text stringlengths 16 352k | source stringclasses 2
values |
|---|---|
Shalonda Enis (born December 3, 1974) is a former professional basketball player who played for the Washington Mystics and Charlotte Sting of the WNBA.
Biography
Enis started playing basketball at age 12 at her middle school in Celeste, Texas. In her junior and senior years she helped lead Celeste High School to consecutive state titles. At the conclusion of her senior year she was the all-time leading scorer in Texas high school basketball history. She attended two colleges. First, she attended Trinity Valley Community College (TVCC) and helped lead the women's basketball team to the National Junior College Athletic Association championship in the 1993–94 season. She left TVCC as its all-time leader in career shots made (326) and season shots made (194). She later transferred to University of Alabama.
Alabama statistics
Source
WNBA
Enis played for the Washington Mystics and Charlotte Sting, a total of 106 games in five seasons. She re-signed with the Sting in 2005, but never played a regular season game.
Awards and honors
College
Texas Eastern Conference Newcomer of the Year (1993)
Texas Eastern Conference Most Valuable Player award (1994)
Kodak All-American and Women's Basketball
News Service All-American
All-Conference First Team for her junior and senior years
MVP of the 1994 Women's U.S. Olympic Festival
Associated Press All-American Third Team
American Basketball League
MVP of the 1998 All-Star Game
Second-team All-ABL and Rookie of the Year by the national media.
Personal life
Enis has three sons, Chanse, Chase. and Chayton.
References
External links
Washingtonpost.com: Enis Enjoying Her Rise Through the Pro Ranks
Shalonda Enis Enis Intends To Get A National Title For The Crimson Tide, And Many Miles Away Her Biggest Little Fan Will Be Cheering. - SI.com
1974 births
Living people
Alabama Crimson Tide women's basketball players
All-American college women's basketball players
Basketball players from Texas
Centers (basketball)
Charlotte Sting players
People from Celeste, Texas
Power forwards (basketball)
Trinity Valley Cardinals women's basketball players
Washington Mystics draft picks
Washington Mystics players | wiki |
Austral-American Productions was a short-lived film production company in Australia during the 1940s. They made two feature films during World War II, a time of low output for Australian cinema. They also produced some stage plays and exhibited films. Hartney Arthur was managing director.
The company was wound up in 1950.
Credits
A Yank in Australia (1942) – film
Twelfth Night and The Tempest by William Shakespeare (1943) – plays produced by John Alden
Red Sky at Morning (1944) – film
References
External links
Austral-American Productions at National Film and Sound Archive
Film production companies of Australia | wiki |
James "Jim" Edward Gorman (January 30, 1859 – November 2, 1929) was an American sport shooter who competed at the 1908 Summer Olympics. In the 1908 Olympics he won a gold medal in the team pistol event and a bronze medal in the individual pistol event.
References
External links
James Gorman's profile at databaseOlympics
James Gorman's profile at Sports Reference.com
1859 births
1929 deaths
American male sport shooters
ISSF pistol shooters
Shooters at the 1908 Summer Olympics
Olympic gold medalists for the United States in shooting
Olympic bronze medalists for the United States in shooting
Medalists at the 1908 Summer Olympics
19th-century American people
20th-century American people | wiki |
This is a list of bridges and tunnels on the National Register of Historic Places in the U.S. state of Connecticut.
References
Connecticut
Bridges
Bridges | wiki |
Amped: Freestyle Snowboarding est un jeu vidéo de simulation de snowboard de Microsoft, sorti en même temps que la console de jeux vidéo Xbox (novembre 2001 aux États-Unis et mars 2002 en Europe). Sa suite (Amped 2) est sortie fin 2003 également en exclusivité sur Xbox.
Système de jeu
Ce jeu de simulation permet de faire tous les tricks (figures) de snowboard.
Notes et références
Jeu vidéo de snowboard
Jeu vidéo sorti en 2001
Jeu Xbox
Jeu vidéo développé aux États-Unis
Jeu Microsoft Game Studios | wiki |
A trammel hook is an adjustable hook used to suspend objects at variable heights.
Trammel hooks may be used to hold a pot or kettle over a fire while cooking, allowing the height of the pot to be easily changed. Thus the rate of heating can be controlled. Trammel hooks can also be used to hold candles, where changing the height makes the area lit wider or narrower.
Trammel hooks appear in heraldry, particularly in Germany, where they are called ().
See also
Outdoor cooking
Pothook
External links
Examples of trammel hooks from the 13th-17th centuries
Fasteners | wiki |
The Shadow of the Tower is a historical drama that was broadcast on BBC2 in 1972. It was a prequel to the earlier serials The Six Wives of Henry VIII and Elizabeth R and featured several actors who had appeared in them (but in new roles). Consisting of thirteen episodes, it focused on the reign of Henry VII of England and the creation of the Tudor dynasty.
Cast
Episodes
References
External links
1972 British television series debuts
1972 British television series endings
1970s British drama television series
BBC television royalty dramas
British television miniseries
Television set in Tudor England
Prequel television series
Henry VII of England
House of Tudor
English-language television shows
Television series set in the 15th century
Television series set in the 16th century | wiki |
Joseph Osmond Barnard (10 August 1816 – 30 May 1865) was born in Portsmouth, England. He was a miniature painter and engraver who engraved the rare Mauritius "Post Office" stamps. He died in Mauritius on 30 May 1865.
References
Harold Adolphe and Raymond d'Unienville, "The Life and Death of Joseph Osmond Barnard", The London Philatelist, Vol. 83, No. 985 (Dec., 1974), pp. 263–5.
ENCYCLOPÆDIA Mauritiana
Barnard biography
1816 births
1865 deaths
English engravers
Artists from Portsmouth | wiki |
The Great Britain Diving Federation (GBDF) is the English, Welsh and Scottish amateur sports body for competitive diving, an Olympic sport, in collaboration with British Swimming. The term diving often refers to underwater diving, such as scuba diving. The GBDF represents diving from a springboard and highboard.
History
It was formed in 1992 to differentiate the sport from other techniques of competitive swimming, governed by the Amateur Swimming Association (ASA). The GBDF did not have anything like the resources that the ASA, now British Swimming, did.
Divers in UK have had difficulty to train in the past twenty years, and as there are fewer diving pools to train at. In 1977 there were 296 springboard and highboard facilities in Britain; by 2011 there were less than 100. Wales has one highboard facility. There are none in Birmingham, Norfolk and Suffolk. In 1977, London had 96 diving polls, and by 2011 it had 14. The University of Nottingham Students' Union (UoNSU) has the only university diving (acrobatics) club in the UK.
Competitions
From 2017 to 2020, UK Sport is funding £8.8m to UK diving. British Swimming has taken over most of diving training for UK competitors in the Olympics.
Function
In addition to British Swimming, the GBDF contributes to diving training in the UK. It holds national diving competitions each year; this has been held at the Royal Commonwealth Pool in Edinburgh.
See also
British Sub-Aqua Club (BSAC), for recreational diving, headquartered in Cheshire
LEN, the Ligue Européenne de Natation or European Swimming League
Swim Ireland, represents diving in Northern Ireland
References
External links
GBDF
1992 establishments in the United Kingdom
Diving (sport) organizations
Diving in the United Kingdom
Diving
Sports organizations established in 1992 | wiki |
Venting may refer to:
Venting (album), a 2005 music album by Five.Bolt.Main
"Venting", a song by Nines from the 2018 Crop Circle (album)
Gas venting in the hydrocarbon and chemical industries
Hydrothermal vent
Venting in Drain-waste-vent system in plumbing
Venting in Permeability (foundry sand)
Venting, in anger, a form of complaining
In science fiction, flushing someone into space without full anti-vacuum protection
The act of using a vent in the online multiplayer game Among Us
See also
Vent (disambiguation) | wiki |
The term violone (; literally "large viol" in Italian, "-one" being the augmentative suffix) can refer to several distinct large, bowed musical instruments which belong to either the viol or violin family. The violone is sometimes a fretted instrument, and may have six, five, four, or even only three strings. The violone is also not always a contrabass instrument. In modern parlance, one usually tries to clarify the 'type' of violone by adding a qualifier based on the tuning (such as "G violone" or "D violone") or on geography (such as "Viennese violone"), or by using other terms that have a more precise connotation (such as "bass violin", "violoncello", or "bass viol"). The term violone may be used correctly to describe many different instruments, yet distinguishing among these types can be difficult, especially for those not familiar with the historical instruments of the viol and violin families and their respective variations in tuning.
Usage
In modern usage, the term most often refers to the double bass viol, a bowed bass string instrument sounding its part an octave lower than notated pitch in early music groups performing Renaissance, Baroque and Classical era music on period instruments. However, the term can rightly be applied to members of the violin family, and also to ‘cello sized’ instruments, of both the violin and viol families, where those instruments play their parts at notated pitch. Only a few players specialize in these instruments, some of whom use contemporary reproductions rather than actual historical instruments.
Types
There are several different instruments that have historically been called by the name "violone". Some of these can be loosely described as 'cello-sized' instruments, and play their parts sounding at the notated pitch. Other types of violone are larger-bodied than the cello (sometimes as large or even larger than modern double basses) – most of those sound their parts an octave below notated pitch, but certain types are flexible about which octave they play in, and sometimes switch back and forth. Ultimately, however, it is not the family or size of the instrument that determines the type, but rather the tuning that is utilized, which generally makes it possible to classify the instrument as a member of either the viol or violin family. During the Renaissance music and Baroque music eras, most players and composers were not precise in describing the specific type of violone they had in mind when that name was written on the page. Some ensemble works do not even indicate which instruments should play the different parts, leaving it up to ensemble leaders to choose the instruments. This contrasts sharply with the standardization of instrumentation which developed during the Classical music period; for example, during this period, a string quartet, with only a few exceptions, is intended to be performed by two violins, a viola and a cello.
In the 2000s, musicologists and historians acknowledge the importance of distinguishing specifically which instrument a composer intended, or if the composer allowed the ensemble leader to choose the instruments for each part. Assigning specific names and classifying violoni as different types, as we are doing here, is a modern attempt to clarify things. Loosely described, bowed string instruments are made in families so that different sized members can play in different ranges, with treble instruments corresponding to the soprano and bass instruments corresponding to the lowest vocal range (or even lower, down to the "contrabass" register). Members of the violin family are the easiest to identify in this way: with the violin corresponding to the soprano, the viola to the alto singer, violoncello to the tenor, and bass to the bass ranges of the human voice (historically, the violin family was made in more than just these four sizes: there were originally several sizes of violas, as well as instruments smaller than the modern violin, for example). The viol family also comprises instruments in a multitude of sizes. In North America in the 21st century, they are classified as 'treble' viols (soprano), 'tenor' viols (alto range), 'bass' viols (tenor range), and 'great bass' viols, 'violoni' and violones (bass range).
When we refer to the historical term 'violone', we must include almost all the instruments of both the violin and viol families (plus some hybrid instruments) that functioned as either tenor or bass members of those families. As the name 'violone' really means (see below), truly, these are all large string instruments. It was not until the 20th century that players and scholars started to realize that there were so many types of violoni and that not all of them functioned or sounded like double basses. Because of this, the classification of violoni according to tuning, family and function makes it start to be possible to clarify composers' intentions at different times and places. The most important thing to remember is that different types of violoni sound (and often function) quite differently from each other.
Cello-sized instruments
Cello-sized instruments are typically the 'tenor' members of the viol or violin families, though in fact their upper compass allows them to play in the alto (and even mezzo-soprano) range, and their lower compass may enable them to play in the bass (and even contra-bass) range. There are 3 types of instruments in this category:
The bass viol. This is a 6-string member of the viol family, most often tuned in D. Instruments from the later Baroque may have a seventh string tuned to A1.
The bass violin. This was usually a 4-string member of the violin family, often slightly larger-bodied and a bit lower in pitch than the cello, and often tuned with each string a whole step lower than the cello: (lowest to highest) B1–F2–C3–G3.
The violoncello or "cello". This one is still used in the 21st century, and is also known as the cello, found in modern symphony orchestras. It has four strings, tuned (lowest to highest) C2–G2–D3–A3.
Larger instruments
The great bass viol, also sometimes called the G violone or the A violone. This is the next largest viol after the bass viol, usually with 6 strings, and it can be tuned in A or G. It can play lines at either 8′ or 16′ pitch, and there is a tremendous amount of music for it as a solo and chamber instrument (at 8′), as the bass member of the viol consort (at 8′), playing basso continuo basslines (usually at 8′) and functioning as a double bass instrument in large ensembles (at 16′), playing the deepest fundamental bass pitches in the music.
Double bass-sized instruments
There are a number of instruments in this category, but not all so easy to differentiate by name. One is a true member of the viol family, and the others have much in common with the violin, but can't necessarily be described as genuine violin family instruments because their tunings, proportions and/or construction issues may be at odds with the other sizes.
D violone. This is the largest member of the viol family, with six strings, tuned in D, a full octave lower than the bass viol.
The Viennese violone was a hybrid instrument because it has many features of the viol family (frets, gamba shape, flat back), but as a four- or five-string instrument with a D major tuning in thirds and fourths (F1–A1–D2–F♯2–A2); four-string instruments omit the bottom string. Due to this feature, it does not have a true viol tuning. If a fifth string was present, its tuning could be variable, potentially going as low as D1. It played almost exclusively at 16′, though it was used commonly as a chamber and solo instrument (even from the 17th century) and was the preferred double bass instrument in the Viennese Classical period ( 1760–1820). Some concertos for the bass, e.g., by Wanhal and Dittersdorf, were composed with this tuning in mind.
Contrabass or double bass. These terms are again problematic from a historical perspective (often meaning something slightly different from a modern reader might expect), but here refer to three- or four-string instruments that (usually) do not have frets—of all the types of violoni, these are the ones that most closely resemble modern double basses. The strings may be tuned in fourths (E1–A1–D2–G2 like most modern double basses) or in fifths (C1–G1–D2–A2 a full octave lower than the cello), and if there are only 3 strings, the missing string is almost always the lowest one (i.e. A1–D2–G2 or G1–D2–A2). In the 18th and 19th century, many bassists used only three strings, as it was thought that removing a string made the instrument more sonorous and resonant. It may also be tuned in fifths (C1–G1–D2 or G1–D2–A2).
Other types
In the Renaissance and Baroque era and even in the 2000s, there are players who changed or adapted their instruments in unique ways, for example Ganassi's Regola Rubertina (1542-43). In this category we might find bass viols that are tuned in E (E2-A2-D3-F3-B3-E4) (instead of D), or where the bottom string is tuned an extra step lower, to a C2 (a pitch found in numerous Baroque works). We might find tenor viols that are tuned in F (F2-B2-E3-G3-C4-F4) (instead of G) (called baritone viols). We might find treble viols that are tuned in B (B2-E3-A3-C4-F4-B4) (instead of D) (called haute-contre (high tenor) de violes). Or we might find a contrabass/double bass tuned in fourths, but with a top string a fourth higher than is standard (A1–D2–G2–C3) or another contrabass/double bass tuned in fourths but with its bottom string tuned down to a low C.
Looking only at modern Viol de Gamba based instruments, there are five.
History
Both the violin and viol families came into use in the Western world at approximately the same time ( 1480) and co-existed for many centuries. That being said, during the Renaissance and early Baroque eras, the two families had different uses, and in particular, different social standings. Viols were primarily household instruments, played by well-to-do, educated members of society, as a pleasant and cultured way of passing time. In contrast, violin family instruments were primarily used for social functions, performed on by professional players. During this 'early' period, the largest member of the violin family in common use was a cello-sized instrument, but quite often tuned a whole step lower than the modern cello (B1–F2–C3–G3). This is not to say that there were no larger sized violoni described in the violin family at that time, it's just that descriptions of those larger basses are fewer, and there are many different tunings possible. Also, at this early period, there was minimal need for an instrument that would function at 16′ doubling an 8′ bass line. Human-sized members of the violin family were at first used primarily for dramatic effect in operas (and other dramatic works), and later for similar dramatic effect in concerto grosso type 'orchestral' settings.
In contrast, large members of the viol family were much more common, and used from earliest times, playing their lines at 8′ pitch. There is much evidence to show that Renaissance viol consorts were made of many large-bodied instruments. Great bass viols (with both A and G tunings) are described in numerous treatises, and there is a lot of solo and chamber music that necessitates their use because of its low compass. Some of this music is extremely virtuosic in nature (the viola bastarda pieces by Vincenzo Bonizzi, for example, exploit a octave range). It's also clear that both women and men played instruments of this size – the preface to Bonizzi's 1626 collection is dedicated to the three daughters of his Ferrarese patron, for example, and there are also numerous paintings that depict women playing very large viol family instruments.
A technological advance occurred in the 1660s, centred in Bologna. This was the invention of wound ("overspun" or "overwound") strings. For bass instruments, this was important, because it meant one could now obtain good sounding low strings (that were not thick and rope-like in diameter) without having an excessively long string length. This was also when the term "violoncello" came into use, and the 'standard' cello tuning (C2–G2–D3–A3) became the norm. As well, a solo repertoire for the 'cello started to appear, and the 'cello started to replace the G violone or A violone as the preferred bowed basso continuo instrument (see articles by Stephen Bonta for more detailed information). These advances for the 'cello were likely the first seeds of decline for the G violone/A violone. However, it was also this time period that saw the growth of instrumental ensembles, and the beginning of a taste for 'concerti' and 'symphonies.'
For players and musical communities that had previously favoured G violoni/A violoni as their main bowed basses, once the cello took over the 8' role, the larger bodied G violini/A violoni could be used as 16′ doubling instruments, playing an octave below the cello-sized instruments. It is also from this time period (early 18th century) that most of the D violone tuning descriptions are documented. By this point, most of the other sized members of the viol family had died out (with the exception of the bass viol, which was cherished as a solo and chamber instrument). The largest members of the viol family (G and D violoni) were used in some regions even when other places had started to replace them with three- and four-string contrabasses/double basses. This may explain why the modern double bass to this day is so varied, and lacks a standard form, tuning or playing style. Professional bassists in orchestras have basses with flat backs, curved backs, sloping "shoulders" or rounded shoulders, and tunings including E1–A1–D2–G2 and less commonly "C1–G1–D2–A2. The modern double bass combines features of both the viol and violin families.
Terminology
When use of the word "violone" began in the early sixteenth century, "viola" simply meant a bowed, stringed instrument, and did not specify viol or violin. Historically "violone" has referred to any number of large fiddles, regardless of family. The term violone is sometimes used to refer to the modern double bass, but most often nowadays implies a period instrument. As a period instrument, it can refer to any of the different types that are described, above. "Violone" is also the name given to a non-imitative string-tone pipe organ stop, constructed of either metal or wood, and found in the pedal division at 16′ pitch (one octave below written pitch), or, more rarely, 32′ (2 octaves below written pitch).
Notes
References
External links
Joëlle Morton's Great Bass Viol site
Violone and Contrabass articles collected at www.GreatBassViol.com
Viennese Tuning a site dedicated to the Classical Violone tradition and repertoire
Contrabass instruments
Viol family instruments | wiki |
This is a list of bridges and tunnels on the National Register of Historic Places in the U.S. state of Illinois.
Notes
Illinois
Bridges
Bridges | wiki |
Shadowrun est un jeu vidéo de tir à la première personne développé par FASA Interactive et édité par Microsoft Game Studios, sorti en 2007 sur Windows et Xbox 360.
Système de jeu
Accueil
Notes et références
Jeu vidéo sorti en 2007
Jeu Windows
Jeu Xbox 360
Jeu de tir à la première personne
Jeu vidéo développé aux États-Unis
Jeu vidéo cyberpunk
Shadowrun
Jeu Microsoft Game Studios | wiki |
Savita may refer to:
Savitr, a Hindu deity associated with motion and the sun
Savita Ambedkar (1909–2003), Indian social activist and doctor
Savita Halappanavar, woman who died in Ireland after she was denied an abortion
Savita Bhabhi, fictional pornographic cartoon character
Savita Oil Technologies Limited or simply Savita, Indian industrial lubricant manufacturer
See also | wiki |
Happy Town may refer to:
Happy Town (TV series), a 2010 television series on ABC
Happy Town (album), a 1997 album by Jill Sobule
Happy Town (musical), a 1959 Broadway musical
Happy Town (game), a 2019 video game | wiki |
2021 United Kingdom budget may refer to:
March 2021 United Kingdom budget
October 2021 United Kingdom budget | wiki |
HIV-associated pruritus is a cutaneous condition, an itchiness of the skin, that occurs in up to 30% of HIV infected people, occurs when the T-cell count drops below 400 per cubic mm.
See also
Skin lesion
References
Virus-related cutaneous conditions | wiki |
Music for Wives and Lovers is an album by American composer and arranger Nelson Riddle. It was his only release on the Solid State Records label.
Origin
Producer/musician Sonny Lester signed Riddle to the Solid State label. The liner notes report that he assembled a 42-piece orchestra "and supplied them with arrangements that are fresh and imaginative and in the free-wheeling, youthful spirit of the day." Riddle familiarly "features the harman-mute trumpet, the bass trombone and the baritone sax for powerhouse impact," and added the "exciting sound of the organ."
Reception
Billboard Magazine put the release in its "Pop Spotlight" as "A Billboard pic," with this review:
The Riddle orchestra ranks among the best, and the brilliant sound of this Solid State entry affords the group a perfect showcase. Sparkling arrangements accented by touches of organ add dimension to "Cabaret," "Spanish Eyes" and "Music to Watch Girls By." Top programming and sales potential.
For more than a year after its release, "Music for Wives and Lovers" was listed in Cash Box's Basic Album Inventory. The list identifies best selling pop albums other than those appearing on the magazine's Top 100 album chart, "top steady selling LP's, as well as recent chart hits still going strong in sales."
Track listing
Side 1
"Cabaret" (Fred Ebb, John Kander) – 2:44
"Born Free" (Don Black, John Barry) – 2:57
"What Now My Love" (Gilbert Bécaud, Carl Sigman) – 2:46
"Yesterday" (John Lennon, Paul McCartney) – 3:14
"The Shadow of Your Smile" (Johnny Mandel, Paul Francis Webster) – 3:02
"Somewhere My Love" (Maurice Jarre, Webster) – 2:57
Side 2
"Winchester Cathedral" (Geoff Stephens) – 2:55
"Wives and Lovers" (Hal David, Burt Bacharach) – 2:01
"A Man and a Woman" (Francis Lai, Jerry Keller, Pierre Barouh) – 2:44
"Spanish Eyes" (Bert Kaempfert, Charles Singleton, Eddie Snyder) – 2:37
"Music to Watch Girls By" (Tony Velona, Sid Ramin) – 3:02
"Strangers in the Night" (Bert Kaempfert, Singleton, Snyder) – 3:01
Personnel
Nelson Riddle – arranger, conductor
Mike Gross – liner notes
Phil Ramone – liner notes, recording supervisor
Unidentified studio orchestra
Sonny Lester – record producer
References
External links
1967 albums
Albums arranged by Nelson Riddle
Albums conducted by Nelson Riddle
Albums produced by Sonny Lester
Solid State Records (jazz label) albums
Instrumental albums
Nelson Riddle albums | wiki |
The sidebar is a graphical control element that displays various forms of information to the right or left side of an application window or operating system desktop. Examples of the sidebar can be seen in the Opera web browser, Apache OpenOffice, LibreOffice, SoftMaker Presentations and File Explorer; in each case, the app exposes various functionalities via the sidebar.
Overview
Sidebars have originated in desktop apps, which are designed for rectangular screens with longer horizontal sides. Like toolbars and status bars, sidebars host both information and GUI widgets with which the user issues commands to the app. Unlike toolbars and status bars, sidebars have larger surface areas because of horizontally longer layout of desktop apps. Sidebars may use accordions to organize widgets and accommodate a larger layout than the visible surface area.
Widgets
In a number of Widget engines, one is able to install applets which can reside on a sidebar. Notable examples include:
Windows Sidebar, part of Windows Vista only
Google Desktop
Drawers
Early versions of Mac OS X's Aqua UI supported a sidebar concept called drawers, which pop outside the application window frame rather than expand from the inside like most application sidebars, are used. Despite criticism, third-party applications like Transmit, OmniWeb, Shiira and BBEdit quickly adopted drawers. The standard email client, Mail, used drawers for listing mailboxes prior to 10.4 ("Tiger"), when they were replaced by a traditional sidebar. A number of other Apple-created applications and third-party applications have replaced drawers with a sidebar, or re-designed the interface to make a sidebar/drawer unnecessary. Apple's Human Interface Guidelines now recommend against their use. Formerly drawer-heavy apps, like iCal and Adium, now contain no drawers at all, and instead display an optional sidebar within the main window.
The Android mobile operating system also uses the term "drawers" to refer to a type of sidebar menu widget, usually accessible by swiping from the left edge of the screen.
References
Graphical control elements | wiki |
Post-vaccination follicular eruption is a cutaneous condition that occurs 9 to 11 days following vaccination, and is characterized in multiple follicular, erythematous papules.
See also
Skin lesion
References
Virus-related cutaneous conditions | wiki |
Amerikai Egyesült Államok
Rye (Arizona)
Rye (Arkansas)
Rye (Colorado)
Rye (Florida)
Rye (Missouri)
Rye (New Hampshire)
Rye (kisváros, New York)
Rye (nagyváros, New York)
Rye (Texas)
Rye (Washington)
Ausztrália
Rye (Victoria)
Egyesült Királyság
Rye (East Sussex), Anglia
Rye (Hampshire), Anglia
Franciaország
Rye (Jura)
Nevek
Rye, családnév | wiki |
A nonpast tense (abbreviated ) is a grammatical tense that distinguishes a verbal action as taking place in times present or future, as opposed to past tense. This can be illustrated in English, where future is not a separate form of the verb, as demonstrated by forms such as I hope he gets [nonpast] better tomorrow, where the future modal will is not required the way a true tense would be. (Compare past tense I hope he got better yesterday, where the gets form is not grammatical.)
Grammatical tenses | wiki |
Sports are an important part of culture in the United States. Historically, the national sport has been baseball. However, in more recent decades, American football has been the most popular sport in terms of broadcast viewership audience. Basketball has grown into the mainstream American sports scene since the 1980s, with ice hockey and soccer doing the same around the turn of the 21st century. These sports comprise the "Big Five". In the first half of the 20th century, boxing and collegiate football were among the most popular sports after baseball. Golf, tennis, and collegiate basketball are other spectator sports with longstanding popularity. Most recently, Mixed martial arts, has been breaking records in attendance and broadcast viewership for all combat sports.
Based on revenue, the major professional sports leagues in the United States and Canada are the National Football League (NFL), Major League Baseball (MLB), the National Basketball Association (NBA), the National Hockey League (NHL), and Major League Soccer (MLS). At $16 billion in revenue, the NFL is the most profitable sports league in the world.
