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343258 | Tzvetan Todorov | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Tzvetan%20Todorov | Tzvetan Todorov
second.
# Bibliography.
- Books
- "Introduction à la littérature fantastique" (1970), translated by Richard Howard as "The Fantastic: A Structural Approach to a Literary Genre" in 1973
- "Theories of the Symbol" (1982), translated by Catherine Porter.
- "" (1984), translated from the French by Richard Howard.
- "Mikhail Bakhtin: the dialogical principle" (1984), translated by Wlad Godzich.
- "On human diversity: nationalism, racism, and exoticism in French thought" (1993), translated by Catherine Porter.
- "French tragedy: scenes of civil war, summer 1944" (1996), translated by Mary Byrd Kelly; translation edited and annotated by Richard J. Golsan.
- "Voices from the Gulag: Life and | 9,000 |
343258 | Tzvetan Todorov | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Tzvetan%20Todorov | Tzvetan Todorov
Death in Communist Bulgaria" (1999), Tzvetan Todorov (ed.); translated by Robert Zaretsky.
- "A Passion for Democracy: Benjamin Constant " (1999), translated by Alice Seberry.
- "Facing the extreme: moral life in the concentration camps" (2000), translated by Arthur Denner and Abigail Pollack.
- "Fragility of goodness: why Bulgaria's Jews survived the Holocaust" (2001), a collection of texts with commentary by Tzvetan Todorov.
- "Life in common: an essay in general anthropology" (2001), translated by Katherine Golsan and Lucy Golsan; with a new afterword by the author.
- "Frail Happiness: An Essay on Rousseau" (2001), translated by John T. Scott and Robert D. Zaretsky
- "Imperfect garden: | 9,001 |
343258 | Tzvetan Todorov | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Tzvetan%20Todorov | Tzvetan Todorov
the legacy of humanism" (2002), translated by Carol Cosman.
- "Hope and memory: lessons from the twentieth century" (2003), translated by David Bellos.
- "New world disorder: reflections of a European" (2005), preface by Stanley Hoffmann; translated by Andrew Brown.
- Torture and the War on Terror (2009), translated by Gila Walker.
- "In Defence of the Enlightenment" (2009), translated by Gila Walker.
- "The fear of barbarians: beyond the clash of civilizations" (2010), translated by Andrew Brown
- "Memory as a Remedy for Evil" (2010), translated by Gila Walker
- "Muros caídos, muros erigidos" (2011), translated by Zoraida de Torres Burgos
- "The Totalitarian Experience", translated | 9,002 |
343258 | Tzvetan Todorov | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Tzvetan%20Todorov | Tzvetan Todorov
slated by Zoraida de Torres Burgos
- "The Totalitarian Experience", translated by Teresa Lavender Fagan. Kolkata, India: Seagull Books, 2011.
- "The Inner Enemies of Democracy", translated by Andrew Brown. Cambridge, UK and Malden, MA: Polity Press, 2014.
- "Insoumis: essai". Paris: Robert Laffont: Versilio, 2015.
- Articles
# See also.
- Genre studies
- "The Possibility of Hope"
# External links.
- Tzvetan Todorov on the Enlightenment Today, a nineteen-minute interview on "Philosophy Bites"
- The Tzvetan Todorov Book Interview
- Interview with Tzvetan Todorov: "It is surprising to see so many walls erected in the midst of globalisation", Barcelona Metropolis, num. 78, Spring 2010 | 9,003 |
343261 | Mug shot | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Mug%20shot | Mug shot
Mug shot
A mug shot or mugshot (an informal term for police photograph or booking photograph) is a photographic portrait of a person from the waist up, typically taken after a person is arrested. The original purpose of the mug shot was to allow law enforcement to have a photographic record of an arrested individual to allow for identification purposes by victims, the public and investigators. However, in the United States, entrepreneurs have recently begun to monetize these public records via the mug shot publishing industry.
Photographing of criminals began in the 1840s only a few years after the invention of photography, but it was not until 1888 that French police officer Alphonse Bertillon | 9,004 |
343261 | Mug shot | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Mug%20shot | Mug shot
standardized the process.
# Etymology.
"Mug" is an English slang term for "face", dating from the 18th century. Mug shot can more loosely mean any small picture of a face used for any reason.
# Description.
A typical mug shot is two-part, with one side-view photo, and one front-view. The background is usually stark and simple, to avoid distraction from the facial image (as distinguished from a casual snapshot in a more naturalistic setting). Mug shots may be compiled into a mug book in order to determine the identity of a criminal. In high-profile cases, mug shots may also be published in the mass media.
# History.
The earliest photos of prisoners taken for use by law enforcement may have | 9,005 |
343261 | Mug shot | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Mug%20shot | Mug shot
been taken in Belgium in 1843 and 1844. In the United Kingdom, police in Liverpool and Birmingham were photographing criminals by 1848. By 1857, the New York City Police Department had a gallery where daguerreotypes of criminals were displayed.
The Pinkerton National Detective Agency began using these on wanted posters in the United States. By the 1870s the agency had amassed the largest collection of mug shots in the US.
The paired arrangement may have been inspired by the 1865 prison portraits taken by Alexander Gardner of accused conspirators in the Lincoln assassination trial, though Gardner's photographs were full-body portraits with only the heads turned for the profile shots.
After | 9,006 |
343261 | Mug shot | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Mug%20shot | Mug shot
the defeat of the Paris Commune in 1871, the Prefecture of Police of Paris hired a photographer, Eugène Appert, to take portraits of convicted prisoners. In 1888, Alphonse Bertillon invented the modern mug shot featuring full face and profile views, standardizing the lighting and angles. This system was soon adopted throughout Europe, and in the United States and Russia.
The arrested person is sometimes required to hold a placard with name, date of birth, booking ID, weight, and other relevant information on it. With digital photography, the digital photograph is linked to a database record concerning the arrest.
# Use in wanted posters.
Mug shots have often been incorporated into wanted | 9,007 |
343261 | Mug shot | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Mug%20shot | Mug shot
posters, including those for the FBI Ten Most Wanted Fugitives list.
# Online mug shot publishing.
In the US in the early 21st century an online industry developed around the publication and removal of mug shots from internet websites.
# Prejudicial nature.
The US legal system has long held that mug shots can have a negative effect on juries. The United States Court of Appeals for the District of Columbia Circuit held "The double-shot picture, with front and profile shots alongside each other, is so familiar, from 'wanted' posters in the post office, motion pictures and television, that the inference that the person involved has a criminal record, or has at least been in trouble with the | 9,008 |
343261 | Mug shot | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Mug%20shot | Mug shot
police, is natural, perhaps automatic."
The Handbook of Massachusetts Evidence says "Because of the risk of prejudice to the defendant inherent in the admission of photographs of the 'mug shot' variety, judges and prosecutors are required to 'use reasonable means to avoid calling the jury's attention to the source of such photographs used to identify the defendant.' " (p. 617) Elsewhere it cites a ruling in "Commonwealth v. Martin" that "admission of a defendant's mug shot is 'laden for characterizing the defendant as a careerist in crime.
Other states have similar rules.
# Mug book.
A mug book is a collection of photographs of criminals, typically in mug shots taken at the time of an arrest. | 9,009 |
343261 | Mug shot | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Mug%20shot | Mug shot
book.
A mug book is a collection of photographs of criminals, typically in mug shots taken at the time of an arrest. A mug book is used by an eyewitness to a crime, with the assistance of law enforcement, in an effort to identify the perpetrator. Research has shown that grouped photos result in less false-positives than individually displaying each photo.
Mug book also has a meaning in genealogy and history, referring to local biographical histories published in the US in the late 19th century.
# See also.
- Face book
- Rogues gallery
# External links.
- Bruzz video: the world's oldest mug shots date from 1843
- Mugshots - Find mugshots online, one of the largest available databases | 9,010 |
343273 | Longus | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Longus | Longus
Longus
Longus, sometimes Longos (), was the author of an ancient Greek novel or romance, "Daphnis and Chloe". Nothing is known of his life; it is assumed that he lived on the isle of Lesbos (setting for "Daphnis and Chloe") during the 2nd century AD .
It has been suggested that the name Longus is merely a misinterpretation of the last word of "Daphnis and Chloe"'s title "Λεσβιακῶν ἐρωτικῶν λόγοι" ("story of a Lesbian romance", "Lesbian" for "from Lesbos island") in the Florentine manuscript; EE Seiler observes that the best manuscript begins and ends with "λόγου" (not "λόγγου") "ποιμενικῶν".
If his name was really Longus, he was possibly a freedman of some Roman family which bore that name | 9,011 |
343273 | Longus | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Longus | Longus
d century AD .
