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tends to break under wave action. In a compression regime, it will either raft (at the grey ice stage) or ridge (at the grey-white ice stage).
### First-year sea ice.
"First-year sea ice" is ice that is thicker than "young ice" but has no more than one year growth. In other words, it is ice that grows in the fall and winter (after it has gone through the "new ice – nilas – young ice" stages and grows further) but does not survive the spring and summer months (it melts away). The thickness of this ice typically ranges from to . First-year ice may be further divided into "thin" ( to ), "medium" ( to ) and "thick" ().
### Old sea ice.
"Old sea ice" is sea ice that has survived at least one | 8,800 |
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melting season ("i.e." one summer). For this reason, this ice is generally thicker than first-year sea ice. Old ice is commonly divided into two types: "second-year ice", which has survived one melting season, and "multiyear ice", which has survived more than one. (In some sources, "old ice" is more than 2-years old.) Multi-year ice is much more common in the Arctic than it is in the Antarctic. The reason for this is that sea ice in the south drifts into warmer waters where it melts. In the Arctic, much of the sea ice is land-locked.
## Driving forces.
While fast ice is relatively stable (because it is attached to the shoreline or the seabed), drift (or pack) ice undergoes relatively complex | 8,801 |
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deformation processes that ultimately give rise to sea ice's typically wide variety of landscapes. Wind is thought to be the main driving force along with ocean currents. The Coriolis force and sea ice surface tilt have also been invoked. These driving forces induce a state of stress within the drift ice zone. An ice floe converging toward another and pushing against it will generate a state of "compression" at the boundary between both. The ice cover may also undergo a state of "tension", resulting in divergence and fissure opening. If two floes drift sideways past each other while remaining in contact, this will create a state of "shear".
## Deformation.
Sea ice deformation results from | 8,802 |
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the interaction between ice floes, as they are driven against each other. The end result may be of three types of features: 1) Rafted ice, when one piece is overriding another; 2) Pressure ridges, a line of broken ice forced downward (to make up the "keel") and upward (to make the "sail"); and 3) "Hummock", an hillock of broken ice that forms an uneven surface. A "shear ridge" is a pressure ridge that formed under shear – it tends to be more linear than a ridge induced only by compression. A "new ridge" is a recent feature – it is sharp-crested, with its side sloping at an angle exceeding 40 degrees. In contrast, a "weathered ridge" is one with a rounded crest and with sides sloping at less | 8,803 |
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than 40 degrees. Stamukhi are yet another type of pile-up but these are grounded and are therefore relatively stationary. They result from the interaction between fast ice and the drifting pack ice.
"Level ice" is sea ice that has not been affected by deformation, and is therefore relatively flat.
## Leads and polynyas.
Leads and polynyas are areas of open water that occur within sea ice expanses even though air temperatures are below freezing, and provide a direct interaction between the ocean and the atmosphere, which is important for the wildlife. Leads are narrow and linear – they vary in width from meter to km scale. During the winter, the water in leads quickly freezes up. They are | 8,804 |
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also used for navigation purposes – even when refrozen, the ice in leads is thinner, allowing icebreakers access to an easier sail path, and submarines to surface more easily. Polynyas are more uniform in size than leads and are also larger – two types are recognized: 1) "Sensible-heat polynyas", caused by the upwelling of warmer water and 2) "Latent-heat polynyas", resulting from persistent winds from the coastline.
# Formation.
Only the top layer of water needs to cool to the freezing point. Convection of the surface layer involves the top , down to the pycnocline of increased density.
In calm water, the first sea ice to form on the surface is a skim of separate crystals which initially | 8,805 |
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are in the form of tiny discs, floating flat on the surface and of diameter less than . Each disc has its c-axis vertical and grows outwards laterally. At a certain point such a disc shape becomes unstable, and the growing isolated crystals take on a hexagonal, stellar form, with long fragile arms stretching out over the surface. These crystals also have their c-axis vertical. The dendritic arms are very fragile, and soon break off, leaving a mixture of discs and arm fragments. With any kind of turbulence in the water, these fragments break up further into random-shaped small crystals which form a suspension of increasing density in the surface water, an ice type called frazil or grease ice. | 8,806 |
343225 | Sea ice | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Sea%20ice | Sea ice
In quiet conditions the frazil crystals soon freeze together to form a continuous thin sheet of young ice; in its early stages, when it is still transparent – that is the ice called "nilas". Once nilas has formed, a quite different growth process occurs, in which water freezes on to the bottom of the existing ice sheet, a process called "congelation" growth. This growth process yields first-year ice.
In rough water, fresh sea ice is formed by the cooling of the ocean as heat is lost into the atmosphere. The uppermost layer of the ocean is supercooled to slightly below the freezing point, at which time tiny ice platelets (frazil ice) form. With time, this process leads to a mushy surface layer, | 8,807 |
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known as grease ice. Frazil ice formation may also be started by snowfall, rather than supercooling. Waves and wind then act to compress these ice particles into larger plates, of several meters in diameter, called pancake ice. These float on the ocean surface, and collide with one another, forming upturned edges. In time, the pancake ice plates may themselves be rafted over one another or frozen together into a more solid ice cover, known as consolidated pancake ice. Such ice has a very rough appearance on top and bottom.
If sufficient snow falls on sea ice to depress the freeboard below sea level, sea water will flow in and a layer of ice will form of mixed snow/sea water. This is particularly | 8,808 |
343225 | Sea ice | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Sea%20ice | Sea ice
common around Antarctica.
Russian scientist Vladimir Vize (1886–1954) devoted his life to study the Arctic ice pack and developed the "Scientific Prediction of Ice Conditions Theory", for which he was widely acclaimed in academic circles. He applied this theory in the field in the Kara Sea, which led to the discovery of Vize Island.
# Yearly freeze and melt cycle.
The annual freeze and melt cycle is set by the annual cycle of solar insolation and of ocean and atmospheric temperature, and of variability in this annual cycle.
In the Arctic, the area of ocean covered by sea ice increases over winter from a minimum in September to a maximum in March or sometimes February, before melting over | 8,809 |
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the summer. In the Antarctic, where the seasons are reversed, the annual minimum is typically in February and the annual maximum in September or October, and the presence of sea ice abutting the calving fronts of ice shelves has been shown to influence glacier flow and potentially the stability of the Antarctic ice sheet.
The growth and melt rate are also affected by the state of the ice itself. During growth, the ice thickening due to freezing (as opposed to dynamics) is itself dependent on the thickness, so that the ice growth slows as the ice thickens. Likewise, during melt, thinner sea ice melts faster. This leads to different behaviour between multiyear and first year ice. In addition, | 8,810 |
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melt ponds on the ice surface during the melt season lower the albedo such that more solar radiation is absorbed, leading to a feedback where melt is accelerated. The presence of melt ponds is affected by the permeability of the sea ice- i.e. whether meltwater can drain- and the topography of the sea ice surface, i.e. the presence of natural basins for the melt ponds to form in. First year ice is flatter than multiyear ice due to the lack of dynamic ridging, so ponds tend to have greater area. They also have lower albedo since they are on thinner ice, which blocks less of the solar radiation from reaching the dark ocean below.
# Monitoring and observations.
Changes in sea ice conditions are | 8,811 |
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best demonstrated by the rate of melting over time. A composite record of Arctic ice demonstrates that the floes' retreat began around 1900, experiencing more rapid melting beginning within the past 50 years. Satellite study of sea ice began in 1979, and became a much more reliable measure of long-term changes in sea ice. In comparison to the extended record, the sea-ice extent in the polar region by September 2007 was only half the recorded mass that had been estimated to exist within the 1950–1970 period.
Arctic sea ice extent ice hit an all-time low in September 2012, when the ice was determined to cover only 24% of the Arctic Ocean, offsetting the previous low of 29% in 2007. Predictions | 8,812 |
343225 | Sea ice | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Sea%20ice | Sea ice
of when the first "ice free" Arctic summer might occur vary.
Antarctic sea ice extent gradually increased in the period of satellite observations, which began in 1979, until a rapid decline in southern hemisphere spring of 2016.