The market for professional sports in the United States is roughly $69 billion, roughly 50% larger than that of all of Europe, the Middle East, and Africa combined. All these leagues enjoy wide-ranging domestic media coverage and, except for Major League Soccer, all are considered the preeminent leagues in their respective sports in the world. Although American football does not have a substantial following in other nations, the NFL does have the highest average attendance (67,254) of any professional sports league in the world. MLS has the second highest average attendance of any sports league in the U.S. (21,789), followed by MLB with an average of 18,900. Of these five U.S.-based leagues, all but the NFL have at least one team in Canada.
Professional teams in all major sports in the United States operate as franchises within a league, meaning that a team may move to a different city if the team's owners believe there would be a financial benefit, but franchise moves are usually subject to some form of league-level approval. All major sports leagues use a similar type of regular-season schedule with a post-season playoff tournament. In addition to the major league–level organizations, several sports also have professional minor leagues, active in smaller cities across the country. As in Canada and Australia, sports leagues in the United States do not practice promotion and relegation, unlike most sports leagues in Europe.
Sports are particularly associated with education in the United States, with most high schools and universities having organized sports, and this is a unique sporting footprint for the U.S. College sports competitions play an important role in the American sporting culture, and college basketball and college football are nearly as popular as professional sports in some parts of the country. The major sanctioning body for college sports is the National Collegiate Athletic Association (NCAA). Colleges collectively receive billions of dollars from TV deals, sponsorships, and ticket sales. In 2019, the total revenue generated by NCAA athletic departments added up to $18.9 billion.
Based on Olympic Games, World Championships, and other major competitions in respective sports, the United States is the most successful nation in baseball, basketball, athletics, swimming, lacrosse, beach volleyball, figure skating, tennis, golf, boxing, diving, shooting, rowing and snowboarding, and is all time one of the top five most successful nations in ice hockey, wrestling, gymnastics, volleyball, speed skating, alpine skiing, bobsleigh, equestrian, sailing, cycling, weightlifting and archery, among others. This makes the United States the most successful sports nation in the world. The United States has been referred to by some as the Hegemon of World Sports. The United States has placed first in the Summer Olympic medal table 18 times out of 29 Summer Olympics and 28 appearances. Unlike most other nations, the United States government does not provide funding for sports nor for the United States Olympic & Paralympic Committee.
History
American football, indoor American football, baseball, softball, and indoor soccer evolved out of older British (Rugby football, British baseball, Rounders, and association football) sports. However, basketball, volleyball, beach volleyball, racquetball, pickleball, skateboarding, snowboarding, Ultimate, wind-surfing, and Water Skiing are fully American inventions, some of which have become popular in other countries and worldwide.</ref>
In colonial Virginia and Maryland, sports occupied a great deal of attention at every social level. In England, hunting was severely restricted to landowners. In America, game was more than plentiful. Everyone—including servants and slaves—could and did hunt, so there was no social distinction to be had. In 1691, Sir Francis Nicholson, the governor of Virginia, organized competitions for the "better sort of Virginians onely who are especially in the South. It involved owners, trainers and spectators from all social classes and both races. However, religious evangelists were troubled by the gambling dimension, and democratic elements complained that it was too aristocratic, since only the rich could own very expensive competitive horses.
Up until the Civil War, cricket was a somewhat popular sport in the United States, with presidents such as George Washington and Abraham Lincoln having played or watched the game. However, cricket at the time was a sport played over several days, and during the Civil War, troops preferred to play the newly rising game of baseball, which was much shorter in duration and did not require a special playing surface to be played.
Olympics
The United States Olympic & Paralympic Committee (USOPC) is the National Olympic Committee for the United States. U.S. athletes have won a total of 2,522 medals (1,022 of them being gold) at the Summer Olympic Games and another 305 at the Winter Olympic Games. Most medals have been won in the sport of athletics (track and field) (801, 32%) and swimming (553, 22%). American swimmer Michael Phelps is the most decorated Olympic athlete of all time, with 28 Olympic medals, 23 of them gold.
The United States has sent athletes to every celebration of the modern Olympic Games except the 1980 Summer Olympics hosted by the Soviet Union in Moscow, which it boycotted because of the Soviet invasion of Afghanistan.
American athletes have won a total of 2,673 medals (1,075 of them gold) at the Summer Olympic Games and another 305 (105 of them gold) at the Winter Olympic Games, making the United States the most prolific medal-winning nation in the history of the Olympics. The US is ranked first in the all-time medal table even if all the incarnations of Russia and Germany are combined, leading the second-placed Russians by 402 gold and 917 total medals. These achievements are even more impressive considering the fact that the American Olympic team remains the only in the world to receive no government funding.
The United States hosted both Summer and Winter Games in 1932, and has hosted more Games than any other country – eight times, four times each for the Summer and Winter Games:
The 1904 Summer Olympics in St. Louis, 1932 Summer Olympics and 1984 Summer Olympics in Los Angeles; and the 1996 Summer Olympics in Atlanta;
The 1932 Winter Olympics and 1980 Winter Olympics in Lake Placid, New York; the 1960 Winter Olympics in Squaw Valley, California; and the 2002 Winter Olympics in Salt Lake City, Utah.
Los Angeles will host the Summer Olympics for a third time in 2028, marking the ninth time the U.S. hosts the Olympic Games.
The United States has won the most gold and overall medals in the Summer Olympic Games, even if the medal totals of the Soviet Union/CIS and Russia are combined, and has topped the medal table 18 times. The country has won the second most gold and overall medals in the Winter Olympic Games, behind Norway, but has topped the medal table only one time, in 1932. If all of Germany's and Russia's incarnations are combined, the United States slips to fourth in the all-time Winter Olympic Games table.
Amateurism and professionalism
The exclusion of professionals caused several controversies throughout the history of the modern Olympics. The 1912 Olympic pentathlon and decathlon champion Jim Thorpe was stripped of his medals when it was discovered that he had played semi-professional baseball before the Olympics. His medals were posthumously restored by the IOC in 1983 on compassionate grounds.
The advent of the state-sponsored "full-time amateur athlete" of the Eastern Bloc countries eroded the ideology of the pure amateur, as it put the self-financed amateurs of the Western countries at a disadvantage. The Soviet Union entered teams of athletes who were all nominally students, soldiers, or working in a profession, but all of whom were in reality paid by the state to train on a full-time basis. The situation greatly disadvantaged American athletes, and was a major factor in the decline of American medal hauls in the 1970s and 1980s. As a result, the Olympics shifted away from amateurism, as envisioned by Pierre de Coubertin, to allowing participation of professional athletes, but only in the 1990s, after the collapse of the Soviet Union and its influence within the International Olympic Committee.
Individual sports
Motorsports
Major international competitions, such as the Formula One Grand Prix series and MotoGP are generally less popular in the United States than they are in the rest of the world. However, some Americans have achieved great success in these international series, such as Mario Andretti and Kenny Roberts. In the United States, the dominant form of auto racing is oval track racing, especially stock car racing, with other homegrown motorsports also having local popularity.
Americans, like the rest of the world, initially began using public streets to host automobile races, but these venues were often unsafe to the public as they offered relatively little crowd control. Promoters and drivers in the United States discovered that horse racing tracks could provide better conditions for drivers and spectators than public streets. This, in turn, was succeeded by board track racing (which was short-lived as many of the tracks were highly flammable and difficult to maintain) followed by oval track racing, which remains the dominant form of racing in the United States but is not used in the rest of the world; road racing has generally waned. However, an extensive, albeit illegal street racing culture still persists.
IndyCar Series
Historically, open wheel racing was the most popular form of U.S. motorsport nationwide. However, an acrimonious split (often referred to by many as "The Split") in 1994 between the primary series, CART (later known as Champ Car), and the owner of the Indianapolis Motor Speedway (the site of the Indy 500), Tony George, led to the formation of the Indy Racing League, now known as INDYCAR, which launched the rival IndyCar Series in 1996. From that point on, the popularity of open wheel racing in the U.S. declined dramatically. The feud was settled in 2008 with an agreement to merge the two series under the IndyCar banner, but enormous damage had already been done to the sport. Post-merger, IndyCar continues to run with slight viewership gains per year. However, as a result, the only post-Split IndyCar race that still enjoys widespread popularity among the general public is the Indianapolis 500.
NASCAR
The CART-IRL Split coincided with an enormous expansion of stock car racing, governed by NASCAR, from its past as a mostly regional circuit mainly followed in the Southern United States to a truly national sport. NASCAR's audience peaked in the early 2000s, and has declined quite a bit ever since the implementation of the Chase for the Cup in 2004, though it continues to have around 2–4 million viewers per race. Among NASCAR's popular former drivers are Jeff Gordon, Dale Earnhardt, Jimmie Johnson, Tony Stewart, Dale Earnhardt Jr., and Richard Petty. Among NASCAR's popular active drivers are Kevin Harvick, Alex Bowman, Kurt Busch, Kyle Busch, Chase Elliott, Ryan Blaney, and Kyle Larson. NASCAR's most popular race is the Daytona 500, the opening race of the season, held each year at Daytona Beach, Florida in February.
Other motorsports
Notable sports car races in the United States are the 24 Hours of Daytona, 12 Hours of Sebring, and Petit Le Mans, which have featured in the World Sportscar Championship, IMSA GT Championship, Intercontinental Le Mans Cup, FIA World Endurance Championship, American Le Mans Series, Rolex Sports Car Series and currently the IMSA SportsCar Championship.
Another one of the most popular forms of motorsports in the United States is the indigenous sport of drag racing. The largest drag racing organization is the National Hot Rod Association.
Several other motorsports enjoy varying degrees of popularity in the United States: short track motor racing, motocross, monster truck competitions (including the popular Monster Jam circuit), demolition derby, figure 8 racing, mud bogging and tractor pulling.
Golf
Golf is played in the United States by about 24 million people. The sport's national governing body, the United States Golf Association (USGA), is jointly responsible with The R&A for setting and administering the rules of golf. The USGA conducts four national championships open to professionals: the U.S. Open, U.S. Women's Open, U.S. Senior Open, and the U.S. Senior Women's Open, with the last of these holding its first edition in 2018. The PGA of America organizes the PGA Championship, Senior PGA Championship and Women's PGA Championship. Three legs of the Grand Slam of Golf are based in the United States: the PGA Championship, U.S. Open and The Masters. (The Open Championship, known in the U.S. as the British Open, is played in the United Kingdom.)
The PGA Tour is the main professional golf tour in the United States, and the LPGA Tour is the main women's professional tour. Also of note is PGA Tour Champions, where players 50 and older compete. Golf is aired on several television networks, such as Golf Channel, NBC, ESPN, CBS and Fox.
Notable American male golfers include Walter Hagen (11 majors), Ben Hogan, Jack Nicklaus (record 18 major wins), Arnold Palmer, and Tiger Woods (15 major wins). Notable female golfers include Patty Berg (record 15 major wins), Mickey Wright (13 majors), Louise Suggs and Babe Zaharias.
Tennis
Tennis is played in the United States in all five categories (Men's and Ladies' Singles; Men's, Ladies' and Mixed Doubles); however, the most popular are the singles. The pinnacle of the sport in the country is the US Open played in late August at the USTA Billie Jean King National Tennis Center in New York. The Indian Wells Masters, Miami Open and Cincinnati Masters are part of the ATP Tour Masters 1000 and the WTA 1000.
The United States has had considerable success in tennis for many years, with players such as Don Budge, Billie Jean King (12 major singles titles), Chris Evert (18 major singles titles), Jimmy Connors (8 major singles titles), John McEnroe (7 major singles titles), Andre Agassi (8 major singles titles) and Pete Sampras (14 major singles titles), and Ricardo Alonso González (14 major singles titles) dominating their sport in the past. More recently, the Williams sisters, Venus Williams (7 major singles titles) and Serena Williams (23 major singles titles), have been a dominant force in the women's game, and the twin brothers Bob and Mike Bryan have claimed almost all significant career records for men's doubles teams.
Track and field
USA Track & Field is the governing body for track and field in the United States. It organizes the annual USA Outdoor Track and Field Championships and USA Indoor Track and Field Championships. The Diamond League currently features one round in the United States, the Prefontaine Classic; the series formerly included the Adidas Grand Prix as well. Three of the World Marathon Majors are held in the United States: the Boston Marathon, Chicago Marathon and New York City Marathon. The Freihofer's Run for Women is also an IAAF Road Race Label Event. Amateur organizations such as the National Collegiate Athletic Association and Amateur Athletic Union sanction cross-country running in fall, indoor track and field in winter, and outdoor track and field in spring.
Jesse Owens was a notable US track athlete who achieved international fame at the 1936 Summer Olympics in Berlin, Germany, by winning four gold medals: 100 meters, long jump, 200 meters, and 4 × 100-meter relay. He was the most successful athlete at the Games and, as a black man, was credited with "single-handedly crushing Hitler's myth of Aryan supremacy", although he "wasn't invited to the White House to shake hands with the President, either".
Americans have frequently set world standards in various disciplines of track and field for both male and female athletes. Tyson Gay and Michael Johnson hold various sprint records for male athletes, while Florence Griffith Joyner set various world sprint records for female athletes. Mary Slaney set many world records for middle-distance disciplines.
A turning point occurred in US track in the running boom of the 1970s. After a series of American successes in various distances from marathoners Frank Shorter and Bill Rodgers as well as middle-distance runners Dave Wottle and Steve Prefontaine, running as an American pastime began to take shape. The U.S. win in the 1976 Olympic men's decathlon, achieved by then-Bruce Jenner, made Jenner a national celebrity. High school track in the United States became a unique foundation for creating the United States middle-distance running talent pool, and from 1972 to 1981 an average of 13 high school boys in the United States would run under 4:10 in the mile per year. During this time, several national high school records in the United States were set and remained largely unbroken until the 2000s. The number of high school boys running the mile under 4:10 per year dropped abruptly from 1982, and female participation in many distance events was forbidden by athletic authorities until the 1980s. However a renaissance in high school track developed when Jack Daniels, a former Olympian, published a training manual called "Daniels' Running Formula", which became the most widely used distance training protocol among American coaches along with Arthur Lydiard's high-mileage regimen. Carl Lewis is credited with "normalizing" the practice of having a lengthy track career as opposed to retiring once reaching the age when it is less realistic of gaining a personal best result. The United States is home to school-sponsored track and field, a tradition in which most schools from middle school through college feature a track and field team. Owing to the number of American athletes who satisfy Olympic norm standards, the US holds national trials to select the best of its top-tier athletes for Olympic competition.
Combat sports
Boxing
Boxing is an iconic sport in the US and is the focus of the most successful sporting movies both critically and commercially with Oscar winning films like Rocky, Raging Bull and The Fighter. As with many sports it has allowed Black Athletes to breakthrough to become major figures of US culture, with Joe Louis, Mike Tyson and Muhammad Ali all becoming known on the world stage.
Boxing in the United States became the center of professional boxing in the early 20th century. The National Boxing Association was founded in 1921 and began to sanction title fights.
Joe Louis was an American professional boxer who competed from 1934 to 1951. He reigned as the world heavyweight champion from 1937 to 1949, and is considered to be one of the greatest heavyweight boxers of all time. In 2005, Louis was ranked as the best heavyweight of all time by the International Boxing Research Organization, and was ranked number one on The Ring magazine's list of the "100 greatest punchers of all time". Louis had the longest single reign as champion of any heavyweight boxer in history.
Louis is widely regarded as the first person of African-American descent to achieve the status of a nationwide hero within the United States, and was also a focal point of anti-Nazi sentiment leading up to and during World War II. He was instrumental in integrating the game of golf, breaking the sport's color barrier in America by appearing under a sponsor's exemption in a PGA event in 1952.
In the 1960s and 1970s, Muhammad Ali became an iconic figure, transformed the role and image of the African American athlete in America by his embrace of racial pride, and transcended the sport by refusing to serve in the Vietnam War.
In the 1980s Mike Tyson emerged as a serious contender. Nicknamed "Iron Mike", Tyson won the heavyweight unification series to become world heavyweight champion at the age of 20 and the first undisputed champion in a decade. Tyson soon became the most widely known boxer since Ali due to an aura of unrestrained ferocity, such as that exuded by Jack Dempsey or Sonny Liston. His career culminated in Evander Holyfield vs. Mike Tyson II where he famously bit off a piece of Holyfield's ear.
Since the late 1990s boxing has declined in popularity for a myriad of factors such as more sports entertainment options and combat alternatives such as MMA's UFC amongst a younger demographic. Lack of mainstream coverage in newspapers and access on major television networks. Also the lack of a US Heavyweight world champion.
It was hoped in 2015 that the Floyd Mayweather Jr. vs. Manny Pacquiao fight would re-invigorate interest in the sport in the United States but because the fight was disappointing it was perceived as doing further harm to the image of the sport in the United States.
Other Combat Sports
Mixed martial arts in the United States largely developed in the 1990s, and has achieved popularity in the early 21st century. Many companies promote MMA cards, with the U.S. based Ultimate Fighting Championship (UFC) the most dominant.
Traditional "folkstyle" wrestling is performed at the scholastic and college levels. High school wrestling is a popular participatory sport in the United States, with college wrestling and the Olympic wrestling styles of freestyle and Greco-Roman having a spectator following. The Olympic styles of freestyle and Greco-Roman are performed at all age levels in the United States and in international competition.
Judo in the United States is not very popular and is eclipsed by more popular martial art forms like karate and taekwondo.
Swimming and water sports
Swimming is a major competitive sport at high school and college level, but receives little mainstream media attention outside of the Olympics.
Surfing in the United States and watersports are popular in the U.S. in coastal areas. California and Hawaii are the most popular locations for surfing. The Association of Surfing Professionals was founded in 1983.
Five separate national governing bodies (NGBs) make up USAS: USA Swimming, USA Diving, United States Synchronized Swimming, USA Water Polo, and U.S. Masters Swimming. Of the five, only U.S. Masters Swimming (USMS) is not a member of the United States Olympic & Paralympic Committee (USMS's main aim is adult swimming, exclusive of Olympic-swimming which is the domain of USA Swimming).
Popular team sports
Overview
The most popular team sports in the United States are American football, baseball, basketball, ice hockey, and soccer. All five of these team sports are popular with fans, are widely watched on television, have a fully professional league, are played by millions of Americans, enjoy varsity status at many Division I colleges, and are played in high schools throughout the country.
TV viewing record measures the game with the most TV viewers in the U.S. since 2005 for each sport: 2015 Super Bowl, 2016 NBA Finals Game 7, 2016 World Series Game 7, 2014 FIFA World Cup Final, and 2010 Winter Olympics Gold medal ice hockey game.
The column titled "States (HS)" represents the number of states that sponsor the sport at the high school level. For the purpose of this table, Washington, D.C. is counted as a state.
American football
Football has the most participants of any sport at both high school and college levels, the vast majority of its participants being male.
The NFL is the preeminent professional football league in the United States. The NFL has 32 franchises divided into two conferences. After a 17-game regular season, each conference sends seven teams to the NFL Playoffs, which eventually culminate in the league's championship game, the Super Bowl.
Nationwide, the NFL obtains the highest television ratings among major sports. Watching NFL games on television on Sunday afternoons has become a common routine for many Americans during the football season.
Super Bowl Sunday is the biggest annual sporting event held in the United States. The Super Bowl itself is always among the highest-rated programs of all-time in the Nielsen ratings.
The NFL has the highest average attendance (67,591) of any professional sports league in the world and has the highest revenue out of any single professional sports league.
Since 2019, at least one other professional football league has played in each NFL offseason: the Alliance of American Football played eight weeks in winter 2019 before its owner withdrew funding; the XFL—a reimagining of a 2001 league of the same name—played five weeks in winter 2020 before government stay-at-home orders forced the league to shut down, and resumed under new ownership in winter 2023; and the United States Football League—which used abandoned trademarks from, but shares no ownership with, a 1980s league of the same name—began play in spring 2022. All of these leagues pay substantially lower salaries than the NFL and have had lower and less consistent attendance, though popularity in non-NFL markets (such as the XFL's St. Louis BattleHawks) can be robust.
Millions watch college football throughout the fall months, and some communities, particularly in rural areas, place great emphasis on their local high school football teams. The popularity of college and high school football in areas such as the Southern United States (Southeastern Conference) and the Great Plains (Big 12 Conference and Big Ten Conference) stems largely from the fact that these areas historically generally did not possess markets large enough for a professional team. Nonetheless, college football has a rich history in the United States, predating the NFL by decades, and fans and alumni are generally very passionate about their teams.
During football season in the fall, fans have the opportunity to watch high school games on Fridays and Saturdays, college football on Saturdays, and NFL games on Sundays, the usual playing day of the professional teams. However, some colleges play games on Tuesday and Wednesday nights, while the NFL offers weekly games on Monday (since 1970) and Thursday (since 2006). As recently as 2013, one could find a nationally televised professional or college game on television any night between Labor Day and Thanksgiving weekend.
Indoor football or arena football, a form of football played in indoor arenas, has several professional and semi-professional leagues. The Arena Football League was active from 1987 to 2008 and folded in 2009, but several teams from the AFL and its former minor league, af2, relaunched the league in 2010. The AFL folded again in 2019. Most extant indoor leagues date to the mid-2000s and are regional in nature.
Dedicated women's football is seldom seen. A few amateur and semi-professional leagues exist, of varying degrees of stability and competition. Football is unique among scholastic sports in the U.S. in that no women's division exists for the sport; women who wish to play football in high school or college must compete directly with men.
Indoor American football has several professional leagues such as, Indoor Football League, Champions Indoor Football, American West Football Conference, National Arena League, and American Arena League.
Baseball
Baseball and a variant, softball, are popular participatory sports in the U.S. Baseball was the first professional sport in the United States. The highest level of baseball in the U.S. and the world is Major League Baseball. The World Series of Major League Baseball is the culmination of the sport's postseason each October. It is played between the winner of each of the two leagues, the American League and the National League, and the winner is determined through a best-of-seven playoff.
The New York Yankees are noted for having won more titles than any other US major professional sports franchise. The Yankees' chief rivals, the Boston Red Sox, also enjoy a huge following in Boston and throughout New England. The Philadelphia Phillies of the National League are the oldest continuous, one-name, one-city franchise in all of professional American sports, and enjoy a fanbase renowned for their rabid support of their team throughout Philadelphia and the Delaware Valley, and have famously been dubbed as the "Meanest Fans in America". Midwest baseball has also grown exponentially with teams like the Chicago Cubs, St. Louis Cardinals, Cincinnati Reds, and Milwaukee Brewers. Particularly with Chicago sports fans who avidly follow the Chicago Cubs and the Chicago White Sox despite the comparative lack of success for the teams, with Chicago Cub fans being known throughout the country as one of the best baseball fans in the country, most notably for their passionate loyalty to the team despite their not having won a championship from 1908 to 2016 (108 years) which stands as the longest championship drought in US sports history. The sport has also taken hold of fans on the West Coast, most notably the rivalry between the San Francisco Giants and The Los Angeles Dodgers. Historically, the leagues were much more competitive, and cities such as Boston, Philadelphia and St. Louis had rival teams in both leagues up until the 1950s.
Notable American baseball players in history include Babe Ruth (714 career home runs), Ty Cobb (career leader in batting average and batting titles), Cy Young, Honus Wagner, Ted Williams (.344 career batting average), Lou Gehrig, Joe DiMaggio, Mickey Mantle (16-time all star), Stan Musial, Willie Mays, Yogi Berra (18-time All-Star), Hank Aaron (career home run leader from 1974 to 2007), Mike Schmidt (548 career home runs, 10 career Gold Gloves), Nolan Ryan (career strikeouts leader), Roger Clemens (7 Cy Young awards), Derek Jeter and Jackie Robinson, who was instrumental in dissolving the color line and allowing African-Americans into the major leagues.
An extensive minor league baseball system covers most mid-sized cities in the United States. Minor league baseball teams are organized in a six-tier hierarchy, in which the highest teams (AAA) are in major cities that do not have a major league team but often have a major team in another sport, and each level occupies progressively smaller cities. The lowest levels of professional baseball serve primarily as development systems for the sport's most inexperienced prospects, with the absolute bottom, the rookie leagues, occupying the major league squads' spring training complexes.
Some limited independent professional baseball exists, the most prominent being the Atlantic League, which occupies mostly suburban locales that are not eligible for high level minor league teams of their own because they are too close to other major or minor league teams.
Outside the minor leagues are collegiate summer baseball leagues, which occupy towns even smaller than those at the lower end of minor league baseball and typically cannot support professional sports. Summer baseball is an amateur exercise and uses players that choose not to play for payment in order to remain eligible to play college baseball for their respective universities in the spring. At the absolute lowest end of the organized baseball system is senior amateur baseball (also known as Town Team Baseball), which typically plays its games only on weekends and uses rosters composed of local residents.
Liga de Béisbol Profesional Roberto Clemente is a professional baseball league in Puerto Rico.
Basketball
Of those Americans citing their favorite sport, basketball is ranked second (counting amateur levels) behind football. However, in regards to revenue the NBA is ranked third in popularity. More Americans play basketball than any other team sport, according to the National Sporting Goods Association, with over 26 million Americans playing basketball.
Basketball was invented in 1891 by Canadian physical education teacher James Naismith in Springfield, Massachusetts.
The National Basketball Association (NBA) is the world's premier professional basketball league and one of the major professional sports leagues of North America. It contains 30 teams (29 teams in the U.S. and 1 in Canada) that play an 82-game season from October to June. After the regular season, eight teams from each conference compete in the playoffs for the Larry O'Brien Championship Trophy.
Since the 1992 Summer Olympics, NBA players have represented the United States in international competition and won numerous important tournaments. The Dream Team was the unofficial nickname of the United States men's basketball team that won the gold medal at the 1992 Olympics.
Basketball at both the college and high school levels is popular throughout the country. Every March, a 68-team, six-round, single-elimination tournament (commonly called March Madness) determines the national champions of NCAA Division I men's college basketball.
Most U.S. states also crown state champions among their high schools. Many high school basketball teams have intense local followings, especially in the Midwest and Upper South. Indiana has 10 of the 12 largest high school gyms in the United States, and is famous for its basketball passion, known as Hoosier Hysteria.
Notable NBA players in history include Wilt Chamberlain (4 time MVP), Bill Russell (5 time MVP), Bob Pettit (11 time all NBA team), Bob Cousy (12 time all NBA team), Jerry West (12 time all NBA team), Julius Erving (won MVP awards in both the ABA and NBA), Kareem Abdul-Jabbar (6 time MVP), Magic Johnson (3 time MVP), Larry Bird (3 time MVP), Michael Jordan (6 time finals MVP), John Stockton (#1 in career assists and steals), Karl Malone (14 time all NBA team), Kobe Bryant (NBA's third all-time leading scorer), Tim Duncan (15-time NBA all-star), Shaquille O'Neal (3 time finals MVP) and Jason Kidd (#2 in career assists and steals).