It has been suggested that the name Longus is merely a misinterpretation of the last word of "Daphnis and Chloe"'s title "Λεσβιακῶν ἐρωτικῶν λόγοι" ("story of a Lesbian romance", "Lesbian" for "from Lesbos island") in the Florentine manuscript; EE Seiler observes that the best manuscript begins and ends with "λόγου" (not "λόγγου") "ποιμενικῶν".
If his name was really Longus, he was possibly a freedman of some Roman family which bore that name as a cognomen.
# See also.
Other ancient Greek novelists:
- Chariton - The Loves of Chaereas and Callirhoe
- Xenophon of Ephesus - The Ephesian Tale
- Achilles Tatius - Leucippe and Clitophon
- Heliodorus of Emesa - The Aethiopica | 9,012 |
343264 | Paul Louis Courier | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Paul%20Louis%20Courier | Paul Louis Courier
Paul Louis Courier
Paul Louis Courier (; 4 January 177210 April 1825), French Hellenist and political writer, was born in Paris.
# Life.
Brought up on his father's estate of Méré in Touraine, he conceived a bitter aversion for the nobility, which seemed to strengthen with time. He would never take the name "de Méré", to which he was entitled, lest he should be thought a nobleman. At the age of fifteen he was sent to Paris to complete his education; his father's teaching had already inspired him with a passionate devotion to Greek literature, and although he showed considerable mathematical ability, he continued to devote all his leisure to the classics. He entered the school of artillery at | 9,013 |
343264 | Paul Louis Courier | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Paul%20Louis%20Courier | Paul Louis Courier
Châlons, however, and immediately on receiving his appointment as sub-lieutenant in September 1793 he joined the army of the Rhine. He served in various campaigns of the Revolutionary wars, especially in those of Italy in 1798-99 and 1806-7, and in the German campaign of 1809. He became "chef d'escadron" in 1803.
He made his first appearance as an author in 1802, when he contributed to the Magasin encyclopédique a critique on Johann Schweighäuser's edition of Athenaeus. In the following year appeared his "Eloge d'Hélène", a free imitation rather than a translation from Isocrates, which he had sketched in 1798. Courier had given up his commission in the autumn of 1808, but the general enthusiasm | 9,014 |
343264 | Paul Louis Courier | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Paul%20Louis%20Courier | Paul Louis Courier
in Paris over the preparations for the new campaign affected him, and he attached himself to the staff of a general of artillery. But he was horror-struck by the carnage at Wagram (1809), refusing from that time to believe that there was any art in war.
He hastily quit Vienna, escaping the formal charge of desertion because his new appointment had not been confirmed. The savage independence of his nature rendered subordination intolerable to him; he had been three times disgraced for absenting himself without leave, and his superiors resented his satirical humour. After leaving the army he went to Florence, and was fortunate enough to discover in the Laurentian Library a complete manuscript | 9,015 |
343264 | Paul Louis Courier | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Paul%20Louis%20Courier | Paul Louis Courier
of Longus's "Daphnis and Chloe", an edition of which he published in 1810. In consequence of a misadventure—blotting the manuscript—he was involved in a quarrel with the librarian, and was compelled by the government to leave Tuscany. He retired to his estate at Véretz (Indre-et-Loire), but frequently visited Paris, and divided his attention between literature and his farm.
After the second restoration of the Bourbons the career of Courier as political pamphleteer began. He had before this time waged war against local wrongs in his own district, and had been the adviser and helpful friend of his neighbours. He now made himself by his letters and pamphlets one of the most dreaded opponents of | 9,016 |
343264 | Paul Louis Courier | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Paul%20Louis%20Courier | Paul Louis Courier
the government of the Restoration. The first of these was his "Petition aux deux chambres" (1816), exposing the sufferings of the peasantry under the royalist reaction. In 1817 he was a candidate for a vacant seat in the Institute; and failing, he took his revenge by publishing a bitter "Lettre à Messieurs de l'Academie des Inscriptions et Belles-Lettres" (1819). This was followed (1819–1820) by a series of political letters of extraordinary power published in "Le Censeur Européen". He advocated a liberal monarchy, at the head of which he doubtless wished to see Louis Philippe.
The proposal, in 1821, to purchase the estate of Chambord for the duke of Bordeaux called forth from Courier the Simple | 9,017 |
343264 | Paul Louis Courier | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Paul%20Louis%20Courier | Paul Louis Courier
"Discours de Paul Louis, vigneron de la Chavonnière", one of his best pieces. For this he was tried and condemned to suffer a short imprisonment and to pay a fine. Before he went to prison he published a "compte rendu" of his trial, which had a still larger circulation than the "Discours" itself. In 1823 appeared the "Livret de Paul Louis", the "Gazette de village", followed in 1824 by his famous "Pamphlet des pamphlets", called by his biographer, Armand Carrel, his swan-song.
Courier published in 1807 his translation from Xenophon, "Du commandement de la cavalerie et de l'equitation", and had a share in editing the "Collections des romans grecs". He also projected a translation of Herodotus, | 9,018 |
343264 | Paul Louis Courier | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Paul%20Louis%20Courier | Paul Louis Courier
and published a specimen, in which he attempted to imitate archaic French; but he did not live to carry out this plan. On April 10, 1825, on a Sunday afternoon, Courier was found shot in a wood near his house. The murderers, who were servants of his own, remained undiscovered for five years. There were many stories in the village of Veretz that they had been fired for their sexual liaisons with his wife, who left him for Paris shortly afterwards. He is buried in Veretz cemetery, close to his son and the grave of the later poet Eugène Bizeau. The anarchist poet's grandmother was mentioned in Courier's own work. There were, however, rumours of a political murder by the authorities which remained | 9,019 |
343264 | Paul Louis Courier | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Paul%20Louis%20Courier | Paul Louis Courier
current for many years.
The writings of Courier, dealing with the facts and events of his own time, are valuable sources of information as to the condition of France before, during, and after the Revolution. Sainte-Beuve finds in Courier's own words, "peu de matière et beaucoup d'art", the secret and device of his talent, which gives his writings a value independent of the somewhat ephemeral subject-matter.
A "Collection complète des pamphlets politiques et opuscules litteraires de P. L. Courier" appeared in 1826. See editions of his Œuvres (1848), with an admirable biography by Armand Carrel, which is reproduced in a later edition, with a supplementary criticism by Francisque Sarcey (1876–1877); | 9,020 |
343264 | Paul Louis Courier | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Paul%20Louis%20Courier | Paul Louis Courier
is writings a value independent of the somewhat ephemeral subject-matter.
A "Collection complète des pamphlets politiques et opuscules litteraires de P. L. Courier" appeared in 1826. See editions of his Œuvres (1848), with an admirable biography by Armand Carrel, which is reproduced in a later edition, with a supplementary criticism by Francisque Sarcey (1876–1877); also three notices by Sainte-Beuve in the "Causeries du lundi" and the "Nouveaux Lundis".
In the centre of Veretz there is a stele, raised in honour of Courier 50 years after his murder, and the opening was observed by many eminent writers of the time.
# References.
## External links.
- Website devoted to Paul-Louis Courier. | 9,021 |
343256 | Gengshi Emperor | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Gengshi%20Emperor | Gengshi Emperor
Gengshi Emperor
The Gengshi Emperor (; died AD 25), was an emperor of the Han dynasty restored after the fall of Wang Mang's Xin dynasty. He was also known by his courtesy name Shenggong () and as the King or Prince of Huaiyang (), a posthumous title bestowed upon him by Emperor Guangwu of the Eastern Han. The Gengshi Emperor was viewed as a weak and incompetent ruler, who briefly ruled over an empire willing to let him rule over them, but was unable to keep that empire together. He was eventually deposed by the Chimei and strangled a few months after his defeat.
Traditional historians treat his emperor status ambiguously—and sometimes he would be referred to as an emperor (with reference to | 9,022 |
343256 | Gengshi Emperor | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Gengshi%20Emperor | Gengshi Emperor
his era name—thus, the Gengshi Emperor) and sometimes he would be referred to by his posthumous title, Prince of Huaiyang. The later title implied that he was only a pretender and the Eastern Han was the legitimate restoration of the earlier Han.
# Collapse of Wang Mang's Xin Dynasty.
Late in Wang Mang's reign as the emperor of Xin Dynasty, there were agrarian revolts virtually everywhere in the empire, due to Wang's incompetent rule and the natural disasters of the time. The two largest branches were the Lülin (concentrated in modern southern Henan and northern Hubei) and Chimei (concentrated in modern southern Shandong and northern Jiangsu).
