for internal testing and shared with select customers as "engineering samples". These chips often have a minor design defect or two... | 49,461 |
20297 | MOS Technology 6502 | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=MOS%20Technology%206502 | MOS Technology 6502
in the July 24, 1975 issue of "Electronics" magazine. Stories also ran in "EE Times" (August 24, 1975), "EDN" (September 20, 1975), "Electronic News" (November 3, 1975), "Byte" (November 1975) and "Microcomputer Digest" (November 1975). Advertisements for the 6501 appeared in several publications th... | 49,462 |
20297 | MOS Technology 6502 | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=MOS%20Technology%206502 | MOS Technology 6502
purchase the processors. At the suite, the processors were stored in large jars to imply that the chips were in production and readily available. The customers did not know the bottom half of each jar contained non-functional chips. The chips were $20 and $25 while the documentation package was an a... | 49,463 |
20297 | MOS Technology 6502 | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=MOS%20Technology%206502 | MOS Technology 6502
The next revision of the layout fixed this problem and the May 1976 datasheet listed 56 instructions. Peddle wanted every interested engineer and hobbyist to have access to the chips and documentation; other semiconductor companies only wanted to deal with "serious" customers. For example, Signetics... | 49,464 |
20297 | MOS Technology 6502 | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=MOS%20Technology%206502 | MOS Technology 6502
The $300 system design kit was reduced to $150 and it now came with a printed circuit board. On November 3, 1975, Motorola sought an injunction in Federal Court to stop MOS Technology from making and selling microprocessor products. They also filed a lawsuit claiming patent infringement and misappro... | 49,465 |
20297 | MOS Technology 6502 | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=MOS%20Technology%206502 | MOS Technology 6502
Bill Mensch on July 6, 1976, for the 6820 PIA chip layout. These patents covered the 6800 bus and how the peripheral chips interfaced with the microprocessor. Motorola began making transistors in 1950 and had a portfolio of semiconductor patents. Allen-Bradley decided not to fight this case and sold... | 49,466 |
20297 | MOS Technology 6502 | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=MOS%20Technology%206502 | MOS Technology 6502
March 1976, the now independent MOS Technology was running out of money and had to settle the case. They agreed to drop the 6501 processor, pay Motorola $200,000 and return the documents that Motorola contended were confidential. Both companies agreed to cross-license microprocessor patents. That Ma... | 49,467 |
20297 | MOS Technology 6502 | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=MOS%20Technology%206502 | MOS Technology 6502
designed the KIM-1, which was sold semi-complete and could be turned into a usable system with the addition of a 3rd party computer terminal and compact cassette drive. Much to their amazement, the KIM-1 sold well to hobbyists and tinkerers, as well as to the engineers to which it had been targeted.... | 49,468 |
20297 | MOS Technology 6502 | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=MOS%20Technology%206502 | MOS Technology 6502
Atari 8-bit family and Acorn Atom home computers, the BBC Micro, Commodore VIC-20 and other designs both for home computers and business, such as Ohio Scientific and Oric. The 6510, a direct successor of the 6502 with a digital I/O port and a tri-state address bus, was the CPU utilized in the best-s... | 49,469 |
20297 | MOS Technology 6502 | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=MOS%20Technology%206502 | MOS Technology 6502
Millions of the Atari consoles would be sold, each with a MOS processor. Another significant use was by the Nintendo Entertainment System and Famicom. The 6502 used in the NES was a second source version by Ricoh, a partial system-on-a-chip, that lacked the binary-coded decimal mode but added 22 mem... | 49,470 |
20297 | MOS Technology 6502 | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=MOS%20Technology%206502 | MOS Technology 6502
Elektor/Elektuur used the processor in its microprocessor development board Junior Computer.
# Technical description.
The 6502 is a little-endian 8-bit processor with a 16-bit address bus. The original versions were fabricated using an process technology chip with an advertised die size of (), or ... | 49,471 |
20297 | MOS Technology 6502 | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=MOS%20Technology%206502 | MOS Technology 6502
designs; the two-phase clock (supplying two synchronizations per cycle) can thereby control the whole "machine"-cycle directly. Typical instructions might take half as many cycles to complete on the 6502 than contemporary designs. Like most simple CPUs of the era, the dynamic NMOS 6502 chip is not s... | 49,472 |
20297 | MOS Technology 6502 | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=MOS%20Technology%206502 | MOS Technology 6502
(due to the asynchronous design, this fraction varied strongly among chip versions). This was critical at a time when affordable memory had access times in the range . The original NMOS 6502 was minimalistically engineered and efficiently manufactured, and therefore cheap—an important factor in gett... | 49,473 |
20297 | MOS Technology 6502 | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=MOS%20Technology%206502 | MOS Technology 6502
same era, the Z80, which has eight general-purpose 8-bit registers, which can be combined into four 16-bit ones.