Notable players in the NBA today include James Harden, LeBron James (4 MVP awards), Stephen Curry (2 time MVP), and Kevin Durant (MVP, 4 NBA scoring titles). Ever since the 1990s, an increasing number of players born outside the United States have signed with NBA teams, sparking league interest in different parts of the world.
Professional basketball is most followed in cities where there are no other sports teams in the four major professional leagues, such as in the case of the Oklahoma City Thunder, the Sacramento Kings, the San Antonio Spurs, the Memphis Grizzlies, or the Portland Trail Blazers. New York City has also had a long historical connection with college and professional basketball, and many basketball legends initially developed their reputations playing in the many playgrounds throughout the city. Madison Square Garden, the home arena of the New York Knicks, is often referred to as the "Mecca of basketball."
Minor league basketball, both official and unofficial, has an extensive presence, given the sport's relative lack of expense to operate a professional team. The NBA has an official minor league, known since 2017 as the NBA G League under a naming rights agreement with Gatorade. The most prominent independent league is BIG3, a three-on-three league featuring former NBA stars that launched in 2017. Several other pro basketball leagues exist but are notorious for their instability and low budget operations. Another prominent event is The Basketball Tournament. a full-court 64-team knockout tournament held during the summer with a $1 million winner-take-all prize. While current NBA players are contractually barred from playing due to injury risk, several have served as team sponsors, and many players from the G League, as well as Americans playing in overseas leagues, participate.
The WNBA is the premier women's basketball league in the United States as well as the most stable and sustained women's professional sports league in the nation. Several of the 12 teams are owned by NBA teams. The women's national team has won eight Olympic gold medals and 10 FIBA World Cups. Historically, women's basketball in the United States followed a six-woman-per-team format in which three players on each team stayed on the same side of the court throughout the game. The six-person variant was abolished for college play in 1971, and over the course of the 1970s and 1980s was steadily abolished at the high school level, with the last states still sanctioning it switching girls over to the men's five-on-five code in the mid-1990s.
Baloncesto Superior Nacional and Baloncesto Superior Nacional Femenino are professional basketball leagues in Puerto Rico.
Soccer
Soccer has been increasing in popularity in the United States in recent years. Soccer is played by over 13 million people in the U.S., making it the third-most played sport in the U.S., more widely played than ice hockey and football. Most NCAA Division I colleges field both a men's and women's varsity soccer team, and those that field only one team almost invariably field a women's team.
The United States men's national team and women's national team, as well as a number of national youth teams, represent the United States in international soccer competitions and are governed by the United States Soccer Federation (U.S. Soccer). The U.S. women's team holds the record for most Women's World Cup championships, and is the only team that has never finished worse than third place in a World Cup. The U.S. women beat the Netherlands 2–0 in the 2019 FIFA Women's World Cup final to claim their second consecutive Women's World Cup title, and fourth overall.
Major League Soccer (MLS) is the premier soccer league in the United States. The league's predecessor was the major professional North American Soccer League (NASL), which existed from 1968 until 1984. As of its 2023 season, MLS has 29 clubs (26 from the U.S. and 3 from Canada). The 34-game schedule runs from mid-March to late October, with the playoffs and championship in November. Soccer-specific stadiums continue to be built for MLS teams around the country, both because football stadiums are considered to have excessive capacity, and because teams profit from operating their stadiums. With an average attendance of over 21,000 per game (prior to COVID-19), MLS has the third-highest average attendance of any sports league in the U.S. after the National Football League (NFL) and Major League Baseball (MLB), and is the ninth-highest attended professional soccer league worldwide. Other professional men's soccer leagues in the U.S. include the current second division, the USL Championship (USLC), and three third-level leagues: USL League One (USL1), which launched in 2019 under the auspices of the USLC's operator, the United Soccer League; the National Independent Soccer Association (NISA), which also started in 2019; and MLS Next Pro, launched by MLS in 2022 as the effective replacement for its former reserve league. Another competition, the second North American Soccer League, had been the second-level league until being demoted in 2018 due to instability, and soon effectively folded. For several years in the 2010s, the USL organization had a formal relationship with MLS, and a number of its teams (both in the Championship and League One) have been either owned by or affiliated with MLS sides, but most U.S.-based MLS teams moved their reserve sides into Next Pro in 2022, and the only U.S.-based MLS side that will not field a Next Pro team in 2023 is D.C. United.
Younger generations of Americans have strong fan appreciation for the sport, due to factors such as the U.S. hosting of the 1994 FIFA World Cup and the formation of Major League Soccer, as well as increased U.S. television coverage of soccer competitions. Many immigrants living in the United States continue to follow soccer as their favorite team sport. United States will host the 2026 FIFA World Cup, sharing with Canada and Mexico.
Women's professional soccer in the United States only began seeing sustained success in the 2020s. Following the demise of two professional leagues in the early 21st century, the Women's United Soccer Association (1999–2001) and Women's Professional Soccer (2009–2011), U.S. Soccer established a new National Women's Soccer League in 2013. The NWSL has now survived longer than both of its two professional predecessors combined. Of its current 12 teams, six share ownership with professional men's clubs—three are wholly owned by MLS team owners (although one of the NWSL teams was put up for sale after the 2022 season), two are wholly owned by USL sides (one each in the USLC and USL1), and another is primarily owned by a French Ligue 1 side. The NWSL is expected to expand to 14 teams in 2024 and 15 shortly thereafter. However, at the lower levels of the salary scale, the NWSL was until very recently effectively semi-professional. While minimum salaries are still vastly lower than those in men's leagues (as of 2022, $35,000), players generally enjoy at least a middle-class standard of living because the salary figures do not include team-provided housing and transportation allowances.
Many notable international soccer players played in the U.S. in the original North American Soccer League, usually at the end of their playing careers—including Pelé, Eusébio, George Best, Franz Beckenbauer, and Johan Cruyff—or in MLS—including Roberto Donadoni, Lothar Matthäus, David Beckham, Thierry Henry, Kaká, David Villa, Wayne Rooney, Zlatan Ibrahimović, Gareth Bale, Lorenzo Insigne, and Xherdan Shaqiri. The best American soccer players enter the U.S. Soccer Hall of Fame.
The Major Arena Soccer League (MASL) is a North American professional indoor soccer league. MASL is the highest level of arena soccer in the North America and the world.
Ice hockey
Ice hockey, usually referred to in the U.S. simply as "hockey", is another popular sport in the United States. In the U.S. the game is most popular in regions of the country with a cold winter climate, namely the northeast and the upper Midwest. However, since the 1990s, hockey has become increasingly popular in the Sun Belt due in large part to the expansion of the National Hockey League to the southern U.S., coupled with the mass relocation of many residents from northern cities with strong hockey support to these Sun Belt locations.
The NHL is the major professional hockey league in North America, with 25 U.S.-based teams and 7 Canadian-based teams competing for the Stanley Cup. While NHL stars are still not as readily familiar to the general American public as are stars of the NFL, MLB, and the NBA, average attendance for NHL games in the U.S. has surpassed average NBA attendance in recent seasons, buoyed in part by the NHL Winter Classic being played in large outdoor stadiums.
Minor league professional hockey leagues in the U.S. include the American Hockey League and the ECHL. Additionally, nine U.S.-based teams compete in the three member leagues of the Canadian Hockey League, a "junior" league for players aged sixteen to twenty. College hockey has a regional following in the northeastern and upper midwestern United States. It is increasingly being used to develop players for the NHL and other professional leagues (the U.S. has junior leagues, the United States Hockey League and North American Hockey League, but they are more restricted to protect junior players' college eligibility). The Frozen Four is college hockey's national championship. The U.S. now has more youth hockey players than all other countries, excluding Canada, combined. USA Hockey is the official governing body for amateur hockey in the United States. The United States Hockey Hall of Fame is located in Eveleth, Minnesota.
Internationally, the United States is counted among the Big Six, the group of nations that have historically dominated international ice hockey competition. (The others include Canada, Finland, Sweden, the Czech Republic, and Russia.) One of the nation's greatest ever sporting moments was the "Miracle on Ice", which came during the 1980 Winter Olympics when the U.S. hockey team beat the Soviet Union 4–3 in the first game of the medal round before going on to beat Finland to claim the gold medal.
Historically, the vast majority of NHL players had come from Canada, with a small number of Americans. As late as 1969–70, Canadian players made up 95 percent of the league. During the 1970s and 1980s, European players entered the league, and many players from the former Soviet bloc flocked to the NHL beginning in the 1990s. Today, slightly less than half of NHL players are Canadian, more than 30% are Americans, and virtually all of the remainder are European-trained. (For a more complete discussion, see Origin of NHL players.)
Notable NHL players in history include Wayne Gretzky (leading all-time point scorer and 9 time MVP), Mario Lemieux (3 time MVP), Guy Lafleur (2 time MVP), Gordie Howe (6 time MVP), Nicklas Lidström (7 times NHL's top defenseman), Bobby Hull (3 time MVP and 7 time leading goal scorer, Eddie Shore (4 time MVP), Howie Morenz (3 time MVP), Maurice "Rocket" Richard (5 time leading goal scorer), Jean Beliveau (2 time MVP), Bobby Clarke (3 time MVP), and Bobby Orr (8 times NHL's best defenseman). Famous NHL players today include Connor McDavid and Auston Matthews.
The Premier Hockey Federation, founded in 2015 as the National Women's Hockey League, is the first women's ice hockey league in the country to pay its players and features five teams in the northeast and upper midwest, plus two Canadian teams. Three of the five U.S.-based teams (the Buffalo Beauts, Minnesota Whitecaps and Metropolitan Riveters) are either owned or operated by, or affiliated with, their metro area's NHL franchise (the Buffalo Sabres, Minnesota Wild and New Jersey Devils, respectively). At the international level, the United States women's national ice hockey team is one of the two predominant international women's teams in the world, alongside its longtime rival Team Canada.
Other team sports
Overview
The following table shows additional sports that are played by over 500,000 people in the United States.
Attendance record measures highest single-game attendances. Attendance records are: Volleyball: 2021 NCAA Division I women's championship final; Ultimate: 2014 Montreal Royal (AUDL); Rugby: 2014 New Zealand vs. Ireland in Chicago; and Lacrosse: 2007 NCAA Division I men's championship semifinals.
TV viewership records are: Volleyball: 2010 NCAA women's championship on ESPN2; Rugby: 2018 Rugby World Cup Sevens on NBC; Lacrosse: 2016 NCAA championship on ESPN2; Ultimate: 2017 US Open Mixed final.
Lacrosse
Lacrosse is a team sport that is believed to have originated with the Iroquois and the Lenape. The sport is most popular in the East Coast area from Maryland to New York. While its roots remain east, lacrosse is currently the fastest growing sport in the nation. The National Lacrosse League is the professional Box lacrosse league, while the Premier Lacrosse League is the professional Field Lacrosse league. Major League Lacrosse was a semi-professional Field Lacrosse league that was operating nationally before merging into PLL in 2020.
Volleyball
Volleyball is played in the United States, especially at the college and university levels. Unlike most Olympic sports which are sponsored widely at the collegiate level for both sexes, the women's college volleyball teams are more common than men's college volleyball teams. In the 2011–12 school year, over 300 schools in NCAA Division I alone (the highest of three NCAA tiers) sponsored women's volleyball at the varsity level, while fewer than 100 schools in all three NCAA divisions combined sponsored varsity men's volleyball, with only 23 of them in Division I. Men's volleyball has grown at the non-scholarship NCAA Division III level in the 21st century, with a national championship established in 2012. As of the most recent 2022 season (2021–22 school year), 113 schools sponsor the sport at that level. At the same time, 26 D-I and 31 D-II members sponsored men's volleyball at the National Collegiate level, defined for the purposes of that sport as the combination of Divisions I and II.
As of 2019, there are currently two leagues that branch across the United States. First of these is the National Volleyball Association (NVA). The NVA currently has 10 teams. The second league is the Volleyball League of America (VLA) and has 5 teams spread across the United States.
The men's national team has won three gold medals at the Olympic Games, one FIVB World Championship, two FIVB Volleyball World Cup, and one FIVB World League. Meanwhile, the women's national team has won one gold medal at the Olympic Games, one FIVB World Championship and six editions of the FIVB World Grand Prix.
Beach volleyball has increasingly become popular in the United States, in part due to media exposure during the Olympic Games. Association of Volleyball Professionals (AVP) is the biggest and longest-running professional beach volleyball tour in the United States.
Rugby union
Rugby union usually referred to in the U.S. simply as "rugby" is played professionally (Major League Rugby), recreationally and in colleges, though it is not governed by the NCAA (see college rugby). An estimated 1.2 million people in the United States play rugby. The U.S. national team has competed at the Rugby World Cup. In rugby sevens, the men's national team is one of 15 "core teams" that participate in every event of the annual World Rugby Sevens Series, and the women's national team is one of 11 core teams in the Women's Sevens Series. Major League Rugby, a professional domestic club competition, has been played since 2018.
Rugby union participation in the U.S. has grown significantly in recent years, growing by 350% between 2004 and 2011. A 2010 survey by the National Sporting Goods Manufacturers Association ranked rugby union as the fastest-growing sport in the U.S. The sports profile in the U.S. has received a tremendous boost from the IOC's announcement in 2009 that rugby union (in its seven-a-side variant) would return to the Olympics in 2016. Since the Olympic announcement, rugby union events such as the Collegiate Rugby Championship, the USA Sevens, and the Rugby World Cup have been broadcast on network TV. The USA Sevens, held every year in February or March as part of the World Rugby Sevens Series, has regularly drawn more than 60,000 fans to Sam Boyd Stadium in Las Vegas, though the tournament will move to the Los Angeles area for at least its 2020 edition. The U.S. also hosts an event in the Women's Sevens Series. It had been held alongside the USA Sevens in the 2016–17 season, but was not held in 2017–18 (when the Rugby World Cup Sevens for both men and women was held in San Francisco). The USA Women's Sevens returned in 2018, after the World Cup Sevens, but is now a standalone event held in the Denver area that serves as the Women's World Series opener.
Rugby union is the fastest growing college sport and sport in general in the United States.
Rugby football formed the basis of modern American football; the two sports were nearly identical in the late 19th century but diverged into distinct, incompatible codes by the start of the 20th century.
The United States will host the 2031 Rugby World Cup and the 2033 Women's Rugby World Cup
Cricket
In 2006 it was estimated that 30,000 people in the United States play or watch cricket annually. By 2017, this figure had risen to 200,000 people playing cricket in 6,000 teams. Cricket in the United States is not as popular as baseball and is not as popular among as large a fraction of the population as it is
within either the Commonwealth nations or the other ICC full member (or Test cricket) nations. There are at least two historical reasons for the relative obscurity of cricket within
the United States. One reason was the 19th-century-rise of the summer time bat and ball sport now called baseball, which has displaced cricket as a popular pastime. Another reason was that in 1909 when the ICC was originally organized as the
Imperial Cricket Conference it was open only to Commonwealth nations and thereby excluded the US from participating in the sport at the highest level.
Nevertheless, in 1965 the US was admitted to the renamed ICC as an associate member and the sport grew in popularity in the second half of the 20th century. An oft mentioned reason for the growing popularity of cricket is the growing population of immigrants to the US who come from cricket playing nations.
With the launching of the United States Youth Cricket Association in 2010, a more focused effort to bring the game to American schools was begun, with the intention of broadening cricket's fan base beyond expatriates and their children.
ESPN has been stepping up its coverage of cricket in recent years, buying the cricket website Cricinfo in 2007, and broadcasting the final of the 2014 ICC World Twenty20 competition, the 2014 Indian Premier League, English County Championship games, and international Test cricket.
In 2021, Minor League Cricket, a professional Twenty20 cricket league sanctioned by USA Cricket, began play. Major League Cricket is planning to launch its first season in 2023. In addition, various championships and pathways are being offered for youth cricketers, such as the MLC Jr. Championship.
Ultimate and disc sports
Ultimate is a team sport played with a flying disc. The object of the game is to score points by passing the disc to members of your own team until you have completed a pass to a team member in the opposing team's end zone. Over 5.1 million people play some form of organized ultimate in the US.
Alternative sports, using the flying disc, began in the mid-sixties, when numbers of young people looked for alternative recreational activities, including throwing a Frisbee. What started with a few players experimenting with a Frisbee later would become known as playing disc freestyle. Organized disc sports in the 1970s began with a few tournaments, and professionals using Frisbee show tours to perform at universities, fairs and sporting events. Disc sports such as disc freestyle, disc dog (with a human handler throwing discs for a dog to catch), double disc court, disc guts, disc ultimate, and disc golf became this sport's first events. More-proprietary disc games include KanJam, akin to quoits, invented in Buffalo, New York in the 1980s.
Beginning in 1974, the International Frisbee Disc Association became the regulatory organization for all of these sports. Led from 1975–1982 by Dan "Stork" Roddick, who also served as sports-marketing head for Wham-O, the IFA created an annual tournament at the Rose Bowl called the World Frisbee Championship, which drew over 50,000 fans and live TV coverage. This tournament served as a focal point for the more-developed game of Disc guts, invented in the 1950s, and the emerging popularity freestyle competition (1974) and disc golf (standardized in 1976 by the Professional Disc Golf Association).
Around the same time, high school students at Columbia HS in Maplewood NJ invented a disc game in 1968 that they called Ultimate. Among the three credited with its invention was future hollywood producer Joel Silver. Spread to mostly East Coast colleges by Columbia HS graduates in the early 1970s, and developed nearly in parallel in Southern California, the game began to have unofficial championships played in 1975. Loosely organized in its early years, Ultimate developed as an organized sport with the 1979 creation of the Ultimate Players Association. The sport grew rapidly throughout the country, establishing a Women's division in 1981, splitting its College division from the Club (adult) division in 1984, a Mixed Club division in 1997, and Youth championships from 1998. In 2010, the UPA re-branded as USA Ultimate, to be more in-line with other sports governing bodies.
As club, college and youth play continued to expand rapidly, more-entrepreneurial enthusiasts looked to turn player interest into spectator dollars. In 2012, the American Ultimate Disc League became the first professional Ultimate league, followed the next year by Major League Ultimate. The two ran in parallel through 2016, when MLU folded; AUDL has sustained play through 2019 and expanded from 8 teams in 2012 to 21 teams in 2019. Although the AUDL's popularity continues to grow, the USA Ultimate Club Division is still viewed as the sport's highest level of play.
In 2015, the International Olympic Committee granted full recognition to the World Flying Disc Federation for flying disc sports including Ultimate.
Other sports
The development of snowboarding was inspired by skateboarding, sledding, surfing and skiing. It was developed in the United States in the 1960s, became a Winter Olympic Sport at Nagano in 1998 and first featured in the Winter Paralympics at Sochi in 2014.
Australian rules football in the United States was first played in the country in 1996. The United States Australian Football League is the governing body for the sport in the U.S, with various clubs and leagues around the country. The National Championships are held annually. The United States men's national Australian rules football team and the women's national team both regularly play international matches, and play in the Australian Football International Cup, an international tournament. The sport also benefits from an active fan based organization, the Australian Football Association of North America.
Bandy is only played in Minnesota. The national team regularly plays in Division A of the Bandy World Championships. In terms of licensed athletes, it is the second biggest winter sport in the world.
Curling is popular in northern states, possibly because of climate, proximity to Canada, or Scandinavian heritage. The national popularity of curling is growing after significant media coverage of the sport in the 2006 and 2010 Winter Olympics.
Gaelic football and hurling are governed by North American GAA and New York GAA. They do not have a high profile but are developing sports, with New York fielding a representative team in the All-Ireland Senior Football Championship.
Field hockey is played in the United States predominantly by women. It is played widely at numerous NCAA colleges.
Handball, a common popular sport in European countries, is seldom seen in the United States. The sport is mostly played in the country on the amateur level. Handball is played in the Summer Olympics, but is not sanctioned by the NCAA; all college and university teams play as club teams. In 2020, a former USA Team Handball CEO Barry Siff said that they are planning to create an American professional team handball league sponsored by Verizon. They are planning to have the owners until the end of 2020, and to launch the league in 2023 with 10 teams with each team initially worth $3 million to $5 million and want to cooperate with NBA or NHL owners in one-tenant arena situations.
Inline hockey was invented by Americans as a way to play the sport in all climates. The PIHA is the league with the largest number of professional teams in the nation. Street hockey is a non-standard version of inline hockey played by amateurs in informal games.
Rugby league in the United States is governed by the USA Rugby League (USARL). The majority of teams are based on the East Coast. The league was founded in 2011 by clubs that had broken with the established American National Rugby League (AMNRL).
The United States national rugby league team played in their first World Cup in 2013 advancing to the quarter finals with wins over Wales and the Cook Islands.
The USA Tomahawks national team would go on to lose to champions Australia 62–0.
Water polo does not have a professional competition in the U.S., so the highest level of competitive play is at the college level and in the Olympics. The NCAA sanctions water polo as a varsity sport for both men and women, and is popular in the U.S. along the west coast, and parts of the east coast. However, no team outside of California has ever reached the finals of the NCAA Division I men's water polo championship.
Organization of American sports
Professional sports
For the most part, unlike sports in Europe and other parts of the world, there is no system of promotion and relegation in American professional sports. Major sports leagues operate as associations of franchises. The same 30–32 teams play in the league each year unless they move to another city or the league chooses to expand with new franchises.
All American sports leagues use the same type of schedule. After the regular season, the 10–16 teams with the best records enter a playoff tournament leading to a championship series or game. American sports, except for soccer and women's basketball, have no equivalent to the cup competitions that run concurrently with leagues in European sports. In soccer, the most established cup competitions, the Lamar Hunt U.S. Open Cup for men's teams throughout all levels, and the NWSL Challenge Cup for teams in that league, draw considerably less attention than the regular season. The Leagues Cup, previously an invitational event involving a small number of teams from MLS and Mexico's top level of Liga MX, is expanding in 2023 to include all teams from the two leagues; its status relative to the MLS regular season remains to be seen. In basketball, the WNBA launched the Commissioner's Cup in the 2021 season, but the qualification process for the one-off Cup final, held at midseason, is based on a subset of regular-season games for all teams. Also, the only top-level U.S. professional teams that play teams from other organizations in meaningful games are those in MLS. Since the 2012 season, all U.S.-based MLS teams have automatically qualified for the U.S. Open Cup, in which they compete against teams from lower-level U.S. leagues. In addition, several U.S.-based MLS teams qualify to play clubs from countries outside the U.S. and Canada in the CONCACAF Champions League. NBA teams have played European teams in preseason exhibitions on a semi-regular basis, and recent MLS All-Star Games have pitted top players from the league against major European soccer teams, such as members of the Premier League.
International competition is not as important in American sports as it is in the sporting culture of most other countries, although Olympic ice hockey and basketball tournaments do generate attention. The first international baseball tournament with top-level players, the World Baseball Classic, also generated some positive reviews after its inaugural tournament in 2006.
The major professional sports leagues operate drafts once a year, in which each league's teams selected eligible prospects. Eligibility differs from league to league. Baseball and ice hockey operate minor league systems for players who have finished education but are not ready or good enough for the major leagues. The NBA also has a development league for players who are not ready to play at the top level.
College sports
The extent to which sports are associated with secondary and tertiary education in the United States is rare among nations. Millions of students participate in athletics programs operated by high schools and colleges. Student-athletes often receive scholarships to colleges in recognition of their athletic potential. Currently, the largest governing body of collegiate sports is the National Collegiate Athletic Association (NCAA).
Especially in football and basketball, college sports are followed in numbers equaling those of professional sports. College football games can draw over 100,000 spectators. For upper-tier institutions, sports are a significant source of revenue; for less prominent teams, maintaining a high-level team is a major expense. To ensure some semblance of competitive balance, the NCAA divides its institutions into three divisions (four in football), sorted by the number of athletic scholarships each school is willing to offer.
The most practiced college sports, measured by NCAA reporting on varsity team participation, are: (1) football (64,000), (2) baseball/softball (47,000), (3) track and field (46,000), (4) soccer (43,000), (5) basketball (32,000), (6) cross-country running (25,000), and (7) swimming/diving (20,000). The most popular sport among female athletes is soccer, followed closely by track and field.
Junior college athletics are governed by separate bodies. In most of the country, all sports at that level are governed by the National Junior College Athletic Association (NJCAA). California's community colleges have their own governing body, the California Community College Athletic Association (CCCAA; usually pronounced as "3C-2A"). In the Pacific Northwest, most sports are governed by the Northwest Athletic Conference (NWAC). Because the NWAC does not sponsor football, members that play football do so as part of the NJCAA.
High school sports
Most public high schools are members of their respective state athletic association, and those associations are members of the National Federation of State High School Associations (NFHS). Some states have separate associations for public and non-public high schools.
The 2018–19 school year was the first in 30 years to see a decrease in high school sports participation. Increases through the previous decades had been largely driven by growth in girls' participation. The high school sports with the highest number of participants for 2018–19 are:
Team sports
Football – 1,008,417
Basketball – 939,836
Baseball/Softball – 854,859
Soccer – 853,182
Volleyball – 516,371
Individual sports
Track & field (outdoor) – 1,093,621
Cross country – 488,640
Tennis – 348,750
Swimming & diving – 309,726
Wrestling – 268,565
Notes
Popular high school sports in various regions of the U.S. include the Texas High School football championships, the Indiana basketball championships, and ice hockey in Minnesota.
The Minnesota State High School Hockey Tournament is the largest high school sporting event in the country, with average attendance to the top tier, or "AA", games over 18,000.
Amateur sports
The Amateur Athletic Union claims to have over 670,000 participants and over 100,000 volunteers.. The AAU has existed since 1888, and has been influential in amateur sports for that same time span.
In the 1970s, the AAU received growing criticism. Many claimed that its regulatory framework was outdated. Women were banned from participating in certain competitions and some runners were locked out. There were also problems with sporting goods that did not meet the standards of the AAU. During this time, the Amateur Sports Act of 1978 organized the United States Olympic Committee and saw the re-establishment of state-supported independent associations for the Olympic sports, referred to as national governing bodies. As a result, the AAU lost its influence and importance in international sports, and focused on the support and promotion of predominantly youthful athletes, as well as on the organization of national sports events.