In 22, the most ambitious of the rebels would | 9,023 |
343256 | Gengshi Emperor | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Gengshi%20Emperor | Gengshi Emperor
emerge. Liu Yan, a descendant of a distant branch of the Han imperial clan, who lived in his ancestral territory of Chongling (舂陵, in modern Xiangfan, Hubei), had long been disgusted by Wang Mang's usurpation of the Han throne, and had long aspired to start a rebellion. His brother Liu Xiu, by contrast, was a careful and deliberate man, who was content to be a farmer. Around this time, there were prophecies being spread about that the Lius would return to power, and many men gathered about Liu Yan, requesting that he lead them. He agreed, and further joined forces with the branch of Lülin forces who had entered the proximity, and they began to capture territory instead of simply roving and raiding. | 9,024 |
343256 | Gengshi Emperor | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Gengshi%20Emperor | Gengshi Emperor
(It was said that many of the neighborhood young men were initially hesitant to join the rebels, but when they saw that Liu Xiu, whom they considered wise and careful, joining as well, they agreed to.) In 23, under Liu Yan's leadership, the joint forces had a major victory over Zhen Fu (甄阜), the governor of the Commandery of Nanyang, killing him. They then sieged the important city of Wancheng (the capital of Nanyang Commandery, in modern Nanyang, Henan).
# Named emperor.
By this point, many other rebel leaders had become jealous of Liu Yan's capabilities, and while a good number of their men admired Liu Yan and wanted him to become the emperor of a restored Han dynasty, they had other ideas. | 9,025 |
343256 | Gengshi Emperor | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Gengshi%20Emperor | Gengshi Emperor
They found another local rebel leader, Liu Xuan, a third cousin of Liu Yan, who was claiming the title of General Gengshi (更始將軍) at the time and who was considered a weak personality, and requested that he be made emperor. Liu Yan initially opposed this move and instead suggested that Liu Xuan carry the title "King of Han" first (echoing the founder of the Han dynasty, Emperor Gaozu). The other rebel leaders refused, and in early 23, Liu Xuan was proclaimed emperor. Liu Yan became prime minister.
# Battle of Kunyang.
In the spring of 23, the major military confrontation of Kunyang would seal Wang Mang's fate. He sent his cousin Wang Yi (王邑) and his prime minister Wang Xun (王尋) with what he | 9,026 |
343256 | Gengshi Emperor | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Gengshi%20Emperor | Gengshi Emperor
considered to be overwhelming force, some 430,000 men, intending to crush the newly constituted Han regime. The Han forces were at this point in two groups—one led by Wang Feng (王鳳), Wang Chang (王常), and Liu Xiu, which, in response to the arrival of the Xin forces, withdrew to the town of Kunyang (昆陽, in modern Ye County, Henan) and one led by Liu Yan, which was still sieging Wancheng. The rebels in Kunyang initially wanted to scatter, but Liu Xiu opposed it; rather, he advocated that they guard Kunyang securely, while he would gather all other available troops in surrounding areas and attack the Xin forces from the outside. After initially rejecting Liu Xiu's idea, the Kunyang rebels eventually | 9,027 |
343256 | Gengshi Emperor | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Gengshi%20Emperor | Gengshi Emperor
agreed.
Liu Xiu carried out his action, and when he returned to Kunyang, he began harassing the sieging Xin forces from the outside. Wang Yi and Wang Xun, annoyed, led 10,000 men to attack Liu Xiu and ordered the rest of their troops not to move from their siege locations. Once they engaged in battle, however, after minor losses, the other units were hesitant to assist them, and Liu Xiu killed Wang Xun in battle. Once that happened, the Han forces inside Kunyang burst out of the city and attacked the other Xin units, and the much larger Xin forces suffered a total collapse. The soldiers largely deserted and went home, unable to be gathered again. Wang Yi had to withdraw with only several thousand | 9,028 |
343256 | Gengshi Emperor | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Gengshi%20Emperor | Gengshi Emperor
men back to Luoyang. This was a major blow to Xin, psychologically; after this point on, there would be no hope for it.
# Infighting and move toward Chang'an.
The very first major incident of infighting in the Gengshi Emperor's regime would happen in this time, though. The Gengshi Emperor was fearful of Liu Yan's capabilities and keenly aware that many of Liu Yan's followers were angry that he was not made emperor. One, Liu Ji (劉稷), was particularly critical of the Gengshi Emperor. The emperor arrested Liu Ji and wanted to execute him, but Liu Yan tried to intercede. The emperor took this opportunity to execute Liu Yan as well. Subsequently, ashamed of what he had done, though, he spared Liu | 9,029 |
343256 | Gengshi Emperor | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Gengshi%20Emperor | Gengshi Emperor
Yan's brother Liu Xiu and honored him by creating him Marquess of Wuxin.
The Gengshi Emperor then commissioned two armies, one led by Wang Kuang, targeting Luoyang, and the other led by Shentu Jian (申屠建) and Li Song (李松), targeting Chang'an directly. All the populace on the way gathered, welcomed, and joined the Han forces. Shentu and Li quickly reached the outskirts of Chang'an. In response, the young men within Chang'an also rose up and stormed Weiyang Palace, the main imperial palace. Wang died in the battle at the palace (by Du Wu (杜吳)), as did his daughter Princess Huanghuang (the former empress of Han). After Wang died, the crowd fought over the right to have the credit for having killed | 9,030 |
343256 | Gengshi Emperor | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Gengshi%20Emperor | Gengshi Emperor
Wang, and tens of soldiers died in the ensuing fight. Wang's body was cut into pieces, and his head was delivered to the provisional Han capital Wancheng, to be hung on the city wall.
# Attempted consolidation of power.
After Wang Mang's death, the Gengshi Emperor moved his capital from Wancheng to Luoyang. He then issued edicts to the entire empire, promising to allow Xin local officials who submitted to him to keep their posts. For a brief period, nearly the entire empire showed at least nominal submission—even including the powerful Chimei general Fan Chong (樊崇), who, indeed, went to stay in Luoyang under promises of titles and honors. However, this policy was applied inconsistently, and | 9,031 |
343256 | Gengshi Emperor | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Gengshi%20Emperor | Gengshi Emperor
local governors soon became apprehensive about giving up their power. Fan, in particular, left the capital and returned to his troops. In response, the Gengshi Emperor sent various generals out to try to calm the local governors and populace; these included Liu Xiu, who was sent to pacify the region north of the Yellow River. Further, around these times, the people began to see that the powerful officials around the Gengshi Emperor were in fact uneducated men lacking ability to govern; this further made them lose confidence in his governance.
The Gengshi Emperor's governance would in fact immediately be challenged by a major pretender in winter 23. A fortuneteller in Handan named Wang Lang | 9,032 |
343256 | Gengshi Emperor | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Gengshi%20Emperor | Gengshi Emperor
claimed to be actually named Liu Ziyu (劉子輿) and a son of Emperor Cheng. He claimed that his mother was a singer in Emperor Cheng's service, and that Empress Zhao Feiyan had tried to kill him after his birth, but that a substitute child was killed instead. After he spread these rumors around the people, the people of Handan began to believe that he was a genuine son of Emperor Cheng, and the commanderies north of the Yellow River quickly pledged allegiance to him as emperor. Liu Xiu was forced to withdraw to the northern city of Jicheng (modern Beijing). After some difficulties, however, Liu Xiu was able to unify the northern commanderies still loyal to the Gengshi Emperor and besiege Handan | 9,033 |
343256 | Gengshi Emperor | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Gengshi%20Emperor | Gengshi Emperor
in 24, killing Wang Lang. The Gengshi Emperor put Liu Xiu in charge of the region north of the Yellow Rivera and created him the Prince of Xiao, but Liu Xiu, still aware that he was not truly trusted and secretly angry about his brother's death, secretly planned to peel away from the Gengshi Emperor's rule. He began to strip other imperially-commissioned generals of their powers and troops, and concentrated the troops under his own command.
Also in 24, the Gengshi Emperor moved his capital again, back to the Western Han capital of Chang'an. The people of Chang'an had previously been offended by the emperor's officials, who did not appreciate their rising up against Wang Mang but in fact considered | 9,034 |
343256 | Gengshi Emperor | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Gengshi%20Emperor | Gengshi Emperor
them traitors. Once the Gengshi Emperor was back in the capital, he issued a general pardon, which calmed the situation for a while. At this time, Chang'an was still largely intact, except for Weiyang Palace, destroyed by fire. However, the Gengshi Emperor's timidity quickly caused problems. When the imperial officials were gathered for an official meeting, the emperor, who had never seen such solemn occasions, panicked. Later, when generals submitted reports to him, he asked questions such as, "How much did you pillage today?" This type of behavior further reduced the people's confidence in him.
The emperor entrusted his government to Zhao Meng (趙萌), whose daughter he took as an imperial consort. | 9,035 |
343256 | Gengshi Emperor | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Gengshi%20Emperor | Gengshi Emperor
He himself engaged in frequent drinking and was often unable to receive officials or make important decisions. Zhao greatly abused his power, and once, when an honest official revealed Zhao's crimes to the Gengshi Emperor, the emperor had him executed. The other powerful officials also abused their power greatly, often commissioning duplicating local officials throughout the empire, causing great confusion and anger.
