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343206 | University of Zimbabwe | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=University%20of%20Zimbabwe | University of Zimbabwe
who is appointed by the Chancellor after consultation with the Minister of Higher and Tertiary Education and the University Council. The Vice-Chancellor is assisted by one or more Pro–Vice-Chancellors, appointed by the University Council with the approval of the Minister of Higher and Tertiary Education.
The academic authority of the university is vested in the Senate, comprising the university's chief officers, the deans of faculties, all full professors, the chairmen of departments and staff and student representatives. The university is divided into faculties, managed by an executive dean and governed by a Faculty Board comprising all professors and lecturers.
## Faculties.
There are ten | 8,700 |
343206 | University of Zimbabwe | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=University%20of%20Zimbabwe | University of Zimbabwe
academic faculties:
## Colleges.
The university currently has one college, the College of Health Sciences which incorporates the Faculty of Medicine. However, many of Zimbabwe's public universities started as colleges of the University of Zimbabwe:
## Trans-disciplinary institutes.
The university has two trans-disciplinary research institutes: the Institute of Development Studies (IDS) and the Institute of Environmental Studies (IES).
## Affiliated institutions.
There are numerous education institutions affiliated to the University of Zimbabwe, including teacher training colleges and the School of Social Work.
## Academic year.
The academic year runs from August to June, with graduation | 8,701 |
343206 | University of Zimbabwe | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=University%20of%20Zimbabwe | University of Zimbabwe
normally in September. As from February 2016, the University introduced a second intake,with an academic year that runs from February to December.
# Student life.
## Residences.
On the main campus there are five residences for women: Swinton Hall, Complexes 1, 4 and 5 and Carr-Saunders, and four residences for men: Manfred Hodson Hall, Complex 2, Complex 3 and Manfred Hodson Annex (formerly New Hall). There is also the Medical Residence at the Medical School campus and Mount Royal Residence in the Avenues, in central Harare. The residences were closed in June 2007, with the university authorities citing maintenance and sanitation problems but were reopened in 2014.
## Sports, clubs and traditions.
The | 8,702 |
343206 | University of Zimbabwe | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=University%20of%20Zimbabwe | University of Zimbabwe
university has a target of at least one current or former UZ student representing the country in a medal winning sports team in international competitions annually. Sport at UZ is centred around the Sports Pavilion, which was donated by National Breweries. Sports offered at the university include athletics, basketball, cricket, football, hockey, rugby and tennis. UZ has frequently won the Zimbabwe Universities Sports Association Games. In its early years, men's hockey was the premier sport, with a team in Salisbury's "First League" in 1960 The University of Zimbabwe Football Club plays in Zimbabwe's Division two and is the former home of Manchester City striker and Zimbabwe national football | 8,703 |
343206 | University of Zimbabwe | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=University%20of%20Zimbabwe | University of Zimbabwe
team captain, Benjani Mwaruwari. The club was for a time coached by former President Canaan Banana. When Zimbabwe hosted the All-Africa Games in 1995, UZ was the games village. Maintenance of sporting facilities is the responsibility of the Director: Sport, but in recent years accessing funds from the State Procurement Board has been a challenge. Other popular and successful sporting disciplines at UZ are Basketball, Vollyeball, Rugby and Handball whom are all playing in the Harare professional leagues. In October 2015, the Sports Department organised a Handball festival in celebration of the University's 6oth anniversary and this festival has become an annual event ever since and the biggest | 8,704 |
343206 | University of Zimbabwe | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=University%20of%20Zimbabwe | University of Zimbabwe
handball festival in the country.
In most departments there are subject–related clubs or societies, for example the Kirk Biological Society and the AIESEC and Students Institution for Success Club. In 2005, UZ won the Students in Free Enterprise World Cup held in Ontario, Canada. There are also non–academic clubs such as Rotaract
## Gender issues.
The gender gap in enrollment at UZ, like at African universities, became a concern by the mid-1990s and in 1995 an affirmative action programme was built into the university's policy. However, many female students feel inhibited from taking male-dominated courses or taking part in student politics. Women are intimidated by gender–related violence | 8,705 |
343206 | University of Zimbabwe | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=University%20of%20Zimbabwe | University of Zimbabwe
and sexual exploitation.
# University of Zimbabwe people.
## Vice–Chancellors and principals.
The first head of the university was William Rollo, who served as interim Principal from 1953 to 1955. The first substantive Principal was Sir Walter Adams, who served from 1955 until 1966 and was later Director of the London School of Economics. Adams was succeeded by Terence Miller, who lasted a mere two years as his racially progressive views brought him into conflict with the Rhodesian government. His successor, Scottish theologian Robert Craig, who later was Moderator of the General Assembly of the Church of Scotland, served from 1969 to 1980. Leonard J. Lewis served as Principal for around | 8,706 |
343206 | University of Zimbabwe | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=University%20of%20Zimbabwe | University of Zimbabwe
a year during the transition to Zimbabwe's independence. He was succeeded in 1981 by law professor Walter Kamba, who became Vice–Chancellor, the post created to replace that of Principal. Like Miller, Kamba clashed with the government and announced his resignation at the 1992 graduation ceremony, in a speech that cited government interference in the university and threats to academic freedom. He was succeeded by Gordon Chavunduka until 1996, and then by Graham Hill from 1997 to 2002. Levi Nyagura, the longest-serving Vice–Chancellor, held the office from 2003 to 2018, when he was suspended on charges that he unprocedurally awarded a PhD degree to former First Lady Grace Mugabe. President Emmerson | 8,707 |
343206 | University of Zimbabwe | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=University%20of%20Zimbabwe | University of Zimbabwe
academic freedom. He was succeeded by Gordon Chavunduka until 1996, and then by Graham Hill from 1997 to 2002. Levi Nyagura, the longest-serving Vice–Chancellor, held the office from 2003 to 2018, when he was suspended on charges that he unprocedurally awarded a PhD degree to former First Lady Grace Mugabe. President Emmerson Mnangagwa appointed agricultural engineering professor Paul Mapfumo as acting Vice–Chancellor in August 2018.
# External links.
- College of Health Sciences
- Institute of Environmental Studies
- Biomedical Research and Training Institute
- UZ Publications
- Southern African Regional Universities Association entry for UZ
- Institute of Continuing Health Education | 8,708 |
343210 | Princess (car) | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Princess%20(car) | Princess (car)
Princess (car)
The Princess is a family car which was produced in the United Kingdom by the Austin-Morris division of British Leyland from 1975 until 1981 (1982 in New Zealand). The car inherited a front-wheel drive / transverse engine configuration from its predecessor, the BMC ADO17 range. This was still unusual in Europe for family cars of this type and gave the Princess a cabin space advantage when compared with similarly sized cars from competing manufacturers.
The car, which had the design code ADO71, was originally marketed as the Austin / Morris / Wolseley 18–22 series. In 1975 the range was renamed "Princess". This was effectively a new marque created by British Leyland, although it | 8,709 |
343210 | Princess (car) | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Princess%20(car) | Princess (car)
had previously been used as a model name on the Austin Princess limousine from 1947 to 1956, and the Vanden Plas Princess. The Princess is often referred to, incorrectly, as the Austin Princess. Although this name was not used in the UK market, it was used in New Zealand. The car was later revamped as the Austin Ambassador, a hatchback, which was produced from 1981 until 1984 and only available in Britain and Ireland.
Princess sales, although initially strong, were tailing off by the end of the 1970s. Some of its competitors had gained a fifth-door as a hatchback which the Princess lacked (though Harris Mann originally designed the car with a hatch) and the medium large-car sector fell victim | 8,710 |
343210 | Princess (car) | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Princess%20(car) | Princess (car)
to a poor economic climate further compounded by the OPEC oil crisis of the day. It was somewhere between the Ford Cortina and Ford Granada in terms of size, being designed to compete with more expensive versions of the Cortina as well as entry-level versions of the Granada. British Leyland restyled the Princess with a boot so that it would not compete with their existing SD1 and Maxi designs.
The limousine version was devised in late 1975 and produced on a small scale by Woodall Nicholson. Based on the top of the range Princess 2200 HLS, stretched at the B-pillar to allow more room for the rear compartment, the front door remained unchanged, making the car look oddly proportioned from the | 8,711 |
343210 | Princess (car) | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Princess%20(car) | Princess (car)
side. The Leyland Princess 2200 HLS Limousine was produced between 1975 and 1979, and was mostly sold to local borough councils (as a mayoral car) and to the funeral sector. Princess limousine seemed to be an alternative to a Daimler DS420 that local government used in the mid 70s as Daimlers were much more expensive.
Total production amounted to 224,942 units.
