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343614 | Pollinator decline | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Pollinator%20decline | Pollinator decline
find flowers providing them nectar, and flowers receive inadequate pollination to reproduce and diversify.
## Changes in seasonal behaviour due to global warming.
In 2014, the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change reported that bees, butterflies, and other pollinators faced increased risk of ex... | 50,600 |
343614 | Pollinator decline | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Pollinator%20decline | Pollinator decline
in flying insects and high levels of light pollution. Many studies suggest that artificial light at night has negative impacts on insects, and scientists should therefore pay greater attention to this factor when exploring the causes of insect population decline.
# The structure of plant-pollinator ... | 50,601 |
343614 | Pollinator decline | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Pollinator%20decline | Pollinator decline
different ecosystems on different continents, consisting of entirely different species.
The structure of plant-pollinator networks may have large consequences for the way in which pollinator communities respond to increasingly harsh conditions. Mathematical models, examining the consequences of this... | 50,602 |
343614 | Pollinator decline | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Pollinator%20decline | Pollinator decline
collapse simultaneously when conditions pass a critical point. This simultaneous collapse occurs, because pollinator species depend on each other when surviving under difficult conditions.
Such a community-wide collapse, involving many pollinator species, can occur suddenly when increasingly harsh c... | 50,603 |
343614 | Pollinator decline | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Pollinator%20decline | Pollinator decline
natural ecosystems by some environmental groups. Prairie restoration, establishment of wildlife preserves, and encouragement of diverse wildlife landscaping, rather than monoculture lawns, are examples of ways to help pollinators.
In June 2014, the Obama administration published a fact sheet, "The E... | 50,604 |
343614 | Pollinator decline | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Pollinator%20decline | Pollinator decline
recommended to "enhance research at USDA and through public-private grants, ... and increase funding for surveys to determine the impacts on pollinator losses".
SmartBees is a European research project of 16 entities (universities, research institutions and companies) funded by the EU, headquartered... | 50,605 |
343614 | Pollinator decline | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Pollinator%20decline | Pollinator decline
veterinarians, agriculture extension specialists, and students from 69 countries. Their three core projects are standardization of methods for studying the honey bee, colony loss monitoring, and bridging research and practice.
## Contract pollination.
The decline of pollinators is compensated to so... | 50,606 |
343614 | Pollinator decline | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Pollinator%20decline | Pollinator decline
aims to inform people about the potentially catastrophic decline in the bee population. As of 2017, Honey Nut Cheerios has sold over 1.5 billion wildflower seeds, greatly surpassing their goal of 100 million.
# See also.
- Bees and toxic chemicals
- Biodiversity loss
- Defaunation
- Endangered a... | 50,607 |
343614 | Pollinator decline | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Pollinator%20decline | Pollinator decline
the loss of pollination for blueberries, caused by gypsy moth spraying, which also killed bumblebees.
- "The Value of Honey Bees As Pollinators of U.S. Crops in 2000", Roger Morse and Nicholas Calderone, Cornell University (2000)
- "The Forgotten Pollinators" by Drs. Stephen L. Buchmann and Gary Pa... | 50,608 |
343614 | Pollinator decline | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Pollinator%20decline | Pollinator decline
of urban areas for insect pollinator conservation.
- "Pollination, the Forgotten Agricultural Input", Malcolm Sanford of the University of Florida, published in Proceedings of the Florida Agricultural Conference and Trade Show, Lakeland, FL, September 29–30, 1998, J. Ferguson, et al. eds., pp. 45–47... | 50,609 |
343614 | Pollinator decline | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Pollinator%20decline | Pollinator decline
A CO-ORDINATED GLOBAL APPROACH", Eardley, C. 2001. Acta Hort. (ISHS) 561:331-332(FAO) VIII International Symposium on Pollination; Pollination: Integrator of Crops and Native Plant Systems
- "The Economic Impacts of Pollinator Declines: An Approach to Assessing the Consequences", Peter G. Kevan and ... | 50,610 |
343614 | Pollinator decline | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Pollinator%20decline | Pollinator decline
the Consequences", Peter G. Kevan and Truman P. Phillips, Conservation Ecology v.5, i.1 June 2001
- "Brazilian Pollinators Initiative", Vera Lucia Imperatriz Fonseca; Braulio Ferreira Souza Dias, accessed March 2004