In the autumn of 24, the Gengshi Emperor sent his generals Li Bao (李寶) and Li Zhong (李忠) to try to capture modern Sichuan, then held by the local warlord Gongsun Shu (公孫述), but his generals were defeated by Gongsun.
# Defeat by Chimei.
In the winter of 24, an ominous issue would | 9,036 |
343256 | Gengshi Emperor | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Gengshi%20Emperor | Gengshi Emperor
arise: Chimei troops, then stationed at Puyang, were highly fatigued at the time and wanted to go home. Their leaders felt that if they did so, Chimei forces would scatter and be unable to be gathered again, and they felt that a clear target needs to be created. They decided to announce that they were attacking the imperial capital Chang'an and, divided into two armies, they began to head west. Liu Xiu, while he had fairly strong troops, chose to stand by and wait for Chimei to destroy the Gengshi Emperor; he used the Henei region (modern northern Henan, north of the Yellow River) as his base of operations for its strategic location and the richness of its soil. The Chimei armies rejoined in | 9,037 |
343256 | Gengshi Emperor | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Gengshi%20Emperor | Gengshi Emperor
Hongnong (弘農, in modern Sanmenxia, Henan), defeating every single army that the emperor sent to stop it.
In 25, the Gengshi Emperor's forces would cause the death of the former Western Han emperor-designate, Emperor Ruzi (Liu Ying). Two far-fetched co-conspirators—Fang Wang (方望), the former strategist for the local warlord Wei Xiao (隗囂), and a man named Gong Lin (弓林) -- and their group of several thousand men, after kidnapping the former Duke of Ding'an, occupied Linjing (臨涇, in modern Qingyang, Gansu). The Gengshi Emperor sent his prime minister Li Song (李松) to attack them, and wiped out this rebel force, killing Liu Ying.
In summer 25, Liu Xiu finally made a formal break with the emperor, | 9,038 |
343256 | Gengshi Emperor | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Gengshi%20Emperor | Gengshi Emperor
after his generals and the emperor's fought over control of the Henei and Luoyang regions. He declared himself emperor (establishing the regime known later as the Eastern Han Dynasty), and soon his general Deng Yu also captured the modern Shanxi, further reducing the Gengshi Emperor's strength. Feeling trapped, a number of the emperor's generals conspired to kidnap him and flee back to their home region of Nanyang (in modern Henan). They were discovered, and many were executed, but one, Zhang Ang (張卬) occupied most of Chang'an, forcing the Gengshi Emperor to flee, just as Chimei forces were approaching.
Chimei, at this time, decided that they also needed their own emperor. They found three | 9,039 |
343256 | Gengshi Emperor | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Gengshi%20Emperor | Gengshi Emperor
descendants of Liu Zhang, Prince of Chengyang, who was very popular with the people of his principality (from which many Chimei soldiers came) and who was worshiped as a god after his death. After drawing lots, the youngest, the 15-year-old Liu Penzi was chosen and declared emperor. However, the young "emperor" was not given any power, but was effectively a puppet who still served as a cattle keeper within the army.
Generals still loyal to the Gengshi Emperor were eventually able to evict Zhang from the capital, but by that time the situation was desperate. Zhang and his allies surrendered to Chimei and, working with them, attacked Chang'an, which fell quickly, and the emperor fled, only followed | 9,040 |
343256 | Gengshi Emperor | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Gengshi%20Emperor | Gengshi Emperor
by several loyal followers, including Liu Zhi (劉祉) the Prince of Dingtao and Liu Gong (劉恭) the Marquess of Shi—who, incidentally, was Liu Penzi's older brother. They were eventually taken in by one of the Gengshi Emperor's generals, Yan Ben (嚴本), who, however, was in actuality holding them as bargaining chips. When Liu Xiu heard about the fall of Chang'an, he created the emperor Prince of Huaiyang, in absentia, and decreed that anyone who harmed the Prince of Huaiyang would be severely punished and that anyone who protected and delivered him to Eastern Han would be rewarded. (This appears to be basically political propaganda on Liu Xiu's part.) When news of Chang'an's fall arrived in Luoyang, | 9,041 |
343256 | Gengshi Emperor | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Gengshi%20Emperor | Gengshi Emperor
Luoyang surrendered to Liu Xiu, who entered the city and made it his capital.
In winter 25, after being held by Yan a few months, the Gengshi Emperor saw his situation as futile and requested Liu Gong to negotiate surrender terms. A promise was made that he would be made the Prince of Changsha. Emperor Penzi's general Xie Lu (謝祿) arrived at Yan's camp and escorted the Gengshi Emperor back to Chang'an to offer his seal (seized from Wang Mang) to Emperor Penzi. Chimei generals, notwithstanding the earlier promise, wanted to execute him. It was only Liu Gong's final intercession (in which he threatened to commit suicide at the execution site) that allowed the Gengshi Emperor to be spared at this | 9,042 |
343256 | Gengshi Emperor | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Gengshi%20Emperor | Gengshi Emperor
point, and he was created the Prince of Changsha. He, however, was forced to stay in Xie's headquarters, and Liu Gong protected him on a number of occasions.
Chimei generals were even less able to govern the capital than the emperor, due to the fact that they were unable to control their soldiers from pillaging from the people. The people began to yearn the return of the Gengshi Emperor. Zhang Ang and his allies, afraid of what might happen if the emperor returned to power, persuaded Xie to strangle him. Liu Gong hid his body in a secure location, and years later, after Eastern Han had securely captured the Chang'an region, Liu Xiu had the Gengshi Emperor's body buried with princely honors | 9,043 |
343256 | Gengshi Emperor | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Gengshi%20Emperor | Gengshi Emperor
location, and years later, after Eastern Han had securely captured the Chang'an region, Liu Xiu had the Gengshi Emperor's body buried with princely honors at Baling (霸陵), near the tomb of Emperor Wen.
# Family.
- Father
- Liu Zizhang (劉子張), grandson of Liu Xiongqu (劉熊渠) the Marquess of Chonglin, the grandson of Liu Fa (劉發), Prince Ding of Changsha, the son of Emperor Jing of Han
- Mother
- Lady He
- Major Concubines
- Consort Zhao, the daughter of Zhao Meng (趙萌)
- Consort Han
- Consort Fan
- Children
- Liu Qiu (劉求), later created Marquess of Xiangyi by Liu Xiu
- Liu Xin (劉歆), later created Marquess of Gushu by Liu Xiu
- Liu Li (劉鯉), later created Marquess of Shouguang by Liu Xiu | 9,044 |
343274 | Jefferson Highway | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Jefferson%20Highway | Jefferson Highway
Jefferson Highway
The Jefferson Highway was an automobile highway stretching through the central United States from New Orleans, Louisiana, to Winnipeg, Manitoba, Canada. The Jefferson Highway was replaced with the new numbered US Highway system in the late 1920s. Portions of the highway are still named Jefferson Highway, for example: the portions that run through Jefferson Parish, Louisiana; East Baton Rouge Parish, Louisiana; Lee's Summit, Missouri; Osseo, Minnesota; and Wadena, Minnesota.
It was built in the 1910s as part of the National Auto Trail system.
Named for President Thomas Jefferson, inspired by the east–west Lincoln Highway, it was nicknamed the "Palm to Pine Highway", for the | 9,045 |
343274 | Jefferson Highway | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Jefferson%20Highway | Jefferson Highway
varying types of trees found at either end.
# History.
The southern terminus of the Jefferson Highway was in New Orleans, Louisiana at the intersection of St. Charles Avenue and Common Street. It is marked by a six-foot tall Georgia granite obelisk donated by the New Orleans chapter of the Daughters of the American Revolution. The obelisk was installed on April 15, 1918, and it was formally dedicated the following January.
The original route (finalized in December 1916) on today's roads is as follows:
- Louisiana
- New Orleans to Kenner:
- From the southern terminus at Common Street, the Jefferson Highway followed St. Charles Avenue, Canal Street, City Park Avenue, and Metairie Road into | 9,046 |
343274 | Jefferson Highway | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Jefferson%20Highway | Jefferson Highway
Jefferson Parish.
- Leaving New Orleans, the Jefferson Highway followed Metairie Road, Shrewsbury Road, and Jefferson Highway to Kenner. This route is covered by LA 611-9, LA 3261, LA 611-3, US 90, and LA 48. (The section of road that is called "Jefferson Highway" between Shrewsbury Road and the New Orleans city limits at South Claiborne Avenue was not part of the original route, as it did not exist until 1928.)