# Relationship to global warming and climate change.
Sea ice provides an ecosystem for various polar species, particularly the polar bear, whose environment is being threatened as global warming causes the ice to melt more as the Earth's temperature gets warmer. Furthermore, the sea ice itself functions to help keep polar climates cool, since the ice exists in expansive enough amounts to maintain a cold environment. At this, sea ice's relationship with global warming | 8,813 |
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is cyclical; the ice helps to maintain cool climates, but as the global temperature increases, the ice melts, and is less effective in keeping those climates cold. The bright, shiny surface (albedo) of the ice also serves a role in maintaining cooler polar temperatures by reflecting much of the sunlight that hits it back into space. As the sea ice melts, its surface area shrinks, diminishing the size of the reflective surface and therefore causing the earth to absorb more of the sun's heat. As the ice melts it lowers the albedo thus causing more heat to be absorbed by the Earth and further increase the amount of melting ice. Though the size of the ice floes is affected by the seasons, even a | 8,814 |
343225 | Sea ice | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Sea%20ice | Sea ice
small change in global temperature can greatly affect the amount of sea ice, and due to the shrinking reflective surface that keeps the ocean cool, this sparks a cycle of ice shrinking and temperatures warming. As a result, the polar regions are the most susceptible places to climate change on the planet.
Furthermore, sea ice affects the movement of ocean waters. In the freezing process, much of the salt in ocean water is squeezed out of the frozen crystal formations, though some remains frozen in the ice. This salt becomes trapped beneath the sea ice, creating a higher concentration of salt in the water beneath ice floes. This concentration of salt contributes to the salinated water's density, | 8,815 |
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and this cold, denser water sinks to the bottom of the ocean. This cold water moves along the ocean floor towards the equator, while warmer water on the ocean surface moves in the direction of the poles. This is referred to as "conveyor belt motion", and is a regularly occurring process.
# Modelling.
In order to gain a better understanding about the variability, numerical sea ice models are used to perform sensitivity studies. The two main ingredients are the ice dynamics and the thermodynamical properties (see Sea ice emissivity modelling, Sea ice growth processes and Sea ice thickness). There are a number of sea ice model computer codes available for doing this, including the CICE numerical | 8,816 |
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suite.
Many global climate models (GCMs) have sea ice implemented in their numerical simulation scheme in order to capture the Ice-albedo feedback correctly. Examples include:
- The Louvain-la-Neuve Sea Ice Model is a numerical model of sea ice designed for climate studies and operational oceanography developed at Université catholique de Louvain. It is coupled to the ocean general circulation model OPA (Ocean Parallélisé) and is freely available as a part of the Nucleus for European Modeling of the Ocean.
- The MIT General Circulation Model is a global circulation model developed at Massachusetts Institute of Technology includes a package for sea-ice. The code is freely available there.
- | 8,817 |
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The University Corporation for Atmospheric Research develops the Community Sea Ice Model.
- CICE is run by the Los Alamos National Laboratory. The project is open source and designed as a component of GCM, although it provides a standalone mode.
- The Finite-Element Sea-Ice Ocean Model developed at Alfred Wegener Institute uses an unstructured grid.
- The neXt Generation Sea-Ice model (neXtSIM) is a Lagrangian model using an adaptive and unstructured triangular mesh, and includes a new and unique class of rheological model called Maxwell-Elasto-Brittle to treat the ice dynamics. This model is developed at the Nansen Center in Bergen, Norway.
The Coupled model intercomparison project offers | 8,818 |
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a standard protocol for studying the output of coupled atmosphere-ocean general circulation models. The coupling takes place at the atmosphere-ocean interface where the sea ice may occur.
In addition to global modeling, various regional models deal with sea ice. Regional models are employed for seasonal forecasting experiments and for process studies.
# Ecology.
Sea ice is part of the Earth's biosphere. When sea water freezes, the ice is riddled with brine-filled channels which sustain sympagic organisms such as bacteria, algae, copepods and annelids, which in turn provide food for animals such as krill and specialised fish like the Bald notothen, fed upon in turn by larger animals such as | 8,819 |
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Emperor penguins and Minke whales.
A decline of seasonal sea ice puts the survival of Arctic species such as ringed seals and polar bears at risk.
# See also.
## Ice types or features.
- Anchor ice
- Congelation ice
- Drift ice
- Fast ice
- Finger rafting
- Frazil ice
- Grease ice
- Iceberg
- Ice mélange
- Ice volcano
- Lead (sea ice)
- Pancake ice
- Polynya
- Pressure ridge (ice)
- Rotten ice
- Seabed gouging by ice
- Slush
- Stamukha
- Zastruga
## Physics and chemistry.
- Decline of sea ice
- Ice
- Ice crystals
- Ice Ih
- Sea ice
- Sea ice growth processes
- Seawater
## Applied sciences and engineering endeavours.
- Drift ice station
- Drift station
- Ice | 8,820 |
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mistry.
- Decline of sea ice
- Ice
- Ice crystals
- Ice Ih
- Sea ice
- Sea ice growth processes
- Seawater
## Applied sciences and engineering endeavours.
- Drift ice station
- Drift station
- Ice class
- Icebreaker
- Ice navigation
- Measurement of sea ice
- Sea ice concentration
- Sea ice emissivity modelling
- Sea ice thickness
- Zhubov scale
- CICE (sea ice model)
# External links.
- Cryosphere today: Current sea ice conditions from the University of Illinois
- Daily "Advanced Microwave Scanning Radiometer 2" sea ice maps from the University of Bremen
- Sea Ice Index
- Global Sea Ice Extent and Concentration: What sensors on satellites are telling us about sea ice | 8,821 |
343227 | Wednesbury | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Wednesbury | Wednesbury
Wednesbury
Wednesbury () is a market town in England's Black Country, part of the Sandwell metropolitan borough in the West Midlands, near the source of the River Tame. Historically part of Staffordshire in the Hundred of Offlow, at the 2011 Census the town has a population of 37,817.
# History.
## Pre-Medieval and Medieval times.
The substantial remains of a large ditch excavated in St Mary's Road in 2008, following the contours of the hill and predating the Early Medieval period, has been interpreted as part of a hilltop enclosure and possibly the Iron age hillfort long suspected on the site. The first authenticated spelling of the name was Wodensbyri, written in an endorsement on the back | 8,822 |
343227 | Wednesbury | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Wednesbury | Wednesbury
of the copy of the will of Wulfric Spot, dated 1004. Wednesbury ("Woden's borough") is one of the few places in England to be named after a pre-Christian deity.
During the Anglo-Saxon period there are believed to have been two battles fought in Wednesbury, in 592 and 715. According to The "Anglo-Saxon Chronicle" there was "a great slaughter" in 592 and "Ceawlin was driven out". Ceawlin was a king of Wessex and the second Bretwalda, or overlord of all Britain. The 715 battle was between Mercia (of which Wednesbury was part) and the kingdom of Wessex. Both sides allegedly claimed to have won the battle, although it is believed that the victory inclined to Wessex.
Wednesbury was fortified by | 8,823 |
343227 | Wednesbury | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Wednesbury | Wednesbury
Ethelfleda, daughter of Alfred the Great and known as the Lady of Mercia. She erected five fortifications to defend against the Danes at Bridgnorth, Tamworth, Stafford and Warwick, with Wednesbury in the centre. Wednesbury's fort would probably have been an extension of an older fortification and made of a stone foundation with a wooden stockade above. Earthwork ramparts and water filled ditches would probably have added to its strength. There is a plaque on the gardens between Ethelfleda Terrace and St Bartholomew's church stating that the gardens there – created in the 1950s – used stone from the graaf, or fighting platform, of the old fort. Exploration of the gardens reveals several dressed | 8,824 |
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stones, which appear to be those referred to on the plaque.
In 1086, the Domesday Book describes Wednesbury ("Wadnesberie") as being a thriving rural community encompassing Bloxwich and Shelfield (now part of Walsall). During the Middle Ages the town was a rural village, with each family farming a strip of land with nearby heath being used for grazing. The town was held by the king until the reign of Henry II, when it passed to the Heronville family. During the 12th or 13th centuries, a motte and bailey castle (Wednesbury Castle) is believed to have been built in Wednesbury.
Medieval Wednesbury was very small, and its inhabitants would appear to have been farmers and farm workers. In 1315, | 8,825 |
343227 | Wednesbury | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Wednesbury | Wednesbury
coal pits were first recorded, which led to an increase in the number of jobs. Nail making was also in progress during these times. William Paget was born in Wednesbury in 1505, the son of a nail maker. He became Secretary of State, a Knight of the Garter and an Ambassador. He was one of executors of the will of Henry VIII.
## Post-Medieval times.
In the 17th century Wednesbury pottery – "Wedgbury ware" – was being sold as far away as Worcester, while white clay from Monway Field was used to make tobacco pipes.
By the 18th century the main occupations were coal mining and nail making. With the introduction of the first turnpike road in 1727 and the development of canals and later the railways | 8,826 |
343227 | Wednesbury | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Wednesbury | Wednesbury
came a big increase in population. In 1769 the canal banks were soon full of factories as in this year, the first Birmingham Canal was cut to link Wednesbury's coalfields to the Birmingham industries.