- "THE SAO PAULO DECLARATION ON POLLINATORS
# External links.
- Xerces Society Po... | 50,611 |
343611 | Early Christian art and architecture | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Early%20Christian%20art%20and%20architecture | Early Christian art and architecture
Early Christian art and architecture
Early Christian art and architecture or Paleochristian art is the art produced by Christians or under Christian patronage from the earliest period of Christianity to, depending on the definition used, sometime between 260 and 525. In practice, i... | 50,612 |
343611 | Early Christian art and architecture | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Early%20Christian%20art%20and%20architecture | Early Christian art and architecture
this period, the lack of surviving art may reflect a lack of funds for patronage, and simply small numbers of followers. The Old Testament restrictions against the production of graven (an idol or fetish carved in wood or stone) images (see also Idolatry and Christianity) may also h... | 50,613 |
343611 | Early Christian art and architecture | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Early%20Christian%20art%20and%20architecture | Early Christian art and architecture
art not only used Roman forms, it also used Roman styles. Late classical style included a proportional portrayal of the human body and impressionistic presentation of space. Late classical style is seen in early Christian frescos, such as those in the Catacombs of Rome, which includ... | 50,614 |
343611 | Early Christian art and architecture | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Early%20Christian%20art%20and%20architecture | Early Christian art and architecture
is generally divided into two periods by scholars: before and after either the Edict of Milan of 313, bringing the so-called Triumph of the Church under Constantine, or the First Council of Nicea in 325. The earlier period being called the Pre-Constantinian or Ante-Nicene Period and... | 50,615 |
343611 | Early Christian art and architecture | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Early%20Christian%20art%20and%20architecture | Early Christian art and architecture
the persecution of Christians under the Roman Empire, Christian art was necessarily and deliberately furtive and ambiguous, using imagery that was shared with pagan culture but had a special meaning for Christians. The earliest surviving Christian art comes from the late 2nd to earl... | 50,616 |
343611 | Early Christian art and architecture | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Early%20Christian%20art%20and%20architecture | Early Christian art and architecture
Jonah, whose three days in the belly of the whale pre-figured the interval between the death and resurrection of Jesus, Daniel in the lion's den, or Orpheus' charming the animals. The image of "The Good Shepherd", a beardless youth in pastoral scenes collecting sheep, was the most c... | 50,617 |
343611 | Early Christian art and architecture | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Early%20Christian%20art%20and%20architecture | Early Christian art and architecture
explicitly for several centuries, possibly because crucifixion was a punishment meted out to common criminals, but also because literary sources noted that it was a symbol recognised as specifically Christian, as the sign of the cross was made by Christians from very early on.
The ... | 50,618 |
343611 | Early Christian art and architecture | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Early%20Christian%20art%20and%20architecture | Early Christian art and architecture
other repertoire of Christian iconography.
The dove is a symbol of peace and purity. It can be found with a halo or celestial light. In one of the earliest known Trinitarian images, "the Throne of God as a Trinitarian image" (a marble relief carved c. 400 CE in the collection of th... | 50,619 |
343611 | Early Christian art and architecture | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Early%20Christian%20art%20and%20architecture | Early Christian art and architecture
aniconic, opposed to religious imagery in both theory and practice until about 200, has been challenged by Paul Corby Finney's analysis of early Christian writing and material remains (1994). This distinguishes three different sources of attitudes affecting early Christians on the i... | 50,620 |
343611 | Early Christian art and architecture | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Early%20Christian%20art%20and%20architecture | Early Christian art and architecture
that "overall, Israel's aversion to sacred images influenced early Christianity considerably less than the Greek philosophical tradition of invisible deity apophatically defined", so placing less emphasis on the Jewish background of most of the first Christians than most traditional... | 50,621 |
343611 | Early Christian art and architecture | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Early%20Christian%20art%20and%20architecture | Early Christian art and architecture
Dura-Europos church, of about 230–256, which is in the best condition of the surviving very early churches, there are frescos of biblical scenes including a figure of Jesus, as well as Christ as the Good Shepherd. The building was a normal house apparently converted to use as a chur... | 50,622 |
343611 | Early Christian art and architecture | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Early%20Christian%20art%20and%20architecture | Early Christian art and architecture
or figures or shorthand scenes from the bible or Christian history.
The style of the catacomb paintings, and the entirety of many decorative elements, are effectively identical to those of the catacombs of other religious groups, whether conventional pagans following Ancient Roman ... | 50,623 |
343611 | Early Christian art and architecture | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Early%20Christian%20art%20and%20architecture | Early Christian art and architecture
and more lavishly painted) Dura-Europos synagogue and the Temple of Bel. At least in such smaller places, it seems that the available artists were used by all religious groups. It may also have been the case that the painted chambers in the catacombs were decorated in similar style ... | 50,624 |
343611 | Early Christian art and architecture | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Early%20Christian%20art%20and%20architecture | Early Christian art and architecture
representations, small groups of say one to four figures forming a single motif which could be easily recognised as representing a particular incident. These vignettes fitted the Roman style of room decoration, set in compartments in a scheme with a geometrical structure (see galler... | 50,625 |
343611 | Early Christian art and architecture | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Early%20Christian%20art%20and%20architecture | Early Christian art and architecture
in the Fiery Furnace () were all favourites, that could be easily depicted.