Government regulation
No American government agency is charged with overseeing sports. However, the President's Council on Physical Fitness and Sports advises the President through the Secretary of Health and Human Services about physical activity, fitness, and sports, and recommends programs to promote regular physical activity for the health of all Americans.The U.S. Congress has chartered the United States Olympic & Paralympic Committee to govern American participation in the Olympic and Paralympic movements, and promote Olympic and Paralympic sports. Congress has also involved itself in several aspects of sports, notably gender equity in college athletics, illegal drugs in pro sports, sports broadcasting and the application of antitrust law to sports leagues.
Individual states may also have athletic commissions, which primarily govern individual sports such as boxing, kickboxing and mixed martial arts. Notable state athletic commissions are the Nevada Athletic Commission, California State Athletic Commission, New York State Athletic Commission and New Jersey State Athletic Control Board. Although these commissions only have jurisdiction over their own states, the Full Faith and Credit Clause of the U.S. Constitution is often interpreted as forcing all other states to recognize any state athletic commission's rulings regarding an athlete's fitness for participating in a sport.
Sports media in the United States
Sports have been a major part of American broadcasting since the early days of radio. Today, television networks and radio networks pay millions (sometimes billions) of dollars for the rights to broadcast sporting events. Contracts between leagues and broadcasters stipulate how often games must be interrupted for commercials. Because of all of the advertisements, broadcasting contracts are very lucrative and account for the biggest chunk of major professional teams' revenues. Broadcasters also covet the television contracts for the major sports leagues (especially in the case of the NFL) in order to amplify their ability to promote their programming to the audience, especially young and middle-aged adult males.
The advent of cable and satellite television has greatly expanded sports offerings on American TV. ESPN, the first all-sports cable network in the U.S., went on the air in 1979. It has been followed by several sister networks and competitors. Some sports television networks are national, such as CBS Sports Network, Fox Sports 1 and NBC Sports Network, whereas others are regional, such as NBC Sports Regional Networks, Bally Sports and Spectrum Sports. General entertainment channels like TBS, TNT, and USA Network also air sports events.
Some sports leagues have their own sports networks, such as NFL Network, MLB Network, NBA TV, NHL Network, Big Ten Network, Pac-12 Network and SEC Network. Some sports teams run their own television networks as well.
Sports are also widely broadcast at the local level, ranging from college and professional sports down to (on some smaller stations) recreational and youth leagues. Internet radio has allowed these broadcasts to reach a worldwide audience.
Most popular sports in the United States
In the broadest definition of sports—physical recreation of all sorts—the four most popular sports among the general population of the United States are exercise walking (90 million), exercising with equipment (53 million), swimming (52 million) and camping (47 million). The most popular competitive sport (and fifth most popular recreational sport) is bowling (43 million). Other most popular sports are fishing (35 million), bicycling (37 million), weightlifting (33 million), aerobics (30 million), and hiking (28 million).
According to a January 2018 Poll by Gallup, 37% of Americans consider football their favorite spectator sport, while 11% prefer basketball, 9% baseball, and 7% soccer. There is some variation by viewer demographics. Men, show a stronger preference for football than women, conservatives a stronger preference than liberals, and those over 35 a stronger preference than those under 35. In all groups, however, football is still the most popular. Basketball and soccer are more popular among liberals than conservatives.
Pickleball, a racquet sport invented in the state of Washington in 1965, was designated Washington's official state sport in 2022. For two years in a row, 2021 and 2022, the sport was named the fastest growing sport in the United States by the Sports and Fitness Industry Association (SFIA). Between 2019 and 2022 the SFIA estimates the number of US players increased almost 40% to 4.8 million. Projections suggest there could be as many as 40 million players in the United States by the end of the decade.
Sports leagues in the United States
The sports leagues
The following table shows the professional sports leagues, which average over 15,000 fans per game and that have a national TV contract that pays rights fees.
Other team sports leagues
American Ultimate Disc League (AUDL)
National Volleyball Association (NVA)
Association of Volleyball Professionals (AVP)
National Women's Soccer League (NWSL)
Major Arena Soccer League (MASL)
United Soccer League (USL)
Men's leagues:
USL Championship (USLC)
USL League One (USL1)
USL League Two (USL2)
Women's leagues:
USL Super League (USLS; planned launch in 2024)
USL W League (USLW)
MLS Next Pro
National Independent Soccer Association (NISA)
Premier Lacrosse League (PLL)
National Lacrosse League (NLL)
Minor League Baseball:
Triple-A leagues:
International League
Pacific Coast League
Double-A leagues:
Eastern League
Southern League
Texas League
High-A leagues:
Midwest League
Northwest League
South Atlantic League
Low-A leagues:
California League
Carolina League
Florida State League
Rookie leagues:
Arizona Complex League
Florida Complex League
MLB Partner Leagues:
American Association
Atlantic League
Frontier League
Pioneer League
Major League Rugby (MLR) (Union)
USA Rugby League (USARL)
National Collegiate Athletic Association (NCAA)
Premier Hockey Federation (PHF)
American Hockey League (AHL)
ECHL
Federal Prospects Hockey League (FPHL)
Southern Professional Hockey League (SPHL)
National Pro Fastpitch (NPF)
United States Australian Football League (USAFL)
Professional Inline Hockey Association (PIHA)
Women's National Basketball Association (WNBA)
NBA G League
USFL
XFL
National Gay Flag Football League (NGFFL)
Women's Football Alliance (WFA)
Major League Cricket (MLC)
North American Floorball League (NAFL)
Other individual sports leagues
Auto racing
IndyCar (was Indy Racing League (IRL), merged with Champ Car)
International Motor Sports Association (IMSA, sanctions IMSA SportsCar Championship)
National Association of Stock Car Automobile Racing (NASCAR)
National Hot Rod Association (NHRA)
Bowling
PBA Tour
United States Bowling Congress (USBC)
Combat
Bellator Fighting Championships
Ultimate Fighting Championship (UFC)
Flying Disc
Professional Disc Golf Association (PDGA)
Golf
Legends Tour, for women's golfers 45 and over
LPGA Tour
Epson Tour, developmental tour for the LPGA
PGA Tour
PGA Tour Champions, for men's golfers 50 and over; operated by the PGA Tour
Korn Ferry Tour, developmental tour for the PGA Tour
Juggling
World Juggling Federation (WJF)
Pickleball
Major League Pickleball (MLP)
Professional Pickleball Association (PPA)
Association of Pickleball Professionals (APP)
Rodeo
Professional Bull Riders (PBR)
Professional Rodeo Cowboys Association (PRCA)
Sports governing bodies
Automobile Competition Committee for the United States (ACCUS)
USA Boxing (USAB)
USA Basketball (USAB)
USA Cycling (USAC)
USA Cricket (USAC)
USA Football (USAF)
USA Baseball (USAB)
USA Hockey (USAH)
USA Pickleball (USAP)
USA Rugby (Union) (USAR)
USA Rugby League (USARL)
USA Table Tennis (USATT)
USA Team Handball (USATH)
USA Track & Field (USATF)
USA Volleyball (USAV)
United States Aquatic Sports (USAS)
United States Bobsled and Skeleton Federation (USBFS)
United States Golf Association (USGA)
United States Rowing Association (USRA)
United States Ski and Snowboard
United States Snooker Association (USSA)
United States Soccer Federation (USSF)
United States Tennis Association (USTA)
See also
Sports in the United States by state
Sports Museum of America
Professional sports in the Western United States
Record attendances in United States club soccer
Homosexuality in sports in the United States
Sport in the United Kingdom
Notes
References
Further reading
Gerdy, John R. Sports: The All-American Addiction (2002) online
Gorn, Elliott J. A Brief History of American Sports (2004)
Harris, Othello, George Kirsch, et al. eds. Encyclopedia of Ethnicity and Sports in the United States (2000) excerpts
Jackson III, Harvey H. ed. The New Encyclopedia of Southern Culture: Sports & Recreation (2011) online
Jay, Kathryn. More Than Just a Game: Sports in American Life since 1945 (2004). online
Reiss, Steven A. ed. Sports in America from Colonial Times to the Twenty-First Century: An Encyclopedia (3 vol 2011) excerpt
External links | wiki |
Man with a Plan may refer to:
Man with a Plan (film), a 1996 independent satire
Man with a Plan (TV series), a 2016 television sitcom starring Matt LeBlanc
"Man with a Plan", a 2013 television episode of Mad Men
Man with a Plan (album), a 1996 album by Carl Smith
Man with a Plan, a 1992 album by Dennis Robbins
Lincoln Loud, protagonist of The Loud House | wiki |
Chicken fat is fat obtained (usually as a by-product) from chicken rendering and processing. Of the many animal-sourced substances, chicken fat is noted for being high in linoleic acid, an omega-6 fatty acid. Linoleic acid levels are between 17.9% and 22.8%. It is a common flavoring, additive or main component of chicken soup. It is often used in pet foods, and has been used in the production of biodiesel. One method of converting chicken fat into biodiesel is through a process called supercritical methanol treatment.
Culinary uses
Most uses for chicken fat come after its rendering process. The rendering process can be done several ways but the most common is by putting it in a pan to melt. Rendered chicken fat is also referred to as schmaltz. Once rendered, it can be used similarly to oil or butter in a pan or it can be whipped for spreading.
Nutrition
Chicken is a source of protein, and chicken fat is another important nutrient in chicken. Chicken skin is usually taken off and thrown away but, this fat is actually an unsaturated fat that can benefit you. Saturated fat, however, has a correlation to atherosclerosis and heart disease, which are some of the most harmful and prevalent health conditions in the United States. Generally, in order to maintain a well-balanced diet, people need to eat more unsaturated than saturated fats to maintain healthy amounts of cholesterol. High cholesterol has been correlated with atherosclerosis and heart disease. An article published in Lipids in Health and Disease looked at the levels of cholesterol, protein and saturated fats within chicken. Chicken with and without skin was evaluated and it was found that the chicken with skin was higher in cholesterol and unsaturated fats. The chicken that contained no skin and had the breast meat with the natural amount of fat was high in protein and low in cholesterol. It can be determined then that chicken fat is essentially healthy in moderation and it does not needed to be avoided at all costs because it contains protein, unsaturated fats and is also low in cholesterol which can cause major health issues.
Biofuel
Researchers have been looking into more sustainable ways to develop energy efficient biofuels. Biofuels range in uses from transportation to power generation. Chicken fat, or chicken waste, has been a center for advances in developing a better fuel that can replace fossil fuels. The process to extract biofuel from chicken fat has been done primarily two ways: transesterification and supercritical methanol treatment.
Transesterification uses alcohol to form esters and glycerol then uses a catalyst to yield a faster reaction. Supercritical methanol treatment does not require a catalyst and dissolves the waste body product with high temperatures and pressure.
Transesterification has been used with other animal body waste products, such as chicken skin, but its use of chicken fat yields more biofuel in the end product. Through the process, two separate layers form—one red and the other yellow, the red being the glycerol and the yellow being the biofuel.
Supercritical methanol treatment has similar results; however, it does not require the use of a catalyst to yield biodiesel. Rather than form two layers, it equalizes the glycerol as a vapor and the biodiesel as a liquid.
Chicken fat as a biofuel allows for researchers and engineers to prove the extent of organic material as a means to power machines, buildings, planes, trucks, etc. Organic matter as a means to develop biofuel—or feedstock—is accessible and affordable and requires less energy to develop. Biofuel provides a sustainable alternative to petroleum or oil, which often needs to be imported from other nations. Chicken fat can be used as the base foundation for creating biofuel that is easily accessible and does not require international transportation. Biofuel does not result in toxic products like carbon dioxide and instead yields organic acids.
See also
Schmaltz, rendered fat that may be made from chicken fat
References
Animal fats | wiki |
Afterword is a literary device. It may also refer to:
After Words, a TV series
Afterwords (The Gathering album)
Afterwords (Collective Soul album)
"Afterword", song from Paper Anniversary (album) | wiki |
The Amish Paste heirloom tomato is a plum tomato of Amish origins, that is used for cooking, although it can be eaten raw.
History
The Amish Paste tomato is said to have originated in the 1870s with the oldest Amish community in Wisconsin; Medford.
It rose to fame once acquired by Tom Hauch of Heirloom Seeds organization, from the Amish of Lancaster County, Pennsylvania, and was first distributed nationally in the Seed Savers edition 1987, by Thane Earle of Whitewater.
The plant
This is one of the larger "paste" varieties of tomato, its fruit growing from . It varies widely in shape, from "oxheart" to plum, and though coreless, is somewhat seedier and sweeter than normal paste cultivars. They tend to ripen 80 to 85 days after planting.
The plant is an indeterminate variety, growing continually until it dies (like all tomato plants, it's a delicate perennial, that would not die if growing in the warm climate to which tomatoes are native). Because it has relatively sparse foliage, the fruit is more exposed to sunlight than a normal plant, making sunscald an issue.
References
Tomato cultivars
Horticulture | wiki |
Erika Geréd, sometimes written as Erika Gered (born 28 April 1999) is a Romanian footballer of hungarian ethnicity who plays as a midfielder for Vasas Femina FC and has appeared for the Romania women's national team.
Career
Gered has been capped for the Romania national team, appearing for the team during the 2019 FIFA Women's World Cup qualifying cycle.
International goals
References
External links
1999 births
Living people
Romanian women's footballers
Romania women's international footballers
Women's association football midfielders
Romanian sportspeople of Hungarian descent | wiki |
The natural history of Australia has been shaped by the geological evolution of the Australian continent from Gondwana and the changes in global climate over geological time. The building of the Australian continent and its association with other land masses, as well as climate changes over geological time, have created the unique flora and fauna present in Australia today.
Precambrian
Three areas of the Australian landmass that are made of Archaean rocks are more than 2.5 billion years old, among the oldest known rocks. These igneous and metamorphic rocks are found in the Yilgarn (West) and Pilbara (North) cratons in today's Western Australia and the Gawler (South) craton which makes up the Eyre Peninsula in South Australia. During the Proterozoic, 2,500 to 545 Ma, continent building took place around the existing cratons; the accretions include sedimentary deposition of the banded iron formations and the formation of Australia's major orebodies - sources of gold, copper, lead, zinc, silver and uranium. These disparate landmasses are thought to have become associated by the tectonic collisions that formed the supercontinent Rodinia, between 1300 to 1100 Ma. Geological evidence suggests that the West Australian cratons collided first, followed by collision with the South Australian craton between ~830 and 750 Ma. The Centralian Superbasin formed the junction of the North, South and West cratons.
Rodinia broke up between 830 to 745 Ma; at around 750 Ma the western side of Rodinia called Laurentia broke away from the landmass made from Australia, India and Antarctica, forming a gap that would become the Pacific Ocean.
The Archean rocks from the Pilbara craton contain some of the first evidence of life, primitive cyanobacterial mats known as stromatolites. Soft-bodied organisms from the Ediacaran collectively known as the Ediacaran biota are found in sandstone around the Flinders Ranges in South Australia, notably at a site known as Wilpena Pound.
Gondwana
Following the breakup of Rodinia, Australia, India and Antarctica made up a large landmass. During plate movements from 750 to 500 Ma South America and Africa moved toward India and Australia, and by 500 Ma South America and Africa had joined with them to form Gondwana.
During the Palaeozoic, 545 to 251 Ma, the present landmass of Australia saw two stages of geological development. From 545 to 390 Ma shallow warm seas covered parts of central Australia, with a series of volcanic arcs and deep water sedimentation in the east. During this period between 480 to 460 Ma the Larapinta Seaway extended across the centre of Australia. Cycles of sedimentation and volcanism formed new continental crust, forming eastern Australia. There was a major orogeny in eastern Australia from 387 to 360 Ma. The continent was affected by glaciation around 330 Ma.
The continents that had drifted away from Rodinia drifted together again during the Paleozoic: Gondwana, Euramerica, and Siberia/Angara collided to form the supercontinent of Pangea during the Devonian and Carboniferous periods, some 350 million years ago. Pangea was a short-lived supercontinent; it began to break apart again in the early Jurassic. While Pangea existed it created opportunities for intermixing of the flora and fauna.
During the Carboniferous glaciation, erosion by ice extended into the Early Permian. Crustal extension and subsidence around 295 Ma formed shallow basins in which thick coal deposits were formed.
During the Mesozoic, when the Earth became much warmer, 251 to 140 Ma, the Australian landmass was covered with riverine plains. Humid conditions allowed the formation of peatlands, particularly in the east. Dinosaurs, reptiles and primitive mammals were present in Australia. Between 140 and 99 Ma sea levels rose and much of the continent was covered. In the same period (between 120 - 105 Ma) there was more volcanism in eastern Australia, leading to uplift creating the Tasman Sea to the southeast and the Coral Sea to the north.
The earliest land plants preserved in Australia occur in deposits from the Upper Silurian and the Lower Devonian in marine sediments in Victoria, named the Baragwanathia Assemblage for its most prominent element, the simple vascular plant the lycopod Baragwanathia. The assemblage also included Rhyniophyta, Zosterophyllophyta, and Trimerophyta in addition to other lycopods. All these plants were herbaceous, coastal and required an aqueous environment for reproduction. During the Devonian the first shrub-sized to tree-sized lycopods appeared in Australia and Antarctica; they dominated the flora until the Early Carboniferous. In the mid- to Late Carboniferous, as Australia drifted from equatorial latitudes to polar latitudes, the lycopods waned and were replaced by seed-ferns, and the Nothorhacopteris-Fedekurtzia-Botrychiopis complex.
Most of the modern Australian fauna had its origin in the Cretaceous. From pollen records from the Late Cretaceous it is proposed that the flora of the Cretaceous either evolved within the Austro-Antarctic region or entered Australia from Antarctica. Angiosperms evolved in the northern Gondwana/southern Laurasia during the Early Cretaceous and radiated worldwide. Prominent members of this early angiosperm flora were the Nothofagus.
Fossils found at Lightning Ridge, New South Wales, suggest that 110 million years ago Australia supported a number of different monotremes, but did not support any marsupials. Marsupials appear to have evolved during the Cretaceous in the contemporary northern hemisphere, to judge from a 100-million-year-old marsupial fossil, Kokopellia, found in the badlands of Utah. Marsupials would then have spread to South America and Gondwana. The first evidence of marsupials in Australia comes from the Tertiary, and was found at a 55-million-year-old fossil site at Murgon, near Kingaroy in southern Queensland. The Murgon fossil site has yielded a range of marsupial fossils, many with strong South American connections — unsurprising since the two continents were both a part of Gondwana. At Murgon evidence of a placental mammal, a Condylarth (Tingamarra porterorum), was discovered. Placental mammals were also found in North America and South America at this time. This find suggests that placental mammals did coexist with marsupials in Australia in the early Tertiary, although only marsupials persisted.
Isolation
It was not until the Devonian period (419–359 Ma) that we see the first great diversification of fishes living within Australian freshwater basins and in marginal marine embayments. Australia has a rich fossil record of early amphibians which first appeared here around 370–375 Ma, based on well-preserved ‘tetrapod’ trackways at Genoa River, Victoria. The fossil record of reptiles in Australia starts in the Mesozoic Era (250–66 Ma). The oldest of these remains are of Triassic age and comprise a few superficially lizard-like taxa such as prolacertids (eg Kadimakara), and thecodonts. The earliest significant Australian bird fossil is that of a small primitive flying bird (an enantiornithine), known from one leg bone, Nanatius eos, found in 110 Ma marine sediments in Queensland. Two of the world’s three major groups of extant mammals had their origin in the Australian part of the Gondwana supercontinent, the monotremes and marsupials. The oldest mammal fossils from Australia are monotreme fossils from the Cretaceous of Southern Australia. These lived at a time when Australia was part of a small Gondwana (also including Antarctica and New Zealand) which was beginning to drift apart. They are based on isolated jaws and postcranial bones from Lightning Ridge, New South Wales and southern Victoria sites (near Inverloch), dated at between 120 and 110 Ma. Several taxa (Teinolophos, Bishops) existed alongside primitive tribosphenic mammals like Ausktribosphenos.
Australia separated from Gondwana 99 Ma, and initially remained warm and humid with rainforest vegetation. Inland Australia had systems of rivers and lakes with abundant wildlife. Fossil birds, platypus, frogs and snakes are present from this period. From 30 Ma there was a period of global cooling, and from 15 Ma the Antarctic ice sheet formed. Sand deserts and large inland salt lakes formed within the last 5 Ma. Climatic oscillation during the Pleistocene over the last million years led to repeated phases of glaciation with lower sea levels that linked Australia to New Guinea, and warmer interglacial periods with higher sea levels.
As early as the Miocene (23 to 5.3 Ma) and into the Pleistocene (20,000-50,000 years before present) the Australian megafauna developed. The megafauna became extinct in the late Pleistocene, at a time coinciding with both a period of climate change and the first human habitation of Australia. Recent analysis suggests that the fire-stick farming methods of the Australian Aborigines reduced plant diversity and contributed to the extinction of large herbivores with a specialised diet, like the flightless birds from the genus Genyornis. The World Heritage-listed Naracoorte Caves in South Australia are the best record of the Australian megafauna. The placental mammals made their reappearance in Australia in the Pleistocene, as Australia continued to move closer to Indonesia, both bats and rodents appearing reliably in the fossil record. The geographic isolation of Australia created a sharp division between Australian fauna and Asian fauna at the Wallace Line.
See also
Geology of Australia
List of Australian and Antarctic dinosaurs
Natural history of New Zealand
South Polar dinosaurs
Notes and references
Notes
References
External links
Fossil Sites of Australia | wiki |
George Street Bridge may refer to:
George Street Bridge, Newport
George Street Bridge (Aurora, Indiana)
George Street Bridge, Dunedin, New Zealand
See also
George Street (disambiguation)
George Bridge (disambiguation)
George (disambiguation) | wiki |
Anna Anatolyevna Krylova (née Kuropatkina) (; born 3 October 1985) is a Russian triple jumper.
Achievements
External links
1985 births
Living people
Russian female triple jumpers
Sportspeople from Rostov Oblast
World Athletics Championships athletes for Russia | wiki |
Edwin Joseph Cohn (Nova Iorque, — Boston, ) foi um bioquímico estadunidense.
Membros da Academia Nacional de Ciências dos Estados Unidos
Membros da American Philosophical Society
Professores da Universidade Harvard
Bioquímicos dos Estados Unidos
Naturais de Nova Iorque (cidade) | wiki |
Boneless may refer to:
Meat sold without bones.
Boneless "buffalo wings," pieces of chicken made to resemble chicken wings.
alt.binaries.boneless, a Usenet discussion forum
"Boneless" (song), a song by Steve Aoki and Chris Lake with music producer Tujamo
Ivar the Boneless (died 873), Viking leader
Mogu, "boneless" wash painting, a type of painting by ink washes without outlines
A fictional 2 dimensional race from Doctor Who | wiki |
"Everybody Loves a Lover" is a popular song which was a hit single for Doris Day in 1958. Its lyricist, Richard Adler, and its composer, Robert Allen, were both best known for collaborations with other partners. The music Allen composed, aside from this song, was usually for collaborations with Al Stillman, and Adler wrote the lyrics after the 1955 death of his usual composing partner, Jerry Ross.
Background and Doris Day recording
The song's genesis was a comment made to Adler by his lawyer: "You know what Shakespeare said: 'All the world loves a lover.'" (In fact, this was a misattribution of a quote by Ralph Waldo Emerson.) Adler and Allen quickly wrote "Everybody Loves a Lover" in New York City. Doris Day and Adler knew each other through Day's having starred in the film version of The Pajama Game whose songs Adler and Ross had written (originally for the stage musical version of The Pajama Game), and Day had mentioned to Adler that she was looking for a new novelty song to record and Allen on a visit to Los Angeles presented "Everybody Loves a Lover" for consideration by Day, her husband-manager Marty Melcher, and Mitch Miller, who headed Columbia Records, for which company Day recorded. Although Day, Melcher and Miller all saw the song's potential as a hit for Day, Melcher made Day's recording of "Everybody Loves a Lover" conditional on the song's copyright being granted to Artists Music, the publishing firm he owned with Day – a condition to which Allen was not agreeable. However, after a few days, Melcher phoned Allen to say that Day would record the song without her and Melcher acquiring its publishing rights.
Day recorded "Everybody Loves a Lover" in May 1958 with Frank DeVol producing and Earl Palmer on drums. Issued as Columbia catalog number 41195, "Everybody Loves a Lover" first reached the Billboard magazine charts on July 21, 1958. On the Disk Jockey chart, it peaked at number 6; on the Best Seller chart, at number 17; and on the Hot 100 composite chart, it reached number 14. The Doris Day version is noteworthy for the third verse, in which, through overdubbing, the first four lines of verse 2 are superimposed on the first four lines of verse 1, creating a counterpoint duet. The two segments end on the same word, "Pollyanna", sung in harmony. The song was Day's last big charting hit in the US, although she would hit number 4 in 1964 in the UK with the title song of her then-current movie Move Over, Darling. The Doris Day version of "Everybody Loves a Lover" was used in the soundtrack for the BBC's period drama Call the Midwife.
The Shirelles version and rock and roll remakes
"Everybody Loves a Lover" was remade by the Shirelles in 1962, reaching #19 in January 1963: this version, the group's final collaboration with producer Luther Dixon, replicates the backbeat and instrumentation of the Barbara George hit "I Know (You Don't Love Me No More)".
Cash Box described it as "a contagious New Orleans-styled shuffle showcase," saying that "the gals (and the instrumentalists) polish it off in sparkling style."
Besides concurrent covers for the UK market by both the Undertakers and Cliff Bennett, the Shirelles' version of "Everybody Loves a Lover" was also the template for the Sandie Shaw version recorded for her 1965 Sandie album, and also the Peaches and Herb version recorded for their 1967 album For Your Love. Also a live performance by Beryl Marsden of "Everybody Loves a Lover" with the Shirelles' version's arrangement was recorded at the Cavern Club in June 1963 and released on the multi-artist album At The Cavern released 1964. Checkmates, Ltd. released a version of the song as part of a medley on their 1967 debut album, Live! At Caesar's Palace. Guy Mitchell also recorded the song in 1960.
Remakes - pop music
In its original traditional pop format, "Everybody Loves a Lover" has also been recorded by The Angels (whose 1962 version bubbled under the Hot 100 with a #103 peak), Alice Babs (as "Den som glad är" Swedish), Chisu (as "Kellä Kulta, Sillä Onni" Finnish), Sacha Distel (as "Dis! O Dis!" French), Nana Gualdi (as "Junge Leute Brauchen Liebe" German), Jan Howard, Laila Kinnunen (as "Kellä Kulta, Sillä Onni" Finnish), Lill-Babs (as "Den som glad är" Swedish), Angélica María (as "Vivaracho" Spanish), Guy Mitchell, Jane Morgan, Line Renaud (as "Dis! O Dis!" French), and Keely Smith. In 2010 Australian singer Melinda Schneider recorded the song for her Doris Day tribute album Melinda Does Doris. Instrumental versions have been recorded by Joe Loss and Shirley Scott.