In 1743 the Wesleys and their new Methodist movement were severely tested. Early in the year, John and Charles Wesley preached in the open air on the Tump. They were warmly received and made welcome by the vicar. Soon afterwards another preacher came and was rude about the current state of the Anglican clergy. This angered the vicar, and the magistrates published a notice ordering that any further preachers were to be brought to them. When Wesley next came his supporters were still there but a | 8,827 |
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crowd of others heckled him and threw stones. Later the crowd came to his lodgings and took him to the magistrates, but they declined to have anything to do with Wesley or the crowd. The crowd ill-treated Wesley and nearly killed him but he remained calm. Eventually they came to their senses and returned him to his hosts.
Soon afterward the vicar asked his congregation to pledge not to associate with Methodists, and some who refused to pledge had their windows smashed. Others who hosted Methodist meetings had the contents of their houses destroyed. This terrible episode came to an end in December when the vicar died. After that Anglican/Methodist relations were generally cordial. Methodism | 8,828 |
343227 | Wednesbury | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Wednesbury | Wednesbury
grew strongly and Wesley visited often, almost until his death. Francis Asbury, Richard Whatcoat and the Earl of Dartmouth are among those who attended Methodist meetings, all to have a profound effect on the United States.
A steam tram service opened to Dudley, also serving Tipton, on 21 January 1884. The line was electrified in 1907 but discontinued in March 1930 on its replacement by Midland Red buses.
Wednesbury was incorporated as a municipal borough in 1886, maintaining this status for 80 years until it was absorbed into an expanded borough of West Bromwich in 1966.
In 1887, Brunswick Park was opened to celebrate Queen Victoria's Golden Jubilee.
### 20th & 21st centuries.
On the evening | 8,829 |
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of 31 January 1916, Wednesbury was hit by one of the first wave of German Zeppelins aimed at Britain during the First World War. Joseph Smith and his three children were killed in their house in the King Street area. His wife survived, having left the house to investigate the cause of a loud noise at a nearby factory, caused by the first bombs falling.
The first council houses in Wednesbury were built in the early 1920s, but progress was low compared to nearby towns including Tipton and West Bromwich. By 1930, a mere 206 families had been rehoused from slums. However, the building of council houses rose dramatically at the start of the 1930s, the 1,000th council house being occupied before | 8,830 |
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the end of 1931. By 1935, some 1,250 older houses had been demolished or earmarked for demolition. By 1944 there were more than 3,000 council properties; by 1959, more than 5,000; the largest development in Wednesbury being the Hateley Heath estate in the late 1940s and early 1950s, which straddled the border of Wednesbury and West Bromwich.
In 1947, the Corporation granted a licence for the operation of a cinema, on the condition that no children under 15 were to be admitted on Sundays. The cinema operator challenged this decision in court, claiming that the imposition of the condition was outside the Corporation's powers. The court used this case to establish a general test for overturning | 8,831 |
343227 | Wednesbury | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Wednesbury | Wednesbury
the decision of a public body in this type of case, which is now known as "Wednesbury unreasonableness".
The borough of Wednesbury ceased to exist in 1966, with the majority being absorbed into West Bromwich, and small parts in the County Borough of Walsall. These changes saw the Dangerfield Lane estate (developed during the interwar and early postwar years) being absorbed into Darlaston (now part of an expanded Walsall borough), while the Wednesbury section of Hateley Heath was absorbed into West Bromwich township, and Wednesbury township gained the Friar Park estate from West Bromwich township. West Bromwich amalgamated with Warley in 1974 to form the present-day borough of Sandwell. Wednesbury | 8,832 |
343227 | Wednesbury | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Wednesbury | Wednesbury
has the postcode "WS10", shared with Darlaston in the borough of Walsall.
During the 1970s and 1980s, Wednesbury's traditional industry declined and unemployment rose, but since 1990 new developments such as a new light industrial estate, a retail park and the pedestrian-only Union Street have given a new look to the town. The traditional market is still a feature of the bustling centre, and the streets around Market Place are now a protected conservation area.
In the late 1980s, a section of land near junction 9 of the M6 motorway was designated as the location for a new retail development. The first retailer to move onto the site was Ikea, who opened their superstore in January 1991. Throughout | 8,833 |
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the 1990s, the retail park expanded to include several more large units, although most of these were empty by 2009 due to the recession. However, most of the units were occupied again by 2012 and the retail park is now home to retailers including Next, TK Maxx, Outfit, Boots, Curry's, B&Q and B&M. Curry's opened their original store on the site in 1995 in what was then Europe's largest electrical superstore, but within 10 years had relocated to an even bigger building on the retail park, with Next taking over the original Curry's building. The retail park was expanded in 2017 with the construction of more retail units and eateries, while the existing car park was remodelled to create more parking | 8,834 |
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spaces.
Wednesbury's Friar Park estate was the location for the filming of rap group Credit to the Nation's music video for the hit "Sowing the Seeds of Hatred" in 1994, along with a bridge over the nearby Tame Valley Canal.
Wednesbury was also the scene of two major tragedies during the second half of the 20th century. On 21 December 1977, four siblings aged between 4 and 12 years died in a house fire in School Road, Friar Park, at the height of the national firefighters strike. The house was demolished soon afterwards, leaving a gap in a terrace of council houses.On 24 September 1984, four pupils and a teacher from Stuart Bathurst RC High School were killed when their minibus was struck | 8,835 |
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by a roll of steel which fell off the back of a lorry just outside the school.
For well over 100 years, Wednesbury was dominated by the huge Patent Shaft steel works, dating from the 19th century and active until closure in 1980, which escalated the rise in unemployment locally. The factory was demolished four years later, and by the mid-1990s it had been developed as a new light industrial estate. The iron gates of the factory are still in existence and have recently been mounted on the traffic island where the Holyhead Road passes the bus station, in tribute to the works.
In 2003, Wednesbury Museum and Art Gallery staged "Stuck in Wednesbury", the first show in a public gallery of the Stuckism | 8,836 |
343227 | Wednesbury | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Wednesbury | Wednesbury
international art movement.
Morrisons opened a supermarket in the town centre on 4 November 2007, creating some 350 new jobs. A number of council bungalows had been demolished, along with a section of the town centre shops, to make way for it.
The archives for Wednesbury Borough are held at Sandwell Community History and Archives Service.
## Oakeswell Hall.
Second in importance to Wednesbury manor house was Oakeswell Hall, built c. 1421 by William Byng. The property descended to the family of Jennyns. By 1662 the hsuse was known as Okeswell or Hopkins New Hall Place (it being adjacent to the Hopkins family's New Hall Fields). Richard Parkes, a Quaker ironmaster, bought it in 1707 and moved | 8,837 |
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in the following year. During the late 18th and early 19th centuries it was a farmhouse. Between 1825 and 1962 it had several different owners, including Joseph Smith (the first town clerk) who greatly restored it. In 1962 it was demolished.
Dr Walter Chancellor Garman (1860–1923), a general practitioner, and his wife, Margaret Frances Magill lived at Oakeswell Hall. Their children included the Garman sisters who were associated with the Bloomsbury group. There were nine children, seven sisters and two brothers: Mary (1898), Sylvia (1899), Kathleen (1901), Douglas (1903), Rosalind (1904), Helen (1906), Mavin (1907), Ruth (1909) and Lorna (1911).
# Road transport.
Wednesbury is on Thomas Telford's | 8,838 |
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London to Holyhead road, built in the early 19th century. The section between Wednesbury and Moxley was widened in 1997 to form a dual carriageway, completing the Black Country Spine Road that had been in development since 1995 when the route between Wednesbury and West Bromwich had opened, along with a one-mile route to the north of Moxley linking with the Black Country Route. The original plan was for a completely new route between Wednesbury and Moxley, but this was abandoned as part of cost-cutting measures, as were the planned grade-separated junctions, which were abandoned in favour of conventional roundabouts.
The bus station, rebuilt in 2004, is in the town centre near the swimming | 8,839 |
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baths with links to Wolverhampton, Birmingham, West Bromwich, Walsall and the shopping complex of Merry Hill.
# Railways.
It is served by the Midland Metro light rail (tram) system, with stops at Great Western Street and Wednesbury Parkway. The maintenance depot is also here. It runs from Wolverhampton to Birmingham, and the line for a proposed extension to Brierley Hill is currently being cleared ready for the new track bed and electrification. It will utilize sections of the South Staffordshire Line alongside freight traffic which will run from Walsall to Brierley Hill via Wednesbury Town and Dudley but freight traffic may start later than the metro due to relaying of the track and assessing | 8,840 |
343227 | Wednesbury | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Wednesbury | Wednesbury
the space required for the joint line to work. It may also be used by tram-trains which can run on heavy rail.