- Kenner to Geismar:
- From Kenner to Geismar, the Jefferson Highway followed alongside the east bank levee of the Mississippi River which, due to various sections of levee being relocated during the 1920s and 1930s, is often a significant distance removed from the modern River Road. | 9,047 |
343274 | Jefferson Highway | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Jefferson%20Highway | Jefferson Highway
Also, a two-mile section between Norco and Montz was eliminated in 1935 when the parallel U.S. 61 Bonnet Carré Spillway Bridge carrying Airline Highway across the Bonnet Carré Spillway was opened. However, the route is approximated by LA 48 to Norco, River Road to Montz, LA 628 to LaPlace, LA 44 to Burnside, LA 942 to Darrow, and LA 75 to Geismar. (Portions of the River Road at Reserve and Gramercy are still known as Jefferson Highway.)
- Geismar to Baton Rouge:
- From Geismar to Baton Rouge, the route followed LA 73 and is still known as (Old) Jefferson Highway.
- The original routing through downtown Baton Rouge followed Claycut Road, LA 427 (South Acadian Thruway), LA 73 (Government Street), | 9,048 |
343274 | Jefferson Highway | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Jefferson%20Highway | Jefferson Highway
19th Street, and North Street to the former Mississippi River ferry landing to Port Allen.
- Port Allen to Alexandria:
- LA 987 (Court Street), North Jefferson Avenue, and LA 986 (Rosedale Road) through Port Allen.
- LA 76 to Rosedale.
- LA 77 to Ravenswood.
- LA 10 to Red Cross.
- The Jefferson Highway crossed the Atchafalaya River by ferry to Melville and continued on LA 10 to Lebeau.
- US 71 to Bunkie.
- LA 1177 and US 71 to Cheneyville. (There is a short section of old Jefferson Highway off US 71 in Cheneyville.)
- US 71 and LA 456 to Lamourie. (Part of LA 456 at Lecompte is known as Jefferson Highway.)
- LA 470, US 71-167 (briefly), and Old Baton Rouge Highway to Alexandria.
- | 9,049 |
343274 | Jefferson Highway | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Jefferson%20Highway | Jefferson Highway
Alexandria to Pineville:
- US 71 (Jefferson Hwy. or MacArthur Dr.), Lee Street, Main Street, and Murray Street through Alexandria.
- The Jefferson Highway crossed the Red River on a now-demolished bridge at the foot of Murray Street into Pineville.
- US 165-BUS (Main Street and Military Highway), LA 180 (Jefferson Highway), and US 71 (Shreveport Highway) through Pineville.
- Pineville to Nachitoches:
- US 71 and LA 3225 (Shreveport Highway). (Stainaker Street is a small, severed portion of the original route near the junction of US 71 and LA 3225.)
- US 71, LA 492, and LA 8 to Colfax. (Numerous curves were straightened along this route sometime after 1956 and exist as small pieces of road | 9,050 |
343274 | Jefferson Highway | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Jefferson%20Highway | Jefferson Highway
such as: Old US 71, Walker Gravel Pit Road, and Parker Street west of LA 3225; Old US 71 and Rocky Lane at Rock Hill; and Old Jefferson Highway just south of Colfax.)
- LA 158 and US 71 to just south of Montgomery, following Old Jefferson Highway into town and leaving via North Jefferson Highway.
- US 71 and LA 1225 to Clarence.
- LA 6 to Natchitoches.
- Natchitoches to Shreveport:
- LA 6 (via LA 3278) to Robeline. (Several curves have been straightened between I-49 and Robeline, two of which exist as Old LA 6 and Johnny Floyd Road.)
- LA 120 to Belmont.
- LA 175 (via Old Jefferson Road north of Pelican) to Mansfield, following Old Jefferson Highway into town.
- US 171 to Shreveport, | 9,051 |
343274 | Jefferson Highway | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Jefferson%20Highway | Jefferson Highway
via Old Jefferson Road through Stonewall and Old Mansfield Road through Keithville.
- Shreveport to Texas state line:
- US 171, Mansfield Road, and US 79-US 80 (Greenwood Road) to I-20 at Flournoy.
- Westbrook Road, LA 511 (West 70th Street), US 79-80 (Greenwood Road) to Greenwood.
- US 80 (Texas Avenue) across the state line toward Waskom, Texas.
When Louisiana numbered its state highways in 1921, the entire length of the Jefferson Highway through Louisiana was designated as State Route 1. This route was in effect until the 1955 Louisiana Highway renumbering. When the U.S. Highway System was designated in 1926, the Jefferson Highway was split into four U.S. Highways in Louisiana: US 61 | 9,052 |
343274 | Jefferson Highway | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Jefferson%20Highway | Jefferson Highway
from New Orleans to Baton Rouge (before it was re-routed onto the Airline Highway), US 71 from Baton Rouge to Clarence, US 171 from Mansfield to Shreveport, and US 80 from Shreveport west into Texas. The section between Natchitoches and Mansfield was not included in the U.S. Highway System.
# Cities along the route.
- Alexandria, Louisiana
- Shreveport, Louisiana
- Marshall, Texas
- Caddo, Oklahoma
- Checotah, Oklahoma
- Muskogee, Oklahoma
- Pryor Creek, Oklahoma
- Vinita, Oklahoma
- Joplin, Missouri
- Baxter Springs, Kansas
- Pittsburg, Kansas
- Frontenac, Kansas
- Fort Scott, Kansas
- Paola, Kansas
- Overland Park, Kansas
- Harrisonville, Missouri
- Lee's Summit, Missouri
- | 9,053 |
343274 | Jefferson Highway | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Jefferson%20Highway | Jefferson Highway
Kansas City, Missouri
- Cameron, Missouri
- Saint Joseph, Missouri
- Leon, Iowa
- Osceola, Iowa
- Indianola, Iowa
- Des Moines, Iowa
- Ames, Iowa
- Mason City, Iowa
- Albert Lea, Minnesota
- Minneapolis, Minnesota
- St. Cloud, Minnesota
- Bemidji, Minnesota
# See also.
- United States Highway system
- Jefferson Lines, an intercity bus company, operated service from Texas to Winnipeg, and takes its name from the old Jefferson Highway. As of October 7, 2010, the Winnipeg-Grand Forks section was terminated.
# External links.
- Jefferson Highway Map
- Jefferson Highway Association
- Jefferson Lines home page
- Palm to Pine
- Welcome to the Jefferson Highway (Section of Iowa | 9,054 |
343274 | Jefferson Highway | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Jefferson%20Highway | Jefferson Highway
y bus company, operated service from Texas to Winnipeg, and takes its name from the old Jefferson Highway. As of October 7, 2010, the Winnipeg-Grand Forks section was terminated.
# External links.
- Jefferson Highway Map
- Jefferson Highway Association
- Jefferson Lines home page
- Palm to Pine
- Welcome to the Jefferson Highway (Section of Iowa Lincoln Highway Association newsletter Summer/Fall 2000)
- More on the Jefferson Highway (Powers Museum, Carthage, Missouri)
- Jefferson Highway legal description within Minnesota, filed with the Minnesota Department of Highways on August 9, 1917
- Jefferson Highway, newspaper article on the route, hosted by Iowa Department of Transportation | 9,055 |
343278 | Korea Bay | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Korea%20Bay | Korea Bay
Korea Bay
The Korea Bay, sometimes the West Korea Bay (; or ), is a northern extension of the Yellow Sea, between Liaoning Province of China and North Pyongan Province of North Korea.
It is separated from the Bohai by the Liaodong Peninsula, with Dalian at its southernmost point.
The Yalu (Amnok) River, which marks the border between China and North Korea, empties into the Korea Bay between Dandong (China) and Sinŭiju (North Korea).
# See also.
- East Korea Bay
- Geography of China
- Geography of North Korea
- Korean Peninsula | 9,056 |
343271 | Hartley oscillator | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Hartley%20oscillator | Hartley oscillator
Hartley oscillator
The Hartley oscillator is an electronic oscillator circuit in which the oscillation frequency is determined by a tuned circuit consisting of capacitors and inductors, that is, an LC oscillator. The circuit was invented in 1915 by American engineer Ralph Hartley. The distinguishing feature of the Hartley oscillator is that the tuned circuit consists of a single capacitor in parallel with two inductors in series (or a single tapped inductor), and the feedback signal needed for oscillation is taken from the center connection of the two inductors.
# History.
The Hartley oscillator was invented by Hartley while he was working for the Research Laboratory of the Western Electric | 9,057 |
343271 | Hartley oscillator | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Hartley%20oscillator | Hartley oscillator
Company. Hartley invented and patented the design in 1915 while overseeing Bell System's transatlantic radiotelephone tests; it was awarded patent number 1,356,763 on October 26, 1920. Note that the basic schematic shown below labeled "Common-drain Hartley circuit" is essentially the same as in the patent drawing, except that the tube is replaced by a J-FET, and that the battery for a negative grid bias is not needed.