In order to make up somewhat for the lack of registers, the 6502 included a "zero-page" addressing mode that uses one address byte in the instruction instead of the two needed to address... | 49,474 |
20297 | MOS Technology 6502 | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=MOS%20Technology%206502 | MOS Technology 6502
mode instructions, whose functions are to push or pop (pull) the accumulator or the processor status register. The same stack is also used for subroutine calls via the JSR (jump to subroutine) and RTS (return from subroutine) instructions and for interrupt handling.
## Addressing.
The chip uses th... | 49,475 |
20297 | MOS Technology 6502 | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=MOS%20Technology%206502 | MOS Technology 6502
use registers. On some 6502-based microcomputers with an operating system, the OS uses most of zero page, leaving only a handful of locations for the user.
Addressing modes also include "implied" (1-byte instructions); "absolute" (3 bytes); "indexed absolute" (3 bytes); "indexed zero-page" (2 bytes... | 49,476 |
20297 | MOS Technology 6502 | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=MOS%20Technology%206502 | MOS Technology 6502
129 bytes forward from the start of the branch instruction). Accumulator mode uses the accumulator as an effective address and does not need any operand data. Immediate mode uses an 8-bit literal operand.
## Indirect addressing.
The indirect modes are useful for array processing and other looping.... | 49,477 |
20297 | MOS Technology 6502 | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=MOS%20Technology%206502 | MOS Technology 6502
added). Incrementing the index register to walk the array byte-wise takes only two additional cycles. With the less frequently used "(indirect,x)" mode the effective address for the operation is found at the zero page address formed by adding the second byte of the instruction to the contents of the... | 49,478 |
20297 | MOS Technology 6502 | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=MOS%20Technology%206502 | MOS Technology 6502
being set. In binary mode (codice_3, clear D flag), the same operation would result in $9A and the carry flag being cleared. Other than Atari BASIC, BCD mode was seldom used in home-computer applications.
See the article for a simple but characteristic example of 6502 assembly language.
## Instruc... | 49,479 |
20297 | MOS Technology 6502 | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=MOS%20Technology%206502 | MOS Technology 6502
mode value (constant), 001 for zero page fixed address, 011 for an absolute address, and so on.
This pattern is not absolute and there are a number of exceptions. However, where it does apply it allows one to easily deconstruct opcode values back to assembler mnemonics for the majority of instructi... | 49,480 |
20297 | MOS Technology 6502 | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=MOS%20Technology%206502 | MOS Technology 6502
one to three bytes. The operand is stored in the 6502's customary little-endian format.
The 65C816, the 16-bit CMOS version of the 6502, also supports 24-bit addressing, which results in instructions being assembled with three-byte operands, also arranged in little-endian format.
The remaining 105... | 49,481 |
20297 | MOS Technology 6502 | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=MOS%20Technology%206502 | MOS Technology 6502
new addressing modes. The $Fxxx instructions were initially left free to allow 3rd party vendors to add their own instructions, but later versions of the 65C02 standardized a set of bit fiddling instructions developed by Rockwell Semiconductor.
## Assembly language.
A 6502 assembly language statem... | 49,482 |
20297 | MOS Technology 6502 | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=MOS%20Technology%206502 | MOS Technology 6502
is edge sensitive, which means that the interrupt is triggered by the falling edge of the signal rather than its level. The implication of this feature is that a wired-OR interrupt circuit is not readily supported. However, this also prevents nested NMI interrupts from occurring until the hardware m... | 49,483 |
20297 | MOS Technology 6502 | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=MOS%20Technology%206502 | MOS Technology 6502
in the 6502 design.
The "Break" flag of the processor is very different from the other flag bits. It has no flag setting, resetting, or testing instructions of its own, and is not affected by the PHP and PLP instructions. It exists only on the stack, where BRK and PHP always write a 1, while IRQ an... | 49,484 |
20297 | MOS Technology 6502 | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=MOS%20Technology%206502 | MOS Technology 6502
Commodore floppy disk drives use this technique to detect without delay whether the serializer is ready to accept or provide another byte of disk data. Obviously great care must be used in the device driver and the associated system design, as spurious assertion of the overflow bit could ruin arithm... | 49,485 |
20297 | MOS Technology 6502 | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=MOS%20Technology%206502 | MOS Technology 6502
a 28-pin DIP package (with the phase 1 (OUT), SYNC, redundant Vss, and SO pins of the 6502 also omitted).
- The MOS Technology 6505 had reduced memory addressing capability (4 KB) and no NMI, in a 28-pin DIP package (with the phase 1 (OUT), SYNC, redundant Vss, and SO pins of the 6502 also omitted)... | 49,486 |
20297 | MOS Technology 6502 | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=MOS%20Technology%206502 | MOS Technology 6502
SYNC, redundant Vss, and SO pins of the 6502 also omitted). This chip was used in the Atari 2600 video game system.