Between 1850 and 1993 the line built by the South Staffordshire Railway served Wednesbury. Passenger services were withdrawn after Wednesbury railway station closed in 1964 under the Beeching Axe, but a steel terminal soon opened on the site and did not close until December 1992, with the railway closing on 19 March 1993 after serving the town for nearly 150 years.
Until 1972, the town was served by the Great Western Railway between Birmingham and Wolverhampton at Wednesbury Central railway station. Passenger trains were withdrawn at this time, with Wednesbury-Birmingham section of | 8,841 |
343227 | Wednesbury | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Wednesbury | Wednesbury
the line closing. The Wednesbury-Wolverhampton section survived for another decade, and between Wednesbury and Bilston, serving a scrapyard at Bilston, remained open until 30 August 1992 and was re-opened within seven years as part of the Midland Metro.
# Districts.
- Church Hill, near the town centre, is notable for being the location of St Bartholomew's Church.
- Brunswick, to the immediate north of the town centre, was mostly built at the start of the 20th century around Brunswick Park.
- Friar Park, was originally in West Bromwich, and was built in the late 1920s and early 1930s.
- Myvod Estate, approximately one mile to the north of the town centre towards the border with Walsall, | 8,842 |
343227 | Wednesbury | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Wednesbury | Wednesbury
was built in the 1920s as Wednesbury's first major council housing development.
- Wood Green, situated around the A461 road northwards in the direction of Walsall. Landmarks include Stuart Bathurst RC High School, and on the opposite site of the road is Wood Green Academy. Since 1990, a large retail development has sprung upon around Wood Green, extending to the site of the former FH Lloyd steel plant in Park Lane.
- Golf Links, mostly built in the 1940s and 1950s with both private and council housing, in the south of the town.
- Woods Estate, to the north-east of the town centre, was built mostly as council housing between 1930 and 1962.
# Wards.
- Wednesbury North : Wednesbury Central, | 8,843 |
343227 | Wednesbury | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Wednesbury | Wednesbury
Wood Green & Old Park
- Wednesbury South : Hill Top, Leabrook, Golf Links, Millfields, Harvills Hawthorn
- Friar Park : Woods & Mesty Croft, Friar Park and The Priory Primary
# Schools.
- Stuart Bathurst Catholic High School
- Wodensborough Ormiston Academy
- Wood Green Academy
- Mesty Croft Academy
# Notable natives/residents.
- Jon Brookes, drummer for The Charlatans
- Bill Chambers, footballer, served as inside forward with Halifax Town and Chester City
- John Cooper, footballer, played with Southampton in the 1920s
- Roy Cross, footballer, played for Port Vale in the early 1970s and transferred to Nuneaton Borough in 1975
- James Currier, footballer, striker for Bolton Wanderers
- | 8,844 |
343227 | Wednesbury | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Wednesbury | Wednesbury
Norman Deeley, footballer, Wolverhampton Wanderers 1951–62
- The Garman Sisters, members of the Bloomsbury Group, lived at Oakeswell Hall in the early 20th century
- Syd Gibbons, footballer
- Dennis Harper, footballer, Birmingham City, 1956–57
- Moses Haughton the elder, 18th century engraver, designer and painter
- Moses Haughton the younger, late 18th and early 19th century engraver and portraitist
- Alan Hinton, footballer, Derby County, Nottingham Forest and Wolverhampton Wanderers, 1960s–70s
- Marty Hogan, baseball player and manager
- David Howarth, politician and Member of Parliament
- John Ashley Kilvert, became mayor, after surviving the Charge of the Light Brigade
- Kevin | 8,845 |
343227 | Wednesbury | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Wednesbury | Wednesbury
Laffan, playwright and screenwriter
- Alex Lester, BBC Radio 2 broadcaster
- Wilson Lloyd, late 19th century Conservative political leader who sat in the House of Commons
- Len Moorwood, footballer, goalkeeper for teams including West Bromwich Albion and Burnley in the early 20th century
- William Paget, 16th century English statesman
- Charles Partridge, footballer, goalkeeper for Small Heath in the 1890s
- Lee Payne, bassist
- Ernest Perry, played for Stoke City and Port Vale
- Dr Darren Rhodes (Scientist), neuroscientist
- Thomas Slater Price FRS FRSE, chemist
- Roy Proverbs, former professional football player
- Sir Kevin Satchwell, educationalist
- Fred Shinton, footballer, | 8,846 |
343227 | Wednesbury | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Wednesbury | Wednesbury
West Bromwich Albion, Leicester City, and Bolton Wanderers.
- Dr Karl Shuker, zoologist, cryptozoologist and author
- Henry Treece, poet and novelist
- Tom Troman (1914–2000), cricketer
- Billy Walker, footballer who played for Aston Villa and was later manager of Nottingham Forest's FA Cup winning side in 1959
- Richard Wattis, character actor
- Richard Whatcoat (1736-1806), Methodist Bishop
# Notable employers.
## Former.
Patent Shaft steelworks was erected on land off Leabrook Road near the border with Tipton in 1840, serving the town for 140 years before its closure on 17 April 1980 – an early casualty of the recession. Demolition of the site took place in 1983.
Metro Cammell set | 8,847 |
343227 | Wednesbury | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Wednesbury | Wednesbury
up business after buying the Old Park Works near the border with Darlaston from Patent Shaft in 1949, where it produced railway coach bodies, railway wagons and pressings for other factories in the group. The plant remained opened until 1989.
F.H. Lloyd steelworks was formed at a site on Park Lane near the boundaries with Walsall and Darlaston during the 1880s, and provided employment for some 100 years. However, F.H. Lloyd was hit hard by the economic problems of the 1970s and early 1980s, and went out of business in 1982. Triplex Iron Foundry of Tipton then took the site over, but the new owners kept the factory open for just six years and it was then sold to Swedish home products company | 8,848 |
343227 | Wednesbury | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Wednesbury | Wednesbury
IKEA in 1988, being demolished almost immediately to make way for the superstore, which opened in January 1991.
## Current.
IKEA purchased the former F.H. Lloyd steel plant from Triplex in 1988, and opened one of its first British stores on the site in January 1991, just 14 months after the development had been given the go-ahead.
Property developers J.J. Gallagher had purchased the bulk of the Lloyd site in 1988 and once mineshafts were filled in, decontamination was completed and the River Tame diverted, the land was suitable for mass retail development. A Cargo Club supermarket-style retail warehouse, part of the Nurdin and Peacock group, opened in July 1994. It was one of three Cargo | 8,849 |
343227 | Wednesbury | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Wednesbury | Wednesbury
Club stores in Britain, and the venture was not a success: by the end of 1995 it had been shut down following heavy losses. A B&Q DIY superstore opened on the site in 1997.
The next two units were opened in 1995 and let to Currys and PC World, and a Burger King fast food restaurant opened opposite. By this stage the area was known as Gallagher Retail Park and incorporated the nearby Ikea and Cargo Club stores.
A further phase was completed in 2000, with Furniture Village, Furnitureland and ScS, while Currys moved to a new store in this phase (the largest electrical superstore in Europe on its completion) and their original unit was re-let to furniture retailer MFI, who remained there until | 8,850 |
343227 | Wednesbury | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Wednesbury | Wednesbury
the business went into liquidation eight years later. Pizza Hut and KFC opened fast food restaurants in 2002.
Next and later TK Maxx, Outfit, Boots and Mamas & Papas opened in the refurbished phase next to Currys after they moved to the site, with the Next store being the first unit to open in this phase in late 2005. Both Currys and PC World are now known as 'Megastores'.
In 2016, successful German supermarket chain Lidl opened a new distribution centre just off Wood Green Road, on land near Junction 9 Retail Park.
New stores, including a Marks and Spencer Simply Food supermarket, Nandos, Smash Burger and Costa are due to open in 2017.
Quantum print and packaging Limited employs 30 people | 8,851 |
343227 | Wednesbury | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Wednesbury | Wednesbury
nd Spencer Simply Food supermarket, Nandos, Smash Burger and Costa are due to open in 2017.
Quantum print and packaging Limited employs 30 people since relocating to Wednesbury in 2013 from their Willenhall base.
The Factory occupies a 30000 sq ft site in the town centre
# Cock-fighting ballad.
A ballad about cock-fighting in the town called "Wedgebury Cocking" or "Wednesbury Cocking" became well known in the 19th century. The ballad begins:
"A match between Newton and Skrogging;"
"The colliers and nailers left work,"
"And all to Spittles' went jogging"
"To see this noble sport."