# Launch of the Austin / Morris / Wolseley 18–22 series.
The car was launched on 26 March 1975 as the 18–22 series, "the car that has got it all together". The number designation 18–22 referred to the engine sizes available carried forward from the 1800 cc and 2200 cc BMC B-series-engined BMC ADO 17 "Landcrab". For the first six months | 8,712 |
343210 | Princess (car) | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Princess%20(car) | Princess (car)
of production three badge-engineered versions were produced: Austin, Morris and Wolseley. The Austin model bore the original "design intent", featuring trapezoidal headlights and a simple horizontally-vaned grille. The Morris and Wolseley cars had a raised "hump" permitting a larger, styled grille for each model; the Morris one was a simple chrome rectangle with Morris in the lower right-hand corner, while Wolseleys had a chrome grille with the traditional illuminated company logo, with narrower vertical bars either side set back within the chromed surround. Both of these versions had four round headlights, and the Wolseley model was only available with the six-cylinder engine and luxury velour | 8,713 |
343210 | Princess (car) | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Princess%20(car) | Princess (car)
trim. Apart from their bonnet and headlamp designs, and of course their badging, the Austin and Morris models were virtually identical.
## Styling.
The exterior styling was distinctive, innovative, and somewhat divisive. "The Wedge", as it was often nicknamed, was indeed very wedge-shaped; the styling was all angles and slanting panels. This was very much a 1970s design as created by Italian stylists (see Lamborghini Countach for example). Within BL the car was often referred to as "The Anteater". The designer, Harris Mann, was also responsible for the Triumph TR7, another wedge-shaped car, as was his original design for the Austin Allegro, although by the time that design had been readied | 8,714 |
343210 | Princess (car) | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Princess%20(car) | Princess (car)
for production nearly all the angular styling features had been lost.
The Princess, unlike the Allegro, made it to regular production relatively unscathed and unaltered from Harris's original plan. The bonnet (hood) was a little higher, to allow for taller engines, but the biggest change from Harris's design involved the rear. Harris had intended the design to be a five-door hatchback, but management decided that the Austin Maxi should be the only hatchback in the range, making that its unique selling point, and besides, they thought the Princess's prospective buyers would dislike a hatchback – despite the fact that in the Rover division the larger Rover SD1 was being given a hatchback design. | 8,715 |
343210 | Princess (car) | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Princess%20(car) | Princess (car)
Consequently, the Princess received fixed rear glass and a separate boot, belying its appearance. An estate version was also proposed, but never reached production.
## Mechanical details.
The base engine fitted was the 1798 cc B-series pushrod straight-4. The lay-out closely followed that of the predecessor model, but access to the alternator/water pump was greatly improved by exploiting the car's longer nose to fit a front-mounted radiator. The basic design of the engine dated back to 1947 and the unit with a claimed output of 84 bhp was notably lacking in power, although torque was reasonable. The larger engine, fitted to upper models in the range, was a 2227 cc E-series SOHC straight-6. | 8,716 |
343210 | Princess (car) | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Princess%20(car) | Princess (car)
This was very smooth and a much more modern engine, with a published output figure of 110 bhp, but was still not hugely powerful. The Princess was a big car, and the engine choice gave lacklustre performance, not helped by the provision of only a 4-speed manual gearbox (a Borg-Warner automatic transmission was an option). Suspension used BL's Hydragas system.
## Performance and price comparison.
A six-cylinder car was road tested by Britain's "Autocar" magazine in March 1975 at the time of the model's launch. It recorded a maximum speed of 104 mph (167 km/h) and reached 60 mph (97 km/h) from a standing start in 13.5 seconds. The top speed was marginally lower than the 109 mph (175 km/h) achieved | 8,717 |
343210 | Princess (car) | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Princess%20(car) | Princess (car)
by a recently tested Ford Consul 2500 L and a full three seconds slower to 60 mph than the Ford which managed the standing start test in just 10.4 seconds. The 2200 also fell slightly behind the Fiat 132GLS 1800 in these comparisons. At the same time its overall fuel consumption at 20.7 mpg was usefully superior to the Ford's 18.1 mpg. The lighter Fiat was more frugal with fuel than either of the other two. On price, the Austin's domestic market recommended retail prices including taxes of £2,424 was significantly higher than the £2,221 charged for the Ford.
Although its performance figures on paper were a little underwhelming, the testers were impressed with the roominess and roadholding of | 8,718 |
343210 | Princess (car) | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Princess%20(car) | Princess (car)
the Austin 2200. They found it quiet and comfortable, the driving position in particular representing a vast improvement over the car's predecessor. They mentioned in passing that the boot/trunk on the test car "leaked slightly", but did not labour the point.
The Princess was similar in size to the Ford Cortina, and was marketed by British Leyland as a rival to the larger engined versions of the Cortina, as well as smaller engined versions of the Ford Granada.
# Princess.
By September 1975, the process of unifying Austin and Morris dealerships was advanced sufficiently, while the Wolseley marque was to be abandoned. Thus the policy of selling seven 18–22 series models under three different | 8,719 |
343210 | Princess (car) | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Princess%20(car) | Princess (car)
marques was changed and the range was reduced to four models all sold under the Princess name. A crown badge was affixed to the point of the bonnet and the script word "Princess" was affixed to the grille, the thick vinyl-clad C-pillars and the boot. Only the 1800 model bore the twin headlights, with the 2200 models sporting the wedge-shaped headlights Harris Mann had designed the car to be seen with.
Build quality of the Princess was affected by poor quality control and constant industrial disputes; it gained a reputation for unreliability it could never shake off, even though quality improved in later years. The styling, praised upon introduction, was soon labelled "ugly". To quote a phrase | 8,720 |
343210 | Princess (car) | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Princess%20(car) | Princess (car)
in "Parker's Car Price Guide" from the 1990s, "an early critic suggested that the people responsible for designing the front and rear of the car were not speaking to one another".
# Princess 2.
In July 1978, the Princess was given a revamp and renamed the Princess 2. The main change was the replacement of the 1800 cc B-series engine with the new O-series engine. The new engine was offered in two sizes: 1695 cc and 1993 cc. Since there was an 1800 cc tax barrier for company cars at the time, the 1700 cc O-series engine was developed to take advantage of that, whilst the 2000 cc engine was developed for the private motorists who wanted something different from the hugely popular Ford Cortina. | 8,721 |
343210 | Princess (car) | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Princess%20(car) | Princess (car)
The car had perhaps reached its pinnacle when the prestigious "Motoring Which" publication described the Princess 2200HLS automatic model as "An excellent car, marred only by poor reliability".
Production of the Princess ceased in November 1981.
The basic Princess design lived on in revised form until 1984 as the Austin Ambassador.
# New Zealand — Austin Princess.
In New Zealand the car was officially sold as the Austin Princess. Assembled in the New Zealand Motor Corporation's plant in Nelson, it was introduced to the market in 1977 and utilized the Austin 1800 B-series engine.
In early 1979 the car was re-engined with the BL O-series OHC motor. Due to a conflict of the Austin Princess | 8,722 |
343210 | Princess (car) | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Princess%20(car) | Princess (car)
and Morris Marina competing in the same market sector in New Zealand, the Princess got a 2.0 L unit mounted transversely, while the Marina (which was face-lifted at that time and renamed in NZ as "Morris 1700") received the 1.7 L unit mounted longitudinally.
Being competitively priced, the Princess proved a popular car on the New Zealand market, and proved to be a good alternative to the rear-wheel-drive Ford Cortina, Mitsubishi Sigma and Holden Commodore ranges.
Local production of the car ended in June 1982, when the completely knocked-down kits of the car had been used up. The Austin Princess R, the last model sold there, was still on new-car price lists in 1983, and was available only | 8,723 |
343210 | Princess (car) | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Princess%20(car) | Princess (car)
in black to commemorate the end of local assembly of a long line of Austin cars.
# Torcars Princess Estate.
The Princess designer Harris Mann intended it to be a hatchback and Torcars created a conversion designed to meet the growing demand for fifth-door saloons which was dealer approved. The Torcars Princess Estate was available in 1800 or 2200 engine sizes, with manual or automatic gearboxes.
The original sleek wedge profile was completely retained but the tailgate revealed an enormous loadspace accessible by probably the largest estate car aperture available on any European car at the time. With the rear seat lowered there is a load length of nearly , a load width averaging , a load height | 8,724 |
343210 | Princess (car) | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Princess%20(car) | Princess (car)
of nearly , and an overall carrying capacity of 54 cubic feet (assuming Dunlop Denovo run-flat wheels and tyres are fitted, obviating the need for a spare wheel).
Also included as standard items not available on the standard Princess were a wash-wipe system for the rear screen is fitted and a fully carpeted luggage area.