On 19 November 2015 a remake of "Everybody Loves a Lover" by Scott Dreier and Jane Monheit was made available for download at the Doris Day Animal Foundation website in return for a $5 donation, all donations thus raised going in their entirety to the Doris Day Animal Foundation, the song's publishers as well as the artists having waived any royalties. Recorded at EastWest Studios, the track is a preview of Dreier's upcoming tribute CD The Doris Day Project.
References
1958 songs
1958 singles
1962 singles
1963 singles
Songs written by Richard Adler
Songs with music by Robert Allen (composer)
Doris Day songs
The Shirelles songs
Guy Mitchell songs
The Angels (American group) songs
Checkmates, Ltd. songs
Scepter Records singles | wiki |
DCLP may refer to:
Digital Corpus of Literary Papyri
Double-checked locking pattern | wiki |
A worship pastor usually refers to a person who ministers using contemporary worship music or other Christian music, as well as counseling and pastoring members of the church's music team and worship ministries. This is a distinct role within a church, that contains elements of, and overlaps with some of the roles of a church music director and pastor, while being neither. Usually a worship pastor will also be considered a worship leader of the church with the added responsibilities of caring for members of a team, including other worship leaders and musicians.
See also
Precentor
References
Ecclesiastical titles
Local Christian church officials
de:Kantor | wiki |
La Leona may refer to:
La Leona (guitar), a famous guitar owned by Miguel Llobet
La Leona, Costa Rica, a small town in Costa Rica
La Leona, Texas, a small settlement in Texas, USA
Paseo La Leona, a pass in Honduras
Parque La Leona, a park in Honduras
La Leona River, a river in Argentina
La Leona (film), a 1964 Argentine film
La Leona (Argentine telenovela), an Argentine telenovela that aired in 2016
La Leona (Mexican telenovela), a telenovela that aired in 1961 | wiki |
Colenso may refer to:
People
Elizabeth Fairburn Colenso, wife of William Colenso
Frances Colenso (1849–1887), historian, daughter of John William Colenso
Harriette Colenso, Anglican missionary, daughter of John William Colenso
John Colenso (1814–1883), first Anglican bishop of Natal, mathematician, theologian, Biblical scholar and social activist
William Colenso (1811–1899), missionary, botanist and politician in New Zealand
Other
Battle of Colenso, 1899, during the Second Boer War
Colenso, KwaZulu-Natal, town in eastern South Africa
Colenso Power Station
Colenso Parade, alternative rock band from Belfast, Northern Ireland
Cornish-language surnames | wiki |
A yard light or garden lantern is a free standing exterior light fixture in gardens and landscaped settings. They are usually illuminated by electricity, but occasionally natural gas, and are usually placed near an outdoor path or driveway to provide visibility in dark areas or areas that become dark at certain times. A solar lamp is operated by batteries charged by solar panels during the day.
Electric garden lanterns are usually controlled from inside a building by a wall switch, or by a photoelectric sensor attached to the lamp or nearby. Yard lamps intended to provide security lighting may be controlled by a motion sensor. Gas lanterns that burn continually may be prohibited by some jurisdiction's greenhouse gas environmental regulations.
Yard lamps are weather resistant. Water penetration can extinguish the flame, shatter the bulb, or short circuit the wiring.
See also
Landscape lighting
Architectural lighting design
Light fixtures
Garden features | wiki |
Smooth è un album del sassofonista jazz americano Gerald Albright, pubblicato nel 1994.
Tracce
Collegamenti esterni | wiki |
Metropolitan Park District may refer to:
Metropolitan Park System of Greater Boston
Metro Parks Tacoma
Metro Parks (Columbus, Ohio)
Metroparks of the Toledo Area | wiki |
Scream is an American anthology slasher television series developed by Jill Blotevogel, Dan Dworkin and Jay Beattie for MTV and Brett Matthews for VH1. It is based on the slasher film series of the same name created by Kevin Williamson and Wes Craven. The series premiered on June 30, 2015.
Series overview
Episodes
Season 1 (2015)
Season 2 (2016)
Season 3: Resurrection (2019)
Scream After Dark
Scream After Dark is a half-hour television aftershow hosted by Jeffery Self, which features behind the scenes footage, comedy sketches and interviews with the main cast from the series in which they discuss an episode of Scream following its original airing. The aftershow featured three installments which aired following the first, eighth and twelfth episodes of the second season.
Ratings
Season 1
Season 2
Season 3
References
Lists of American teen drama television series episodes
Lists of horror television series episodes
Scream (franchise) lists
Episodes | wiki |
Lemon Tree Passage may refer to:
Lemon Tree Passage, New South Wales
Lemon Tree Passage (film) | wiki |
The Choice Is Yours or Choice Is Yours may refer to:
1980 – The Choice Is Yours, an album by punk rock band The Members
"The Choice Is Yours (Revisited)", a song by hip hop group Black Sheep
Choice Is Yours (AAA album), the third mini album by the Japanese entertainers AAA
The Choice is Yours, a high school open enrollment program coordinated by the Minnesota Department of Education | wiki |
The Pamplona (also referred to as Pamplona de cerdo) is a grilled stuffed-meat dish from Uruguay prepared with chicken, and may be prepared with other meats such as pork and beef. It has also become increasingly popular in Argentina.
The traditional Pamplona is of chicken breast rolled with ham, cheese and peppers, tightly bound into a large sausage shape about 12–15 cm in diameter. The Pamplona may be grilled on a parilla as part of an asado. Beef or pork pamplonas or pamplonas with different fillings are also prepared.
Some variants include bacon strips around the main roll.
See also
Chorizo de Pamplona – a sausage that is typical in the cuisine of the Navarre region of Spain
References
Uruguayan cuisine
Barbecue
Meat dishes | wiki |
This is a glossary of terms used in the descriptions of ants.
A
B
D
E
F
G
H
M
N
O
P
Q
R
S
T
U
W
See also
Glossary of entomology terms
Glossary of scientific names
Glossary of scientific naming
References
External links
Antkey glossary
Ants
Myrmecology
Wikipedia glossaries using description lists | wiki |
Vision rehabilitation (often called vision rehab) is a term for a medical rehabilitation to improve vision or low vision. In other words, it is the process of restoring functional ability and improving quality of life and independence in an individual who has lost visual function through illness or injury. Most visual rehabilitation services are focused on low vision, which is a visual impairment that cannot be fully corrected by regular eyeglasses, contact lenses, medication, or surgery. Low vision interferes with the ability to perform everyday activities. Visual impairment is caused by factors including brain damage, vision loss, and others. Of the vision rehabilitation techniques available, most center on neurological and physical approaches.
Definition
Rehabilitation (literally, the act of making able again) helps patients achieve physical, social, emotional, spiritual independence and quality of life. Rehabilitation does not undo or reverse the cause of damage; it seeks to promote function and independence through adaptation. Individuals can seek rehabilitation in different domains, such as motor rehabilitation after a stroke or physical rehabilitation after a car accident. Low vision can be caused by many diseases.
Clinical studies and treatments
Neurological approach
There are many treatments and therapies to slow degradation of vision loss or improve the vision using neurological approaches. Studies have found that low vision can be restored to good vision. In some cases, vision cannot be restored to normal levels but progressive visual loss can be stopped through interventions.
Chemical treatments
In general, chemical treatments are designed to slow the process of vision loss. Some research is done with neuroprotective treatment that will slow the progression of vision loss. Despite other approaches existing, neuroprotective treatments seem to be most common among all chemical treatments.
Gene therapy
Gene therapy uses DNA as a delivery system to treat visual impairments. In this approach, DNA is modified through a viral vector, and then cells related to vision cease translating faulty proteins. Gene therapy seems to be the most prominent field that might be able to restore vision through therapy. However, research indicates gene therapy may worsen symptoms, cause them to last longer or lead to further complications.
Physical approach
For physical approaches to vision rehabilitation, most of the training is focused on ways to make environments easier to deal with for those with low vision. Occupational therapy is commonly suggested for these patients. Also, there are devices that help patients achieve higher standards of living. These include video magnifiers, peripheral prism glasses, transcranial direct current stimulation (tDCS), closed-circuit television (CCTV), RFID devices, electronic badges with emergency alert systems, virtual sound systems, and smart wheelchairs.
Mobility training
Mobility training improves the ability for patients with visual impairment to live independently by training patients to become more mobile. For low vision patients, there are multiple mobility training methods and devices available including the 3D sound virtual reality system, talking braille, and RFID floors.
The 3D sound virtual reality system transforms sounds into locations and maps the environment. This system alerts patients to avoid possible dangers. The talking braille is a device that helps low vision patients to read braille by detecting light and transmitting this information through Bluetooth technology. RFID floors are GPS-like navigation systems which help patients to detect building interiors, which ultimately allow them to detour around obstacles.
Home skills training
Home skills training allows patients to improve communication skills, self-care skills, cognitive skills, socialization skills, vocational training, psychological testing, and education. One study indicates that multicomponent group interventions for older adults with low vision as an effective approach related to home training. The multicomponent group interventions include learning new knowledge or skills each week, having multiple sessions to allow participants to apply learned knowledge or skills in their living environment, and building relationships with their health care providers. The most important factor in this intervention is support from family, which includes assistance with changes in lifestyles, financial concerns, and future planning.
Occupational Therapy
Occupational therapists can assess how low vision affects day-to-day function. They can promote independence in daily activities through home assessments and modifications, problem solving training, home exercise programs and finding compensatory strategies. For example, an occupational therapist can suggest adding lighting and contrast to a room to improve visibility.
References
Visual disturbances and blindness
Vision
Genetic engineering | wiki |
A peripheral nerve interface is the bridge between the peripheral nervous system and a computer interface which serves as a bi‐directional information transducer recording and sending signals between the human body and a machine processor. Interfaces to the nervous system usually take the form of electrodes for stimulation and recording, though chemical stimulation and sensing are possible. Research in this area is focused on developing peripheral nerve interfaces for the restoration of function following disease or injury to minimize associated losses. Peripheral nerve interfaces also enable electrical stimulation and recording of the peripheral nervous system to study the form and function of the peripheral nervous system. For example, recent animal studies have demonstrated high accuracy in tracking physiological meaningful measures, like joint angle. Many researchers also focus in the area of neuroprosthesis, linking the human nervous system to bionics in order to mimic natural sensorimotor control and function. Successful implantation of peripheral nerve interfaces depend on a number of factors which include appropriate indication, perioperative testing, differentiated planning, and functional training. Typically microelectrode devices are implanted adjacent to, around or within the nerve trunk to establish contact with the peripheral nervous system. Different approaches may be used depending on the type of signal desired and attainable.
Function
The primary purpose of a neural interface is to enable two-way exchange of information with the nervous system for a sustained period of time to enable effective and high density stimulation and recording. The peripheral nervous system (PNS) is responsible for relaying information from the brain and spinal cord to the extremities of the body and back. The function of a peripheral nerve interface is to assist the nervous system when peripheral nerve function is compromised. To supplement the roles of the nervous system, interfaces need to augment motor function as well as discern sensory information. The feasibility of peripheral nerve stimulation to achieve a desired motor output has been demonstrated and is one of the major driving forces for this area of research. Information throughout the nervous system is exchanged primarily through action potentials. These signals occur at varying numbers and intervals dependent on both the neuroanatomical and neurochemical make up of the individual and localized region. Information may be either introduced or read out by inducing or recovering action potentials from the body. Successful development and implementation of a peripheral nerve interface would allow for both the introduction of information to the nervous system, and extraction of information from the nervous system.
Problems and limitations
Problems and limitations in peripheral nerve interfacing are both biophysical and biological in nature. These challenges include:
Fidelity of the interface in terms of functional resolution
Relatively weak, noise-ridden electrical signals causing a challenging interface design constraint
Interface implantation-associated injury to nerve fibers of interest
Stability of the interface over time due to inflammation
Managing inadvertent consequences such as pain or false sensory/motor stimulation due to physical movement or inflammation-associated triggering of neural activity
Application
Peripheral nerve interfaces are used for pain modulation, restoration of motor function following spinal cord injury or stroke, treatment of epilepsy by electrical stimulation of the vagus nerve, nerve stimulation to control micturition, occipital nerve stimulation for chronic migraines and to interface with neuroprosthetics.
Types
A wide variety of electrode designs have been researched, tested, and manufactured. These electrodes lie on a spectrum varying in degrees of invasiveness. Research in this area seeks to address issues centered around peripheral nerve/tissue damage, access to efferent and afferent signals, and selective recording/stimulation of nerve tissue. Ideally peripheral nerve interfaces are optimally designed to interface with biological constraints of peripheral nerve fibers, match the mechanical and electrical properties of the surrounding tissue, biocompatible with minimal immune response, high sensor resolution, are minimally invasive, and chronically stable with low signal-to-noise ratios. Strongest signals are recorded from nodes of ranvier. Peripheral nerve interfaces may be divided into extraneural and intrafascular categories.
Epineurial electrode interface
Epineurial electrodes are fabricated as longitudinal strips holding two or more contact sites to interface with peripheral nerves. These electrodes are placed on the nerve and secured by suturing to the epineurium. The suturing process requires delicate surgery and can be torn from the nerve if excessive motion creates tension. Since the electrode is sutured to the epineurium it is unlikely to damage the nerve trunk.
Helicoidal electrode interface
Helicoidal electrodes are placed circumjacent to the nerve and are made of flexible platinum ribbon in a helical design. This design allows the electrode to conform to the size and shape of the nerve in attempts to minimize mechanical trauma. The structural design causes low selectivity. Helicoidal electrodes are currently used for FES stimulation of the vagus nerve to control intractable epilepsy, sleep apnea, and to treat depressive syndromes.
Book electrode interface
The book electrode consists of a silicone rubber block with slots. Each slot contains three platinum foils which function as electrodes, anode electrodes and one cathode. The spinal roots of the nerve are placed into these slots and the slots are then covered with a flap made of silicone and fixed with silicone glue. This electrode is mostly used to interrupt reflex circuits of the dorsal sacral roots and to control bladder function. Book electrodes are still considered very bulky.
References
DARPA projects
Human–computer interaction
Implants (medicine)
Neural engineering
Neuroprosthetics
User interface techniques
Virtual reality | wiki |
Atrapats (pel·lícula de 1949): pel·lícula de cinema negre de 1949 dirigida per Richard Fleischer.
Atrapats (pel·lícula de 2012): pel·lícula de ficció criminal de 2012 dirigida per Miguel Puertas. | wiki |
Lindsay est une petite ville située au centre du comté de Cooke, au Texas, aux États-Unis.
Démographie
Lors du recensement de 2010, la ville comptait une population de . Elle est estimée, en 2019, à .
Références
Voir aussi
Article connexe
Texas
Liens externes
Histoire de Lindsay
.
.
Source de la traduction
City au Texas
Comté de Cooke | wiki |
This is a list of some of the cattle breeds considered in the United States to be wholly or partly of American origin. Some may have complex or obscure histories, so inclusion here does not necessarily imply that a breed is predominantly or exclusively American.
References
Livestock
Lists of North American domestic animal breeds | wiki |
Rapscallion may refer to:
Rapscallion, space freighter in The Space Gypsy Adventures
The Rapscallions, antagonist army in the book The Long Patrol
The Rapscallions, a collegiate a cappella group from the 1980s
Rapp Scallion, a character in the game Monkey Island
"The Last Superpower AKA Rapscallion", a song by Primus, from their 2003 EP Animals Should Not Try to Act Like People
RapScallions, an American rock band
Rapsgaliwn, a Welsh language children's TV show. | wiki |
Mallory metal is proprietary name for an alloy of tungsten, with other metallic elements added to improve machining.
Its primary use is as a balance weight which is added to the crankshaft of an automotive engine, where the existing counterweight is not large enough to compensate for the weight of the reciprocating and rotating components attached to the crankshaft's connecting rod journals.
Rather than add to the counterweight by welding or fabrication, holes are drilled in structurally safe positions in the counterweights, and "slugs" (cylindrical dowels) of Mallory metal are inserted and fastened securely.
The difference in density between the replacement Mallory metal and the original steel is about 2:1, so the counterweight is heavier without changing its shape or size.
Notes
Tungsten alloys | wiki |
The Clerkenwell Workhouse stood on Coppice Row, Farringdon Road, in London. The original workhouse was built in 1727 but that building was replaced by one twice as large in 1790. It was described by The Lancet in 1865 as one of the two worst in London, and "fit for nothing but to be destroyed" which it was in 1883.
References
External links
Workhouses in London
Clerkenwell
Former buildings and structures in London
Buildings and structures demolished in 1883 | wiki |
This is a list of bridges and tunnels on the National Register of Historic Places in the U.S. state of Iowa.
References
Iowa
Bridges
Bridges | wiki |
John Darby may refer to:
John Darby (NASCAR official), NASCAR Sprint Cup Series director
John Fletcher Darby (1803–1882), American politician
John M. Darby, botanist (1804–1877), American academic and chemist
John Nelson Darby (1800–1882), 19th-century Anglo-Irish evangelist and religious writer
John Darby (Dean of Chester) (1831–1919), Anglican priest
John Darby (printer) (died in 1704), English printer
Fictional
Darby and Joan, a character in this poem
See also
John Derby (disambiguation) | wiki |
Film
Shooting Stars – film del 1928 diretto da Anthony Asquith e A.V. Bramble
Shooting Stars – film del 1983 diretto da Richard Lang
Musica
Shooting Stars – singolo di Billy Idol del 1981
Shooting Stars – singolo dei Bag Raiders del 2009
Sport
Trenton Shooting Stars – squadra di pallacanestro statunitense
Televisione
Shooting Stars – programma televisivo britannico
Altro
Shooting Stars Award – premio cinematografico
Pagine correlate
Shooting Star | wiki |
Boone Bridge may refer to any of the following bridges in the United States:
Boone Bridge (Boone, Iowa), a former bridge over the Des Moines River southwest of Boone
Boone Bridge (Oregon), a highway bridge over the Willamette River at Wilsonville, Oregon, United States.
Boone Bridge 2, a bridge spanning the Des Moines River west of Boone, Iowa
Boone River Bridge, a historic structure north of Goldfield, Iowa
Daniel Boone Bridge, two highway bridges across the Missouri River in Missouri | wiki |
Mammillaria backebergiana is a species of cactus in the subfamily Cactoideae. It is native to Mexico and can be found on cliffs at elevations of around 1,900 m.
References
Plants described in 1966
backebergiana | wiki |
Roller burnishing is a surface finishing technique where hardened rollers cold work surface imperfections to reduce surface roughness. Roller burnishing differs from abrasive surface finishing techniques in that material is displaced rather than removed. The tooling typically consists of a hardened sphere or cylindrical roller. The tooling is pressed into the surface of the part while it is rotated (in some applications, the tools are rotated instead of the part). The burnishing tool rolls against the surface of the part at a constant speed, producing a very consistent finish across the part. A surface finish of less than Ra 0.1 µm is achievable with roller burnishing. A side effect is that the outer surface of the part is work hardened.
Roller burnishing is used in the production of some crankshafts. A dual roller (cylindrical) tool is moved into the thrust bearing journal of a crankshaft, while the crankshaft is spinning the tool is indexed (so each roller is perpendicular to the thrust surface while backing each other up) deforming the surfaces. So the diameters of each roller added together (compensated for elastic deformation) equals the finish dimension of the thrust bearing.
In deep hole machining, a roller burnishing tool is often combined with skiving knives on the same tool. The skiving knives pass first, scraping the inside layer of metal, followed by the burnishing rollers, which cold work the tube to create a mirror surface finish. Skive-burnishing is often used in hydraulic cylinder applications. This process can happen on a deep hole drilling machine or a dedicated skiving machine.
See also
Crankshaft deep rolling
Burnishing (metal)
References
Experimental investigation of mild steel components by Roller Burnishing process and mechanical properties by Taguchi method. https://www.irjet.net/archives/V6/i2/IRJET-V6I2398.pdf
Metal forming | wiki |
The uneven bars is an artistic gymnastics event held at the Summer Olympics on which only women compete. Women started competing in and earning medals at apparatus finals in 1952.
Medalists
Women
Multiple medalists
Medalists by country
Gallery
References
Uneven bars | wiki |
Lane sharing is the use of a single lane by multiple types of transportation. It is commonly used to describe cyclists and motorists sharing a lane, where no dedicated bike lane is present.
Lanes are sometimes shared between bicycles and motor vehicles at intersections; when a bike lane is on the side of a road, turning vehicles may use the bike lane in addition to cyclists.
When lane sharing is done by using space between lines of traffic, it is called lane splitting. This is legal in some areas at intersections, where motorcycle users may use the spaces between cars to queue at a red light.
Types
Trams and road traffic
Trams sometimes share lanes with road traffic, including cars, trucks, buses, and cyclists. Trams may have special rules giving them the right of way in such situations. Shared lanes which include both trams and cyclists may pose a hazard for the latter, due to the rails in the roadway. Where trams share lanes with motor vehicles, traffic lights are often modified to accommodate them.
Dedicated lanes can be used for buses and trams, excluding cars. By separating both buses and trams from private vehicles, both forms of public transportation can handle increased frequency with better reliability.
References
Driving | wiki |
The Polygon may refer to
Semipalatinsk Test Site
The Polygon, Southampton
See also
Polygon (disambiguation) | wiki |
Body drag is the name given to a freestyle trick performed by a windsurfer. The trick involves the rider travelling across the water at high speed and stepping off the board and on to the water while still holding on to the boom which is connected to the sail.
The result should be that the rider's lower body "drags" over the water's surface at speed along with the board and sail. A skilled rider is able to step back onto the board and continue sailing.
External links
A photo of the trick
Windsurfing | wiki |
Front loop is the name given to a trick performed by a windsurfer (also known as a forward loop) whereby the rider performs a jump from a wave face and forces the sail, board and rider to perform a forward somersault in one motion. In its basic form, the rider's hands maintain their position on the boom and the rider's feet maintain their position on the board. Some consider the forward loop to be one of the harder intermediate moves to learn as it goes against most learned reactions whilst sailing.
Physics
The rotational motion occurs when the center of resistance is removed by jumping the board off the water and the center of effort of the sail has been moved forward of the system's center of mass
Execution
Initiation
Front loops may be initiated, unhooked, from close-hauled through broad-reach points of sail, with ease of initiation often determined by wave-face rather than wind direction.
To properly position the center of effort, the rider typically moves their body from a windward sailing position to a position toward the back and centerline of the board. The forward leg will often be straightened—the rear leg bent. To achieve this position, the sail will have been sheeted out slightly during the motion. The rider's rear hand will often move further back on the boom to assist in proper placement of center of effort and sheeting-in later.
Next, the board is jumped from the water, by straightening the rear leg, with the nose of the board commonly 45 degrees higher than the tail as it leaves the water. To assist rotation, and depending upon the desired initiation time of the rotation of the loop, the board may be carved (turned) downwind as it is jumped, and the bottom surface may be tilted about a longitudinal axis to expose it to the wind.
To prepare for maximum speed of rotation, the rider next moves the center of effort of the sail as far away from their center of mass as possible. Starting with the sail held close to the body, the sail is moved (in its current plane) to windward until the forward arm is extended. This motion is most easily accomplished prior to sheeting-in. For maximum extension, the torso may be arched toward the mast as well.
When the rider wishes to initiate center of effort rotation, the sail is sheeted in. Some feel that looking at the clew at this point assists rotation.
Landing
Enhancing hang time
Variations
The axis of rotation determines whether the maneuver is a forward-loop, spin-loop, or cheese-roll. Other variations depend upon the "ramp" from which the rider performs the maneuver, with large wave faces allowing double or triple-loops and accomplished "loopers" performing spin-loops off of flat water.
A double forward is an innovation of this move, it involves two full rotations of board and sail in the air.
Variations include:
Forward loop—same as front loop
Double loop
Triple loop
Spin loop
Flat-water loop
Cheese roll
Wymaroo
Front loop off the lip
Front loop hooked in
Front loop one footed
Table top into forward
Risks
Learning to do a front loop may have more perceived than actual risks. With the axis of rotation nearly vertical, the rider's hands remaining on the boom, and the board heading downwind at initiation, there is little danger of landing on the equipment. While learning, it is possible to tear top monofilm panels of a sail without X-Ply if the front of the mast drives hard into the water during the rotation.
Landing incorrectly from higher loops can break the board in half. Sailers who do not angle the sail enough for the rotation could lands on their side and could blow out their ear drum .
History
The double forward was made famous by Robert Teriitehau and perfected by Ricardo Campello. It is now a commonly performed move in competition.
External links
Video of basic front loop performed by a professional windsurfer.
Video of a double front loop showing sail positioning.
Windsurfing | wiki |
Figment may refer to:
Figment (Disney), Disney character
Figment (arts event), arts event
Figment (website), website | wiki |
Pilea mollis is a species of flowering plant in the family Urticaceae. It is used as an ornamental plant, particularly the cultivar 'Moon Valley'.
References
mollis | wiki |
House of Spies is a 2017 spy novel by Daniel Silva. It is the seventeenth Gabriel Allon series. It was released on July 11, 2017 and debuted on the New York Times Bestseller list at #1.
References
External links
Daniel Silva - Official Website (Book: House of Spies)
goodreads.com
American spy novels
Novels by Daniel Silva
2017 American novels
HarperCollins books | wiki |
A CYYM filter is a color filter array. It has one cyan, two yellow, and one magenta element. Developed by Kodak, it was used in the Kodak DCS 620x and DCS 720x DSLRs.
References
Color filter array | wiki |
The list of Harvard University politicians includes notable politicians affiliated with Harvard University.
Heads of state
Heads of government
US cabinet secretaries
US state governors
US senators
US representatives
Other political figures
See also
List of Harvard University non-graduate alumni
List of companies founded by Harvard University alumni
References
Lists of people by university or college in Massachusetts
People | wiki |
Big Bad Wolf is a 2006 American werewolf-themed horror film about Derek Cowley, where he and his college classmates go to his stepfather's cabin to party. It won the 2007 Silver Award at WorldFest Houston in the category of Best Science Fiction/Fantasy/Horror Film. The film starred Trevor Duke as Derek Cowley, and Kimberly J. Brown as Samantha Marche. It was rated R in the United States for strong violence, gore, language, and nudity.
Plot
Two men are hunting in the jungle of Cameroon when one from another group of two people calls and says that his guide is missing. Then one can hear on the radio that someone is being attacked by what sounds like a wild animal. A humanoid creature rips the leg off of one of the men. The man's brother, Charlie Crowley finds his brother dying.