"Many noted men there resorted,"
"And though they'd but little money,"
"Yet that they freely sported." | 8,852 |
343235 | Karl Eberhard Schöngarth | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Karl%20Eberhard%20Schöngarth | Karl Eberhard Schöngarth
Karl Eberhard Schöngarth
Karl Eberhard Schöngarth (22 April 1903 – 16 May 1946) was a German SS functionary during the Nazi era. He was a war criminal who perpetrated mass murder and genocide in German occupied Poland during the Holocaust.
# Early life.
Karl Georg Eberhard Schongarth was born on 22 April 1903 in Leipzig, Germany. His father was a master brewer. Eberhard began high school at the age of 11, but soon dropped out to work at a garden center to support the war effort. On 7 March 1918 Eberhard was awarded a “Young Mens Iron Medal”. After the war, he went back to high school to complete his education, but instead joined a Freikorps paramilitary group in Thuringia. This eventually | 8,853 |
343235 | Karl Eberhard Schöngarth | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Karl%20Eberhard%20Schöngarth | Karl Eberhard Schöngarth
lead to Eberhard joining a local Nazi group in Erfurt on November 1923, as he felt the organization agreed with his ethnonationalistic tendencies. Eberhard fled to Coburg to try and escape from his crime of treason, but eventually came back to Erfurt and was given amnesty. In 1924 Eberhard finished his high school education and got a job at the Deutsche bank while also joining the Army Infantry Regiment 1/15 in Gießen.
Eberhard later joined the SA (Sturmabteilung) as member number 43,870 while claiming expulsion from the army. By 1924, Eberhard involvement with the Nazi party has decreased, and he enrolled at the University of Leipzig, majoring in economics and law. He completed his first bar | 8,854 |
343235 | Karl Eberhard Schöngarth | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Karl%20Eberhard%20Schöngarth | Karl Eberhard Schöngarth
exam in 1928 and landed a job in the Naumburg Superior Courts. He then went on to acquire his doctorate in law from the Institute for Labor and Law, on 28 June 1929 at just the age of 26, and was the Cum Laude. His thesis was on the subject of 'the refusal of notices of termination of employment contracts. He then decided to take his second bar exam on December 1933 and became a court official for Magdeburg, Erfurt and Torgau.
# Family life.
Eberhard married Dorothea Gross, with whom he had 2 sons.
# Beginning of Nazi participation.
After becoming a court official, Eberhard began involving himself more heavily in the Nazi party. On 1 February 1933 he joined the SS (member No°. 67,174 and | 8,855 |
343235 | Karl Eberhard Schöngarth | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Karl%20Eberhard%20Schöngarth | Karl Eberhard Schöngarth
Nazi N°. 2,848,857). Because party membership was now crucial for getting a government job in Germany, his involvement allowed him to become a postmaster in Erfurt. In 1933 he became a member of the SD, the SS's own intelligence service. He eventually left his postmaster position on November 1, 1935, and joined the Gestapo. During his time working with the Gestapo, he worked in the main press office, the political-church council, and the Arnsberg district office in Dortmund, he also served as police chief in Münster and was named a government counselor. Though unknown why he found employment at the political church, a letter from Reinhard Heydrich to the Reich Ministry of the Interior recommended | 8,856 |
343235 | Karl Eberhard Schöngarth | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Karl%20Eberhard%20Schöngarth | Karl Eberhard Schöngarth
Eberhard become a part of the Secret State Police due to his broad and insightful law background. He was placed with the Gestapo, and after, the SS. He also rose in ranks in the SS, becoming a first lieutenant, captain, major and lieutenant colonel in 1939, and from colonel to brigadier general in 1940.
# War crimes.
During the German attack on Poland he was promoted to SS "Obersturmbannfuhrer". He later served as a Senior Inspector for the RSHA in Dresden.
In January 1941 he was sent to Kraków, occupied Poland, as senior commander of the SiPo and SD (). During the time Schöngarth was stationed in Kraków, he formed several "Einsatzgruppen" (Special Action Groups) in Warsaw, Radom, and Lublin, | 8,857 |
343235 | Karl Eberhard Schöngarth | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Karl%20Eberhard%20Schöngarth | Karl Eberhard Schöngarth
with the intention of perpetrating massacres. He was responsible for the murder of up to 10,000 Polish Jews between July and September 1941 and the massacre of Lwów professors behind the frontlines of Operation Barbarossa in the Soviet Union. Schöngarth attended the Wannsee Conference on 20 January 1942, along with Dr. Rudolf Lange ("Einsatzgruppen" A), who had also participated in the Holocaust. From early July 1944 until the end of war he was the BdS in the Netherlands. He is also reported to have killed 263 persons (including one German soldier) in reprisal for the ambushing of SS General Hanns Albin Rauter March 6, 1945.
In 2019, a mass grave containing the remains of more than 1,000 Jews | 8,858 |
343235 | Karl Eberhard Schöngarth | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Karl%20Eberhard%20Schöngarth | Karl Eberhard Schöngarth
was discovered during renovation work on houses in Brest. An Einsatzgruppe led by Schöngarth murdered more than 5,000 Jews in the area between 10 and 12 July 1941.
# Trial and execution.
Schöngarth was captured by the allies at the end of the war in Europe. After an investigation into his background, he was charged with the crime of murdering a downed Allied pilot (on 21 November 1944) at Enschede, Netherlands and tried by a British military court in Burgsteinfurt. He was found guilty of this war crime on 11 February 1946 and sentenced to death by hanging. Schöngarth was executed by Albert Pierrepoint on 16 May 1946 at .
# Notes and references.
- Holocaust Research Project: Karl Eberhard | 8,859 |
343235 | Karl Eberhard Schöngarth | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Karl%20Eberhard%20Schöngarth | Karl Eberhard Schöngarth
urdered more than 5,000 Jews in the area between 10 and 12 July 1941.
# Trial and execution.
Schöngarth was captured by the allies at the end of the war in Europe. After an investigation into his background, he was charged with the crime of murdering a downed Allied pilot (on 21 November 1944) at Enschede, Netherlands and tried by a British military court in Burgsteinfurt. He was found guilty of this war crime on 11 February 1946 and sentenced to death by hanging. Schöngarth was executed by Albert Pierrepoint on 16 May 1946 at .
# Notes and references.
- Holocaust Research Project: Karl Eberhard Schöngarth
- This article may be expanded with text translated from in the German Wikipedia. | 8,860 |
343239 | Sandwell | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Sandwell | Sandwell
Sandwell
Sandwell is a metropolitan borough of the West Midlands county in England. The borough is named after the Sandwell Priory, and spans a densely populated part of the West Midlands conurbation. According to Sandwell Metropolitan Borough Council, the borough comprises the six amalgamated towns of Oldbury, Rowley Regis, Smethwick, Tipton, Wednesbury, and West Bromwich, although these places consist of numerous smaller settlements and localities. Though West Bromwich is the largest town in the borough and its designated Strategic Town Centre, Sandwell Council House (the headquarters of the local authority) is situated in Oldbury.
Bordering Sandwell is the City of Birmingham to the east, | 8,861 |
343239 | Sandwell | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Sandwell | Sandwell
the Metropolitan Borough of Dudley to the south and west, the Metropolitan Borough of Walsall to the north, and the City of Wolverhampton to the north-west. Spanning the borough are the parliamentary constituencies of West Bromwich West, West Bromwich East, Warley, and part of Halesowen and Rowley Regis, which crosses into the Dudley borough.
At the 2011 census, the borough had a population of 309,000 and an area of .
# History and culture.
The Metropolitan Borough of Sandwell was formed on 1 April 1974 as an amalgamation of the county boroughs of Warley (ceremonially within Worcestershire) and West Bromwich (ceremonially within Staffordshire), under the Local Government Act 1972. Warley | 8,862 |
343239 | Sandwell | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Sandwell | Sandwell
had been formed in 1966 by a merger of the county borough of Smethwick with the municipal boroughs of Rowley Regis and Oldbury; at the same time, West Bromwich had absorbed the boroughs of Tipton and Wednesbury.
For its first 12 years of existence, Sandwell had a two-tier system of local government; Sandwell Council shared power with the West Midlands County Council. In 1986 the county council was abolished, and Sandwell effectively became a unitary authority. The borough is divided into 24 Wards and is represented by 72 ward councillors on the borough council.
The borough was named after Sandwell Priory, the ruins of which are located in Sandwell Valley. The local council has considered changing | 8,863 |
343239 | Sandwell | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Sandwell | Sandwell
its name in the past over confusion outside the West Midlands as to the whereabouts of the borough, and in June 2002 a survey of borough residents was carried out. Sixty-five percent of those surveyed favoured retaining the name Sandwell.