# Popular culture.
A Princess was owned by Terry and June Medford, in the BBC sitcom of the same name. Similarly Bobby and Sheila Grant owned a blue Princess in the early years of "Brookside" (this was later replaced with an Austin Montego), until the opening sequence was remodelled in the 1990s, their car could be seen throughout the opening credits and was visible on the | 8,725 |
343210 | Princess (car) | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Princess%20(car) | Princess (car)
title-card.
The character "Lomper" (Steve Huison) attempts suicide in a Princess in the film "The Full Monty".
The character Dirk Gently owns a Princess, which played an important role in the 2010 television adaptation of Douglas Adams' novel "Dirk Gently's Holistic Detective Agency".
On "Top Gear", the car was shown to Jay Kay for his comments. He selected only a minor part of the trim as having any design merit and demonstrated the poor design of the engine bay by standing in the space left next to the engine. The engine bay was big enough to accommodate the 3,500cc V8 that was made by the same company. The bonnet was hence designed with the future and a bigger engine in mind. The extra | 8,726 |
343210 | Princess (car) | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Princess%20(car) | Princess (car)
Kay for his comments. He selected only a minor part of the trim as having any design merit and demonstrated the poor design of the engine bay by standing in the space left next to the engine. The engine bay was big enough to accommodate the 3,500cc V8 that was made by the same company. The bonnet was hence designed with the future and a bigger engine in mind. The extra space makes the engine accessible to work on.
A 2009 episode of the BBC police drama "Ashes to Ashes" (set in 1982) was called "Death of a Princess" in reference to a fatal accident in which a stolen Princess car crashed while being chased by police.
# External links.
- Leyland Princess
- Princess & Ambassadors Owners Club | 8,727 |
343226 | Rudolf Lange | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Rudolf%20Lange | Rudolf Lange
Rudolf Lange
Rudolf Lange (18 April 1910 – 23 February 1945?) was a German SS functionary and police official during the Nazi era. He served as commander in the "Sicherheitsdienst" (SD) and all RSHA personnel in Riga, Latvia. He attended the Wannsee Conference, and was largely responsible for implementing the murder of Latvia's Jewish population. "Einsatzgruppe A" killed over 250,000 people in less than six months.
# Early life and career.
Lange was born in Weißwasser, Prussian Silesia, a town in present-day Saxony. His father was a railway construction supervisor. Lange finished high school in Staßfurt in 1928 and studied law in the University of Jena. He received a doctorate in law in 1933, | 8,728 |
343226 | Rudolf Lange | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Rudolf%20Lange | Rudolf Lange
and was recruited by the Gestapo office of Halle. He joined the "Sturmabteilung" (SA) in November 1933, but soon felt that this had been a bad career move. Thus, in 1936 Lange joined the "Schutzstaffel" (SS) (member number 290,308).
As a mid-level Gestapo official, Lange rose rapidly. He adopted the SS ideology wholeheartedly, and resigned from the church in 1937. From 1936 he worked in the Gestapo office in Berlin. In May 1938, Lange was transferred to Vienna to supervise the annexation of the Austrian police system. There, he met and worked with Franz Walter Stahlecker, who later became his superior in Riga. In June 1939 Lange was transferred to Stuttgart.
In September 1939 the security | 8,729 |
343226 | Rudolf Lange | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Rudolf%20Lange | Rudolf Lange
and police agencies of Nazi Germany (with the exception of the Orpo) were consolidated into the Reich Main Security Office (RSHA) of the SS, headed by Reinhard Heydrich. The Gestapo became "Amt IV" (Department IV) of the RSHA and Heinrich Müller became the Gestapo Chief, with Heydrich as his immediate superior. From May to July 1940, Lange ran the Gestapo offices of Weimar and Erfurt, while working as the deputy head of the office of the Inspector of the SiPo in Kassel. In September 1940, Lange was promoted as the deputy head of police for Berlin. In April 1941, he was promoted to SS-"Sturmbannführer" (major).
# Mass murder in Latvia.
On 5 June 1941 Lange was ordered to Pretzsch and the command | 8,730 |
343226 | Rudolf Lange | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Rudolf%20Lange | Rudolf Lange
staff of "Einsatzgruppe A", headed by SS-"Brigadeführer und Generalmajor der Polizei" Dr. Franz Walter Stahlecker.
Lange was a "Teilkommando" (detachment) leader in "Einsatzkommando 2", or EK2. He was one of the few people aware of the "Führerbefehl" or "fundamental orders" for the so-called "Jewish problem" in Latvia. According to Lange himself:
From the very beginning, the goal of EK2 was that radical solution of the Jewish problem by killing all Jews.
On 3 December 1941, he was promoted as commander of EK2, replacing Eduard Strauch. Lange was also the area chief of the "Sicherheitsdienst" (SD), the Nazi Security Service, with the title "Kommandant des Sicherheitsdienst". He was in charge | 8,731 |
343226 | Rudolf Lange | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Rudolf%20Lange | Rudolf Lange
of Department IV of the SD in Latvia. The department was the "hub of the whole SD organization in Latvia, the other departments served it." Matters of formal rank and titles were never clear in the Nazi occupation regime for Latvia, as the lines of authority within agencies and the relationship between one agency and others were "ambiguous, overlapping, and unclear". Nevertheless, Lange is widely recognized as one of the primary perpetrators of the Holocaust in Latvia.
His headquarters were in Riga, on Reimersa Street. From the beginning of his involvement in Latvia, Lange gave orders to squads of Latvians, such as the Arajs Kommando, that the Germans had organised to carry out massacres in | 8,732 |
343226 | Rudolf Lange | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Rudolf%20Lange | Rudolf Lange
the smaller cities. According to one historian, Victors Arājs was "held on a short leash" by Lange. Another local organisation receiving orders from Lange was the Vagulāns Kommando, which was responsible for the Jelgava massacres in July and August 1941.
Lange also personally supervised executions conducted by the Arājs commando. He appears to have ordered that all the SD officers should personally participate in the killings.
Lange was responsible for the Latvian part of the decision by the Nazi regime to deport Jews from Germany, Austria and Czechoslovakia to Riga. In this connection, on 8 November 1941, he issued detailed orders to Hinrich Lohse, who was "Reichskommissar Ostland", regarding | 8,733 |
343226 | Rudolf Lange | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Rudolf%20Lange | Rudolf Lange
the transport of 50,000 Jews to the East, with 25,000 going to Riga and 25,000 to Belarus. At the same time, Lange was organising the construction of the Salaspils concentration camp, originally intended to accommodate these deportees. Because the Salaspils camp would not be ready by the time the Jews would arrive, Lange decided to send the transports to an abandoned estate near Riga called Jungfernhof or Jumpravmuiza, which would be set up as Jungfernhof concentration camp.
In November 1941 Lange was involved in the planning and carrying out the murder of 24,000 Latvian Jews from the Riga ghetto which occurred on 30 November and 8 December 1941. This crime has come to be known as the Rumbula | 8,734 |
343226 | Rudolf Lange | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Rudolf%20Lange | Rudolf Lange
massacre. In addition to the Latvian Jews, another 1,000 Jews from Germany were also murdered. They had been brought to Latvia on the first train of deportees, which arrived on 29 November 1941. Following the 29 November train, more rail transports of Jews began arriving in Riga from Germany, starting on 3 December 1941. The Jews on the first few transports were not immediately housed in the ghetto, but were left at Jungfernhof concentration camp.
In May 1942, Lange issued orders to SS-"Obersturmführer" Günter Tabbert to kill the surviving Jews in the Daugavpils ghetto. Only about 450 Jews survived in Daugavpils after this action, which involved killing of the sick, children, infants and hospital | 8,735 |
343226 | Rudolf Lange | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Rudolf%20Lange | Rudolf Lange
workers. In addition to Tabbert, the Arajs Kommando of native Latvians was responsible for a major part of these killings.
In 1942, Lange became an SS-"Obersturmbannführer" (lieutenant colonel) in the head office in Riga until 1945, when he became Head of Reichsgau Wartheland's SD and SiPo. He was promoted to SS-"Standartenführer" (colonel) in 1945.
# Wannsee Conference.
Lange was called to the Wannsee Conference by Heydrich in January 1942. Lange (an SS major) was the lowest-ranking officer present. Heydrich viewed Lange's first-hand experience in conducting the mass murder of deported Jews as valuable for the conference. Instead of Lange, Heydrich could have invited either Karl Jäger or | 8,736 |
343226 | Rudolf Lange | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Rudolf%20Lange | Rudolf Lange
Erich Ehrlinger, who commanded the SiPo and SD in Lithuania and Belarus respectively, and were responsible for similar massacres. He chose Lange because Riga was the main deportation destination, and because Lange's doctorate made him seem more intellectual than the other two men. Lange's superior, Franz Walter Stahlecker, was not invited, as he was not familiar with the realities of the Jewish deportations and was not located in Riga.