Years later, Charlie's nephew Derek has been living with emotional abuse from Mitch Toblat after Mitch married his mother. In spite of this Derek is going up to his stepfather's cabin with his friend Samantha and his four other friends while Mitch is on a business trip. After spending five hours searching for the cabin, they finally find it. That night the cabin is surprisingly attacked by a werewolf, and they are more surprised to find that it talks. The werewolf kills two of Derek's friends and breaks into one of the locked rooms of the cabin where it rapes one of the girls in front of her boyfriend, before killing her. The werewolf then castrates the boyfriend and kills him too. Derek and Sam both manage to escape the werewolf and are found by police.
They tell the police they didn't get a good look at what attacked them, knowing that they wouldn't believe them. The next day, Mitch picks Derek up from the police station, and tells Derek that the deaths of his friends are on him for taking his friends to the cabin in the first place. Sam and Derek both suspect that Mitch is the werewolf. Later Charlie pays Derek a visit to see if he's alright.
Derek and Sam confide what they know to Charlie, who surprisingly believes them. Charlie explains that he shot at the werewolf that killed his brother and suspected it to be Mitch as Mitch had a crush on Derek's mother. Charlie also says they just can't accuse Mitch, and need DNA evidence to be compared to the hair sample he got from the werewolf. Meanwhile, Charlie reconnects with Derek's mother while Derek and Sam become romantically connected themselves. While searching for DNA evidence, Sam enters Mitch's room and picks hair from his comb. Mitch catches Sam in his room and forces her to perform oral sex on him, and Sam takes the semen sample as DNA. Derek finds out and it puts a strain on Sam and his relationship.
Meanwhile, Mitch has been stalking Charlie, suspecting that he is sweet on his wife. Mitch picks up a package addressed to Charlie, and learns it is the DNA results. Mitch later abducts Charlie and reveals to him that he doesn't need the moon to change, that he learned to control himself to the extent that he can transform at will. Mitch beats, tortures, mutilates and finally kills Charlie, saying it is his own fault for not minding his business. Derek later finds the DNA report and learns that Mitch has killed Charlie, Derek confronts Mitch about it. Mitch tries to justify himself but Derek shoots down his arguments. Around the same time, Derek's mother decides to leave Mitch. In retaliation, Mitch kidnaps Sam and demands Derek to meet him in the cabin that night, alone.
Derek arrives, but another group of teenagers go to the cabin to investigate the previous massacre (a running gag in the film). Mitch transforms and kills them one at a time, including raping a girl in their group. When it is down to Derek and Sam, they fight Mitch with silver knives and arrows. Eventually, they set Mitch on fire and the cabin burns down. After escaping the fire, Derek and Sam embrace, but Mitch is not dead and bites Derek, before being stabbed one last time. As he dies, Mitch says "my curse is now yours". Derek worries about his future after all he went through, but Sam promises to stick by him whatever happens, and they drive off together on her moped.
After the credits end, Mitch is shown moving his fingers slightly.
Cast
Trevor Duke as Derek Cowley
Kimberly J. Brown as Samantha "Sam" Marche
Richard Tyson as Mitchell Toblat/The Beast
Sarah Aldrich as Gwen Cowley
David Naughton as Sheriff Ruben
Christopher Shyer as Charlie Cowley
Andrew Bowen as Scott Cowley
Sarah Christine Smith as Cassie
Robin Sydney as Melissa
References
External links
2007 Audio Interview at Your Video Store Shelf with the director of Big Bad Wolf Lance W. Dreesen
2006 films
2006 horror films
American comedy horror films
American werewolf films
American exploitation films
American splatter films
2000s English-language films
2000s American films
American black comedy films
American monster movies
American supernatural horror films | wiki |
The economic history of China is covered in the following articles:
Economic history of China before 1912, the economic history of China during the ancient China and imperial China, before the establishment of the Republic of China in 1912.
Economy of the Han dynasty (202 BC – AD 220)
Economy of the Song dynasty (960–1279)
Economy of the Ming dynasty (1368–1644)
Economic history of China (1912–1949), the economic history of the Republic of China during the period when it controlled Chinese mainland from 1912 to 1949.For the economic history of the Republic of China during the period when it only controls Taiwan area after 1949, see Economic history of Taiwan#Modern history.
Economic history of China (1949–present), the economic history of the People's Republic of China.
See also
Economy of China
Economic history of the Republic of China | wiki |
Memory rehearsal is a term for the role of repetition in the retention of memories. It involves repeating information over and over in order to get the information processed and stored as a memory.
Types
Maintenance rehearsal
Maintenance rehearsal is a type of memory rehearsal that is useful in maintaining information in short term memory or working memory. Because this usually involves repeating information without thinking about its meaning or connecting it to other information, the information is not usually transferred to long term memory. An example of maintenance rehearsal would be repeating a phone number mentally, or aloud until the number is entered into the phone to make the call. The number is held in working memory long enough to make the call, but never transferred to long term memory. An hour, or even five minutes after the call, the phone number will no longer be remembered.
In 1972, Craik and Lockhart proposed that memory recall involves multiple processes operating at different levels. Maintenance rehearsal involves repeatedly processing an item at the same level (Baddeley, 2009), which requires little attention. It has the potential for immediate recall, but has little effect in recall in long term memory (Greene, 1987). Depending on the information that needs to be processed determines which route of recall an individual will use. For example, if the information only needs to be used temporarily, a person will use maintenance rehearsal in working memory. But, if the information needs to be used at a later date, most likely a person will use elaborative rehearsal. In elaborative rehearsal, the information is processed at a deeper level and has the ability to move to long-term memory. In a literature review, researchers proposed a hypothesis the help that, “Information entering working memory from the visual external world is processed by structures in the parietal and temporal lobes specialized for perceptual processing (Jondies, Lacey & Nee, 2005).
Maintenance rehearsal has the potential to assist in long-term memory in certain situations. In a previous study, researchers looked at the difference in recall for a set of words between participants who knew they were going to be asked to recall the words, in which they repeated the words multiple times and the participants who did not know they were going to recall the words, in which they only repeated the words once. The group that were told they would have to recall the words at a later date, did significantly better than those who were not told they would have to recall (Baddeley, 2009). There is also a positive correlation between the meaningfulness of words and how much an individual will remember them (Baddeley, 2009). The more meaning an individual associates with a certain word or a list of words, the more likely and easier it will be for them to remember them if asked to repeat them at a later date.
There can be differences in which younger and older children rehearse. Dempster (1981), reports that in younger children, they tend to only rehearse one item at a time. This helps them be able to remember the item without the clutter of other items. The developmental age of the child could also play a role in the number a child is able to remember and rehearse. The older a child is, the more items they can rehearse at once (Dempster, 1981).
In many ways, maintenance rehearsal is useful, such as when people look at a phone number and need to replicate it in a few seconds. But for information that needs more attention and better processing, maintenance rehearsal is only a temporary fix. Individuals should use other processing techniques and elaborative rehearsal to help move information from working to long-term memory.
Working memory is commonly cited as more of a process than an actual storage and is critical to the ability to maintain and manipulate information in one's mind. Because of its importance to cognition, working memory is responsible for that novel information that has immediate importance, but is not needed so much that it is committed to permanent storage in long term memory. In this way, it exists somewhere in an area somewhere between short-term and long-term memory.
The phonological loop is a concept implicated in maintenance rehearsal and is very much a function of working memory. It is composed of two parts: a short-term store, and an articulatory rehearsal process that both work to constantly refresh subvocal memorization. The capacity of the phonological loop is not large, only being able to hold around seven items, but is very dependent on subvocal rehearsal to refresh the memory traces of those items so that they temporarily stay in storage. Similarly, subvocal rehearsal is dependent upon the short-term store in that it is where the information for the phonological loop is found. In this way, both processes of the phonological loop directly rely on one another to complete the process.
In regard to learning theory, the phonological loop has been found to be especially effective when visual information is paired with auditory information. For instance, if one were to read a set of information and listen to it being read audibly, they are more likely to remember it than if they were to simply read it without the audio to supplement it. In this way, it is true that the maintenance rehearsal is most beneficial with rote memorization, however it can be used as a tool for learning particularly when paired with other modes.
Elaborative rehearsal
Elaborative rehearsal is a type of memory rehearsal that is useful in transferring information into long term memory. This type of rehearsal is effective because it involves thinking about the meaning of the information and connecting it to other information already stored in memory. It goes much deeper than maintenance rehearsal.
According to the levels-of-processing effect by Fergus I. M. Craik and Robert S. Lockhart in 1972, this type of rehearsal works best because of this depth of processing.
In addition to processing novel information in which the meaning behind the information is enough to transfer it to long term memory, another way that elaborative rehearsal works is by associating new information with information that is already held in long term memory. This approach requires the learner to engage with new information in a way that creates meaningful connections to previously-learned things, thus leading to the new information also being committed to long term memory.
An effective way of encouraging elaborative rehearsal is by engaging with the material in more than one way. For instance, discussion or study groups provide an opportunity to make discrete pieces of information more personal by attaching stories to them and creating meaningful connections to things already learned. Elaborative rehearsal has strong support in learning, especially in its attention to meaningful connections across different concepts and pieces of information. More specifically, elaborative rehearsal is extremely beneficial when remembering larger pieces of information such as sentences or other larger chunks.
Baddeley's model
In the Baddeley's model of working memory, this ability comprises a central executive and two buffers – the phonological loop and the visuospatial sketch pad. Both storage buffers are characterized by passive storage and rehearsal information. This rehearsal function has been associated with frontal networks such as the Broca's area. More specifically, subvocal rehearsal and verbal maintenance are associated with the posterior left precentral gyrus. The temporary storage of the phonological loop is often attributed to the supramarginal gyrus in the parietal lobe.
See also
Cognitivism
Rehearsal
Rehearsal (educational psychology)
References
Memorization | wiki |
The Electoral College (; ) of the Holy Roman Empire was the gathering of prince electors for an imperial election, where they voted for the next King of the Romans and future Emperor. The German name of this gathering, Kur, is derived from the Middle High German kur or kure ("election").
Initially all the so-called "great ones of the Empire" (Große des Reiches) were entitled to vote, but by the second half of the 13th century, only the prince electors were entitled to participate in the royal election.
Literature
Imperial election (Holy Roman Empire) | wiki |
This is a list of manga that topped The New York Times Manga Best Seller list in 2014.
See also
The New York Times Fiction Best Sellers of 2014
The New York Times Non-Fiction Best Sellers of 2014
References
2014
2014 in the United States
2014 in comics
Lists of manga | wiki |
This is a list of bridges and tunnels on the National Register of Historic Places in the U.S. state of Louisiana.
References
Louisiana
Bridges
Bridges | wiki |
49th National Board of Review Awards
December 19, 1977
Best Picture:
The Turning Point
The 49th National Board of Review Awards were announced on December 19, 1977.
Top ten films
The Turning Point
Annie Hall
Julia
Star Wars
Close Encounters of the Third Kind
The Late Show
Saturday Night Fever
Equus
The Picture Show Man
Harlan County, USA
Top foreign films
That Obscure Object of Desire
The Man Who Loved Women
A Special Day
Cria!
The American Friend
Winners
Best Picture:
The Turning Point
Best Foreign Film:
That Obscure Object of Desire
Best Actor:
John Travolta - Saturday Night Fever
Best Actress:
Anne Bancroft - The Turning Point
Best Supporting Actor:
Tom Skerritt - The Turning Point
Best Supporting Actress:
Diane Keaton - Annie Hall
Best Director:
Luis Buñuel - That Obscure Object of Desire
Special Citation:
Close Encounters of the Third Kind, for outstanding special effects
The Rescuers, for restoring and upgrading the art of animation
External links
National Board of Review of Motion Pictures Awards for 1977
1977
1977 film awards
1977 in American cinema | wiki |
Mississippi River Bridge may refer to:
Mississippi River Bridge (I-35W) or I-35W Mississippi River bridge, a bridge in Minnesota that collapsed in 2007
Mississippi River Bridge (Vicksburg, Mississippi) or Old Vicksburg Bridge
Mississippi River Bridge (La Crosse, Wisconsin)
See also
Lists of crossings of the Mississippi River
New Mississippi River Bridge or Stan Musial Veterans Memorial Bridge, a bridge between St. Clair County and St. Louis
Jovany | wiki |
Shopping City may refer to:
Runcorn Shopping City, a shopping centre in Cheshire, England
The Mall Wood Green, a shopping centre in north London, England
Salford Shopping Centre, formerly Salford Shopping City
Shopping City (television programme), a British consumer survey television programme | wiki |
Non-blocking or nonblocking may refer to:
non-blocking I/O, see asynchronous I/O
Non-blocking synchronization
Nonblocking minimal spanning switch | wiki |
Smothered, Covered & Chunked è un cover album del gruppo Insane Clown Posse.
Tracce
Collegamenti esterni | wiki |
In the 2021–22 season, US Biskra is competing in the Ligue 1 for the fifth season, as well as the Algerian Cup. It is their third consecutive season in the top flight of Algerian football. They competing in Ligue 1, and the Algerian Cup.
Squad list
Players and squad numbers last updated on 20 October 2021.Note: Flags indicate national team as has been defined under FIFA eligibility rules. Players may hold more than one non-FIFA nationality.
Competitions
Overview
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center"
|-
!rowspan=2|Competition
!colspan=8|Record
!rowspan=2|Started round
!rowspan=2|Final position / round
!rowspan=2|First match
!rowspan=2|Last match
|-
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
|-
| Ligue 1
|
| 10th
| 23 October 2021
| 10 June 2022
|-
! Total
Ligue 1
League table
Results summary
Results by round
Matches
The league fixtures were announced on 7 October 2021.
Squad information
Playing statistics
|-
! colspan=10 style=background:#dcdcdc; text-align:center| Goalkeepers
|-
! colspan=10 style=background:#dcdcdc; text-align:center| Defenders
|-
! colspan=10 style=background:#dcdcdc; text-align:center| Midfielders
|-
! colspan=10 style=background:#dcdcdc; text-align:center| Forwards
|-
! colspan=10 style=background:#dcdcdc; text-align:center| Players transferred out during the season
Goalscorers
Includes all competitive matches. The list is sorted alphabetically by surname when total goals are equal.
Transfers
In
Out
References
2021-22
Algerian football clubs 2021–22 season | wiki |
This is a list of bridges and tunnels on the National Register of Historic Places in the U.S. state of Maine.
Bridges removed from the register
References
Maine
Bridges
Bridges | wiki |
Corporate social media is the use of social media platforms, social media communications and social media marketing techniques by and within corporations, ranging from small businesses and tiny entrepreneurial startups to mid-size businesses and huge multinational firms. Within the definition of social media, there are different ways corporations utilize it. Although there is no systematic way in which social media applications can be categorized, there are various methods and approaches to having a strong social media presence.
Social media currently can be crucial to the success of growing numbers in a companies value chain activities. For marketers, Social media is a mandatory element within the promotional mix. Marketers also need to understand that marketing on social media can come with difficulties and challenges, and face both reputation and economic risks. This big push to move to Social Media to is thought to create a better experience with the consumers, as corporations are able to target specific content to their target audience. Another benefit for corporations through usage of media is that this will attract more people, and in return also create a more well known brand.
History and development
In the 2010s, an increasing number of corporations, across most industries, have adopted the use of social media either within in the workplace, for employees, as part of an Intranet or using the publicly available Internet. As a result, corporate use of social networking and micro blogging sites such as Facebook, Twitter, Pinterest, and LinkedIn, has substantially increased.
A 2010 report indicated that two-thirds of companies had or would have social media initiatives in place.
According to an article by the Harvard Business Review from 2014, "Fifty-eight percent of companies are currently engaged in social networks like Facebook, micro blogs like Twitter, and sharing multimedia on platforms such as YouTube." The Harvard Business Review cites an additional 21 % of companies as being in the process of implementing a formal social media initiative. The 2014 HBR report indicates 79 % of companies have or will have social media initiatives in place.
According to research conducted in 2021, 91.9 percent of marketing employees working for large corporations (100 or more people) use social media on a daily basis in their jobs. This statistic has changed a lot over the years, and continues to grow.
Budgeting and corporate roles
Budgets for utilizing corporate social media is growing every year by millions of dollars. Jobs like social media managers and coordinators have made it so this is an entire department of a company. It goes hand in hand with the marketing, communications, and PR teams in order to optimize strategies for the corporation to be connected to their audience.
Types
Aichner and Jacob (2015) give the following typology:
Policies
Social media has grown rapidly over the last decade and has become an integral component of business models. Because of the global use of social media, corporations are developing and implementing formal written policies for how their corporation will present itself on social media. In addition to this, corporations are often conscious about how their employees present themselves and their company on social media. Before social media, a company had complete control with what they communicated to the public. Now, virtually any employee can speak on behalf of the company, even without proper permission or following protocol. This can create conflict between corporate policy and those in decision making roles versus employees. For example, the Federal Financial Institutions Examination Council, a consortium of bank and credit union regulators, implemented in December 2013, formal social media guidance for its banks and credit unions. In the eyes of regulators, risks associated with social media use are of a level that requires formal attention. At a minimum, regulators require that organizations "listen" to what is being said about them on social media platforms in an effort to identify legal, compliance, and reputational concerns.
Corporations have legitimate concerns when it comes to their employees’ use of social media. Social media environments have created the need for distinct and often strict reputation management practices. Some corporations have resorted to monitoring the social media accounts of its employees in order to spot posts and comments that are related to workplace issues or the employer, potentially harmful to business or even leak private corporate information.
Many corporations have used social media during the hiring process as well. Survey data shows that within a one-year period 15 percent of finance and accounting professionals found new jobs through social media. Social media can be both helpful and detrimental to those searching for employment. Hiring managers sometimes search social media to look for reasons not to hire a job applicant. According to a 2013 survey from CareerBuilder.com, 43 percent of employers use social networking sites to research potential hires. Another 45 percent are researching the "fit" of a job candidate with their company by conducting a search via Google or another search engine. 51 percent of employers who research candidates on social media say they've found postings which have caused them to not hire a candidate. Job applicants who have racist or homophobic jokes, inappropriate photos, offensive content, or photos depicting drunkenness or other potentially undesirable behaviors may be screened out of hiring processes. Some observers have stated that employer viewing of job candidates' social media profiles may raise privacy concerns.
Benefits and risks
Despite there being risks to consider when utilizing social media, corporations are identifying the benefits associated with adopting a comprehensive corporate social media strategy. Benefits include lower cost and more effective, personal, and engaging marketing and advertising initiatives (as compared with traditional marketing methods such as billboard ads and TV commercials), improved internal and external corporate communications, enhanced overall brand awareness, and better operational efficiency and innovativeness. As a result, corporations are investing at an increasing rate in social media software and external services to strengthen their online presence. The belief is that the benefits outweigh the potential risks of bad press, customer complaints, and brand bashing. Benefits also include being able to interact one on one with the consumers and talking directly to them through social media platforms. This creates trust in businesses and gives customers more chances to build loyalty and commitment to a brand.
Conversely, businesses can find themselves in a bad situation when they use social media poorly. An example of poor social media execution came in November 2013 when JP Morgan decided to have a question and answer session via Twitter. During that time, 2 out of 3 tweets received were negative due to prior scrutiny they had faced. In this case, using social media and interacting with the public did not help to promote them in a positive way. Another example came on September 11, 2013, when AT&T posted a picture on Twitter of a cell phone capturing a picture of the Twin Towers memorial lights with the caption "Never forget." The tweet was met with great backlash from consumers for using a tragedy as a marketing opportunity, with many customers threatening to leave AT&T. After seeing the backlash it was receiving, AT&T removed the post and apologized within about an hour of its posting. Risks also include, losing the interest of the people on social media because there is a lack of activity, the content is not interesting, or it is not professional or honest.
See also
Enterprise social networking
Enterprise social software
Social media use by businesses
References
Further reading
Navigating Social Media Legal Risks: Safeguarding Your Business
2011 Fortune 500 – UMass Dartmouth
Big Bird Tweets: How corporations use social media to gauge public persona - Computerworld
Social media is reinventing how business is done – USATODAY.com
How To Use Social Media To Promote Your Small Business – Forbes
Brand Ambassadors in the Age of Social Media
Social Media Growth From 2010 To 2018
Social media
Public relations
Social information processing
Promotion and marketing communications | wiki |
Chasing the Moon is a 2019 American television documentary series by Robert Stone about the race to land a man on the Moon. It includes archive footage not seen previously by the public.
Episodes
Episodes were each about 1 hour 48 minutes in length and covered successive stages in the history of the US space program between 1957 and 1969.
Broadcast
Chasing the Moon was made for PBS and first broadcast on its American Experience program in July 2019 over three successive nights. It was among the documentaries and dramas screened that month to commemorate the 50th anniversary of the Apollo 11 lunar landing.
Reception
Vern Gay of Newsday wrote, "Stirring history and vitally important."
See also
Apollo 11, a 2019 documentary
Apollo 11 in popular culture
References
External links
Films about the Apollo program
Documentary films about the space program of the United States
2010s American television miniseries
Cultural depictions of Buzz Aldrin
Cultural depictions of Neil Armstrong
Cultural depictions of Michael Collins (astronaut)
Films set in 1969 | wiki |
2007 Finals Series can refer to:
2007 AFL finals series
2007 NRL Finals Series | wiki |
A nose is a protuberance in vertebrates that houses the nostrils, or nares, which receive and expel air for respiration alongside the mouth. Behind the nose are the olfactory mucosa and the sinuses. Behind the nasal cavity, air next passes through the pharynx, shared with the digestive system, and then into the rest of the respiratory system. In humans, the nose is located centrally on the face and serves as an alternative respiratory passage especially during suckling for infants.
The protruding nose that completely separate from the mouth part is a characteristic found only in therian mammals. It has been theorized that this unique mammalian nose evolved from the anterior part of the upper jaw of the reptilian-like ancestors (synapsids).
Air treatment
Acting as the first interface between the external environment and an animal's delicate internal lungs, a nose conditions incoming air, both as a function of thermal regulation and filtration during respiration, as well as enabling the sensory perception of smell.
Hair inside nostrils filter incoming air, as a first line of defense against dust particles, smoke, and other potential obstructions that would otherwise inhibit respiration, and as a kind of filter against airborne illness. In addition to acting as a filter, mucus produced within the nose supplements the body's effort to maintain temperature, as well as contributes moisture to integral components of the respiratory system. Capillary structures of the nose warm and humidify air entering the body; later, this role in retaining moisture enables conditions for alveoli to properly exchange O2 for CO2 (i.e., respiration) within the lungs. During exhalation, the capillaries then aid recovery of some moisture, mostly as a function of thermal regulation, again.
Sense of direction
The wet nose of dogs is useful for the perception of direction. The sensitive cold receptors in the skin detect the place where the nose is cooled the most and this is the direction a particular smell that the animal just picked up comes from.
Structure in air-breathing forms
In amphibians and lungfish, the nostrils open into small sacs that, in turn, open into the forward roof of the mouth through the choanae. These sacs contain a small amount of olfactory epithelium, which, in the case of caecilians, also lines a number of neighbouring tentacles. Despite the general similarity in structure to those of amphibians, the nostrils of lungfish are not used in respiration, since these animals breathe through their mouths. Amphibians also have a vomeronasal organ, lined by olfactory epithelium, but, unlike those of amniotes, this is generally a simple sac that, except in salamanders, has little connection with the rest of the nasal system.
In reptiles, the nasal chamber is generally larger, with the choanae located much further back in the roof of the mouth. In crocodilians, the chamber is exceptionally long, helping the animal to breathe while partially submerged. The reptilian nasal chamber is divided into three parts: an anterior vestibule, the main olfactory chamber, and a posterior nasopharynx. The olfactory chamber is lined by olfactory epithelium on its upper surface and possesses a number of turbinates to increase the sensory area. The vomeronasal organ is well-developed in lizards and snakes, in which it no longer connects with the nasal cavity, opening directly into the roof of the mouth. It is smaller in turtles, in which it retains its original nasal connection, and is absent in adult crocodilians.
Birds have a similar nose to reptiles, with the nostrils located at the upper rear part of the beak. Since they generally have a poor sense of smell, the olfactory chamber is small, although it does contain three turbinates, which sometimes have a complex structure similar to that of mammals. In many birds, including doves and fowls, the nostrils are covered by a horny protective shield. The vomeronasal organ of birds is either under-developed or altogether absent, depending on the species.
The nasal cavities in mammals are both fused into one. Among most species they are exceptionally large, typically occupying up to half the length of the skull. In some groups, however, including primates, bats, and cetaceans, the nose has been secondarily reduced, and these animals consequently have a relatively poor sense of smell. The nasal cavity of mammals has been enlarged, in part, by the development of a palate cutting off the entire upper surface of the original oral cavity, which consequently becomes part of the nose, leaving the palate as the new roof of the mouth. The enlarged nasal cavity contains complex turbinates forming coiled scroll-like shapes that help to warm the air before it reaches the lungs. The cavity also extends into neighbouring skull bones, forming additional air cavities known as paranasal sinuses.
In cetaceans, the nose has been reduced to one or two blowholes, which are the nostrils that have migrated to the top of the head. This adaptation gave cetaceans a more streamlined body shape and the ability to breathe while mostly submerged. Conversely, the elephant's nose has elaborated into a long, muscular, manipulative organ called the trunk.
The vomeronasal organ of mammals is generally similar to that of reptiles. In most species, it is located in the floor of the nasal cavity, and opens into the mouth via two nasopalatine ducts running through the palate, but it opens directly into the nose in many rodents. It is, however, lost in bats, and in many primates, including humans.
In fish
Fish have a relatively good sense of smell. Unlike that of tetrapods, the nose has no connection with the mouth, nor any role in respiration. Instead, it generally consists of a pair of small pouches located behind the nostrils at the front or sides of the head. In many cases, each of the nostrils is divided into two by a fold of skin, allowing water to flow into the nose through one side and out through the other.
The pouches are lined by olfactory epithelium, and commonly include a series of internal folds to increase the surface area, often forming an elaborate "olfactory rosette". In some teleosts, the pouches branch off into additional sinus-like cavities, while in coelacanths, they form a series of tubes.
In the earliest vertebrates, there was only one nostril and olfactory pouch, and the nasal passage was connected to the hypophysis. The same anatomy is observed in the most primitive living vertebrates, the lampreys and hagfish. In gnathostome ancestors, the olfactory apparatus gradually became paired (presumably to allow sense of direction of smells), and freeing the midline from the nasal passage allowed evolution of jaws.