Early Christian sarcophagi were a much more expensive option, made of marble and often heavily decorated with scenes in very high relief, worked with drills. Free-standing statues that are unmistakably Chri... | 50,626 |
343611 | Early Christian art and architecture | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Early%20Christian%20art%20and%20architecture | Early Christian art and architecture
and consists of a group of small statuettes of about 270, including two busts of a young and fashionably dressed couple, from an unknown find-spot, possibly in modern Turkey. The other figures tell the story of Jonah in four pieces, with a Good Shepherd; how they were displayed rema... | 50,627 |
343611 | Early Christian art and architecture | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Early%20Christian%20art%20and%20architecture | Early Christian art and architecture
many show a stocky and short-haired beardless figure in a short tunic, who can only be identified by his context. In many images of miracles Jesus carries a stick or wand, which he points at the subject of the miracle rather like a modern stage magician (though the wand is a good de... | 50,628 |
343611 | Early Christian art and architecture | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Early%20Christian%20art%20and%20architecture | Early Christian art and architecture
architecture after 313.
In the 4th century, the rapidly growing Christian population, now supported by the state, needed to build larger and grander public buildings for worship than the mostly discreet meeting places they had been using, which were typically in or among domestic b... | 50,629 |
343611 | Early Christian art and architecture | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Early%20Christian%20art%20and%20architecture | Early Christian art and architecture
sky in the sight of the gods, with the temple, housing the cult figures and the treasury, as a windowless backdrop.
The usable model at hand, when Emperor Constantine I wanted to memorialize his imperial piety, was the familiar conventional architecture of the basilica. There were ... | 50,630 |
343611 | Early Christian art and architecture | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Early%20Christian%20art%20and%20architecture | Early Christian art and architecture
used for the smaller audience halls of the emperors, governors, and the very rich than for the great public basilicas functioning as law courts and other public purposes. This was the normal pattern used for Roman churches, and generally in the Western Empire, but the Eastern Empire... | 50,631 |
343611 | Early Christian art and architecture | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Early%20Christian%20art%20and%20architecture | Early Christian art and architecture
in Byzantine architecture, which developed styles of basilica with a dome early on.
A particular and short-lived type of building, using the same basilican form, was the funerary hall, which was not a normal church, though the surviving examples long ago became regular churches, an... | 50,632 |
343611 | Early Christian art and architecture | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Early%20Christian%20art%20and%20architecture | Early Christian art and architecture
le mura, San Lorenzo fuori le Mura, Santi Marcellino e Pietro al Laterano, and one in the modern park of Villa Gordiani.
A martyrium was a building erected on a spot with particular significance, often over the burial of a martyr. No particular architectural form was associated wit... | 50,633 |
343611 | Early Christian art and architecture | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Early%20Christian%20art%20and%20architecture | Early Christian art and architecture
Peter's Basilica
- Church of the Holy Sepulchre
- Church of the Nativity
- Saint Sofia Church, Sofia
- Centralized Plan
- Santa Constanza, built as an Imperial mausoleum adjoining a funerary hall, part of the wall of which survives.
- Church of St. George, Sofia
- See also: E... | 50,634 |
343611 | Early Christian art and architecture | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Early%20Christian%20art%20and%20architecture | Early Christian art and architecture
and clients.
Although borrowings of motifs such as the Virgin and Child from pagan religious art had been pointed out as far back as the Protestant Reformation, when John Calvin and his followers gleefully used them as a stick with which to beat all Christian art, the belief of And... | 50,635 |
343611 | Early Christian art and architecture | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Early%20Christian%20art%20and%20architecture | Early Christian art and architecture
reviewers.