Landmarks and attractions in Sandwell include Wednesbury Museum and Art Gallery, Bishop Asbury Cottage, West Bromwich Manor House, Oak House, West Bromwich, Sandwell Valley Country Park, and The Public. It is also the home of West Bromwich Albion F.C..
Sandwell used to be a popular hotspot for car cruising. In 2015 a High Court order was introduced to ban car cruising in the area. An extension has been secured to run until at least 2021.
# Politics.
As | 8,864 |
343239 | Sandwell | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Sandwell | Sandwell
of 2019, all Sandwell Metropolitan Borough Council's councillors are members of the Labour Party. Since the council election in 2018, the political composition of the council has been as follows:
From the borough's creation in 1974, all Members of Parliament (MPs) within its boundaries were Labour, but in the 2010 general election, Conservative party candidate James Morris was elected to the Halesowen and Rowley Regis seat which incorporates the Sandwell communities of Rowley Regis, Blackheath and Cradley Heath, and the neighbouring area of Halesowen which is situated within Dudley's borders. This is the very first time Sandwell has had a Tory MP - or indeed an MP from any party other than | 8,865 |
343239 | Sandwell | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Sandwell | Sandwell
Labour.
## Wards.
The Sandwell Borough is divided into 24 electoral wards, with each one represented by 3 councillors on the borough council:
# Education.
Sandwell is home to nearly 100 primary schools, 25 secondary schools, 4 special schools and 1 college.
The sole further education college in the borough, Sandwell College was opened in September 1986 following the merger of Warley College and West Bromwich College. It was originally based in the old Warley College buildings on Pound Road, Oldbury, and the West Bromwich College buildings on West Bromwich High Street, as well as a building in Smethwick town centre, but moved into a new single site campus in West Bromwich town centre in | 8,866 |
343239 | Sandwell | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Sandwell | Sandwell
September 2012. In 2004, a debt-ridden Sandwell College was subject to a police investigation.
# Localities.
Localities in the borough include:
- Warley
- Cradley Heath
- Old Hill
- Oldbury
- Brandhall
- Langley Green
- Oakham
- Rood End
- Smethwick
- Albion Estate
- Bearwood
- Cape Hill
- Londonderry
- Uplands
- West Smethwick
- Black Patch & Soho
- Rowley Regis
- Blackheath,
- West Bromwich
- Charlemont and Grove Vale
- Great Barr (although some areas are part of Birmingham and Walsall)
- Guns Village
- Hamstead
- Hill Top
- Stone Cross
- Yew Tree
- Greets Green
- Hateley Heath
- Wednesbury
- Friar Park
- Tipton
- Dudley Port
- Great Bridge
- Horseley Heath
- | 8,867 |
343239 | Sandwell | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Sandwell | Sandwell
Ocker Hill
- Princes End
- Summer Hill
- Tividale
# Local places of interest.
- The Public, West Bromwich
- Sandwell Priory
- Sandwell Valley
- Sandwell Valley Country Park
- RSPB Sandwell Valley
- Sheepwash Urban Park
- The Hawthorns
- Sandwell General Hospital
- Sandwell College
- Holly Lodge High School
# Twin towns and cities.
Sandwell is twinned with:
- Le Blanc Mesnil, France
- Amritsar, India
# See also.
- Wednesbury Central railway station
- Wednesbury bus station
- Wednesbury Town railway station
- Healthcare in West Midlands
# External links.
- Sandwell MBC
- Research Sandwell
- Sandwell Trends - a Local Intelligence System for Sandwell
- Sandwell Building | 8,868 |
343239 | Sandwell | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Sandwell | Sandwell
dale
# Local places of interest.
- The Public, West Bromwich
- Sandwell Priory
- Sandwell Valley
- Sandwell Valley Country Park
- RSPB Sandwell Valley
- Sheepwash Urban Park
- The Hawthorns
- Sandwell General Hospital
- Sandwell College
- Holly Lodge High School
# Twin towns and cities.
Sandwell is twinned with:
- Le Blanc Mesnil, France
- Amritsar, India
# See also.
- Wednesbury Central railway station
- Wednesbury bus station
- Wednesbury Town railway station
- Healthcare in West Midlands
# External links.
- Sandwell MBC
- Research Sandwell
- Sandwell Trends - a Local Intelligence System for Sandwell
- Sandwell Building Schools for the Future
- Sandwell Lions Club | 8,869 |
343246 | Ice shelf | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Ice%20shelf | Ice shelf
Ice shelf
An ice shelf is a thick suspended platform of ice that forms where a glacier or ice sheet flows down to a coastline and onto the ocean surface. Ice shelves are only found in Antarctica, Greenland, Canada, and the Russian Arctic. The boundary between the floating ice shelf and the anchor ice (resting on bedrock) that feeds it is called the grounding line. The thickness of ice shelves can range from about to .
In contrast, sea ice is formed on water, is much thinner (typically less than ), and forms throughout the Arctic Ocean. It also is found in the Southern Ocean around the continent of Antarctica.
Ice shelves are principally driven by gravity-induced pressure from the grounded | 8,870 |
343246 | Ice shelf | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Ice%20shelf | Ice shelf
ice. That flow continually moves ice from the grounding line to the seaward front of the shelf. The primary mechanism of mass loss from ice shelves was thought to have been iceberg calving, in which a chunk of ice breaks off from the seaward front of the shelf. A study by NASA and university researchers, published in the June 14, 2013 issue of "Science", found however that ocean waters melting the undersides of Antarctic ice shelves are responsible for most of the continent's ice shelf mass loss.
Typically, a shelf front will extend forward for years or decades between major calving events. Snow accumulation on the upper surface and melting from the lower surface are also important to the "mass | 8,871 |
343246 | Ice shelf | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Ice%20shelf | Ice shelf
balance" of an ice shelf. Ice may also accrete onto the underside of the shelf.
The density contrast between glacial ice and liquid water means that at least 1/9 of the floating ice is above the ocean surface, depending on how much pressurized air is contained in the bubbles within the glacial ice, stemming from compressed snow. The formula for the denominators above is formula_1, density of cold seawater divided by kg/m is about 1.028 and that of glacial ice from about 0.85 to well below 0.92, the limit for very cold ice without bubbles. The height of the shelf above the sea can be even larger, if there is a lot of less dense firn and snow above the glacier ice.
The world's largest ice shelves | 8,872 |
343246 | Ice shelf | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Ice%20shelf | Ice shelf
are the Ross Ice Shelf and the Filchner-Ronne Ice Shelf in Antarctica.
The term captured ice shelf has been used for the ice over a subglacial lake, such as Lake Vostok.
# Canadian ice shelves.
All Canadian ice shelves are attached to Ellesmere Island and lie north of 82°N. Ice shelves that are still in existence are the Alfred Ernest Ice Shelf, Milne Ice Shelf, Ward Hunt Ice Shelf and Smith Ice Shelf. The M'Clintock Ice Shelf broke up from 1963 to 1966; the Ayles Ice Shelf broke up in 2005; and the Markham Ice Shelf broke up in 2008.
# Antarctic ice shelves.
A large portion of the Antarctic coastline has ice shelves attached. Their aggregate area is over 1,550,000 km.
# Russian ice shelves.
The | 8,873 |
343246 | Ice shelf | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Ice%20shelf | Ice shelf
Matusevich Ice Shelf was a 222 km² ice shelf located in Severnaya Zemlya being fed by some of the largest ice caps on October Revolution Island, the Karpinsky Ice Cap to the south and the Rusanov Ice Cap to the north. In 2012 it ceased to exist.
# Ice shelf disruption.
In the last several decades, glaciologists have observed consistent decreases in ice shelf extent through melt, calving, and complete disintegration of some shelves.
The Ellesmere ice shelf was reduced by 90 per cent in the twentieth century, leaving the separate Alfred Ernest, Ayles, Milne, Ward Hunt, and Markham Ice Shelves. A 1986 survey of Canadian ice shelves found that 48 km². (3.3 cubic kilometres) of ice calved from | 8,874 |
343246 | Ice shelf | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Ice%20shelf | Ice shelf
the Milne and Ayles ice shelves between 1959 and 1974. The Ayles Ice Shelf calved entirely on August 13, 2005. The Ward Hunt Ice Shelf, the largest remaining section of thick (10 m) landfast sea ice along the northern coastline of Ellesmere Island, lost 600 square km of ice in a massive calving in 1961–1962. It further decreased by 27% in thickness (13 m) between 1967 and 1999. In summer 2002, the Ward Ice Shelf experienced another major breakup, and other instances of note happened in 2008 and 2010 as well.