- (Note: One possible indication of Lange's low rank may perhaps be evident in Ian Kershaw's "Hitler 1936-1945 Nemesis", where the SS major twice is mistakenly referred to as Dr. "Otto" Lange.)
# Disappearance.
Early in 1945 Lange was appointed head of the | 8,737 |
343226 | Rudolf Lange | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Rudolf%20Lange | Rudolf Lange
SD and the SS in Poznań, Warthegau. Soon after he reached the city, Posen was surrounded by the Soviet Red Army and was declared a fortified city ("Festung"). Lange, who could not have any doubts about his destiny as a prisoner, directed the police under his command with fanaticism. He was wounded during the Battle of Poznań and the siege by Russian forces and was promoted SS-"Standartenführer" on 30 January 1945. At Hitler's behest, on 6 February 1945 he received the German Cross in gold. Lange may have died or committed suicide when the Red Army seized Poznań on 23 February 1945 after a last-ditch defence of the city by the remnants of the German garrison.
# Character.
Lange was said to | 8,738 |
343226 | Rudolf Lange | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Rudolf%20Lange | Rudolf Lange
have been a favourite student of Reinhard Heydrich and Heinrich Himmler. He demanded unconditional obedience from his subordinates. Joseph Berman, a survivor of one of the concentration camps administered by Lange, described him as follows:
As far as Lange is concerned, he was the biggest murderer I have ever known. To write a book about him would definitely not be enough. As he is dead, it is no use talking about him. I would, however, mention that he was one of the most notorious anti-Semites in the 20th century. He hated Jews so much that he could not look at them; one never wanted to pass him either in the motor pool or anywhere else.
Lange made himself one of the most feared officials | 8,739 |
343226 | Rudolf Lange | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Rudolf%20Lange | Rudolf Lange
among those responsible for the Riga ghetto. He supervised the arrival of the transports, aided by SS-"Obersturmbannführer" Gerhard Maywald, whom historian Gertrude Schneider, a survivor of the Riga ghetto, describes as Lange's "sidekick". Lange personally shot a young man, Werner Koppel, who he felt was not opening a railway car door fast enough. Schneider described Lange's appearance:
Even though he was somewhat smaller and darker than the blond, blue-eyed Maywald, he looked very handsome in his fur-collared uniform coat and seemed every inch an officer and a gentleman. It never occurred to the newcomers to suspect such a man of being a murderer.
# SS career.
- "Untersturmführer", 6 July | 8,740 |
343226 | Rudolf Lange | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Rudolf%20Lange | Rudolf Lange
cer and a gentleman. It never occurred to the newcomers to suspect such a man of being a murderer.
# SS career.
- "Untersturmführer", 6 July 1938
- "Sturmführer", 9 November 1938
- "Hauptsturmführer", 20 April 1940
- "Sturmbannführer", 20 April 1941
- "Obersturmbannführer", 9 November 1943
- "Standartenführer", 30 January 1945
# References.
- Klein, Peter. "Dr. Rudolf Lange als Kommandant der Sicherheitspolizei und des SD in Lettland. Aspekte seines Dienstalltags", in Wolf Kaiser (Hrsg.): "Täter im Vernichtungskrieg. Der Überfall auf die Sowjetunion und der Völkermord an den Juden". Propyläen-Verlag, 2002. .
# External links.
- Wannsee conference villa
- Lange biography and image | 8,741 |
343192 | Demographic history of Poland | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Demographic%20history%20of%20Poland | Demographic history of Poland
Demographic history of Poland
The Poles come from different West Slavic tribes living on territories belonging later to Poland in the early Middle Ages (see: Prehistory of Poland).
# Kingdom of Poland (966–1569).
Around the year 1000, the population of Polish lands is estimated at about 1,000,000 to 1,250,000. Around 1370 Poland had 2 million inhabitants with a population density of 8.6 per square kilometre. Poland was less affected by the Black Death than western Europe.
Although the population of the Kingdom of Poland in late Middle Ages consisted mostly of Poles, influx of other cultures was significant: particularly notable were Jewish and German settlers, who often formed significant | 8,742 |
343192 | Demographic history of Poland | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Demographic%20history%20of%20Poland | Demographic history of Poland
minorities or even majorities in urban centers. Sporadically migrants from other places like Scotland, Netherlands settled in Poland as well. At that time other notable minorities included various incompletely assimilated people from other Slavic tribes (some of whom would eventually merge totally into the Polish people, while others merged into neighboring nations).
Around 1490, the combined population of Poland and Lithuania, in a personal union (the Polish–Lithuanian union) since the Union of Krewo a century before, is estimated at about 8 million. An estimate for 1493 gives the combined population of Poland and Lithuania at 7.5 million (including 3.9 million in the Kingdom of Poland), breaking | 8,743 |
343192 | Demographic history of Poland | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Demographic%20history%20of%20Poland | Demographic history of Poland
them down by ethnicity at 3.25 million Poles, 3.75 million Ruthenians and 0.5 million Lithuanians. The Ruthenians composed most of the population of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania: this is the reason that the late GDL is often called a Slavic country, alongside Poland, Russia etc. In time, the adjective "Lithuanian" came to denote a Slav of the Grand Duchy.
Eventually the Lithuanian speakers came to be known as Samogitians (see also Samogitian nobility), after the province in which they were the dominant majority. Another estimate for the combined population at the beginning of the 16th century gives 7.5 million, roughly split evenly, due to much larger territory of the Grand Duchy (with about | 8,744 |
343192 | Demographic history of Poland | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Demographic%20history%20of%20Poland | Demographic history of Poland
10-15 people per square km in Poland and 3-5 people per square km in the Grand Duchy, and even less in the south-east Cossack borderlands). By 1500, about 15% of Poland's population lived in urban centers (settlements with over 500 people).
# Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth (1569–1795).
By 1600, about 25% of Poland's population lived in urban centers (settlements with over 500 people). Major towns in Poland included: Gdańsk (Danzig) (70,000), Kraków (28,000), Warsaw (20,000-30,000), Poznań (20,000), Lwów (Lviv) (20,000), Elbląg (Elbing) (15,000), Toruń (Thorn) (12,000), Sandomierz (4,000-5,000), Kazimierz Dolny (4,000-5,000) and Gniezno (4,000-5,000).
The population of the Commonwealth of | 8,745 |
343192 | Demographic history of Poland | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Demographic%20history%20of%20Poland | Demographic history of Poland
both nations was never overwhelmingly either Roman Catholic or Polish. This resulted from Poland's possession of Ukraine and federation with Lithuania; in both these countries ethnic Poles were a distinct minority. The Commonwealth comprised primarily three nations: Poles, Lithuanians, and Ukrainians and Belarusians (the latter two usually referred to together as Ruthenians). Shortly after the Union of Lublin (1569), at the turn of the 16th to 17th century, the Commonwealth population was around 7 million, with a rough breakdown of 4.5m Poles, 0.75m Lithuanians, 0.7m Jews and 2m Ruthenians. In 1618, after the Truce of Deulino the Commonwealth population increased together with its territory, | 8,746 |
343192 | Demographic history of Poland | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Demographic%20history%20of%20Poland | Demographic history of Poland
reaching 12 millions that could be roughly divided into: Poles - 4.5m, Ukrainians - 3.5m, Belarusians - 1.5m, Lithuanians - 0.75m, Prussians - 0.75m, Jews - 0.5m, Livionians - 0.5m; at that time nobility formed 10% and burghers, 15%. Population losses of 1648-1667 are estimated at 4m. Coupled with further population and territorial losses, by 1717 the Commonwealth population had fallen to 9m: roughly 4.5m Poles, 1.5m Ukrainians, 1.2m Belarusians, 0.8m Lithuanians, 0.5m Jews, 0.5m others The urban population was hit hard, falling to below 10%.
To be "Polish", in the non-Polish lands of the Commonwealth, was then much less an index of ethnicity than of religion and rank; it was a designation | 8,747 |
343192 | Demographic history of Poland | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Demographic%20history%20of%20Poland | Demographic history of Poland
largely reserved for the landed noble class (szlachta), which included Poles but also many members of non-Polish origin who converted to Catholicism in increasing numbers with each following generation. For the non-Polish noble such conversion meant a final step of Polonization that followed the adoption of the Polish language and culture. Poland, as the culturally most advanced part of the Commonwealth, with the royal court, the capital, the largest cities, the second-oldest university in Central Europe (after Prague), and the more liberal and democratic social institutions has proven an irresistible magnet for the non-Polish nobility in the Commonwealth.