More complex and expensive works are seen, as the wealthy gradually converted, and more theological complexity appears, as Christianity became subject to acrimonious doctrinal disputes. At the same time a very different type of art is found in the new public churches tha... | 50,636 |
343611 | Early Christian art and architecture | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Early%20Christian%20art%20and%20architecture | Early Christian art and architecture
mosaics on the wall and use them for sacred subjects; previously the technique had essentially been used for floors and walls in gardens. By the end of the period the style of gold background had developed that continued to characterize Byzantine images, and many Early Medieval West... | 50,637 |
343611 | Early Christian art and architecture | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Early%20Christian%20art%20and%20architecture | Early Christian art and architecture
and probably also derive from a lost tradition of both Jewish and Christian illustrated manuscripts, as well as more general Roman precedents. The large apses contain images in an iconic style, which gradually developed to centre on a large figure, or later just the bust, of Christ,... | 50,638 |
343611 | Early Christian art and architecture | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Early%20Christian%20art%20and%20architecture | Early Christian art and architecture
The most famous of a considerable number of surviving early Christian sarcophagi are perhaps the Sarcophagus of Junius Bassus and Dogmatic sarcophagus of the 4th century. A number of ivory carvings have survived, including the complex late-5th-century Brescia Casket, probably a prod... | 50,639 |
343611 | Early Christian art and architecture | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Early%20Christian%20art%20and%20architecture | Early Christian art and architecture
glass was a technique for fixing a layer of gold leaf with a design between two fused layers of glass, developed in Hellenistic glass and revived in the 3rd century. There are a very fewer larger designs, but the great majority of the around 500 survivals are roundels that are the c... | 50,640 |
343611 | Early Christian art and architecture | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Early%20Christian%20art%20and%20architecture | Early Christian art and architecture
are relatively unsophisticated. Their subjects are similar to the catacomb paintings, but with a difference balance including more portraiture of the deceased (usually, it is presumed). The progression to an increased number of images of saints can be seen in them. The same techniqu... | 50,641 |
343611 | Early Christian art and architecture | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Early%20Christian%20art%20and%20architecture | Early Christian art and architecture
Invisible God: The Earliest Christians on Art", Oxford University Press, 1997, , 9780195113815
- Grig, Lucy, "Portraits, Pontiffs and the Christianization of Fourth-Century Rome", "Papers of the British School at Rome", Vol. 72, (2004), pp. 203–230, JSTOR
- van der Meer, F., "Earl... | 50,642 |
343611 | Early Christian art and architecture | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Early%20Christian%20art%20and%20architecture | Early Christian art and architecture
, Oxford University Press, 1997, , 9780195113815
- Grig, Lucy, "Portraits, Pontiffs and the Christianization of Fourth-Century Rome", "Papers of the British School at Rome", Vol. 72, (2004), pp. 203–230, JSTOR
- van der Meer, F., "Early Christian Art", 1967, Faber and Faber
- "Ea... | 50,643 |
343641 | Sorry | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Sorry | Sorry
Sorry
Sorry may refer to:
# Films.
- "Sorry" (film), also known as "Gomen", a 2002 Japanese film
- "Sorry", a 2002 skateboarding video by Flip Skateboards
# Games.
- "Sorry!" (game), a board game
- "Sorry!" (video game), the board game remade electronically
# Literature.
- "Sorry" (novel), by Gail Jones
... | 50,644 |
343641 | Sorry | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Sorry | Sorry
song)
- "Sorry" (Madonna song)
- "Sorry" (Nothing But Thieves Song)
- "Sorry" (Rick Ross song)
- "Sorry" (T.I. song)
- "Sorry 2004", by Ruben Studdard
- "Sorry (I Ran All the Way Home)", by The Impalas
- "Sorry", by As It Is from "Never Happy, Ever After"
- "Sorry", by Ashlee Simpson from "Autobiography"
... | 50,645 |
343641 | Sorry | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Sorry | Sorry
by Natalie Cole from "I Love You So"
- "Sorry", by Naya Rivera featuring Big Sean
- "Sorry", by The Paddingtons from "First Comes First"
- "Sorry", by Pat Benatar from "Go"
- "Sorry", by Simon Townshend from "Moving Target"
- "Sorry", by Sleeping with Sirens from "Feel"
- "Sorry", by Status Quo from "Thirst... | 50,646 |
343641 | Sorry | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Sorry | Sorry
featuring Big Sean
- "Sorry", by The Paddingtons from "First Comes First"
- "Sorry", by Pat Benatar from "Go"
- "Sorry", by Simon Townshend from "Moving Target"
- "Sorry", by Sleeping with Sirens from "Feel"
- "Sorry", by Status Quo from "Thirsty Work"
- "Sorry", by Tears For Fears from "Raoul and the Kings... | 50,647 |
343613 | William Petty | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=William%20Petty | William Petty
William Petty
Sir William Petty FRS (26 May 1623, in Romsey – 16 December 1687) was an English economist, physician, scientist and philosopher. He first became prominent serving Oliver Cromwell and the Commonwealth in Ireland. He developed efficient methods to survey the land that was to be confiscated a... | 50,648 |
343613 | William Petty | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=William%20Petty | William Petty
is best remembered, however, and to him is attributed the philosophy of "laissez-faire" in relation to government activity. He was knighted in 1661. He was the great-grandfather of Prime Minister William Petty Fitzmaurice, 2nd Earl of Shelburne and 1st Marquess of Lansdowne.