Two sections of Antarctica's Larsen Ice Shelf broke apart into hundreds of unusually small fragments (hundreds of meters wide or less) in 1995 and 2002, Larsen C calved a huge ice island | 8,875 |
343246 | Ice shelf | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Ice%20shelf | Ice shelf
in 2017.
The breakup events may be linked to the dramatic polar warming trends that are part of global warming. The leading ideas involve enhanced ice fracturing due to surface meltwater and enhanced bottom melting due to warmer ocean water circulating under the floating ice.
The cold, fresh water produced by melting underneath the Ross and Flichner-Ronne ice shelves is a component of Antarctic Bottom Water.
Although it is believed that the melting of floating ice shelves will not raise sea levels, technically, there is a small effect because sea water is ~2.6% more dense than fresh water combined with the fact that ice shelves are overwhelmingly "fresh" (having virtually no salinity); this | 8,876 |
343246 | Ice shelf | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Ice%20shelf | Ice shelf
causes the volume of the sea water needed to displace a floating ice shelf to be slightly less than the volume of the fresh water contained in the floating ice. Therefore, when a mass of floating ice melts, sea levels will increase; however, this effect is small enough that if all extant sea ice and floating ice shelves were to melt, the corresponding sea level rise is estimated to be ~4 cm.
Much more importantly, if and when these ice shelves melt sufficiently, and cease to grip on the small islands and another obstacle of the former grounding line, they will no longer impede glacier flow off the continent, so that glacier flow will accelerate. This new source of ice volume flows down from | 8,877 |
343246 | Ice shelf | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Ice%20shelf | Ice shelf
sea level rise is estimated to be ~4 cm.
Much more importantly, if and when these ice shelves melt sufficiently, and cease to grip on the small islands and another obstacle of the former grounding line, they will no longer impede glacier flow off the continent, so that glacier flow will accelerate. This new source of ice volume flows down from above sea level, displacing sea water and so contributing to sea level rise.
# See also.
- Ice-sheet dynamics
# External links.
- Further information from the Australian Antarctic Division
- http://nsidc.org/quickfacts/iceshelves.html – from the U.S. National Snow and Ice Data Center
- http://ice-glaces.ec.gc.ca/ – from the Canadian Ice Service | 8,878 |
343242 | Oldbury, West Midlands | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Oldbury,%20West%20Midlands | Oldbury, West Midlands
Oldbury, West Midlands
Oldbury is an industrialized market town in Sandwell, West Midlands, England. It is a part of the Black Country, and the administrative centre of the borough of Sandwell.
At the 2011 census, the ward of Oldbury had a population of 13,606, while the wider built-up area has a population of 25,488 according a 2017 census. However, Sandwell Metropolitan Borough Council give the population figure of Oldbury as 50,641.
# Etymology.
The place name Oldbury, comes from the Old English 'Ealdenbyrig', - signifying that Oldbury was old even in early English times over 1000 years ago. "Eald" being Old English for 'old', "Byrig" is the plural of 'burh' in Old English - a burh being | 8,879 |
343242 | Oldbury, West Midlands | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Oldbury,%20West%20Midlands | Oldbury, West Midlands
a fortification or fortified town.
# History.
Oldbury was part of the ancient parish of Halesowen, a detached part of Shropshire surrounded by Worcestershire and Staffordshire, and the manor was owned by the Oldbury family until the 17th century when Alderman John Oldbury had no male heir and his two daughters, Mary, Countess of Warrington and Dorothy, Baroness Herbert, married into the aristocracy.
By the Counties (Detached Parts) Act 1844, Oldbury was reincorporated into Worcestershire after a nine-hundred-year absence. It became an Urban District in 1894, receiving Municipal Borough-status in 1935.
In 1966, Oldbury was merged with the County Borough of Smethwick and the Municipal Borough | 8,880 |
343242 | Oldbury, West Midlands | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Oldbury,%20West%20Midlands | Oldbury, West Midlands
of Rowley Regis to form the County Borough of Warley, which also included most of the Tividale area of Tipton and the eastern section of Oakham in Dudley. The geographical county boundaries were also changed to include the whole of Warley as part of Worcestershire; formerly, both Rowley Regis and Smethwick had been in Staffordshire.
Oldbury council built several thousand houses, flats and bungalows for some 40 years until its disbandment, the 1,000th of which was completed in 1933 at Wallace Road near the border with Rowley Regis.
In 1974, Oldbury became part of the new Sandwell Metropolitan Borough (a merger between the county boroughs of West Bromwich and Warley), and was transferred into | 8,881 |
343242 | Oldbury, West Midlands | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Oldbury,%20West%20Midlands | Oldbury, West Midlands
the West Midlands Metropolitan County. Since 1986, after the abolition of the West Midlands County Council, Sandwell effectively became a unitary authority. Sandwell Council's headquarters are situated in Oldbury Town Centre.
Oldbury comes within the B68 and B69 postal districts, the latter of which also covers part of Tipton. The postal town is Oldbury, although it previously came under the Warley post town, along with Smethwick, Rowley Regis, and Cradley Heath.
# Notable businesses.
The first branch of Lloyds Bank was opened in Oldbury in 1864. The branch was founded to serve fellow Quakers Arthur Albright and John Wilson's local chemical factory. The original building survives to this | 8,882 |
343242 | Oldbury, West Midlands | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Oldbury,%20West%20Midlands | Oldbury, West Midlands
day, but was recently made redundant as a bank and became a Subway fast food restaurant. Subway moved from the building early in 2012.
In October 1980, retail giant J Sainsbury opened one of its first SavaCentre hypermarkets in Oldbury town centre. 20 years later, it was rebranded as a traditional Sainsbury's store as the retailer gradually phased out the SavaCentre side of the business. The town saw a large expansion in retail since then, including a Toys "R" Us superstore on at Birchley Island, which opened in October 1988 and stayed open until the retail chain went out of business in 2018, and Oldbury Green Retail Park was built on the town's ring road in the mid-1990s. A Homebase store | 8,883 |
343242 | Oldbury, West Midlands | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Oldbury,%20West%20Midlands | Oldbury, West Midlands
which was built during the 1980s also relocated to the Oldbury Green development, with the previous building being taken over by Gala Bingo. This, along with the development of the Merry Hill Shopping Centre some six miles away during the second half of the 1980s, has contributed to a decline in the fortunes of nearby West Bromwich town centre as a retail centre since the 1980s, although West Bromwich has bounced back since the New Square shopping centre opened in the summer of 2013.
Due to the socio-economics of Sandwell, the area has a number of social housing organisations such as Black Country Housing Group which has been operating in Sandwell since its relocation from Birmingham in the | 8,884 |
343242 | Oldbury, West Midlands | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Oldbury,%20West%20Midlands | Oldbury, West Midlands
1980s.
In October 2013, the commercial radio station Free Radio moved its local operations for the Black Country and Shropshire from Wolverhampton to new studios at Black Country House.
In November 2015, Hagley Road West, Oldbury became home to the new Home Interiors Store; Thrift Vintage Interiors, which has since won the 'Best Local Business' award at the Birmingham inspiration Awards 2017.
# Transport links.
For over thirty years, there were three railway stations in the parish named Oldbury; only one is still open, but under a new name. The oldest surviving one is on the Stour Valley Line (former LMS Railway), at Bromford Road. It has been there since the 1850s. It was originally called | 8,885 |
343242 | Oldbury, West Midlands | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Oldbury,%20West%20Midlands | Oldbury, West Midlands
Oldbury & Bromford Lane Station, then Oldbury Station, but it is now known as Sandwell and Dudley.
The second nearest railway station to the centre of Oldbury is at Langley Green, at Western Road, on the Stourbridge Extension Line, now the Birmingham to Worcester via Kidderminster Line. It opened in April 1867 and was originally called Langley Green & Rood End Station. However, a short half-mile long branch line, the Oldbury Railway, was linked to the station with its own (third) platform. It opened in November 1884; and Langley Green & Rood End Station was then renamed Langley Green. The Oldbury Railway, which also linked to Albright and Wilson, had both a passenger station, called Oldbury | 8,886 |
343242 | Oldbury, West Midlands | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Oldbury,%20West%20Midlands | Oldbury, West Midlands
railway station, on Halesowen Road; and a goods station, at the Birmingham Canal Navigations wharf in Oldbury. Passenger services ran to Oldbury Station until March 1915; and the line closed completely other than as a freight line for Albright and Wilson. All traces of its viaduct and embankment beyond Tat Bank Road were destroyed when the M5 motorway was built.