In 1946 Hartley was awarded the IRE medal of honor "For his early work on oscillating circuits employing triode tubes and likewise for his early recognition and clear exposition of the fundamental relationship between the total amount of information which may be transmitted over | 9,058 |
343271 | Hartley oscillator | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Hartley%20oscillator | Hartley oscillator
a transmission system of limited band-width and the time required." (The second half of the citation refers to Hartley's work in information theory which largely paralleled Harry Nyquist.)
# Operation.
The Hartley oscillator is distinguished by a tank circuit consisting of two series-connected coils (or, often, a tapped coil) in parallel with a capacitor, with an amplifier between the relatively high impedance across the entire LC tank and the relatively low voltage/high current point between the coils. The original 1915 version used a triode as the amplifying device in common plate (cathode follower) configuration, with three batteries, and separate adjustable coils. The simplified circuit | 9,059 |
343271 | Hartley oscillator | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Hartley%20oscillator | Hartley oscillator
shown to the right uses a JFET (in common-drain configuration), an LC tank circuit (here the single winding is tapped) and a single battery. The circuit illustrates the Hartley oscillator operation:
- the output from the JFET's "source" ("emitter", if a BJT had been used; "cathode" for a triode) has the same phase as the signal at its gate (or base) and roughly the same voltage as its input (which is the voltage across the entire tank circuit), but the "current is amplified", i.e. it is acting as a current buffer or voltage-controlled voltage-source.
- this low impedance output is then fed into the coil tapping, effectively into an autotransformer that will step up the voltage, requiring a | 9,060 |
343271 | Hartley oscillator | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Hartley%20oscillator | Hartley oscillator
relatively high current (compared with that available at the top of the coil).
- with the capacitor-coil resonance, all frequencies other than the tuned frequency will tend to be absorbed (the tank will appear as nearly 0Ω near DC due to the inductor's low reactance at low frequencies, and low again at very high frequencies due to the capacitor); they will also shift the phase of the feedback from the 0° needed for oscillation at all but the tuned frequency.
Variations on the simple circuit often include ways to automatically reduce the amplifier gain to maintain a constant output voltage at a level below overload; the simple circuit above will limit the output voltage due to the gate conducting | 9,061 |
343271 | Hartley oscillator | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Hartley%20oscillator | Hartley oscillator
on positive peaks, effectively damping oscillations but not before significant distortion (spurious harmonics) may result. Changing the tapped coil to two separate coils, as in the original patent schematic, still results in a working oscillator but now that the two coils are not magnetically coupled the inductance, and so frequency, calculation has to be modified (see below), and the explanation of the voltage increase mechanism is more complicated than the autotransformer scenario.
A quite different implementation using a tapped coil in an LC tank feedback arrangement is to employ a common-grid (or common-gate or common-base) amplifier stage, which is still non-inverting but provides "voltage | 9,062 |
343271 | Hartley oscillator | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Hartley%20oscillator | Hartley oscillator
gain" instead of "current gain"; the coil tapping is still connected to the cathode (or source or emitter), but this is now the (low impedance) input to the amplifier; the split tank circuit is now dropping the impedance from the relatively high output impedance of the plate (or drain or collector).
The Hartley oscillator is the dual of the Colpitts oscillator which uses a voltage divider made of two capacitors rather than two inductors. Although there is no requirement for there to be mutual coupling between the two coil segments, the circuit is usually implemented using a tapped coil, with the feedback taken from the tap, as shown here. The optimal tapping point (or ratio of coil inductances) | 9,063 |
343271 | Hartley oscillator | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Hartley%20oscillator | Hartley oscillator
depends on the amplifying device used, which may be a bipolar junction transistor, FET, triode, or amplifier of almost any type (non-inverting in this case, although variations of the circuit with an earthed centre-point and feedback from an inverting amplifier or the collector/drain of a transistor are also common), but a junction FET (shown) or triode is often employed as a good degree of amplitude stability (and thus distortion reduction) can be achieved with a simple grid leak resistor-capacitor combination in series with the gate or grid (see the Scott circuit below) thanks to diode conduction on signal peaks building up enough negative bias to limit amplification.
The frequency of oscillation | 9,064 |
343271 | Hartley oscillator | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Hartley%20oscillator | Hartley oscillator
is approximately the resonant frequency of the tank circuit. If the capacitance of the tank capacitor is "C" and the total inductance of the tapped coil is "L" then
If two "uncoupled" coils of inductance "L" and "L" are used then
However, if the two coils are magnetically coupled the total inductance will be greater because of mutual inductance "k"
The actual oscillation frequency will be slightly lower than given above, because of parasitic capacitance in the coil and loading by the transistor.
Advantages of the Hartley oscillator include:
- The frequency may be adjusted using a single variable capacitor, one side of which can be earthed
- The output amplitude remains constant over the | 9,065 |
343271 | Hartley oscillator | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Hartley%20oscillator | Hartley oscillator
e earthed
- The output amplitude remains constant over the frequency range
- Either a tapped coil or two fixed inductors are needed, and very few other components
- Easy to create an accurate fixed-frequency crystal oscillator variation by replacing the capacitor with a (parallel-resonant) quartz crystal or replacing the top half of the tank circuit with a crystal and grid-leak resistor (as in the Tri-tet oscillator).
Disadvantages include:
- Harmonic-rich output if taken from the amplifier and not directly from the LC circuit (unless amplitude-stabilisation circuitry is employed).
# See also.
- Opto-electronic oscillator
# External links.
- Hartley oscillator, Integrated Publishing | 9,066 |
343276 | Regenerative circuit | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Regenerative%20circuit | Regenerative circuit
Regenerative circuit
A regenerative circuit is an amplifier circuit that employs positive feedback (also known as regeneration or reaction). Some of the output of the amplifying device is applied back to its input so as to add to the input signal, increasing the amplification. One example is the Schmitt trigger (which is also known as a regenerative comparator), but the most common use of the term is in RF amplifiers, and especially regenerative receivers, to greatly increase the gain of a single amplifier stage.
The regenerative receiver was invented in 1912 and patented in 1914 by American electrical engineer Edwin Armstrong when he was an undergraduate at Columbia University. It was widely | 9,067 |
343276 | Regenerative circuit | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Regenerative%20circuit | Regenerative circuit
used between 1915 and World War II. Advantages of regenerative receivers include increased sensitivity with modest hardware requirements, and increased selectivity because the "Q" of the tuned circuit will be increased when the amplifying vacuum tube or transistor has its feedback loop around the tuned circuit (via a "tickler" winding or a tapping on the coil) because it introduces some negative resistance.
Due partly to its tendency to radiate interference when oscillating, by the 1930s the regenerative receiver was largely superseded by other TRF receiver designs (for example "reflex" receivers) and especially by another Armstrong invention - superheterodyne receivers and is largely considered | 9,068 |
343276 | Regenerative circuit | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Regenerative%20circuit | Regenerative circuit
obsolete. Regeneration (now called positive feedback) is still widely used in other areas of electronics, such as in oscillators, active filters, and bootstrapped amplifiers.
A receiver circuit that used larger amounts of regeneration in a more complicated way to achieve even higher amplification, the superregenerative receiver, was also invented by Armstrong in 1922. It was never widely used in general commercial receivers, but due to its small parts count it was used in specialized applications. One widespread use during WWII was IFF transceivers, where single tuned circuit completed the entire electronics system. It is still used in a few specialized low data rate applications, such as garage | 9,069 |
343276 | Regenerative circuit | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Regenerative%20circuit | Regenerative circuit
door openers, wireless networking devices, walkie-talkies and toys.
# Regenerative receiver.
The gain of any amplifying device, such as a vacuum tube, transistor, or op amp, can be increased by feeding some of the energy from its output back into its input in phase with the original input signal. This is called positive feedback or "regeneration". Because of the large amplification possible with regeneration, regenerative receivers often use only a single amplifying element (tube or transistor). In a regenerative receiver the output of the tube or transistor is connected back to its own input through a tuned circuit (LC circuit). The tuned circuit allows positive feedback only at its resonant | 9,070 |
343276 | Regenerative circuit | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Regenerative%20circuit | Regenerative circuit
frequency. In regenerative receivers using only one active device, the same tuned circuit is coupled to the antenna and also serves to select the radio frequency to be received, usually by means of variable capacitance. In the regenerative circuit discussed here, the active device also functions as a detector; this circuit is also known as a "regenerative detector". A regeneration control is usually provided for adjusting the amount of feedback (the loop gain). It is desirable for the circuit design to provide regeneration control that can gradually increase feedback to the point of oscillation and that provides control of the oscillation from small to larger amplitude and back to no oscillation | 9,071 |
343276 | Regenerative circuit | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Regenerative%20circuit | Regenerative circuit
without jumps of amplitude or hysteresis in control.