# Life and influences.
Petty... | 50,649 |
343613 | William Petty | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=William%20Petty | William Petty
this work in statistical analysis, when further expanded by writers like Josiah Child documented some of the first expositions of modern insurance. Vernon Louis Parrington notes him as an early expositor of the labour theory of value as discussed in "Treatise of Taxes" in 1692.
In 1858 Henry Petty-Fitzma... | 50,650 |
343613 | William Petty | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=William%20Petty | William Petty
reads "HERE LAYES SIR WILLIAM PETY".
## Early life.
Petty's father and grandfather were clothiers. He was a precocious and intelligent youngster and in 1637 became a cabin boy, but was set ashore in Normandy after breaking his leg on board. After this setback, he applied in Latin to study with the Jesui... | 50,651 |
343613 | William Petty | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=William%20Petty | William Petty
him contact with Descartes, Gassendi and Mersenne. In 1646, he returned to England and, after developing a double-writing instrument with little success in sales, he studied medicine at Oxford University. He befriended Hartlib and Boyle, and he became a member of the Oxford Philosophical Club.
## Academi... | 50,652 |
343613 | William Petty | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=William%20Petty | William Petty
Bacon and imparted by his afore-mentioned acquaintances, perhaps pushed him from Oxford. He was pulled to Ireland perhaps by sense of ambition and desire for wealth and power. His breadth of interests was such that he successfully secured the contract for charting Ireland in 1654, so that those who had le... | 50,653 |
343613 | William Petty | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=William%20Petty | William Petty
and breach of trust, until his death.
Back in England, as a Cromwellian supporter, he ran successfully for Parliament in 1659 for West Looe.
## Natural philosopher.
Despite his political allegiances, Petty was well-treated at the Restoration in 1660, although he lost some of his Irish lands. Charles II... | 50,654 |
343613 | William Petty | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=William%20Petty | William Petty
on economics, his "Treatise of Taxes and Contributions". Petty counted among his many scientific interests naval architecture: he had become convinced of the superiority of double-hulled boats, although they were not always successful; the "Experiment" reached Porto in 1664, but sank on the way back.
## ... | 50,655 |
343613 | William Petty | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=William%20Petty | William Petty
His primary interest became Ireland's prosperity and his works describe that country and propose many remedies for its then backward condition. He helped found the Dublin Society in 1682. Returning ultimately to London in 1685, he died in 1687.
He regarded his life in bittersweet terms. He had risen from... | 50,656 |
343613 | William Petty | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=William%20Petty | William Petty
described him, nonetheless, as humorous, good-natured and rational.
# Family.
William Petty married Elizabeth Waller in 1667. She was a daughter of the regicide Sir Hardress Waller (whose life was spared after the Restoration) and Elizabeth Dowdall. She had been previously married to Sir Maurice Fenton,... | 50,657 |
343613 | William Petty | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=William%20Petty | William Petty
and whose descendants hold the title Marquis of Lansdowne. Her grandson William Petty, 2nd Earl of Shelburne, praised her as a woman of strong character and intelligence, the only person who could manage her bad-tempered and tyrannical husband.
## overview.
Two men crucially influenced Petty's economic... | 50,658 |
343613 | William Petty | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=William%20Petty | William Petty
of all rational sciences. This passion for accuracy led Petty to famously declare that his form of science would only use measurable phenomena and would seek quantitative precision, rather than rely on comparatives or superlatives, yielding a new subject that he named "political arithmetic". Petty thus ca... | 50,659 |
343613 | William Petty | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=William%20Petty | William Petty
works on economics, "Treatise of Taxes and Contributions" (written in 1662), "Verbum Sapienti" (1665) and "Quantulumcunque Concerning Money" (1682). These works, which received great attention in the 1690s, show his theories on major areas of what would later become economics. What follows is an analysis ... | 50,660 |
343613 | William Petty | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=William%20Petty | William Petty
Theory' (1900) proposed a division of the economic writings of Petty in three (or four) groups:
- the first group, written when Petty had returned to London after finishing his "Down Survey" in Ireland, consists mainly of "A Treatise of Taxes & Contributions" (written and first published 1662) and "Verbu... | 50,661 |
343613 | William Petty | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=William%20Petty | William Petty
"Present State of England", published 1669".