The M5 has served Oldbury since 1964 and passes the town on an elevated section built on reinforced concrete pillars. Access is from junction 2. This is also the closest junction to the Black Country Living Museum in Dudley. A major concrete repair and waterproofing scheme began on the M5 viaduct in April 2017. This was expected to | 8,887 |
343242 | Oldbury, West Midlands | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Oldbury,%20West%20Midlands | Oldbury, West Midlands
be completed by autumn 2018, however due to unforeseen repairs the works have been delayed until the following year.
# Neighbourhoods.
- Langley Green - an established residential area to the south of the town centre.
- Warley - an area of mostly private housing in the extreme south of Oldbury near the border with Birmingham.
- Brandhall - first developed with private housing in the 1930s and then in the 1950s and 1960s with council housing.
- Londonderry - in the south-east of the town, straddling the border with Smethwick.
- Rood End - an Edwardian and late Victorian residential area in the east of the town, near the border with Smethwick.
- Brades Village - an area of established housing | 8,888 |
343242 | Oldbury, West Midlands | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Oldbury,%20West%20Midlands | Oldbury, West Midlands
and industry near the border with Tipton.
- Lion Farm - a large council housing estate built in the early to late 1960s in the south-west of the town, near the border with Rowley Regis. The estate originally included nine tower blocks, but only three of these remain.
# Schools.
- Bristnall Hall Academy
- Oldbury Academy
- Perryfields High School
- The Meadows Sports College
# Parks.
Oldbury is a heavily built up, industrial area. However, there are a few green spaces including Tividale Park. Broadwell Park features outdoor exercise equipment and fitness stations, as well as a small stream.
# Oldbury Borough archives collection.
The archives for the Borough of Oldbury are held at Sandwell | 8,889 |
343242 | Oldbury, West Midlands | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Oldbury,%20West%20Midlands | Oldbury, West Midlands
Community History and Archives Service
# Notable people.
The Sadlers rose to become an eminent family in Oldbury during the nineteenth century. Notable figures included John Sadler (1820-1910) ('the Grand Old Man of Oldbury') and Sir Samuel Alexander Sadler.
Joseph Willott, Jr., member of the Wisconsin State Assembly, was born in Oldbury in 1855.
- Writers and academics
Mick Aston, archaeologist and star of the TV programme "Time Team", was born in Oldbury and attended Oldbury Grammar School.
Tony Freeth, author of Sons of Albion book, attended Albright High School.
- Visual arts
Martin Elliott (1946–2010), the photographer best known for the iconic poster "Tennis Girl", was born in | 8,890 |
343242 | Oldbury, West Midlands | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Oldbury,%20West%20Midlands | Oldbury, West Midlands
Oldbury and attended Oldbury Grammar School.
- Performing arts
Oldbury is the birthplace of Sir John Frederick Bridge, who was a famous organist, composer and author. He was known as "Westminster Bridge" because of his long stint as organist at Westminster Abbey (1882-1919). He composed special music for Queen Victoria's Jubilee and King Edward VII's coronation, in addition to other choral, instrumental and organ music. His brother Joseph Cox Bridge was also an organist,composer and author, becoming well known for his recorder compositions.
Jack Judge (1872–1938), the songwriter and music-hall entertainer best remembered for writing the song "It's a Long Way to Tipperary", was born in Oldbury. | 8,891 |
343242 | Oldbury, West Midlands | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Oldbury,%20West%20Midlands | Oldbury, West Midlands
bered for writing the song "It's a Long Way to Tipperary", was born in Oldbury. The new library building in the town is named after him.
In his early years, the comedian Frank Skinner lived in Oldbury at 181 Bristnall Hall Road. He attended Moat Farm Infants School, St Hubert's Roman Catholic Junior School and Oldbury Technical School, and has been a TV comedian since the late 1980s.
- Sports and games
Jodie Stimpson, the British triathlete, was born in Oldbury in 1989, and won Gold in the Individual and Team Relay Triathlon at the Glasgow Commonwealth Games in 2014.
The boxer Pat Cowdell, who achieved stardom during the 1970s and 1980s, was born in nearby Smethwick and lives in Oldbury. | 8,892 |
343243 | Rowley Regis | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Rowley%20Regis | Rowley Regis
Rowley Regis
Rowley Regis ( ) is a town and historic parish as well as a former municipal borough, in the Black Country region of the West Midlands, England. Considered one of the six 'towns' that comprise the modern-day Sandwell Metropolitan Borough, it encompasses the wards of Blackheath, Cradley Heath and Old Hill, and Rowley Village. At the 2011 census, the combined population of Rowley Regis was 50,257.
# History.
The history of Rowley Regis began in the 12th century, when a small village grew around the parish church of St. Giles, approximately two miles south-east of the town of Dudley. Rowley was part of the Royal hunting grounds - Regis was added to the name of Rowley in around 1140 | 8,893 |
343243 | Rowley Regis | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Rowley%20Regis | Rowley Regis
to signify it was that part of Rowley belonging to the King. It began to develop substantially between the two World Wars, when thousands of privately owned and local authority houses were built in the surrounding area. During that time Rowley Regis became a borough, and incorporated the communities of Blackheath, Old Hill, and Cradley Heath. These places were all within the ancient parish of Rowley Regis, which (despite being in the county of Staffordshire) was in the diocese of Worcester. The parish contained the manors of Rowley Regis and Rowley Somery, the latter being part of the barony of Dudley, but the extents of these manors and the relationship between them are not clear.
The present | 8,894 |
343243 | Rowley Regis | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Rowley%20Regis | Rowley Regis
St. Giles Church on Church Road is not the original church in Rowley Regis. The church built in 1840 to succeed the original mediaeval building, was found to be unsafe and condemned in 1900. The next church, built in 1904, was burned down in 1913, some believing the fire to have been started by Suffragettes or local striking steelworkers; this however is supposition and it was more than probable it was a simple accident, the church at this time using parrafin as a means of lighting and the latter perhaps causing the fire. Its present day successor was designed by Holland W. Hobbiss and A. S. Dixon, and was built in 1923.
Rowley Regis railway station opened in 1867 in the south of the then village, | 8,895 |
343243 | Rowley Regis | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Rowley%20Regis | Rowley Regis
and remains in use to this day.
Rowley's grammar school was opened on Hawes Lane in September 1962. Well-known former pupils include Pete Williams (original bass player with Dexys Midnight Runners), and actress Josie Lawrence. In 1974, when comprehensive schools became universal in the new borough of Sandwell, the grammar school became Rowley Regis Sixth Form College, the last intake of grammar school pupils having been inducted the previous year. In 2003 it became an annexe of Dudley College, but this arrangement lasted just one year before the buildings fell into disuse. It was demolished three years later, and the site was redeveloped as the new Rowley Learning Campus under Sandwell's Building | 8,896 |
343243 | Rowley Regis | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Rowley%20Regis | Rowley Regis
Schools for the Future programme, comprising St Michael's Church of England High School, Westminster Special School, and Whiteheath Education Centre, which opened in September 2011.
## Civic history.
Originally in Staffordshire, the Rowley Regis Urban District was formed in 1894 to cover the villages of Rowley, Blackheath, Cradley Heath, and Old Hill. The urban district was incorporated into a municipal borough in 1933. Following the acquisition of borough status, plans were unveiled to build new council offices in the borough to replace the existing offices in Lawrence Lane, Old Hill. A site on the corner of Halesowen Road and Barrs Road was selected, with working commencing in October 1937, | 8,897 |
343243 | Rowley Regis | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Rowley%20Regis | Rowley Regis
and the building being completed in December 1938.
In 1966, the borough of Rowley Regis merged with the boroughs of Oldbury and Smethwick to form the Warley County Borough, and became part of Worcestershire. There had previously been plans to incorporate Rowley Regis into an expanded Dudley borough, and for Halesowen to join up with Oldbury and Smethwick instead.
Eight years later, in 1974, on the formation of the West Midlands Metropolitan county, Warley merged with West Bromwich to form the Sandwell Metropolitan Borough. It is now right in the core of the West Midlands conurbation.
Following the demise of Rowley Regis as a standalone borough in 1966, the council offices in Barrs Road were | 8,898 |
343243 | Rowley Regis | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Rowley%20Regis | Rowley Regis
retained by Warley council and then by Sandwell council. However, a plan was submitted in July 2012 by Sandwell Leisure Trust to demolish the buildings to make way for an expansion to the neighbouring Haden Hill Leisure Centre, and the development of a new fire station.
The archives for Rowley Regis Borough are held at Sandwell Community History and Archives Service.
# Geography.
Rowley Regis is the location of the Rowley Hills, famed for the quarrying of Rowley Rag Stone. The hills form part of the east/west watershed between the rivers Trent and Severn, and contain the highest point in the West Midlands region, Turner's Hill, at 269m above sea level.
## Localities (former borough of Rowley | 8,899 |
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