Two important attributes of a radio receiver are "sensitivity" and "selectivity". The regenerative detector provides sensitivity and selectivity due to voltage amplification and the characteristics of a resonant circuit consisting of inductance and capacitance. The regenerative voltage amplification formula_1 is formula_2 where formula_3 is the non-regenerative amplification and formula_4 is the portion of the output signal fed back to the L2 C2 circuit. As formula_5 becomes smaller the amplification increases. The formula_6 of the tuned circuit (L2 C2) without regeneration is formula_7 where formula_8 is the reactance of the coil and formula_9 | 9,072 |
343276 | Regenerative circuit | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Regenerative%20circuit | Regenerative circuit
represents the total dissipative loss of the tuned circuit. The positive feedback compensates the energy loss caused by formula_9, so it may be viewed as introducing a negative resistance formula_11 to the tuned circuit. The formula_6 of the tuned circuit with regeneration is formula_13. The regeneration increases the formula_6. Oscillation begins when formula_15.
Regeneration can increase the detection gain of a detector by a factor of 1,700 or more. This is quite an improvement, especially for the low-gain vacuum tubes of the 1920s and early 1930s. The type 36 screen-grid tube (obsolete since the mid-1930s) had a non-regenerative detection gain (audio frequency plate voltage divided by radio | 9,073 |
343276 | Regenerative circuit | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Regenerative%20circuit | Regenerative circuit
frequency input voltage) of only 9.2 at 7.2 MHz, but in a regenerative detector, had detection gain as high as 7,900 at critical regeneration (non-oscillating) and as high as 15,800 with regeneration just above critical. The "... non-oscillating regenerative amplification is limited by the stability of the circuit elements, tube [or device] characteristics and [stability of] supply voltages which determine the maximum value of regeneration obtainable without self-oscillation". Intrinsically, there is little or no difference in the gain and stability available from vacuum tubes, JFETs, MOSFETs or bipolar junction transistors (BJTs).
A major improvement in stability and a small improvement in | 9,074 |
343276 | Regenerative circuit | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Regenerative%20circuit | Regenerative circuit
available gain for reception of CW radiotelegraphy is provided by the use of a separate oscillator, known as a "heterodyne oscillator" or "beat oscillator". Providing the oscillation separately from the detector allows the regenerative detector to be set for maximum gain and selectivity - which is always in the non-oscillating condition. Interaction between the detector and the beat oscillator can be minimized by operating the beat oscillator at half of the receiver operating frequency, using the second harmonic of the beat oscillator in the detector.
## AM reception.
For AM reception, the gain of the loop is adjusted so it is just below the level required for oscillation (a loop gain of just | 9,075 |
343276 | Regenerative circuit | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Regenerative%20circuit | Regenerative circuit
less than one). The result of this is to greatly increase the gain of the amplifier at the bandpass frequency (resonant frequency), while not increasing it at other frequencies. So the incoming radio signal is amplified by a large factor, 10 - 10, increasing the receiver's sensitivity to weak signals. The high gain also has the effect of reducing the circuit's bandwidth (increasing the Q) by an equal factor, increasing the selectivity of the receiver.
## CW reception (autodyne mode).
For the reception of CW radiotelegraphy (Morse code), the feedback is increased just to the point of oscillation. The tuned circuit is adjusted to provide typically 400 to 1000 Hertz difference between the receiver | 9,076 |
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oscillation frequency and the desired transmitting station's signal frequency. The two frequencies "beat" in the nonlinear amplifier, generating heterodyne or "beat" frequencies. The difference frequency, typically 400 to 1000 Hertz, is in the audio range; so it is heard as a tone in the receiver's speaker whenever the station's signal is present.
Demodulation of a signal in this manner, by use of a single amplifying device as oscillator and mixer simultaneously, is known as "autodyne" reception. The term "autodyne" predates multigrid tubes and is not applied to use of tubes specifically designed for frequency conversion.
## SSB reception.
For the reception of single-sideband (SSB) signals, | 9,077 |
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the circuit is also adjusted to oscillate as in CW reception. The tuning is adjusted until the demodulated voice is intelligible.
## Advantages and disadvantages.
Regenerative receivers require fewer components than other types of receiver circuit, such as the TRF and superheterodyne. The circuit's advantage was that it got much more amplification (gain) out of the expensive vacuum tubes, thus reducing the number of tubes required and therefore the cost of a receiver. Early vacuum tubes had low gain and tended to oscillate at radio frequencies (RF). TRF receivers often required 5 or 6 tubes; each stage requiring tuning and neutralization, making the receiver cumbersome, power hungry, and hard | 9,078 |
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to adjust. A regenerative receiver, by contrast, could often provide adequate reception with the use of only one tube. In the 1930s the regenerative receiver was replaced by the superheterodyne circuit in commercial receivers due to the superheterodyne's superior performance and the falling cost of tubes. Since the advent of the transistor in 1946, the low cost of active devices has removed most of the advantage of the circuit. However, in recent years the regenerative circuit has seen a modest comeback in receivers for low cost digital radio applications such as garage door openers, keyless locks, RFID readers and some cell phone receivers.
A disadvantage of this receiver, especially in designs | 9,079 |
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that couple the detector tuned circuit to the antenna, is that the regeneration (feedback) level must be adjusted when the receiver is tuned to a different frequency. The antenna impedance varies with frequency, changing the loading of the input tuned circuit by the antenna, requiring the regeneration to be adjusted. In addition, the Q of the detector tuned circuit components vary with frequency, requiring adjustment of the regeneration control.
A disadvantage of the single active device regenerative detector in autodyne operation is that the local oscillation causes the operating point to move significantly away from the ideal operating point, resulting in the detection gain being reduced..
Another | 9,080 |
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drawback is that when the circuit is adjusted to oscillate it can radiate a signal from its antenna, so it can cause interference to other nearby receivers. Adding an RF amplifier stage between the antenna and the regenerative detector can reduce unwanted radiation, but would add expense and complexity.
Other shortcomings of regenerative receivers are the sensitive and unstable tuning. These problems have the same cause: a regenerative receiver’s gain is greatest when it operates on the verge of oscillation, and in that condition, the circuit behaves chaotically. Simple regenerative receivers electrically couple the antenna to the detector tuned circuit, resulting in the electrical characteristics | 9,081 |
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of the antenna influencing the resonant frequency of the detector tuned circuit. Any movement of the antenna or large objects near the antenna can change the tuning of the detector.
## History.
The inventor of FM radio, Edwin Armstrong, invented and patented the regenerative circuit while he was a junior in college, in 1914. He patented the superregenerative circuit in 1922, and the superheterodyne receiver in 1918.
Lee De Forest filed a patent in 1916 that became the cause of a contentious lawsuit with the prolific inventor Armstrong, whose patent for the regenerative circuit had been issued in 1914. The lawsuit lasted twelve years, winding its way through the appeals process and ending | 9,082 |
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up at the Supreme Court. Armstrong won the first case, lost the second, stalemated at the third, and then lost the final round at the Supreme Court.
At the time the regenerative receiver was introduced, vacuum tubes were expensive and consumed lots of power, with the added expense and encumbrance of heavy batteries. So this design, getting most gain out of one tube, filled the needs of the growing radio community and immediately thrived. Although the superheterodyne receiver is the most common receiver in use today, the regenerative radio made the most out of very few parts.
In World War II the regenerative circuit was used in some military equipment. An example is the German field radio "Torn.E.b". | 9,083 |
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Regenerative receivers needed far fewer tubes and less power consumption for nearly equivalent performance.
A related circuit, the "superregenerative detector", found several highly important military uses in World War II in Friend or Foe identification equipment and in the top-secret proximity fuze. An example here is the miniature RK61 thyratron marketed in 1938, which was designed specifically to operate like a vacuum triode below its ignition voltage, allowing it to amplify analog signals as a self-quenching superregenerative detector in radio control receivers, and was the major technical development which led to the wartime development of radio-controlled weapons and the parallel development | 9,084 |
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of radio controlled modelling as a hobby.
In the 1930s, the superheterodyne design began to gradually supplant the regenerative receiver, as tubes became far less expensive. In Germany the design was still used in the millions of mass-produced German "peoples receivers" (Volksempfänger) and "German small receivers" (DKE, Deutscher Kleinempfänger). Even after WWII, the regenerative design was still present in early after-war German minimal designs along the lines of the "peoples receivers" and "small receivers", dictated by lack of materials. Frequently German military tubes like the "RV12P2000" were employed in such designs. There were even superheterodyne designs, which used the regenerative | 9,085 |
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receiver as a combined IF and demodulator with fixed regeneration. The superregenerative design was also present in early FM broadcast receivers around 1950. Later it was almost completely phased out of mass production, remaining only in hobby kits, and some special applications, like gate openers.