- Again ten years later the third group of pamphlets was written, that were contributions to the dispute whether London were a larger city than Paris, and that are titled the "Essays in Political Arithmetick" by Hull. This group of pamphlets had a close relati... | 50,662 |
343613 | William Petty | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=William%20Petty | William Petty
to policymakers in the 17th century, as they have remained ever since, for the wise country would not spend above its revenues. By Petty's time, England was engaged in war with Holland, and in the first three chapters of "Treatise of Taxes and Contributions", Petty sought to establish principles of taxati... | 50,663 |
343613 | William Petty | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=William%20Petty | William Petty
thinks that there is great scope for reduction of the first four public charges, and recommends increased spending on care for the elderly, sick, orphans, etc., as well as the government employment of "supernumeraries".
On the issue of raising taxes, Petty was a definite proponent of consumption taxes. H... | 50,664 |
343613 | William Petty | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=William%20Petty | William Petty
taxed, but only in such a way that would put them on a level playing field with domestic produce. A vital aspect of economies at this time was that they were transforming from barter economies to money economies. Linked to this, and aware of the scarcity of money, Petty recommends that taxes be payable in... | 50,665 |
343613 | William Petty | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=William%20Petty | William Petty
To him, it was all too obvious that a country's wealth lay in more than just gold and silver. He worked off an estimation that the average personal income was £6 13s 4d per annum, with a population of six million, meaning that national income would be £40m. Petty's theory produced estimates, some more rel... | 50,666 |
343613 | William Petty | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=William%20Petty | William Petty
of the people". This gave a total wealth for England in the 1660s of £667m.
# Statistician.
Petty's only statistical technique is the use of simple averages. He would not be a statistician by today's standards but during his time a statistician was merely one that employed the use of quantitative data. ... | 50,667 |
343613 | William Petty | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=William%20Petty | William Petty
to a similar proportionate increase in population. The way he would use deaths would be by multiplying the number of deaths by 30 – estimating that one out of thirty people die each year. To obtain the population of all of England he would multiply the population of London by 8. Such a simple use of estim... | 50,668 |
343613 | William Petty | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=William%20Petty | William Petty
it was possible to have too little money circulating in an economy, which would mean that people would have to rely on barter. It would also be possible for there to be too much money in an economy. But the topical question was, as he asks in chapter 3 of "Verbum Sapienti", would £6m be enough to drive a ... | 50,669 |
343613 | William Petty | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=William%20Petty | William Petty
was to be increased for a given money supply and price level, 'revolutions' must occur in smaller circles (i.e. velocity of circulation must be higher). This could be done through the establishment of a bank. He explicitly stated in "Verbum Sapienti" "nor is money wanting to answer all the ends of a well ... | 50,670 |
343613 | William Petty | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=William%20Petty | William Petty
of it wanting) what should be equivalent unto it. For Money is but the Fat of the Body-Politick, whereof too much doth often hinder its agility, as too little makes it sick... so doth Money in the State quicken its Action, feeds from abroad in the time of Dearth at home.'
What is striking about these pas... | 50,671 |
343613 | William Petty | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=William%20Petty | William Petty
things ought to be valued by two natural Denominations, which is Land and Labour" (p. 44). Both of these would be prime sources of taxable income. Like Richard Cantillon after him, he sought to devise some equation or par between the "mother and father" of output, land and labour, and to express value acc... | 50,672 |
343613 | William Petty | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=William%20Petty | William Petty
of rent is related to his theories on usury. At the time, many religious writers still condemned the charging of interest as sinful. Petty also involved himself in the debate on usury and interest rates, regarding the phenomenon as a reward for forbearance on the part of the lender. Incorporating his theo... | 50,673 |
343613 | William Petty | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=William%20Petty | William Petty
he then shows his Hobbesian qualities, arguing against any government regulation of the interest rate, pointing to the "vanity and fruitlessness of making civil positive laws against the laws of nature".
# "Laissez-faire" governance.
This is one of the major themes of Petty's writings, summed up by his ... | 50,674 |
343613 | William Petty | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=William%20Petty | William Petty
were, to him, vain and harmful to a nation. He recognised the price effects of monopolies, citing the French king's salt monopoly as an example. In another work, "Political Arithmetic", Petty also recognised the importance of economies of scale. He described the phenomenon of the division of labour, asser... | 50,675 |
343613 | William Petty | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=William%20Petty | William Petty
concerning money" that countries plentiful in gold have no such laws restricting specie. On exports in general, he regarded prescriptions, such as recent Acts of Parliament forbidding the export of wool and yarn, as "burthensome". Further restrictions "would do us twice as much harm as the losse of our sa... | 50,676 |
343613 | William Petty | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=William%20Petty | William Petty
he thought it preferable to sell cloth for "debauching" foreign wines, rather than leave the clothiers unemployed.