See also
Human nose
Nasal bridge
Obligate nasal breathing
Rhinarium, the wet, naked surface around the nostrils in most mammals, absent in haplorrhine primates such as humans
References
External links
Human head and neck
Respiratory system
Olfactory system
Facial features | wiki |
In economics, Holmström's theorem is an impossibility theorem or trilemma attributed to Bengt R. Holmström proving that no incentive system for a team of agents can make all of the following true:
Income equals outflow (the budget balances),
The system has a Nash equilibrium, and
The system is Pareto efficient.
Thus a Pareto-efficient system with a balanced budget does not have any point at which an agent can not do better by changing their effort level, even if everyone else's effort level stays the same, meaning that the agents can never settle down to a stable strategy; a Pareto-efficient system with a Nash equilibrium does not distribute all revenue, or spends more than it has; and a system with a Nash equilibrium and balanced budget does not maximise the total profit of everybody.
The Gibbard–Satterthwaite theorem in social choice theory is a related impossibility theorem dealing with voting systems.
Statement of the theorem
Suppose there is a team of n > 1 risk neutral agents whose preference functions are strictly concave and increasing, and also additively separable in money and effort. Then, under an incentive system that distributes exactly the output among the team members, any Nash equilibrium is Pareto inefficient.
Rasmusen studies the relaxation of this problem obtained by removing the assumption that the agents are risk neutral (Holmström: "linear in money").
The economic reason for Holmström's result is a "Sharing problem". A team member faces efficient incentives if he receives the full marginal returns from an additional unit of his input. Under a budget-balanced sharing scheme, however, the team members cannot be incentivized this way. This problem would be circumvented if the output could be distributed n times instead of only once. This requires that the team members promise fixed payments to an "Anti-Sharer", as demonstrated by Kirstein and Cooter. However, if one of the team members takes over the role of the Anti-Sharer, this player has no incentive whatsoever to spend effort. The article derives conditions under which internal Anti-Sharing induces the team members to spend more effort than a budget-balanced sharing contract.
Notes
References
Bengt Holmström, "Moral Hazard in Teams", The Bell Journal of Economics 13, no. 2 (1982), pp. 324–340.
Economics theorems | wiki |
Self-portrait without beard is an 1889 oil on canvas painting by the post-impressionist artist Vincent van Gogh. The picture, which may have been Van Gogh's last self-portrait, was painted in September that year. The self-portrait is one of the most expensive paintings of all time, selling for $71.5 million in 1998 in New York City. At the time, it was the third (or an inflation-adjusted fourth) most expensive painting ever sold.
Art historians are divided as to whether this painting or Self-portrait is Van Gogh's final self-portrait. Ronald Pickvance considered this to be the last, while Ingo F. Walther and Jan Hulsker think Self-portrait was the later painting. It was given by van Gogh to his mother as a birthday gift.
Sources
See also
Art movement
Impressionists
Paul Gauguin
1889 paintings
Paintings by Vincent van Gogh
Self-portraits by Vincent van Gogh | wiki |
Dollar gap is an economic term denoting a situation where the stock of US dollars is insufficient to satisfy the demand of foreign customers. The usage of the word "gap"" specifically refers to the positive difference between exports and imports, i.e. US active trade balance of the U.S. after World War II, which led to the difference between the need for dollars and their limited supply.
History
The lack of dollars suffered mainly by European states after World War II, specifically from 1944-1960. The result was the risk of a slowdown in foreign trade, which depended on the convertibility of European currencies into US dollars. The Bretton Woods monetary system was a key dollar service used in international transactions.
Between 1946 and 1951, the United States accumulated trade surpluses. This created a shortage of dollars, as Europe needed to finance its imports from the United States without being able to balance its balance with its exports. This shortcoming was addressed by creating dollars and paying them to other states, which was also one of the goals of the Marshall Plan. Furthermore, clearinghouses (European Payments Union) were created to smooth payment processing.
In the long run, the dollar gap was solved by US balance of payments deficits, a period of so-called dollar glut.
References
International trade theory
International trade
International macroeconomics | wiki |
The Silver Purchase Act may refer to one of two federal laws of the United States:
The Sherman Silver Purchase Act of 1890
The American Silver Purchase Act of 1934 | wiki |
Eads or EADS may refer to:
People
Christine Eads, American radio host
George Eads (born 1967), American actor
George C. Eads (born 1942), American economist
James Buchanan Eads (1820–1887), American engineer and inventor
Joshua Allen Eads (born 1984), American drag queen known as Ginger Minj
Lance Eads (born 1968), American politician
Lucy Tayiah Eads (1888–1961), Native American chief
Robert Eads (1945–1999), American trans man
Wendell Eads (1923–1997), American jockey
Places
United States
Eads, Colorado
Eads, Tennessee
Other uses
Eastern Air Defense Sector, a United States Air Force Air Combat Command
European Aeronautic Defence and Space Company, now Airbus
See also
EAD (disambiguation) | wiki |
Arrabbiata sauce, or sugo all'arrabbiata in Italian (arabbiata in Romanesco dialect), is a spicy sauce for pasta made from garlic, tomatoes, and dried red chili peppers cooked in olive oil. The sauce originates from the Lazio region, and particularly from the city of Rome.
Origin of the name
Arrabbiata literally means "angry" in Italian; in Romanesco dialect the adjective arabbiato denotes a characteristic (in this case spiciness) pushed to excess. In Rome, in fact, any food cooked in a pan with a lot of oil, garlic and chili so as to provoke a strong thirst, is called arabbiato (e.g. "broccoli arabbiati").
History
The invention of the dish dates back to the 1950s and 1960s, at a time when hot (meaning here spicy or peppery) food was in vogue in Roman cuisine. The dish has been celebrated several times in Italian movies, notably in Marco Ferreri's La Grande Bouffe (1973) and Federico Fellini's Roma (1972).
Ingredients
The main ingredients are peeled tomatoes, garlic, plenty of cayenne chili peppers, salt and extra virgin olive oil. Sometimes grated parmesan and pecorino romano cheese are added to the pasta.
See also
Peperoncino
List of Italian dishes
References
Sources
Cuisine of Lazio
Italian sauces
Pasta dishes
Spicy foods
Tomato sauces | wiki |
This is a list of bridges and tunnels on the National Register of Historic Places in the U.S. state of Massachusetts.
References
Bridges
Massachusetts
Bridges
Bridges | wiki |
Magic shop may refer to:
Magic store, an establishment which sells materials for performing magic tricks
Magic Shop (series), a series of children's books by Bruce Coville
Tannen's Magic Shop, a magic shop in New York City
"Magic Shop", a song by BTS from the album Love Yourself: Tear
"The Magic Shop", a 1903 short story by H. G Wells | wiki |
Jeju (Jeju: , ; , or , ), often called Jejueo or Jejuan in English-language scholarship, is a Koreanic language traditionally spoken on Jeju Island, South Korea. While often classified as a divergent Jeju dialect (, ) of the Korean language, the variety is referred to as a language in local government and increasingly in both South Korean and foreign academia. Jeju is not mutually intelligible with mainland Korean dialects.
The consonants of Jeju are similar to those of Seoul Korean, but Jeju has a larger and more conservative vowel inventory. Jeju is a head-final, agglutinative, suffixing language like Korean. Nouns are followed by particles that may function as case markers. Verbs inflect for tense, aspect, mood, evidentiality, relative social status, formality, and other grammatical information. Korean and Jeju differ significantly in their verbal paradigms. For instance, the continuative aspect marker of Jeju and the mood or aspect distinction of many Jeju connective suffixes are absent in Korean. Most of the Jeju lexicon is Koreanic, and the language preserves many Middle Korean words now lost in Standard Korean. Jeju may also have a Peninsular Japonic substratum, but this argument has been disputed by Lee (2017).
Jeju was already divergent from Seoul Korean by the fifteenth century, and was unintelligible to mainland Korean visitors by the sixteenth century. The language was severely undermined by the Jeju uprising of 1948, the Korean War, and the modernization of South Korea. All fluent speakers remaining in Jeju Island are now over seventy years old. Most people in Jeju Island now speak a variety of Korean with a Jeju substratum. The language may be somewhat more vigorous in a diaspora community in Osaka, Japan, as many Jeju people migrated to Osaka in the 1920s, but even there, younger members of the community speak Japanese. Since 2010, UNESCO has designated the language as critically endangered, the highest level of language endangerment possible. Revitalization efforts are ongoing.
Nomenclature and relationship to Korean
Jeju is closely related to Korean. It was traditionally considered an unusually divergent dialect of Korean, and is still referred to as such by the National Institute of the Korean Language and the South Korean Ministry of Education. While the term "Jeju language" (, ) was first used in 1947, it was not until the mid-1990s that the term gained currency in South Korean academia. While "Jeju dialect" was still the preferred usage throughout the decade of the 2000s, the majority of South Korean academic publications had switched to the term "Jeju language" by the early 2010s. Since somewhat earlier, "Jeju language" has also been the term preferred in local law, such as the 2007 Language Act for the Preservation and Promotion of the Jeju Language ( ), and by non-governmental organizations working to preserve the language. The only English-language monograph on Jeju, published in 2019, consistently refers to it as a language as well. Among native speakers, the term Jeju-mal "Jeju speech" is most common.
Jeju is not mutually intelligible with even the southernmost dialects of mainland Modern Korean. In a 2014 test for intelligibility, Korean speakers from three different dialect zones (Seoul, Busan, and Yeosu) were exposed to one minute of spoken Jeju, with a control group of native Jeju speakers. On average, Korean native speakers from all three dialect zones answered less than 10% of the basic comprehension questions correctly, while native Jeju speakers answered over 89% of the questions correctly. These results are comparable to the results of an intelligibility test of Norwegian for native Dutch speakers. Diaspora Jeju speakers living in Japan also report that they find it difficult to understand South Korean news media, and resort to Japanese subtitles when watching South Korean TV shows.
Geographic distribution
Jeju was traditionally spoken throughout Jeju Province except in the Chuja Islands, halfway between Jeju Island and mainland Korea, where a variety of Southwestern Korean is found. The language is also used by some of the first- and second-generation members of the Zainichi Korean community in Ikuno-ku, Osaka, Japan.
Compared to mainland Korean dialect groups, there is little internal variation within Jeju. A distinction between a northern and southern dialect with a geographic divide at Hallasan is sometimes posited, but an eastern-western dialectal divide cutting through Jeju City and Seogwipo may better explain the few dialectal differences that do exist. A 2010 survey of regional variation in 305 word sets suggests that the north–south divide and the east–west divide coexist, resulting in four distinct dialect groups.
History and decline
The Koreanic languages are likely not native to Jeju Island; it has been proposed that the family has its roots in Manchuria, a historical region in northeastern Asia. It is thought that Koreanic speakers migrated from southern Manchuria between the third and eighth centuries CE. Linguist Alexander Vovin suggests that the ancient kingdom of Tamna, which ruled the island until the twelfth century, may have spoken a Japonic language that left a substrate influence on Jeju. When exactly this putative Japonic language may have been replaced by the Koreanic ancestor of Jeju remains unclear.
Unlike mainland Korea, which was ruled only indirectly by the Mongols, Jeju was placed under direct Yuan administration in the late thirteenth century. Significant numbers of Mongol soldiers migrated to the island during this period, and their language acted as a superstratum that may have accelerated local language change. Linguist Yang Changyong speculates that the formation of Jeju as a language independent of Korean was influenced by Mongol. By the fifteenth century, when the invention of Hangul permits a detailed understanding of Korean phonology for the first time, Seoul Korean and Jeju were already divergent; the Seoul prestige dialect of fifteenth-century Middle Korean disallowed the diphthong , but Jeju does not.
Sixteenth- and seventeenth-century references to the language of Jeju by mainland Korean literati state that it was already unintelligible to mainland Koreans. Kim Sang-heon (1570―1652), who served as pacification commissioner ( ) on the island from 1601 to 1602, gives six words in the "provincial language" with clear cognates in modern Jeju and also writes:
"The exiled man Shin Jangnyeong was originally a government interpreter. He said, 'The language of this island is most like Chinese, and the sounds they make while driving cattle and horses are yet more impossible to tell apart. Is this because the climate is not far from that of China, or because the Yuan dynasty once ruled and appointed officials here and the Chinese mingled with them?'... What is called the provincial language is but high and thin and cannot be understood."
In 1629, the Korean government banned the emigration of Jeju Islanders to the mainland, further restricting linguistic contacts between Jeju and Korean. At the same time, the island was also used throughout the Joseon era (1392―1910) as a place of exile for disgraced scholar-officials. These highly educated speakers of Seoul Korean often tutored the children of their Jeju neighbors during their exile and established a continuous and significant Seoul Korean superstratum in Jeju.
Jeju remained the dominant language of both private and public spheres under Japanese colonial rule (1910―1945), although many Japanese loanwords entered the lexicon, and many speakers were monolingual. Large-scale migration of Jeju people to Japan began in 1911, and 38,000 Jeju Islanders lived in Osaka alone by 1934. Immigration to Japan continued even after Korean independence into the 1980s. Jeju is still spoken by older members of these diaspora communities, although younger individuals speak Japanese as their native language and are not fluent in Jeju.
Severe disruption to the Jeju language community began after the end of Japanese rule in 1945. Following World War II, Korea was divided between an American-backed government in the South and a Soviet-backed government in the North. Popular opposition to the division of Korea and police brutality led to a rebellion against the American military government on 3 April 1948. The Syngman Rhee regime, which succeeded the American administration in August 1948, suppressed the rebellion with mass killings of civilians. As many as sixty thousand Jeju Islanders, or a full fifth of the pre-rebellion population, were killed. Forty thousand more fled to Japan. Out of the four hundred villages of the island, only 170 remained. The devastating impact of the massacres on the Jeju language community was exacerbated by the outbreak of the Korean War in 1950. While Jeju was never occupied by the North Korean army, nearly 150,000 Korean-speaking refugees from the mainland fleeing North Korean invasion arrived in Jeju in the first year of the war. These events shattered the Jeju language's former dominance on the island, and Standard Korean was beginning to displace Jeju in the public sphere by the 1950s.
The decline of Jeju continued into the 1960s and 1970s. The Saemaeul Movement, an ambitious rural modernization program launched by Park Chung-hee, disrupted the traditional village community where Jeju had thrived. The language came to be perceived as an incorrect dialect of Korean, so that students were subject to corporal punishment if they used it in school, and the use of Standard Korean even in the private sphere began to spread from Jeju City outwards. The language attitude of native Jeju speakers in this period was self-disparaging, and even Jeju people regarded the use of Jeju "with contempt." A 1981 survey of language attitudes among high school and university students natively speaking Seoul Korean, Chungcheong Korean, Southwestern Korean, Southeastern Korean, and Jeju showed that Jeju speakers were the most likely among the five groups to ascribe negative traits to their native variety.
A 1992 study of code-switching by native Jeju speakers shows that Jeju was by then in an unfavorable diglossic relationship with Korean, and was largely restricted to informal contexts even between Jeju natives. Within a primarily Jeju-language conversation, speakers might spontaneously switch to Korean to emphasize the rationality or truth value of their statement, while switching to Jeju in a primarily Korean conversation signified that the speaker was making a subjective statement or being less serious.
The same study notes that by 1992, even this variety restricted to the informal domain was usually a Korean dialect with a Jeju substratum, rather than the traditional Jeju language:
"As for the Jeju language [] in general use nowadays [as of 1992], the situation is that its differences from Standard Korean are greatly diminishing compared to the past. Its greatest differences with Standard Korean [now] lie especially in the suffix paradigm, and in other areas the differences are being minimized. The Jeju people accordingly understand that Jeju and Standard Korean are in a form of dialect continuum, and refer to the native language formerly in use as "thick (or intense) Jeju language" and the Jeju language currently in use as "light Jeju language" or "mixed (with Korean) language."
Current status
The official language of South Korea is Standard Korean. Nearly all residents of Jeju Island are bilingual in Standard Korean and Jeju, while many younger individuals are even more fluent in English than in Jeju. Standard Korean is most commonly used in the majority of public areas, while Jeju tends to be reserved for use at home and a few local markets. All schools located on Jeju Island are required to teach Standard Korean and only offer Jeju as an elective course. As a result, there are currently no monolingual speakers of Jeju.
As of 2018, fluent speakers in Jeju Island were all over seventy years of age, while passive competence was found in some people in their forties and fifties. Younger Islanders speak Korean with Jeju substrate influence found in residual elements of the Jeju verbal paradigm and in select vocabulary such as kinship terms. The language is more vigorous in Osaka, where there may be fluent speakers born as late as the 1960s. Since 2010, UNESCO has classified Jeju as a critically endangered language, defined as one whose "youngest speakers are grandparents and older... [who] speak the language partially and infrequently."
A 2008 survey of adult residents' knowledge of ninety Jeju cultural words showed that only twenty-one were understood by the majority of those surveyed. Lack of heritage knowledge of Jeju is even more severe among younger people. Four hundred Jeju teenagers were surveyed for their knowledge of 120 basic Jeju vocabulary items in 2010, but only nineteen words were recognized by the majority while forty-five words were understood by less than 10%. A 2018 study suggests that even the verbal paradigm, among the more resilient parts of the substratum, may be in danger; the average middle schooler was more competent in the verb system of English, a language "taught only a few hours a week in school and in private tutoring institutions," than of Jeju.
Revitalization efforts have recently been ongoing. On 27 September 2007, the Jeju provincial government promulgated the Language Act for the Preservation and Promotion of the Jeju Language, which established five-year plans for state-backed language preservation.The Act encouraged public schools on Jeju Island to offer Jeju as an extracurricular activity, as well as to incorporate the language as a part of regular classes if relevant and feasible. In addition, multiple programs were provided for adults, as well. For example, adult language programs are offered every year at the Jeju National University and are all completely free of charge. There are also several local centres on Jeju Island that offer classes in Jeju Language specifically to marriage-based immigrants. However, it was not until UNESCO's 2010 designation of Jeju as critically endangered that the provincial government became proactive in Jeju preservation efforts. In 2016, the provincial government allotted ₩685,000,000 (US$565,592 in 2016) to revitalization programs, and the government-funded Jeju Research Institute has compiled phrasebooks of the language. The provincial Ministry of Education has also published Jeju textbooks for elementary and secondary schools, although some textbooks really teach Standard Korean interspersed with Jeju lexical items. Some public schools offer after-school programs for Jeju, but the short duration of these classes may be insufficient to promote more than "symbolic" use by students. The linguistic competence of many teachers has also been challenged.
On 12 August 2011, the Research Centre for Jeju Studies was opened with the purpose of implementing projects for the revitalization and safeguarding of Jeju Language. The centre has implemented multiple projects and initiatives. The project encouraged the promotion of Jeju Language in schools by tasking the Education Bureau with introducing several revitalization initiatives, including a training program for teachers. The project also started a radio broadcast in Jeju Language, as well as a radio campaign for Jeju slang and an annual Jeju Language festival. An iPhone application was developed, including a glossary, as well as a collection of proverbs, poems, and quizzes in Jeju Language. Finally, an introductory conversation brochure was distributed to both citizens and visitors of Jeju Island in order to encourage the use of the language.
Other preservation and revitalization efforts are led by non-state bodies. The Jeju Language Preservation Society ( ), founded in December 2008, publishes Deongdeureong-makke (), a bimonthly Jeju-language magazine, and holds Jeju teaching programs and speaking contests. Literature in the language has recently been published, including children's books and a 2014 poetry anthology. Local bands and theater troupes have made Jeju-language performances. Regional newspapers such as the Jemin Ilbo and the Halla Ilbo include Jeju-language sections, and local branches of KBS and MBC have launched radio programs and a television series in Jeju. Recent South Korean media with nationwide appeal, including the 2010 television series Life is Beautiful and The Great Merchant, the 2012 drama film Jiseul, and the 2015 television series Warm and Cozy, have also featured spoken Jeju. Outside of Korea, in 2018, the Endangered Languages Archive at SOAS University of London carried out a revitalization project aimed to build a collection of audio and video recordings of Jeju Language being spoken by native speakers. These recordings documented everyday conversations, as well as traditional songs and rituals.
In the past, negative attitudes and opinions towards Jeju were popular amongst Korean citizens. The Standard Korean language places a lot of emphasis on honorifics, as Korean culture is largely centred around being polite to elders. However, Jeju is often viewed to be less polite, due to the use of less honorifics and only four levels of politeness, in comparison to the seven levels in Standard Korean. The younger generation, particularly students, especially believe that Jeju is not respectful enough to use with teachers, whereas Standard Korean is more sophisticated. In addition, Jeju is often associated with the countryside, as the majority of speakers tend to have traditional occupations, including farming, fishing, and diving. As a result, many younger children express a disinterest in learning the language.
However, recent surveys show changes favorable towards Jeju in prevailing language attitudes. In a National Institute of the Korean Language survey in 2005, only 9.4% of Jeju Islanders were very proud of the regional variety. When the same survey was reheld in 2015, 36.8% were very proud of the language, and Jeju Islanders had become the most likely among South Korean dialect groups to have "very positive" opinions of the regional variety. In a 2017 study of 240 Jeju Islanders, 82.8% of those sampled considered Jeju to be "nice to listen to," and 74.9% hoped that their children would learn the language. But significant generational cleavages in language attitudes were also found. For instance, only 13.8% of Jeju Islanders between twenty and forty liked Jeju much more than Standard Korean, which 49.1% of those above eighty did.
In a 2013 survey of Jeju natives, 77.9% agreed with the statement that "[the Jeju language] has to be passed down as part of Jeju culture." But a 2015 study of approximately a thousand Jeju Islanders suggests that even though most Jeju Islanders believe the language to be an important part of the island's culture, the vast majority are skeptical of the language's long-term viability, and more people are unwilling than willing to actively participate in language preservation efforts.
Orthography
Jeju has historically had no written language. Two recently devised standard orthographies are currently in use: a system created in 1991 by scholars of the Jeju Dialect Research Society ( ), and a system promulgated by the provincial government in 2014. Both systems use the Korean alphabet Hangul with one additional letter , which was used in the Middle and Early Modern Korean scripts but is now defunct in written Korean. Similar to the modern Korean script, Jeju orthographies have morphophonemic tendencies, meaning that transcribing the underlying morphology generally takes precedence over the surface form. The two orthographies differ largely because they are based on different morphological analyses of the language, especially of the verbal paradigm, as seen in the example below.
This article will use the government's orthography where the two differ.
The transliteration scheme generally used in Korean linguistics, including when transcribing Jeju, is the Yale Romanization system. Yang C., Yang S., and O'Grady 2019 instead uses a variant of the Revised Romanization system with the addition of the sequence aw for . This article also uses Revised Romanization with the addition of aw, but without Yang C., Yang S., and O'Grady 2019's one-to-one correspondence between Hangul glyphs and the Latin alphabet.
Phonology
Consonants
The non-approximant consonants of Jeju correspond to the nineteen non-approximant consonants of Standard Korean, and Jeju displays the three-way contrast between stops and affricates characteristic of Modern Korean. Whether the voiced glottal fricative , absent in Standard Korean, exists as a phoneme in Jeju or merely as an allophone of remains disputed. A 2000 acoustic and aerodynamic study of eight native Jeju speakers concludes that "the consonants of the two languages seem to be the same in every respect... the phonetic realization of all [Jeju] consonants are the same as those found in [Seoul] Korean."
Consonantal phonological processes
Jeju allophony involves a number of phonological processes also found in Seoul Korean. As in Korean, surfaces as intervocally. Also as in Korean, lax stops and affricates have fully voiced allophones in medial position, all obstruents have unreleased allophones in final position, and syllable-final sibilants surface as . Whether non-lax stops and affricates can appear in final position is controversial. The morphological analysis necessary for the government's orthography permits them, while the analysis behind the Jeju Language Research Society's orthography forbids them.
Most non-morphophonological consonant assimilation rules of Standard Korean are also found in Jeju. and are regularly palatalized to before or . Lax obstruents are tensed following another obstruent. aspirates both the preceding and the subsequent lax obstruent. A nasal consonant nasalizes a preceding obstruent or . becomes following all consonants except itself or , and this can itself nasalize the preceding obstruent so that the underlying sequence is realized as . On the other hand, underlying and both produce .
Jeju also has consonant allophones that appear only at morpheme boundaries. Some of these are found in Standard Korean, such as the insertion of before or at most word-internal morpheme boundaries; the palatalization of to before an affixal ; and the tensing of obstruents following certain morpheme-final nasals. Other rules are absent in Standard Korean. For instance, a sonorant-final word or morpheme can trigger aspiration (for older speakers) or tensing (for younger speakers) in a subsequent lax consonant. In some cases this is due to an underlying consonant cluster, but not all cases can be explained in this way. Other Jeju-specific processes include the doubling of a word-final consonant when followed by a vowel, glide, or , and the lenition of to at some word boundaries.
Verbal conjugation can also lead to consonantal changes. Verb stem-final and are lost before . In the case of verb stems ending in , . , and , the final consonants are always preserved in so-called regular verbs, but in irregular verbs, and are lenited to and respectively while and are lost when followed by a vowel.
Underlying consonant clusters
While not permitted in the surface representation of Jeju, morpheme-final consonant clusters can exist in the underlying form. Many cases of post-sonorant aspiration involve morphemes whose Middle Korean cognates feature a final , suggesting that an underlying final after the sonorant should be posited in Jeju as well. Besides these -final clusters, Jeju permits a number of other final consonant clusters, including , , , , and (in the analysis of the government's orthography) . These clusters surface as a single consonant in isolation or before a consonant, but are fully realized when followed by a vowel.
Vowels
Jeju traditionally has a nine-vowel system: the eight vowels of Korean with the addition of ㆍ , a Middle Korean phoneme lost in Seoul in the eighteenth century.
The phonemic identity of is controversial, but native speakers most commonly realize the phoneme as . and are only distinguished in the initial syllable.
Among younger and less fluent speakers, and have both raised to and or respectively, resulting in a seven-vowel system identical to the vowel inventory of Seoul Korean. The raising of Jeju occurred before the raising of , and may have predated Standard Korean's ongoing merger of and . The subsequent loss of may have been motivated by a language-internal desire for symmetry in the vowel system. On the other hand, the vowel mergers are accelerated among Jeju speakers living in coastal communities more exposed to Standard Korean.
Jeju has two or three glides: , , and possibly . can occur with all vowels except and . and have merged even among speakers who distinguish the monophthongs, and many speakers who retain also merge with . cannot occur with the three back vowels or with . occurs only with , and the resulting diphthong is generally realized as word-initially and otherwise.
Glide-vowel sequences may be analyzed as diphthongs, with the phonemic identities of , , and being , , and respectively.
Vowel phonological processes
Several phonological processes affect the surface realization of Jeju vowels. In one process shared with Standard Korean, a bisyllabic vowel sequence may be contracted to a monosyllabic polyphthong.