# Superregenerative receiver.
The superregenerative receiver uses a second lower-frequency oscillation (within the same stage or by using a second oscillator stage) to provide single-device circuit gains of around one million. This second oscillation periodically interrupts or "quenches" the main RF oscillation. Ultrasonic quench rates between 30 and 100 kHz are typical. After each quenching, RF | 9,086 |
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oscillation grows exponentially, starting from the tiny energy picked up by the antenna plus circuit noise. The amplitude reached at the end of the quench cycle (linear mode) or the time taken to reach limiting amplitude (log mode) depends on the strength of the received signal from which exponential growth started. A low-pass filter in the audio amplifier filters the quench and RF frequencies from the output, leaving the AM modulation. This provides a crude but very effective automatic gain control (AGC).
## Advantages and applications.
Superregenerative detectors work well for wide-band signals such as FM, where they perform "slope detection". Regenerative detectors work well for narrow-band | 9,087 |
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signals, especially for CW and SSB which need a heterodyne oscillator or BFO. A superregenerative detector does not have a usable heterodyne oscillator – even though the superregen always self-oscillates, so CW (Morse code)and SSB (single side band) signals can't be received properly.
Superregeneration is most valuable above 27 MHz, and for signals where broad tuning is desirable. The superregen uses many fewer components for nearly the same sensitivity as more complex designs. It is easily possible to build superregen receivers which operate at microwatt power levels, in the 30 to 6,000 MHz range. It removes the need for the operator to manually adjust regeneration level to just below the | 9,088 |
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point of oscillation - the circuit automatically is taken out of oscillation periodically, but with the disadvantage that small amounts of interference may be a problem for others. These are ideal for remote-sensing applications or where long battery life is important. For many years, superregenerative circuits have been used for commercial products such as garage-door openers, radar detectors, microwatt RF data links, and very low cost walkie-talkies.
Because the superregenerative detectors tend to receive the strongest signal and ignore other signals in the nearby spectrum, the superregen works best with bands that are relatively free of interfering signals. Due to Nyquist's theorem, its | 9,089 |
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quenching frequency must be at least twice the signal bandwidth. But quenching with overtones acts further as a heterodyne receiver mixing additional unneeded signals from those bands into the working frequency. Thus the overall bandwidth of superregenerator cannot be less than 4 times that of the quench frequency, assuming the quenching oscillator produces an ideal sine wave.
# Patents.
- 1940.
# See also.
- Tuned electrical circuit
- Q multiplier
# References.
- . History of radio in 1925. Has May 5, 1924, appellate decision by Josiah Alexander Van Orsdel in "De Forest v Armstrong", pp 46–55. Appellate court credited De Forest with the regenerative circuit: "The decisions of the Commissioner | 9,090 |
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e regenerative circuit: "The decisions of the Commissioner are reversed and priority awarded to De Forest." p 55.
- Ulrich L. Rohde, Ajay Poddar www.researchgate.net/publication/4317999_A_Unifying_Theory_and_Characterization_of_Super-Regenerative_Receiver_(SRR)
# External links.
- Some Recent Developments in the Audion Receiver by EH Armstrong, Proceedings of the IRE (Institute of Radio Engineers), volume 3, 1915, pp. 215–247.
- a one transistor regenerative receiver
- "Armstrong v. De Forest Radio Telephone & Telegraph Co." (2nd Cir. 1926) 10 F.2d 727, February 8, 1926; cert denied 270 U.S. 663, 46 S.Ct. 471. opinion on leagle.com
- "Armstrong v. De Forest", 13 F.2d 438 (2d Cir. 1926) | 9,091 |
343234 | Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Polish–Lithuanian%20Commonwealth | Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth
Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth
The Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth – formally, the Crown of the Kingdom of Poland and the Grand Duchy of Lithuania and, after 1791, the Commonwealth of Poland – was a dual state, a bi-confederation of Poland and Lithuania ruled by a common monarch, who was both King of Poland and Grand Duke of Lithuania. It was one of the largest and most populous countries of 16th- to 17th-century Europe. At its largest territorial extent, in the early 17th century, the Commonwealth covered almost and sustained a multi-ethnic population of 11 million.
The Commonwealth was established by the Union of Lublin in July 1569, but the Crown of the Kingdom of Poland and the Grand Duchy | 9,092 |
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of Lithuania had been in a "de facto" personal union since 1386 with the marriage of the Polish queen Hedwig and Lithuania's Grand Duke Jogaila, who was crowned King "jure uxoris" Władysław II Jagiełło of Poland. The First Partition of Poland in 1772 and the Second Partition of Poland in 1793 greatly reduced the state's size and the Commonwealth collapsed as an independent state following the Third Partition of Poland in 1795.
The Union possessed many features unique among contemporary states. Its political system was characterized by strict checks upon monarchical power. These checks were enacted by a legislature ("sejm") controlled by the nobility ("szlachta"). This idiosyncratic system was | 9,093 |
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a precursor to modern concepts of democracy, constitutional monarchy, and federation. Although the two component states of the Commonwealth were formally equal, Poland was the dominant partner in the union.
The Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth was marked by high levels of ethnic diversity and by relative religious tolerance, guaranteed by the Warsaw Confederation Act 1573; however, the degree of religious freedom varied over time. The Constitution of 1791 acknowledged Catholicism as the "dominant religion", unlike the Warsaw Confederation, but freedom of religion was still granted with it.
After several decades of prosperity, it entered a period of protracted political, military and economic | 9,094 |
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decline. Its growing weakness led to its partitioning among its neighbors (Austria, Prussia and the Russian Empire) during the late 18th century. Shortly before its demise, the Commonwealth adopted a massive reform effort and enacted the May 3 Constitutionthe first codified constitution in modern European history and the second in modern world history (after the United States Constitution).
# Name.
The official name of the state was "The Kingdom of Poland and the Grand Duchy of Lithuania" (, , ) and the Latin term was usually used in international treaties and diplomacy. In the 17th century and later it was also known as "the Most Serene Commonwealth of Poland" (, ), the "Commonwealth of the | 9,095 |
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Polish Kingdom", or the "Commonwealth of Poland". Its inhabitants referred to it in everyday speech as the "Rzeczpospolita" (Ruthenian: Рѣч Посполита "Rech Pospolita", ). Western Europeans often simply called it "Poland" and in most past and modern sources it is referred to as the "Kingdom of Poland", or just "Poland". The terms: "the Commonwealth of Poland" and "the Commonwealth of Two Nations" (, ) were used in the Reciprocal Guarantee of Two Nations. The English term 'Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth' and German 'Polen-Litauen' are seen as renderings of "the Commonwealth of Two Nations" variant. Other names include "the Republic of Nobles" () and "the First Commonwealth" (), the latter relatively | 9,096 |
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common in Polish historiography.
# History.
Poland and Lithuania underwent an alternating series of wars and alliances during the 14th century and early 15th century. Several agreements between the two (the Union of Kraków and Vilna, the Union of Krewo, the Union of Wilno and Radom, the Union of Grodno, and the Union of Horodło) were struck before the permanent 1569 Union of Lublin. This agreement was one of the signal achievements of Sigismund II Augustus, last monarch of the Jagiellon dynasty. Sigismund believed he could preserve his dynasty by adopting elective monarchy. His death in 1572 was followed by a three-year interregnum during which adjustments were made to the constitutional system; | 9,097 |
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these adjustments significantly increased the power of the Polish nobility and established a truly elective monarchy.
The Commonwealth reached its Golden Age in the early 17th century. Its powerful parliament was dominated by nobles ("Pic. 2") who were reluctant to get involved in the Thirty Years' War; this neutrality spared the country from the ravages of a political-religious conflict that devastated most of contemporary Europe. The Commonwealth was able to hold its own against Sweden, the Tsardom of Russia, and vassals of the Ottoman Empire, and even launched successful expansionist offensives against its neighbors. In several invasions during the Time of Troubles, Commonwealth troops entered | 9,098 |
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Russia and managed to take Moscow and hold it from 27 September 1610 to 4 November 1612, when they were driven out after a siege.
Commonwealth power began waning after a series of blows during the following decades. A major rebellion of Ukrainian Cossacks in the southeastern portion of the Commonwealth (the Khmelnytskyi Uprising in modern-day Ukraine) began in 1648. It resulted in a Ukrainian request, under the terms of the Treaty of Pereyaslav, for protection by the Russian Tsar. Russian annexation of part of Ukraine gradually supplanted Polish influence. The other blow to the Commonwealth was a Swedish invasion in 1655, known as the Deluge, which was supported by troops of Transylvanian Duke | 9,099 |
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