# Full employment.
The goal of full employment was of most importance to Petty, having recognised that labour was one of the major sources of wealth for individuals and "the greatest Wealth... | 50,677 |
343613 | William Petty | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=William%20Petty | William Petty
that Sir William Petty supported, clearly contradicts the false claim above that Sir William Petty supported Laissez Faire - i.e. that he was a noninterventionist in terms of government policy.
# Division of labour.
In his Political Arithmetick, Petty made a practical study of the division of labour, sh... | 50,678 |
343613 | William Petty | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=William%20Petty | William Petty
economy.
Petty also applied the principle to his survey of Ireland. His breakthrough was to divide up the work so that large parts of it could be done by people with no extensive training.
# Urban society.
Petty projected the growth of the city of London and supposed that it might swallow the rest of E... | 50,679 |
343613 | William Petty | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=William%20Petty | William Petty
Wherefore it is certain and necessary that the growth of the city must stop before the said year 1840, and will be at its utmost height in the next preceding period, A.D. 1800, when the number of the city will be eight times its present number, 5,359,000. And when (besides the said number) there will be 4... | 50,680 |
343613 | William Petty | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=William%20Petty | William Petty
trends. Long before Malthus, he noticed the potential of human population to increase. But he also saw no reason why such a society should not be prosperous.
# Summary and legacy.
The above shows the contribution Petty made to theoretical issues that have dominated the later subject of economics ever si... | 50,681 |
343613 | William Petty | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=William%20Petty | William Petty
ever since.
He influenced not only immediate successors such as Richard Cantillon but also some of the greatest minds in economics, including Adam Smith, Karl Marx and John Maynard Keynes. With Adam Smith, he shared a world view that believed in a harmonious natural world. The parallels in their canons o... | 50,682 |
343613 | William Petty | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=William%20Petty | William Petty
a reference in a letter to Lord Shelburne, one of Petty's aristocratic descendants. Petty continued to exercise influence. Karl Marx thought, as did Petty, that the total effort put in by the aggregate of ordinary workers represented a far greater contribution to the economy than contemporary ideas recogn... | 50,683 |
343613 | William Petty | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=William%20Petty | William Petty
quotations in his major work "Das Kapital". John Maynard Keynes also wrote at a time of mass discord, as unemployment was rampant and economies stagnant during the 1930s. He showed how governments could manage aggregate demand to stimulate output and employment, much as Petty had done with simpler example... | 50,684 |
343613 | William Petty | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=William%20Petty | William Petty
1667, 1679, 1685, etc.)
- "Political Arithmetic" posthum. (approx. 1676, pub. 1690)
- "Verbum Sapienti" posthum. (1664, pub. 1691)
- "Political Anatomy of Ireland" posthum. (1672, pub. 1691)
- "Quantulumcunque Concerning Money" ("something, be it ever so small, about money") posthum. (1682, pub. 1695)... | 50,685 |
343613 | William Petty | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=William%20Petty | William Petty
d," in "Before Adam Smith: the Emergence of Political Economy 1662–1776". Basil Blackwell.
- Routh, Guy (1989) "The Origin of Economic Ideas". London: Macmillan.
- Strathern, Paul (2001) - "Dr Strangelove's Game : a brief history of economic genius". London : Hamish Hamilton.
- (especially section 'Pet... | 50,686 |
343618 | Emperor Xian of Han | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Emperor%20Xian%20of%20Han | Emperor Xian of Han
Emperor Xian of Han
Emperor Xian of Han (2 April 181 – 21 April 234), personal name Liu Xie, courtesy name Bohe, was the 14th and last emperor of the Eastern Han dynasty in China. He reigned from 28 September 189 until 11 December 220.