As a result, in the eastern territories | 8,748 |
343192 | Demographic history of Poland | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Demographic%20history%20of%20Poland | Demographic history of Poland
a Polish (or Polonized) aristocracy dominated a peasantry whose great majority was neither Polish nor Roman Catholic. Moreover, the decades of peace brought huge colonization efforts to Ukraine, heightening the tensions among nobles, Jews, Cossacks (traditionally Orthodox), Polish and Ruthenian peasants. The latter, deprived of their native protectors among the Ruthenian nobility, turned for protection to cossacks that facilitated violence that in the end broke the Commonwealth. The tensions were aggravated by conflicts between Eastern Orthodoxy and the Ukrainian Greek Catholic Church following the Union of Brest, overall discrimination of Orthodox religions by dominant Catholicism, and several | 8,749 |
343192 | Demographic history of Poland | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Demographic%20history%20of%20Poland | Demographic history of Poland
Cossack uprisings. In the west and north, many cities had sizable German minorities, often belonging to Reformed churches. The Commonwealth had also one of the largest Jewish diasporas in the world.
Until the Reformation, the "szlachta" were mostly Catholic or Eastern Orthodox. However, many families quickly adopted the Reformed religion. After the Counter-Reformation, when the Roman Catholic Church regained power in Poland, the "szlachta" became almost exclusively Roman Catholic, despite the fact that Roman Catholicism was not a majority religion (the Roman Catholic and Orthodox churches counted approximately 40% of the population each, while the remaining 20% were Jews and members of various | 8,750 |
343192 | Demographic history of Poland | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Demographic%20history%20of%20Poland | Demographic history of Poland
Protestant churches). The Counter-Reformation in Poland, influenced by the Commonwealth tradition of religious tolerance, was based mostly on Jesuit propaganda, and was very peaceful when compared to excesses such as the Thirty Years' War elsewhere in Europe.
In the late 18th century, the first statistical estimates of Commonwealth population appeared. Aleksander Busching estimated the number of Commonwealth population for 8,5 millions; Józef Wybicki in 1777 for 5,391,364; Stanisław Staszic in 1785 for 6 millions; and Fryderyk Moszyński in 1789 for 7,354,620. Modern estimates tend to be higher; by 1770, on the eve of the partitions, Commonwealth had a population of about 11m-14m, about 10% | 8,751 |
343192 | Demographic history of Poland | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Demographic%20history%20of%20Poland | Demographic history of Poland
of that - Jewish. The nobility constituted about 10%, the burghers, about 7-8%.
# Partitions (1795–1918).
By the First Partition in 1772, the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth lost about 211 000 km² (30% of its territory, amounting at that time to about 733 000 km²), with a population of over four to five million people (about a third of its population of 14 million before the partitions).
After the Second Partition, Commonwealth lost about 307 000 km², being reduced to 223 000 km². Only about 4 million people remained in Poland at that time, which makes for a loss of another third of its original population, about a half of the remaining.
After the Third Partition, overall, Austria had gained | 8,752 |
343192 | Demographic history of Poland | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Demographic%20history%20of%20Poland | Demographic history of Poland
about 18 percent of the former Commonwealth territory (130,000 km²) and about 32 percent of the population (3.85 million people). Prussia had gained about 20 percent of the former Commonwealth territory 149,000 km²) and about 23 percent of the population (2.6 million people). Russia had gained about 62 percent of the former Commonwealth territory (462,000 km²) and about 45 percent of the population (3.5 million people).
An estimate for 1815 gives 11 million Poles, out of which 5m were under Russian control (4 million in Congress Poland and 1 million in the territories incorporated into the Russian Empire), 3.5m in the Prussian partition territories and 3m in the Austrian partition territories.
Congress | 8,753 |
343192 | Demographic history of Poland | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Demographic%20history%20of%20Poland | Demographic history of Poland
Poland had a population of about 4.25 million around 1830. In the Russian partition, the Pale of Settlement resulted in resettlement of many Russian Jews to the western fringes of Russian Empire, which now included part of Poland. This further increased the sizable community of Polish Jews. By 1914, about 31 million people inhabited the territories that would become the Second Polish Republic, the First World War saw the population of those territories drop to 26 million.
# Second Polish Republic and World War II (1918–1945).
Before World War II, the Polish lands were noted for the variety of their ethnic communities. Following the Polish-Soviet War, a large part of its population belonged | 8,754 |
343192 | Demographic history of Poland | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Demographic%20history%20of%20Poland | Demographic history of Poland
to national minorities. The census of that year allocates 30.8% of the population in the minority. In 1931, the population of Poland was 31,916,000, including 15,428,000 males and 16,488,000 females. By January 1939, the population of Poland increased to 35,100,000. This total included 240,000 in Zaolzie which was under Polish control from October 1938 until August 1939. The population density was 90 persons per square km. In 1921, 24% of the population lived in towns and cities, by 1931 the ratio grew to 27%. Altogether, in 1921, there were 611 towns and cities in the country, by 1931 there were 636 municipalities. The six biggest cities of Poland (as for January 1, 1939) were Warsaw, Łódź, | 8,755 |
343192 | Demographic history of Poland | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Demographic%20history%20of%20Poland | Demographic history of Poland
Lwów, Poznań, Kraków and Vilnius (Wilno). In 1931, Poland had the second largest Jewish population in the world, and one-fifth of all Jews resided within Poland's borders (approx. 3,136,000, roughly 10% of the entire Polish population).
According to historian Norman Davies the Polish census of 1931 listed the nationalities by language as Polish, 69% of the population, Ukrainian, 15%, Jews 8.5%, Belarusian, 4.70%, German, 2.2%, Russian 0.25%, Lithuanian, 0.25%, Czech 0.09%, Norman Davies included the Ruthenians with the Ukrainians however the Polish census figures list them as separate group with 3.82% of the population. The classification of the ethnic groups in Poland during the Second Polish | 8,756 |
343192 | Demographic history of Poland | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Demographic%20history%20of%20Poland | Demographic history of Poland
Republic is a disputed topic, Tadeusz Piotrowski maintains that the 1931 Polish census "involved questionable methodology, especially the use of mother tongue as an indicator of nationality", noting that it had underestimated the number of non-Poles. The official figures for nationality from the 1931 Polish census based on the mother tongue put the percentage of ethnic Poles at 68.9%, Jews 8.6% and other minority groups 22.5%., Piotrowski cited a study by the Polish historian Jerzy Tomaszewski that puts that the adjusted census figures(taking religious affiliation into account) of ethnic Poles at 64.7%, Jews 9.8% and other minority groups 25.5% of Poland's population. Polish demographer Piotr | 8,757 |
343192 | Demographic history of Poland | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Demographic%20history%20of%20Poland | Demographic history of Poland
Eberhardt maintains that it is commonly agreed that the criterion of declared language to classify ethnic groups led to an overestimation of the number of Poles in pre-war Poland. He notes that in general, the numbers declaring a particular language do not mesh with the numbers declaring the corresponding nationality. Members of ethnic minority groups believe that the language criterion led to an overestimation of Poles.
The detailed figures for the census published by the Polish government provided a breakout by religion for the various language groups, the details of the Polish census of 1931 published by the Central Statistical Office the Polish Republic according to language and religion | 8,758 |
343192 | Demographic history of Poland | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Demographic%20history%20of%20Poland | Demographic history of Poland
are as follows.:
Breakout of Total 1931 Polish Population by Language and Religion
Figures may not add due to omitted answers and those not practicing or declaring a religion. Source: Polish Main Statistical Office (1931)
Breakout of Total 1931 Polish Population by Language and Religion
Figures as % of Total Population
Figures may not add due to omitted answers and those not practicing or declaring a religion. Source: Polish Main Statistical Office (1931)
In the southeast, Ukrainian settlements were present in the regions east of Chełm and in the Carpathians east of Nowy Sącz. The three main native higlander populations were Łemkowie, Bojkowie and Huculi. In all the towns and cities there | 8,759 |
343192 | Demographic history of Poland | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Demographic%20history%20of%20Poland | Demographic history of Poland
were large concentrations of Yiddish-speaking Jews. The Polish ethnographic area stretched eastward: in eastern Lithuania, Belarus, and western Ukraine, all of which had a mixed population, Poles predominated not only in the cities but also in numerous rural districts. There were significant Polish minorities in Daugavpils (in Latvia), Minsk (in Belarus), Bucovina (in Romania), and Kiev (in Ukraine) (see Polish minority in the Soviet Union, Polish Autonomous District).
## Second World War (1939–1945).
In the beginning of the war (September 1939) the territory of Poland was divided between the Nazi Germany and the USSR. By late-1941 following Operation Barbarossa Nazi Germany controlled the | 8,760 |
343192 | Demographic history of Poland | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Demographic%20history%20of%20Poland | Demographic history of Poland
entire territory of the former Second Polish Republic, but in 1944-1945 the Red Army's offensive claimed the region for the USSR.