- The MOS Technology 6508 has a built-in 8-bit input/output port and 256 bytes of internal static RAM.
- The MOS Technology 6509 could address up to 1 MB of RAM as 16 banks of 64 kB ... | 49,487 |
20297 | MOS Technology 6502 | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=MOS%20Technology%206502 | MOS Technology 6502
6514 was a 6504 with a 2-phase clock input like the 6512.
- The MOS Technology 6515 was a 6505 with a 2-phase clock input like the 6512.
- The Ricoh 2A03 was a 6502 variant including an audio processing unit and lacking the BCD mode, used in the Nintendo Entertainment System.
- The 6502A was a 1.... | 49,488 |
20297 | MOS Technology 6502 | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=MOS%20Technology%206502 | MOS Technology 6502
Atari 8-bit computers. It has a HALT signal on pin 35 and a second R/W on pin 36 (these pin are not connected (N/C) on a standard 6502s). Pulling HALT low latches the clock, pausing the processor. This was used to sync the CPU with the video circuitry.
- The MOS Technology 6591 and 6592 are System ... | 49,489 |
20297 | MOS Technology 6502 | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=MOS%20Technology%206502 | MOS Technology 6502
a CMOS derivative developed by the Commodore Semiconductor Group (CSG), formerly MOS Technology.
- The Rockwell R65F11 (introduced in 1983) and the later R65F12 are enhanced versions of the 6502-based processor, also including on-chip zero-page RAM, on-chip Forth kernel ROM, a UART, etc.
- The GTE... | 49,490 |
20297 | MOS Technology 6502 | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=MOS%20Technology%206502 | MOS Technology 6502
2 kB of mask-programmable ROM.
## 6512, 6513, 6514, & 6515.
The MOS Technology 6512, 6513, 6514, and 6515 each rely on an external clock, instead of using an internal clock generator like the 650x (e.g. 6502). This was used to advantage in some designs where the clocks could be run asymmetrically,... | 49,491 |
20297 | MOS Technology 6502 | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=MOS%20Technology%206502 | MOS Technology 6502
that powered the popular Super Nintendo Entertainment System. The W65C816S incorporates minor improvements over the 65C816
that make the newer chip not an exact hardware-compatible replacement for the earlier one. Currently available through electronics distributors as of November 2017, the W65C816... | 49,492 |
20297 | MOS Technology 6502 | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=MOS%20Technology%206502 | MOS Technology 6502
exposing its 16 bit accumulator and index registers, as well as other 65C816 enhanced features. The 65C802 was not widely used: new designs almost always were built around the 65C816, resulting in 65C802 production being discontinued.
# Example code.
The following 6502 assembly language source cod... | 49,493 |
20297 | MOS Technology 6502 | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=MOS%20Technology%206502 | MOS Technology 6502
it.
- The earliest revisions of the 6502, such as those shipped with some KIM-1 computers, had a severe bug in the ROR (rotate right memory or accumulator) instruction. The operation of ROR in these chips is effectively an ASL (arithmetic shift left) instruction that does not affect the carry bit i... | 49,494 |
20297 | MOS Technology 6502 | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=MOS%20Technology%206502 | MOS Technology 6502
in a hardwired logic array (similar to a programmable logic array) that is only defined for 151 of the 256 available opcodes. The remaining 105 trigger strange and occasionally hard-to-predict actions, such as crashing the processor, performing two valid instructions consecutively, performing strang... | 49,495 |
20297 | MOS Technology 6502 | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=MOS%20Technology%206502 | MOS Technology 6502
written software intercepted at the BRK instruction's 0xFFFE vector. All of the undefined opcodes have been replaced with NOP instructions in the 65C02, an enhanced CMOS version of the 6502, although with varying byte sizes and execution times. In the 65C802/65C816, all 256 opcodes perform defined o... | 49,496 |
20297 | MOS Technology 6502 | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=MOS%20Technology%206502 | MOS Technology 6502
through the entire NMOS line, but was corrected in the CMOS derivatives.
- The NMOS 6502 indexed addressing across page boundaries will do an extra read of an invalid address. This characteristic may cause random issues by accessing hardware that acts on a read, such as clearing timer or IRQ flags,... | 49,497 |
20297 | MOS Technology 6502 | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=MOS%20Technology%206502 | MOS Technology 6502
cause issues by twice accessing hardware that acts on a write. This anomaly continued through the entire NMOS line, but was fixed in the CMOS derivatives, in which the processor will do two reads and one write cycle. Defensive programming practice will generally avoid this problem by not executing r... | 49,498 |
20297 | MOS Technology 6502 | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=MOS%20Technology%206502 | MOS Technology 6502
from an NMOS version.
- If the processor happens to be in BCD mode when a hardware interrupt occurs, it will not revert to binary mode. This characteristic could result in obscure bugs in the interrupt service routine if it fails to clear BCD mode before performing any arithmetic operations. For ex... | 49,499 |
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