Liu Xie was a son of Liu Hong (Emperor Ling) and was a younger... | 50,687 |
343618 | Emperor Xian of Han | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Emperor%20Xian%20of%20Han | Emperor Xian of Han
launched a punitive campaign against Dong Zhuo in the name of freeing Emperor Xian, Dong Zhuo ordered the destruction of the imperial capital, Luoyang, and forcefully relocated the imperial capital along with its residents to Chang'an. After Dong Zhuo's assassination in 192, Emperor Xian fell under ... | 50,688 |
343618 | Emperor Xian of Han | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Emperor%20Xian%20of%20Han | Emperor Xian of Han
warlord Cao Cao led his forces into Luoyang, received Emperor Xian, took him under his protection, and escorted him to Xu, where the new imperial capital was established. Although Cao Cao paid nominal allegiance to Emperor Xian, he was actually the "de facto" head of the central government. He skill... | 50,689 |
343618 | Emperor Xian of Han | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Emperor%20Xian%20of%20Han | Emperor Xian of Han
of the Three Kingdoms later of Wei, Shu and Wu.
In late 220, some months after Cao Cao's death, Cao Cao's successor, Cao Pi, forced Emperor Xian to abdicate the throne to him. He then established the state of Cao Wei with himself as the new emperor – an event marking the formal end of the Han dynas... | 50,690 |
343618 | Emperor Xian of Han | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Emperor%20Xian%20of%20Han | Emperor Xian of Han
Consort Wang, fearful of Emperor Ling's Empress He, had taken drugs that were intended to induce an abortion, but was not successful in her attempt. Soon after she gave birth to Liu Xie, the jealous Empress He poisoned her by putting poison in her food. Emperor Ling was enraged and wanted to depose ... | 50,691 |
343618 | Emperor Xian of Han | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Emperor%20Xian%20of%20Han | Emperor Xian of Han
(史子眇), was known as "Marquis Shi"). Liu Bian was born of the empress and was older, but Emperor Ling viewed his behaviour as being insufficiently solemn and therefore considered appointing Liu Xie as his crown prince, but hesitated and could not decide.
When Emperor Ling died in 189, an influential... | 50,692 |
343618 | Emperor Xian of Han | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Emperor%20Xian%20of%20Han | Emperor Xian of Han
to "Prince of Chenliu" (陳留王).
# Accession to the throne and collapse of the Han dynasty.
## Rise of Dong Zhuo.
After Liu Bian became emperor, He Jin became the most powerful official in the imperial court, and he and his advisor Yuan Shao quickly entered into a conspiracy to exterminate the eunuc... | 50,693 |
343618 | Emperor Xian of Han | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Emperor%20Xian%20of%20Han | Emperor Xian of Han
Shao then led his forces into the palace and killed the majority of the eunuchs. The remaining eunuchs initially took the young emperor and Liu Xie hostage, but were eventually forced to commit suicide when the battle turned against them. When Dong Zhuo then arrived on scene, he, impressed with his ... | 50,694 |
343618 | Emperor Xian of Han | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Emperor%20Xian%20of%20Han | Emperor Xian of Han
scene.
## Forced relocation west and the death of Dong Zhuo.
In the spring of 190, a number of local officials, loosely forming a coalition led by Yuan Shao, quickly rose up against Dong Zhuo. Even though they still feared Dong Zhuo's military power and did not directly advance on Luoyang, Dong Zh... | 50,695 |
343618 | Emperor Xian of Han | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Emperor%20Xian%20of%20Han | Emperor Xian of Han
Yun and Lü Bu, assassinated Dong on 22 May 192. For a while, it appeared that the Han regime might return to normal, as Wang Yun quickly established relatively friendly relations with the local officials resisting Dong but by this time acting more as local warlords. However, due to Wang Yun's failur... | 50,696 |
343618 | Emperor Xian of Han | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Emperor%20Xian%20of%20Han | Emperor Xian of Han
Li Jue and Guo Si had a major fallout, and Li took Emperor Xian hostage while Guo took the officials hostage as they battled. Later in the year, after peace talks between Li Jue and Guo Si, they agreed to allow Emperor Xian to return to Luoyang, but as soon as Emperor Xian departed Chang'an, they re... | 50,697 |
343618 | Emperor Xian of Han | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Emperor%20Xian%20of%20Han | Emperor Xian of Han
he could effectively be in control of the central government, but the other strategists Guo Tu and Chunyu Qiong opposed — under the faulty logic that if he did, he would have to yield to Emperor Xian on key decisions. Yuan Shao listened to Guo Tu and Chunyu Qiong and never again considered welcoming... | 50,698 |
343618 | Emperor Xian of Han | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Emperor%20Xian%20of%20Han | Emperor Xian of Han
to Luoyang and, after securing an agreement with Emperor Xian's generals Dong Cheng and Yang Feng, convincing them of his loyalty, he entered Luoyang and technically shared power with Dong and Yang, but was in fact in command.
Unlike the situation with Dong Zhuo, though, Cao Cao knew how to assuage... | 50,699 |
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