After both occupiers divided the territory of Poland between themselves, they conducted a series of actions aimed at suppression of Polish culture and repression of much of the Polish people. In August 2009 the Polish Institute of National Remembrance (IPN) researchers estimated Poland's dead (including Polish Jews) at between 5.47 and 5.67 million (due to German actions) and 150,000 (due to Soviet), or around 5.62 and 5.82 million total. About 90% of Polish Jews were killed during the Holocaust; many others emigrated in the succeeding years.
1. Population 1939 | 8,761 |
343192 | Demographic history of Poland | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Demographic%20history%20of%20Poland | Demographic history of Poland
-Polish sources allocate the population by the primary language spoken, not by religion. Most Jews spoke Yiddish, however included with the Poles are about 200,000 Polish speaking Jews who are classified with the Polish group. Included with the Poles are 1,300,000 Eastern Orthodox & Greek Catholic adherents who are sometimes classified with the Ukrainian and Belarusian groups.
2. Natural Increase October 1939-December 1945 -After the war Polish demographers calculated the estimated natural population growth that occurred during the war.
3. Transfer of German Population Most of the ethnic German population fled during the war. In 1950 only about 40,000 of the pre-war ethnic German group remained | 8,762 |
343192 | Demographic history of Poland | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Demographic%20history%20of%20Poland | Demographic history of Poland
in Poland in 1950, most of whom emigrated later in the 1950s.
4. War Dead In August 2009 the Polish Institute of National Remembrance (IPN) put the figure of Poland's dead at between 5,620,000 and 5,820,000. The IPN's figures include 3 million Polish Jews who died in the Holocaust (200,000 included with Polish speakers); as well as 150,000 victims of Soviet repression. The figures also include Poles killed in 1943-44 during the massacres of Poles in Volhynia
Deaths Due to German Occupationbr
Poles-The Institute of National Remembrance (IPN) figure for deaths of Poles due the German occupation is 2,770,000. This figure includes "Direct War Losses" -543,000; "Murdered in Camps and in Pacification" | 8,763 |
343192 | Demographic history of Poland | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Demographic%20history%20of%20Poland | Demographic history of Poland
-506,000; "Deaths in prisons and Camps" 1,146,000; "Deaths outside of prisons and Camps" 473,000; "Murdered in Eastern Regions" 100,000; "Deaths in other countries" 2,000. These figures include about 200,000 Polish speaking Jews who are considered Poles in Polish sources.
Jews-Polish researchers have determined that the Nazis murdered 1,860,000 Polish Jews in the extermination camps in Poland, plus another 1.0 million Polish Jewish deaths in prisons and ghettos. In addition 970,000 Jews from other nations were murdered in the Nazi extermination camps in Poland.
Included in the Polish figures of war dead are 2.0 million Polish citizens in the Polish areas annexed by the Soviet Union Contemporary | 8,764 |
343192 | Demographic history of Poland | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Demographic%20history%20of%20Poland | Demographic history of Poland
Russian sources also include these losses with Soviet war deaths.
Deaths Due to Soviet Occupation
The Polish Institute of National Remembrance (IPN) researchers estimated 150,000 Polish citizens were murdered due to Soviet repression. Since the collapse of the USSR, Polish scholars have been able to do research in the Soviet archives on Polish losses during the Soviet occupation. Andrzej Paczkowski puts the number of Polish deaths at 90–100,000 of the 1.0 million persons deported and 30,000 executed by the Soviets.
5. Population Remaining in the USSR The number of Poles and Jews who remained in the USSR after the war was estimated at about 1.4 million by Polish scholar and historian Krystyna | 8,765 |
343192 | Demographic history of Poland | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Demographic%20history%20of%20Poland | Demographic history of Poland
Kersten. Included with the Poles remaining in the USSR are about 700,000 Eastern Orthodox & Greek Catholic adherents who are sometimes classified with the Ukrainian and Belarusian groups.
6. Emigration to the West Poles and Jews who remained in non communist countries after the war.
7. Population gain Recovered Territories Germans remaining in Poland after the war in the Recovered Territories. This group included 1,130,000 bi-lingual Polish-German persons who declared their allegiance to Poland. Also remaining in 1950 were 94,000 German nationals, 36,000 Germans from pre-war Danzig and 1,500 ethnic Germans of other nations. Most of this group emigrated to Germany after 1956. The ethnic German | 8,766 |
343192 | Demographic history of Poland | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Demographic%20history%20of%20Poland | Demographic history of Poland
population remaining in the 1990s was about 300,000.
8. Reimmigration 1946-50 Poles resident in western Europe before the war, primarily in Germany and France, who returned to Poland after the war.
9. Natural Increase 1946-1950 This is the official Polish government data for births and natural deaths from January 1946 until the census of December 1950.
10. Population December 1950 Per Census The total population per the December 1950 census was 25 million. A breakdown by ethnic group was not given. However, we can estimate the Jewish population based on the postwar census taken by the Jewish community. Data for the Germans and others who remained in Poland after the war can be estimated using | 8,767 |
343192 | Demographic history of Poland | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Demographic%20history%20of%20Poland | Demographic history of Poland
the 1946 Polish census
# Post-Second World War (1945–present).
## Early post-war period.
Before World War II, a third of Poland's population was composed of ethnic minorities. After the war, however, Poland's minorities were mostly gone, due to the 1945 revision of borders, and the Holocaust. Under the National Repatriation Office ("Państwowy Urząd Repatriacyjny"), millions of Poles were forced to leave their homes in the eastern Kresy region and settle in the western former German territories. At the same time approximately 5 million remaining Germans (about 8 million had already fled or had been expelled and about 1 million had been killed in 1944-46) were similarly expelled from those | 8,768 |
343192 | Demographic history of Poland | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Demographic%20history%20of%20Poland | Demographic history of Poland
territories into the Allied occupation zones. Ukrainian and Belarusian minorities found themselves now mostly within the borders of the Soviet Union; those who opposed this new policy (like the Ukrainian Insurgent Army in the Bieszczady Mountains region) were suppressed by the end of 1947 in the Operation Vistula.
The population of Jews in Poland, which formed the largest Jewish community in pre-war Europe at about 3.3 million people, was all but destroyed by 1945. Approximately 3 million Jews died of starvation in ghettos and labor camps, were slaughtered at the German Nazi extermination camps or by the Einsatzgruppen death squads. Between 40,000 and 100,000 Polish Jews survived the Holocaust | 8,769 |
343192 | Demographic history of Poland | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Demographic%20history%20of%20Poland | Demographic history of Poland
in Poland, and another 50,000 to 170,000 were repatriated from the Soviet Union, and 20,000 to 40,000 from Germany and other countries. At its postwar peak, there were 180,000 to 240,000 Jews in Poland, settled mostly in Warsaw, Łódź, Kraków and Wrocław.
According to the national census, which took place on February 14, 1946, population of Poland was 23 930 000, out of which 32% lived in cities and towns, and 68% lived in the countryside. The 1950 census (December 3, 1950) showed the population rise to 25 008 000, and the 1960 census (December 6, 1960) placed the population of Poland at 29 776 000. In 1950, Warsaw was the biggest city of the country, with population of 804 000. Second was Lodz | 8,770 |
343192 | Demographic history of Poland | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Demographic%20history%20of%20Poland | Demographic history of Poland
(pop. 620 000), third Kraków (pop. 344 000), fourth Poznan (pop. 321 000), and fifth Wroclaw (pop. 309 000).
Females were in the majority in the country. In 1931, there were 105.6 women for 100 men. In 1946, the difference grew to 118.5/100, but in subsequent years, number of males grew, and in 1960, the ratio was 106.7/100.
## Current situation.
Most Germans were expelled from Poland and the annexed east German territories at the end of the war, while many Ukrainians, Rusyns and Belarusians lived in territories incorporated into the USSR. Small Ukrainian, Belarusian, Slovak, and Lithuanian minorities reside along the borders, and a German minority is concentrated near the southwestern city | 8,771 |
343192 | Demographic history of Poland | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Demographic%20history%20of%20Poland | Demographic history of Poland
of Opole and in Masuria. Groups of Ukrainians and Polish Ruthenians also live in western Poland, where they were forcefully resettled by communists.
As a result of the migrations and the Soviet Unions radically altered borders under the rule of Joseph Stalin, the population of Poland became one of the most ethnically homogeneous in the world. Virtually all people in Poland claim Polish nationality, with Polish as their native tongue. Ukrainians resp. Rusyns, the largest minority group, are scattered in various northern districts. Lesser numbers of Belarusians and Lithuanians live in areas adjoining Belarus and Lithuania. The Jewish community, almost entirely Polonized, has been greatly reduced. | 8,772 |
343192 | Demographic history of Poland | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Demographic%20history%20of%20Poland | Demographic history of Poland
In Silesia a significant segment of the population, of mixed Polish and German ancestry, tends to declare itself as Polish or German according to political circumstances. Minorities of Germans remain in Pomerania, Silesia, East Prussia, and Lubus.
Small populations of Polish Tatars still exist. Some Polish towns, mainly in northeastern Poland have mosques. Tatars arrived as mercenary soldiers beginning in the late 14th century. The Tatar population reached approximately 100,000 in 1630 but is less than 500 in 2000. See also Islam in Poland.
A recent large migration of Poles took place following Poland's accession to the European Union and opening of the EU's labor market; with an approximate | 8,773 |
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an 500 in 2000. See also Islam in Poland.
A recent large migration of Poles took place following Poland's accession to the European Union and opening of the EU's labor market; with an approximate number of 2 million primarily young Poles taking up jobs abroad.
# General statistics. Tables.
Demographics estimates for period before statistics and reliable data collection from censuses should be seen as giving only a rough order of magnitude, not any precise number.
## Urban demographics statistics.
Changes in the population of major Polish cities.
# External links.
- Commonwealth of Diverse Cultures: Poland's Heritage
- historical demographical data for Poland - 19th and 20th centuries | 8,774 |
343230 | Autopilot | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Autopilot | Autopilot
Autopilot
An autopilot is a system used to control the trajectory of an aircraft without constant 'hands-on' control by a human operator being required. Autopilots do not replace human operators, but instead they assist them in controlling the aircraft. This allows them to focus on broader aspects of operations such as monitoring the trajectory, weather and systems.
The autopilot is often used in conjunction with the autothrottle, when present, which is the analogous system controlling the power delivered by the engines.
The autopilot system on airplanes is sometimes colloquially referred to as "George".
# First autopilots.
In the early days of aviation, aircraft required the continuous | 8,775 |
343230 | Autopilot | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Autopilot | Autopilot
attention of a pilot to fly safely. As aircraft range increased, allowing flights of many hours, the constant attention led to serious fatigue. An autopilot is designed to perform some of the tasks of the pilot.
The first aircraft autopilot was developed by Sperry Corporation in 1912. The autopilot connected a gyroscopic heading indicator and attitude indicator to hydraulically operated elevators and rudder. (Ailerons were not connected as wing dihedral was counted upon to produce the necessary roll stability.) It permitted the aircraft to fly straight and level on a compass course without a pilot's attention, greatly reducing the pilot's workload.
Lawrence Sperry (the son of famous inventor | 8,776 |
343230 | Autopilot | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Autopilot | Autopilot
Elmer Sperry) demonstrated it in 1914 at an aviation safety contest held in Paris. Sperry demonstrated the credibility of the invention by flying the aircraft with his hands away from the controls and visible to onlookers. Elmer Sperry Jr., the son of Lawrence Sperry, and Capt Shiras continued work on the same autopilot after the war, and in 1930 they tested a more compact and reliable autopilot which kept a US Army Air Corps aircraft on a true heading and altitude for three hours.
In 1930, the Royal Aircraft Establishment in the United Kingdom developed an autopilot called a pilots' assister that used a pneumatically-spun gyroscope to move the flight controls.
The autopilot was further developed, | 8,777 |
343230 | Autopilot | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Autopilot | Autopilot
to include e.g. improved control algorithms and hydraulic servomechanisms. Adding more instruments such as radio-navigation aids made it possible to fly at night and in bad weather. In 1947 a US Air Force C-54 made a transatlantic flight, including takeoff and landing, completely under the control of an autopilot.
Bill Lear developed his F-5 automatic pilot and automatic approach control system, and was awarded the Collier Trophy for 1949.
In the early 1920s, the Standard Oil tanker "J.A. Moffet" became the first ship to use an autopilot.
# Modern autopilots.
Not all of the passenger aircraft flying today have an autopilot system. Older and smaller general aviation aircraft especially are | 8,778 |
343230 | Autopilot | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Autopilot | Autopilot
still hand-flown, and even small airliners with fewer than twenty seats may also be without an autopilot as they are used on short-duration flights with two pilots. The installation of autopilots in aircraft with more than twenty seats is generally made mandatory by international aviation regulations. There are three levels of control in autopilots for smaller aircraft. A single-axis autopilot controls an aircraft in the roll axis only; such autopilots are also known colloquially as "wing levellers," reflecting their limitations. A two-axis autopilot controls an aircraft in the pitch axis as well as roll, and may be little more than a "wing leveller" with limited pitch oscillation-correcting | 8,779 |
343230 | Autopilot | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Autopilot | Autopilot
ability; or it may receive inputs from on-board radio navigation systems to provide true automatic flight guidance once the aircraft has taken off until shortly before landing; or its capabilities may lie somewhere between these two extremes. A three-axis autopilot adds control in the yaw axis and is not required in many small aircraft.
Autopilots in modern complex aircraft are three-axis and generally divide a flight into taxi, takeoff, climb, cruise (level flight), descent, approach, and landing phases. Autopilots exist that automate all of these flight phases except taxi and takeoff. An autopilot-controlled landing on a runway and controlling the aircraft on rollout (i.e. keeping it on the | 8,780 |
343230 | Autopilot | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Autopilot | Autopilot
centre of the runway) is known as a CAT IIIb landing or Autoland, available on many major airports' runways today, especially at airports subject to adverse weather phenomena such as fog. Landing, rollout, and taxi control to the aircraft parking position is known as CAT IIIc. This is not used to date, but may be used in the future. An autopilot is often an integral component of a Flight Management System.
Modern autopilots use computer software to control the aircraft. The software reads the aircraft's current position, and then controls a flight control system to guide the aircraft. In such a system, besides classic flight controls, many autopilots incorporate thrust control capabilities | 8,781 |
343230 | Autopilot | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Autopilot | Autopilot
that can control throttles to optimize the airspeed.
The autopilot in a modern large aircraft typically reads its position and the aircraft's attitude from an inertial guidance system. Inertial guidance systems accumulate errors over time. They will incorporate error reduction systems such as the carousel system that rotates once a minute so that any errors are dissipated in different directions and have an overall nulling effect. Error in gyroscopes is known as drift. This is due to physical properties within the system, be it mechanical or laser guided, that corrupt positional data. The disagreements between the two are resolved with digital signal processing, most often a six-dimensional | 8,782 |
343230 | Autopilot | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Autopilot | Autopilot
Kalman filter. The six dimensions are usually roll, pitch, yaw, altitude, latitude, and longitude. Aircraft may fly routes that have a required performance factor, therefore the amount of error or actual performance factor must be monitored in order to fly those particular routes. The longer the flight, the more error accumulates within the system. Radio aids such as DME, DME updates, and GPS may be used to correct the aircraft position.
## Control Wheel Steering.
An option midway between fully automated flight and manual flying is Control Wheel Steering (CWS). Although it is becoming less used as a stand-alone option in modern airliners, CWS is still a function on many aircraft today. Generally, | 8,783 |
343230 | Autopilot | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Autopilot | Autopilot
an autopilot that is CWS equipped has three positions: off, CWS, and CMD. In CMD (Command) mode the autopilot has full control of the aircraft, and receives its input from either the heading/altitude setting, radio and navaids, or the FMS (Flight Management System). In CWS mode, the pilot controls the autopilot through inputs on the yoke or the stick. These inputs are translated to a specific heading and attitude, which the autopilot will then hold until instructed to do otherwise. This provides stability in pitch and roll. Some aircraft employ a form of CWS even in manual mode, such as the MD-11 which uses a constant CWS in roll. In many ways, a modern Airbus fly-by-wire aircraft in Normal | 8,784 |
343230 | Autopilot | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Autopilot | Autopilot
Law is always in CWS mode. The major difference is that in this system the limitations of the aircraft are guarded by the flight computer, and the pilot cannot steer the aircraft past these limits.
## Computer system details.
The hardware of an autopilot varies from implementation to implementation, but is generally designed with redundancy and reliability as foremost considerations. For example, the Rockwell Collins AFDS-770 Autopilot Flight Director System used on the Boeing 777 uses triplicated FCP-2002 microprocessors which have been formally verified and are fabricated in a radiation-resistant process.
Software and hardware in an autopilot are tightly controlled, and extensive test procedures | 8,785 |
343230 | Autopilot | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Autopilot | Autopilot
are put in place.
Some autopilots also use design diversity. In this safety feature, critical software processes will not only run on separate computers and possibly even using different architectures, but each computer will run software created by different engineering teams, often being programmed in different programming languages. It is generally considered unlikely that different engineering teams will make the same mistakes. As the software becomes more expensive and complex, design diversity is becoming less common because fewer engineering companies can afford it. The flight control computers on the Space Shuttle used this design: there were five computers, four of which redundantly | 8,786 |
343230 | Autopilot | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Autopilot | Autopilot
ran identical software, and a fifth backup running software that was developed independently. The software on the fifth system provided only the basic functions needed to fly the Shuttle, further reducing any possible commonality with the software running on the four primary systems.
# Stability augmentation systems.
A stability augmentation system (SAS) is another type of automatic flight control system; however, instead of maintaining the aircraft on a predetermined attitude or flight path, the SAS will actuate the aircraft flight controls to dampen out aircraft buffeting regardless of the attitude or flight path. SAS can automatically stabilize the aircraft in one or more axes. The most | 8,787 |
343230 | Autopilot | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Autopilot | Autopilot
common type of SAS is the yaw damper which is used to eliminate the Dutch roll tendency of swept-wing aircraft. Some yaw dampers are integral to the autopilot system while others are stand-alone systems.
Yaw dampers usually consist of a yaw rate sensor (either a gyroscope or angular accelerometer), a computer/amplifier and a servo actuator. The yaw damper uses yaw rate sensor to sense when the aircraft begins a Dutch roll. A computer processes the signals from the yaw rate sensor to determine the amount of rudder movement that is required to dampen out the Dutch roll. The computer then commands the servo actuator to move the rudder that amount. The Dutch roll is dampened out and the aircraft | 8,788 |
343230 | Autopilot | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Autopilot | Autopilot
becomes stable about the yaw axis. Because Dutch roll is an instability that is inherent to all swept-wing aircraft, most swept-wing aircraft have some sort of yaw damper system installed.
There are two types of yaw dampers: series yaw dampers and parallel yaw dampers. The servo actuator of a parallel yaw damper will actuate the rudder independently of the rudder pedals while the servo actuator of a series yaw damper is clutched to the rudder control quadrant and will result in pedal movement when the system commands the rudder to move.
Some aircraft have stability augmentation systems that will stabilize the aircraft in more than a single axis. The Boeing B-52, for example, requires both | 8,789 |
343230 | Autopilot | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Autopilot | Autopilot
pitch and yaw SAS in order to provide a stable bombing platform. Many helicopters have pitch, roll and yaw SAS systems. Pitch and roll SAS systems operate much the same way as the yaw damper described above; however, instead of dampening out Dutch roll, they will dampen pitch and roll oscillations or buffeting to improve the overall stability of the aircraft.
# Autopilot for ILS landings.
Instrument-aided landings are defined in categories by the International Civil Aviation Organization, or ICAO. These are dependent upon the required visibility level and the degree to which the landing can be conducted automatically without input by the pilot.
CAT I - This category permits pilots to land | 8,790 |
343230 | Autopilot | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Autopilot | Autopilot
with a decision height of and a forward visibility or Runway Visual Range (RVR) of . Autopilots are not required.
CAT II - This category permits pilots to land with a decision height between and and a RVR of . Autopilots have a fail passive requirement.
CAT IIIa -This category permits pilots to land with a decision height as low as and a RVR of . It needs a fail-passive autopilot. There must be only a 10 probability of landing outside the prescribed area.
CAT IIIb - As IIIa but with the addition of automatic roll out after touchdown incorporated with the pilot taking control some distance along the runway. This category permits pilots to land with a decision height less than 50 feet or no | 8,791 |
343230 | Autopilot | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Autopilot | Autopilot
decision height and a forward visibility of in Europe (76 metres, compare this to aircraft size, some of which are now over long) or in the United States. For a landing-without-decision aid, a fail-operational autopilot is needed. For this category some form of runway guidance system is needed: at least fail-passive but it needs to be fail-operational for landing without decision height or for RVR below .
CAT IIIc - As IIIb but without decision height or visibility minimums, also known as "zero-zero". Not yet available on commercial airliners, but may be available in the near future.
Fail-passive autopilot: in case of failure, the aircraft stays in a controllable position and the pilot can | 8,792 |
343230 | Autopilot | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Autopilot | Autopilot
take control of it to go around or finish landing. It is usually a dual-channel system.
Fail-operational autopilot: in case of a failure below alert height, the approach, flare and landing can still be completed automatically. It is usually a triple-channel system or dual-dual system.
# Radio-controlled models.
In radio-controlled modelling, and especially RC aircraft and helicopters, an autopilot is usually a set of extra hardware and software that deals with pre-programming the model's flight.
# See also.
- Acronyms and abbreviations in avionics
- Autonomous car
- Gyrocompass
# External links.
- "How Fast Can You Fly Safely", June 1933, Popular Mechanics page 858 photo of Sperry "Automatic | 8,793 |
343230 | Autopilot | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Autopilot | Autopilot
l-channel system.
Fail-operational autopilot: in case of a failure below alert height, the approach, flare and landing can still be completed automatically. It is usually a triple-channel system or dual-dual system.
# Radio-controlled models.
In radio-controlled modelling, and especially RC aircraft and helicopters, an autopilot is usually a set of extra hardware and software that deals with pre-programming the model's flight.
# See also.
- Acronyms and abbreviations in avionics
- Autonomous car
- Gyrocompass
# External links.
- "How Fast Can You Fly Safely", June 1933, Popular Mechanics page 858 photo of Sperry "Automatic Pilot" and drawing of its basic functions in flight when set | 8,794 |
343225 | Sea ice | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Sea%20ice | Sea ice
Sea ice
Sea ice arises as seawater freezes. Because ice is less dense than water, it floats on the ocean's surface (as does fresh water ice, which has an even lower density). Sea ice covers about 7% of the Earth's surface and about 12% of the world's oceans. Much of the world's sea ice is enclosed within the polar ice packs in the Earth's polar regions: the Arctic ice pack of the Arctic Ocean and the Antarctic ice pack of the Southern Ocean. Polar packs undergo a significant yearly cycling in surface extent, a natural process upon which depends the Arctic ecology, including the ocean's ecosystems. Due to the action of winds, currents and temperature fluctuations, sea ice is very dynamic, leading | 8,795 |
343225 | Sea ice | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Sea%20ice | Sea ice
to a wide variety of ice types and features. Sea ice may be contrasted with icebergs, which are chunks of ice shelves or glaciers that calve into the ocean. Depending on location, sea ice expanses may also incorporate icebergs.
# General features and dynamics.
Sea ice does not simply grow and melt. During its lifespan, it is very dynamic. Due to the combined action of winds, currents, water temperature, and air temperature fluctuations, sea ice expanses typically undergo a significant amount of deformation. Sea ice is classified according to whether or not it is able to drift, and according to its age.
## Fast ice versus drift (or pack) ice.
Sea ice can be classified according to whether | 8,796 |
343225 | Sea ice | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Sea%20ice | Sea ice
or not it is attached (or frozen) to the shoreline (or between shoals or to grounded icebergs). If attached, it is called landfast ice, or more often, fast ice (from "fastened"). Alternatively, and unlike fast ice, drift ice occurs further offshore in very wide areas, and encompasses ice that is free to move with currents and winds. The physical boundary between fast ice and drift ice is the "fast ice boundary". The drift ice zone may be further divided into a "shear zone", a "marginal ice zone" and a "central pack". Drift ice consists of "floes", individual pieces of sea ice or more across. There are names for various floe sizes: "small" – ; "medium" – ; "big" – ; "vast" – ; and "giant" – more | 8,797 |
343225 | Sea ice | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Sea%20ice | Sea ice
than . The term "pack ice" is used either as a synonym to "drift ice", or to designate drift ice zone in which the floes are densely packed. The overall sea ice cover is termed the "ice canopy" from the perspective of submarine navigation.
## Classification based on age.
Another classification used by scientists to describe sea ice is based on age, that is, on its development stages. These stages are: "new ice", "nilas", "young ice", "first-year" and "old".
### New ice, nilas and young ice.
"New ice" is a general term used for recently frozen sea water that does not yet make up solid ice. It may consist of frazil ice (plates or spicules of ice suspended in water), slush (water saturated | 8,798 |
343225 | Sea ice | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Sea%20ice | Sea ice
snow), or "shuga" (spongy white ice lumps a few centimeters across). Other terms, such as grease ice and pancake ice, are used for ice crystal accumulations under the action of wind and waves.
"Nilas" designates a sea ice crust up to in thickness. It bends without breaking around waves and swells. Nilas can be further subdivided into "dark nilas" – up to in thickness and very dark, and "light nilas" – over in thickness and lighter in color.
"Young ice" is a transition stage between nilas and first-year ice, and ranges in thickness from to , Young ice can be further subdivided into "grey ice" – to in thickness, and "grey-white ice" – to in thickness. Young ice is not as flexible as nilas, but | 8,799 |
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