Vowel-affecting processes are particularly numerous in the verbal paradigm. Verb stem-final is lost before a vowel-initial suffix. Similar to Standard Korean, a stem-final diphthongizes a subsequent vowel by inserting the onglide . Unlike in its sister language, Jeju insertion may occur even with an intervening consonant, and between a verb stem ending in , , or and a suffix with initial .
Many of Jeju's consonant-initial verbal suffixes take an initial epenthetic vowel if the previous morpheme ends with a consonant. The default epenthetic vowel is , but the vowel surfaces as following a sibilant and as following an underlying labial.
Like Standard Korean but unlike Middle Korean, Koreanic vowel harmony is no longer generally applicable in all native morphemes but remains productive in sound symbolism and certain verbal suffixes. Jeju has two harmonic classes, yin and yang. The neutral vowel can occur with either class.
For instance, the perfective aspect marker takes the vowel harmonic allomorph after verb stems whose (final) vowel is yang:
In certain cases, suffix allomorphs do not match the harmonic class of the previous vowel. Verb stems with final vowel or take the yang allomorph if their Middle Korean forms were , thus conserving their original harmonic class while violating their current one. Disyllabic stems that end in also take the yang allomorph, but monosyllabic stems or disyllabic stems do not.
Phonotactics
Jeju syllable structure is (C)(G)V(C) with G being a glide.
As in Standard Korean, cannot occur syllable-initially, and does not occur word-initially in native words.
Prosody
Jeju does not have phonemic vowel length, stress, or tone. Its phonological hierarchy is characterized by accentual phrases similar to those of Standard Korean, with a basic Low-High-Low-High tonal pattern varying according to sentence type, but there are also important differences in the two languages' prosody. Jeju has a weaker tonal distinction within the first half of the accentual phrase than Seoul Korean does, while its aspirate consonants do not produce as significant a high pitch as their Seoul equivalents. Jeju uses more contour tones, where the pitch shifts within a single syllable, than Seoul Korean. Unlike in Seoul Korean, older and fluent speakers of Jeju will also lengthen the final vowel of both clauses in alternative questions.
Grammar
ORD: ordinal numeral
INTR: interrogative
MED: medial demonstrative
SE: sentence ender
CE: canonical ending
REP : reportive
NPST: nonpast
Jeju is typologically similar to Korean, both being head-final agglutinative languages. However, the two languages show significant differences in the verbal paradigm, such as Jeju's use of a dedicated conditional suffix.
Nouns
Jeju nouns may be a single morpheme, a compound of multiple nouns, or a base noun with a merged attributive verb, or form through derivational affixes attached to nouns or verb stems. In compound nouns that include a native morpheme, the phoneme may intervene between the two elements. Because this "in-between " appears only after a vowel and before a consonant, it is never realized as but almost always surfaces as .
Single-morpheme noun: "cattle"
Noun compound:
Noun compound with :
Noun with merged attributive verb:
Noun derived from noun through affix:
Noun derived from verb through affix:
Verbal noun:
(Examples from Yang C., Yang S, and O'Grady 2019 and Ko J. 2011a)
Some Jeju nouns are bound nouns, meaning that they cannot appear independently without a noun phrase. The example below features the bound noun "worth" accompanied by the obligatory attributive verb.
Jeju has two suffixing plural markers, which are obligatory for plural nouns accompanied by determiners and optional otherwise. The plural marker can occur with all nouns and pronouns. The marker is restricted for humans and pronouns, and can also have an associative meaning: e.g. "Mansu and his family" (). The combined sequence is sometimes also used.
Nouns accompanied by numerals usually take a variety of classifiers, such as for counting trees and for counting songs. Classifiers for cardinals are unmarked, but those for ordinals are followed by the ordinal-marking .
Noun particles
Jeju marks noun case and other semantic relations through suffixing noun particles. Particles that mark the nominative, accusative, and genitive cases are very frequently omitted. The table below is not exhaustive and lists only some of the most significant particles.
Verbs
The Jeju verb consists of a root that is followed by suffixes that provide grammatical information such as voice, tense, aspect, mood, evidentiality, relative social status, and the formality of the utterance. Jeju verbs include not only action verbs familiar to English speakers such as "to eat" or "to see," but also adjectival verbs such as "to be heavy" or "to be thick." Verbs can take derivational suffixes to form adverbs and nouns.
"to be close" → "closely"
"to be bad" → "badness"
"to wear" → "wearing"
Especially for wh-questions and exclamations, Jeju speakers commonly use a verbal noun in place of a verb inflected for tense-aspect-mood.
Verbs may also be given an attributive meaning through one of four adnominal suffixes.
Adnominal suffix : Past event for action verbs, achieved state for adjectival verbs
Adnominal suffix : Habitual action in the past
Adnominal suffix : Nonpast/present event or state, commonly habitual; cannot occur with other suffixes and must combine directly with the bare verb stem; can occur with adjectival verbs, unlike in Korean
Adnominal suffix : Future/conjectural event or state
Pre-final suffixes
Jeju has a number of pre-final verbal suffixes: tense-aspect-mood markers which follow the verb stem but cannot appear at the end of the inflected verb. The exact number of these suffixes is unclear because scholars disagree on the correct morphological segmentation. One analysis of the suffix paradigm, as presented in Yang C., Yang S., and O'Grady 2019, is given below.
There is relatively widespread agreement on the existence of the following four discrete TAM morphemes, presented in the order they co-occur: the continuative aspect marker , the perfective aspect marker , the prospective mood marker , and the realis mood marker . Depending on the analysis of the aforementioned epenthetical vowels that precede many verbal suffixes, the base forms of the three morphemes may alternately be analyzed as , , , and .
is an imperfective or continuative aspect particle, referring to a process perceived as ongoing and similar to the English construction "be VERB-ing." With an adjectival verb, it has an inchoative ("beginning to; become") meaning. A verb with is interpreted as either present or future by default, and some analyses interpret the particle as also conveying the present tense for specific events and states. The suffix has a vowel-harmonic variant , as well as allomorphs , , and when following certain vowels.
Often characterized as a perfective aspect marker, has also been described as a present perfect marker and as behaving as a perfective marker with some verbs and as a past tense marker with others. can express non-past events in certain constructions that call for verbs "conceptualized in their entirety," such as a hypothetical future event. In adjectival verbs, it may also refer to a current state that contrasts with a past situation. can also be doubled for a habitual or a past perfect interpretation. Also like , this suffix takes the vowel-harmonic variant and has allomorphs , , and after certain vowels.
The prospective mood marker marks the subject's intention in first-person-subject declarative sentences or second-person-subject interrogative sentences, and the speaker's conjecture otherwise. may also have a future-tense interpretation.
can only be followed by a small number of suffixes in Yang C., Yang S., and O'Grady 2019's analysis. Some analyses treat the initial vowel of the following suffix as part of an allomorph or nuanced variant of , so that "[I] will go" may be segmented as or .
The realis or indicative mood marker indicates "a fact or habitual action in the nonpast" which the speaker perceives to be true in general, permanently, or over a longer duration of time, as demonstrated in the contrast below. The putative non-past-tense marker may also be analyzed as an allomorph of . In this context, the morpheme has also been interpreted as a perfect marker (not to be confused with the perfective marker).
The existence of the Korean subject-honorific marker is controversial for Jeju, with some scholars arguing that it was entirely absent and others that it was restricted to higher registers. Ko J. 2011b notes that it was used only "by officials while referring to people of very high status and by the seonbi of the educated classes."
Segmenting verb-final suffixes
The segmentation of verb-final elements is controversial. The two recent extensive treatments of the topic, Yang C., Yang S., and O'Grady 2019 and Kim Jee-hong 2015, give incompatible analyses of the suffix paradigm.
Yang C., Yang S., and O'Grady 2019 includes a slot for tense in the Jeju verb, with three dedicated markers.
Non-past tense:
Past tense: , with vowel-harmonic allomorph
Future tense:
They further divide verb-final suffixes into three categories: Type 1, which cannot occur with tense markers; Type 2, which must occur with either a tense marker or the aspect marker , which loses its underlying before a Type 2 suffix; and a mixed type, which can occur with the non-past marker but not with the other two tense markers. The vast majority of suffixes are categorized as Tense 1 and thus cannot follow a tense marker. Uniquely among pre-final suffixes, the past tense marker can also appear without a final suffix.
Examples of Yang C., Yang S., and O'Grady 2019's segmentation are given below.
In Kim Jee-hong's analysis, verb-final single morphemes are termed "canonical endings." Canonical endings are contrasted with a wide variety of "non-canonical endings," formed by the fusion of various grammatical elements such as multiple canonical endings, truncated conjunctive and embedded sentences, and bound nouns connected to the verb stem or a canonical ending via an attributive or a nominalizer. The most common canonical component of these non-canonical endings is the suffix (vowel-harmonic allomorph ), which Kim calls the unmarked "default ending."
Since Yang C., Yang S., and O'Grady 2019's tenses align with the aforementioned attributive suffixes, sentences they analyze as "Tense-Type 2 Suffix" sequences are often analyzed as non-canonical endings with a "Canonical ending-Attributive-Bound noun" composition by Kim Jee-hong. Many of Yang C., Yang S., and O'Grady 2019's Type 1 suffixes are also interpreted as polymorphemic non-canonical endings. Kim Jee-hong also segments some of Yang C., Yang S., and O'Grady 2019's mixed-type suffixes so that the base form of the suffix includes the of the latter's non-past tense marker.
Examples from Kim Jee-hong 2015's analysis, directly corresponding to the examples above of Yang C., Yang S., and O'Grady 2019, are given below. The "default ender" is bolded.
Sentence enders
Jeju has a number of clause-final suffixes, called "sentence enders" in Yang C., Yang S., and O'Grady 2019 and "terminal suffixes" ( ) in Korean, that provide information such as degree of formality, social status, evidentality, and modality. Sentence enders may consist of one or multiple morphemes. Kim Jee-hong argues for four speech levels in Jeju, defined by the degree of formality and deference their sentence enders connote: informal and plain (non-honorific); formal and plain; informal and honorific, marked by the morpheme , and formal and honorific, featuring the morpheme . An archaic speech level showing extreme deference is attested from shamanic chants.
As different segmentation hypotheses produce different sentence enders. the chart below will list only a small, illustrative sample of the dozens of suffixes that appear in Yang C., Yang S., and O'Grady 2019 and Kim Jee-h. 2015. The classification is based on Kim Jee-hong 2017, which differs from Kim Jee-hong 2015.
The honorific verbs, which show deference to the addressee, are formed by a special suffix that can be followed only by a small number of sentence enders.
The informal honorific forms are marked by or . The former is used with the copula verb and with all inflected verbs, and the latter is used with uninflected adjectival verbs. and may take the alternative form after a verb inflected for aspect and a non-liquid consonant, respectively. The informal honorific form cannot occur with uninflected action verbs. The two suffixes may only be followed by the sentence enders in the table below. Informal honorific requests cannot be formed morphologically.
The formal honorific forms involve the honorific marker followed by one or two morphemes. Only the six following formal honorific forms are possible.
Connectives
Jeju uses an array of verb-final connective suffixes to link clauses within sentences, much as English does with conjunctions such as and, or, that, but, and because.
Some Jeju connectives, such as the suffixes "and", occur in pairs with one variant ending in and the other in . Hong Chong-rim and Song Sang-jo both note that the choice between and is often determined by the inflections of the subsequent clause; certain pre-final suffixes and sentence enders require a -connective in the previous clause, while others require a -connective. Hong suggests that is used for specific and objective events and states, while implies a general and subjective event or state. Song argues that is used for completed or achieved verbs, and for incomplete or unachieved verbs. The nuances below are thus possible.
The distinction between and does not exist in mainland Korean varieties. Yang C., Yang S., and O'Grady 2019 reports that "the contrast between and appears to be disappearing, and the distinctions that remain are subtle and variable."
An important class of connectives, used for reporting speech and thoughts, is formed by the suffix , which fuses with sentence enders as in the example of below.
Similarly, informal honorific conjectural becomes ; plain forms and become ; question enders and become and ; honorific imperative becomes ; and so forth. These fused suffixes may be used for both quotative and reportive purposes. In Standard Korean, indirect speech is strictly distinguished from the quotative by the removal of addressee honorifics and the switching of pronouns. In Jeju, the lines between direct and indirect speech are more blurred. All four forms below—given in order of increasing indirectness—are in use, and have the same meaning, "He said [to a superior] that he was going home."
Other connectives include "if"; "because"; and "after".
Auxiliary and light verbs
Jeju has many auxiliary verbs that are linked to the preceding main verb by the morpheme . These include "to give," for an action that benefits a superior; "to throw away," for an action yielding a complete result; and "to become," for a change of state. is also used to indicate ability.
Jeju also uses light verbs, which have little semantic meaning but combine with nouns to form verbs. The most common light verb is "to do," e.g. "errand" → "to run an errand". There is also a large inventory of periphrastic phrases that convey modality.
Post-phrasal particles
Jeju has a small group of particles that commonly occur at the very end of phrases or sentences, many of which play important roles as discourse markers. The four principal ones are the formality marker and the emphatic markers , , and .
(variants , ) may occur after subsentential phrases such as a bare or case-inflected noun, or attach to a small number of mostly plain sentence enders. The particle shows the speaker's deference towards the addressee, but is considered more emotionally intimate than the verbally inflected honorifics. In certain contexts, may be used with an intention to snub the addressee.
is a discourse marker that attaches to adverbs, nouns and noun particles, and both sentence enders and connectives. It adds emphasis to the utterance and is often used to agree with or confirm something the addressee has just said. is used similarly to , but is weaker in its emphasis. Both cannot be used while addressing a social superior, and also cannot appear in formal speech. Both particles can also appear in isolation: as a strong affirmation to a question, as an indication that the speaker has not heard or does not believe what has been said.
shows deference, but is considered more informal than . At the end of a sentence, it emphasizes the speaker's beliefs or attitudes. For example, a question becomes a rhetorical one when is attached: "Could there be?" → "How could there be?" The particle is also commonly used for sarcastic mock deference, such as by parents while scolding children. Sentence-initially or internally, the suffix may establish the preceding element as the topic of discourse. is also used in isolation as an interjection to get the attention of unfamiliar individuals, such as a shopkeeper, or to request the addressee to repeat what they have just said.
In the example below from Yang C. 2009, three of the four particles discussed above are used.
Note the granddaughter's use of the verbally inflected honorific and the deference-marking and while addressing the grandmother.
Pronouns and deixis
Jeju has the following basic personal pronouns.
According to Yang C., Yang S., and O'Grady 2019, there are four basic deictic demonstratives in Jeju. Most other sources mention three, which are identical to those of Standard Korean.
Proximal: "this"
Medial or absent: "that"
Distal: "that"
Vocabulary
Most of the Jeju lexicon is Koreanic, and "a sizeable number" of words are identical with Korean. There are false friends between the languages, such as Korean "to wash hair" and Jeju "to wash the body." Jeju also preserves many Middle Korean terms now lost in Korean, such as "wife; woman" and "parent." Like Korean, Jeju uses many Sino-Korean words based on local readings of Classical Chinese.
Jeju Island was ruled by the Mongols in the late thirteenth century and some Middle Mongol terms still survive in the language, though the extent of Mongol influence is disputed. Popular claims of hundreds of Mongol loans in Jeju are linguistically unsound. Uncontroversial Mongol loans are most common in terms relating to animal husbandry.
Jeju may have loans from an ancient Japonic substratum. As the last fluent generation of Jeju speakers were born under or shortly after Japanese rule, remaining speakers also use many loans from Modern Japanese.
Sound symbolism
Jeju has widespread sound symbolism in ideophones. The use of sound symbolism to form emphatic variants of words is more common in Jeju than in Seoul Korean.
Jeju sound symbolism operates with both consonants and vowels. The intensity of a Jeju word may be strengthened by using tense and especially aspirate obstruents. The sound symbolism may also be emphasized through the addition of consonants, by adding the sequence to both reduplicated segments, and with fortition or lenition. The yang harmonic class of vowels has a bright, small connotation, and the yin vowel class gives a dark, large connotation. Ko Jae-hwan also gives examples of three or four layers of vowel sound symbolism.
Consonant sound symbolism:
"savory" → "[very] savory" → "[extremely] savory"
"[small] sound of rat gnawing teeth" → "[large] sound of rat gnawing teeth"
"easily angered" → "[very] easily angered"
"neatly aligned" → "[very] neatly aligned"
Vowel sound symbolism:
"round [of a small object]" → "round [of a large object]"
"[small and light] sound of muttered complaints" → "[large and heavy] sound of muttered complaints" → "[very large and very heavy] sound of muttered complaints"
"smooth to the touch [of a very small or dry object]" → "smooth to the touch [of a somewhat small or dry object]" → "slippery to the touch [of a somewhat large or wet object]" → "slippery to the touch [of a very large or wet object]"
Multiple sound-symbolic strategies may combine in a single word. Kang S. 2008 gives eight sound symbolic variants of the ideophone "the shape of many objects being blunt," each more intense than the other:
→ → → → → → →
Kinship terminology
The kinship terminology of Jeju has been the focus of particular attention. Jeju has a complex kinship system that distinguishes the gender of both the speaker and the relative. Gender distinctions are particularly noticeable in sibling terminology. The words and refer to "older same-gender sibling" and "younger same-gender sibling" respectively, while and refer specifically to "brother of a female" and "sister of a male" respectively. Female speakers also tend to refer to relatives with native compounds, whereas male speakers prefer Sino-Korean terms. For instance, the same cousin may be referred to by a man as "cousin" but by a woman as "paternal aunt's daughter." A major distinction between Jeju and Korean kinship terms is that women do not use honorifics to refer to their in-laws, reflecting weaker historical influence from Confucian patriarchal norms.
Jeju also uses supplementary prefixes to clarify the type of kinship, equivalent to "step-" or "maternal" in English. These include , , and for paternal relations, for maternal relations, for step-relations, and for a male's in-laws, and for a woman's in-laws. Five other prefixes, which may be combined, mark relative age: or "eldest," "second eldest of three or more," "third eldest of four or more," and "youngest." These are used to distinguish relatives of the same generation.
"grandfather"
"oldest brother of one's grandfather"
"second brother of one's grandfather"
"third brother of one's grandfather"
"fourth brother of one's grandfather"
"fifth brother of one's grandfather"
"youngest brother of one's grandfather"
Other prefixes include , used in "great-grandfather", and , used to refer to a sibling of one's grandparent generally.
Sample text
The following is an excerpt from a version of the Menggam bon-puri, one of the epic chants recited by Jeju shamans. In this myth, the poacher Song Saman discovers an abandoned skull in the hills and cares for it as if it were his own ancestor. The skull reciprocates by warning Song Saman of his early death and advising him on how to avoid the chasa, the three gods of death.
This version was transcribed between 1956 and 1963 from the recitation of the shaman Byeon Sin-saeng, born 1904. The transcription predates both standardized orthographies of Jeju. The transcriber openly notes that the orthography is inconsistent. No attempt was made in this article to standardize or update the orthography.
See also
Bon-puri, Jeju-language narrative poems explaining the origins of deities.
References
Citations
Bibliography
English
Korean
External links
jejueo.com: The official Korean-language website of the Jeju Language Preservation Society, the leading language revival organization.
Jejueo: The Language of Jeju Island: An English-language website maintained by Yang Changyong, Yang Sejung, and William O'Grady, authors of the only English-language monograph on the language. The site includes an audio sample (found in the section "Jejueo Intelligibility Test") and a short Jeju-English dictionary.
"A multi-modal documentation of Jejuan conversations": An annotated audio-video corpus of spoken Jeju, maintained by the Endangered Languages Archive at SOAS University of London
Jejuan DoReCo corpus compiled by Soung-U Kim. Audio recordings of narrative texts with transcriptions time-aligned at the phone level, translations, and time-aligned morphological annotations.
Agglutinative languages
Critically endangered languages
Culture in Jeju Province
Languages of South Korea
Koreanic languages
Korean dialects
Subject–object–verb languages | wiki |
Sfouf is a Lebanese almond-semolina cake consumed on birthdays, family reunions, and religious holidays. It is made from semolina flour flavored with turmeric, sugar, sesame paste, aniseed, and pine nuts, and raised with baking powder.
References
Arab cuisine
Lebanese cuisine
Cakes | wiki |
Sour gum can refer to:
Black tupelo (Nyssa sylvatica), a medium-sized deciduous tree occasionally referred to as "sourgum".
Water tupelo, a long-lived tupelo tree occasionally referred to as "sourgum".
Sour gum, a sour type of chewing gum. | wiki |
In hydrogeology, groundwater flow is defined as the "part of streamflow that has infiltrated the ground, entered the phreatic zone, and has been (or is at a particular time) discharged into a stream channel or springs; and seepage water." It is governed by the groundwater flow equation.
Groundwater is water that is found underground in cracks and spaces in the soil, sand and rocks. Where water has filled these spaces is the phreatic (also called) saturated zone. Groundwater is stored in and moves slowly (compared to surface runoff in temperate conditions and watercourses) through layers or zones of soil, sand and rocks: aquifers. The rate of groundwater flow depends on the permeability (the size of the spaces in the soil or rocks and how well the spaces are connected) and the hydraulic head (water pressure).
In polar regions groundwater flow may be obstructed by permafrost.
See also
Subsurface flow
Groundwater energy balance
Baseflow
Ecohydrology
Groundwater
Hydrogeology
Catchment hydrology
References
Hydrology
Limnology
Aquifers
Water streams | wiki |
The basic annual salary of a Member Of Parliament (MP) in the House of Commons is £84,144, as of April 2022. In addition, MPs are able to claim allowances to cover the costs of running an office and employing staff, and maintaining a constituency residence or a residence in London. Additional salary is paid for appointments or additional duties, such as ministerial appointments, being a whip, chairing a select committee or chairing a Public Bill committee.
The Independent Parliamentary Standards Authority was introduced in response to the parliamentary expenses scandal that broke in 2009.
Salary and benefits: Commons
Basic salary
The basic annual salary of an MP in the House of Commons is £84,144.
Historical salaries
Members of parliament were unpaid until 1911, as it was assumed they had independent means, which restricted membership of Parliament to persons who were well-off. There had been attempts since the late 18th century to provide salaries. The Labour Party pressed for MPs to be paid, allowing men and women from 1918 who could not afford to serve unpaid to become Members of Parliament.
The first regular salary was £400 per year, introduced in 1911. For comparison, average annual earnings were £70 in 1908. Some subsequent salary levels were £1,000 in 1946, £3,250 in 1964, £11,750 in 1980, and £26,701 in 1990. The increases in MPs' basic salaries since 1996 have been:
In December 2013, the Independent Parliamentary Standards Authority recommended that pay be increased to £74,000 per annum, linked "to the pay of the people they represent". At the same time, pension benefits would be reduced, resettlement payments scrapped and expenses tightened. In July 2015, this was implemented (backdated to 8 May 2015, the day after the general election), with annual changes now "linked to changes in average earnings in the public sector".
Additional salary
Many MPs (the Prime Minister, ministers, the Speaker, senior opposition leaders, opposition chief whip, etc.) receive a supplementary salary for their specific responsibilities. As of 1 April 2015, these additional entitlements ranged from £15,025 for Select Committee Chairs to £79,990 for the Prime Minister. On 24 May 2015 David Cameron announced that he intended to freeze ministerial pay for the next five years.
Salary of the Prime Minister
The Prime Minister does not always claim the total amount entitled to in legislation. The Prime Minister is entitled to other benefits, including the use of the Prime Minister's apartment at 10 Downing Street, the country house Chequers, and other official residences, and chauffeur-driven transport.
The Prime Minister's salary figures below include the salary for being an MP.
Pension
MPs normally receive a pension of either 1/40th or 1/50th of their final pensionable salary for each year of pensionable service depending on the contribution rate they chose. Members who made contributions of 13.75% of their salary gain an accrual rate of 1/40th.
If an MP stands down during the course of a Parliament due to ill health, an ill health retirement grant is payable, calculated in the same way as the Resettlement Grant (as well as an immediate pension based on the service the MP would have accrued if they had continued to serve until age 65).
Resettlement Grant and Winding-up Allowance
On leaving the House of Commons, an MP will be entitled to what is essentially severance pay.
Resettlement Grant
The Resettlement Grant is the name given to MPs' severance pay package. It may be claimed to help former MPs with the costs of adjusting to life outside parliament. It is payable to any Member who ceases to be an MP at a general election. The amount is based on age and length of service, and varies between 50% and 100% of the annual salary payable to a Member of Parliament at the time of the dissolution.
In the UK the first £30,000 of severance pay is tax-free. As stated above, the amount retiring MPs, or those who lose their seats receive, depends on how old they are and how long they have served in the House. For example, an MP who stays in office for one term (say 5 years) and then leaves office will currently receive tax-free severance pay of 50% of their current salary, or £32,383 at 2009 rates – equivalent to an annual salary increment of over £12,000 at current tax rates and pay scales.
From the start of the 2015 Parliament, a "Loss of Office Payment", at double the statutory redundancy payment, was introduced. "For the 'average' MP, who leaves office with 11 years' service, this may lead to a payment of around £14,850."
Winding-up Allowance
An allowance is available (up to £46,000 as of July 2011) to pay for winding up staff contracts and office rent. An allowance of up to one third of the annual Office Costs Allowance was paid for the reimbursement of the cost of any work on parliamentary business undertaken on behalf of a deceased, defeated or retiring member after the date of cessation of membership. On 5 July 2001 the House agreed to change the allowance to one third of the sum of the staffing provision and Incidental Expenses Allowance in force at the time of cessation of membership.
Summer recess
Parliament takes a break of around 45 days for the summer. This is not only for holiday, but so that MPs can spend more time away from Parliament in their constituencies to do work there.
Expenses
In addition to the above benefits, PMs can claim for the reimbursement of expenses incurred as a result of their duties. They are entitled to money
Office expenses
Office running costs
Staffing costs
Travel for staff
Centrally purchased stationery
Postage costs
Central IT costs
Communications allowance
MPs are entitled to claim £9,000 a year for postage and stationery (financial year 2015–16). This amount is in addition to any stationery and postage costs which Members may have reimbursed under the Independent Parliamentary Standards Authority's expenses Scheme.
During the COVID-19 pandemic MPs were able to claim additional expenses of up to £10,000 to support the costs of them and their staff working from home.
Housing, second home, and travel
MPs receive allowances towards having somewhere to live in London and in their constituency, and travelling between Parliament and their constituency.
Salary and benefits: House of Lords
Members of the House of Lords are not salaried. They can opt to receive a £332 per day attendance allowance, plus travel expenses and subsidised restaurant facilities. Peers may also choose to receive a reduced attendance allowance of £166 per day instead.
Scrutiny and audit process of claims
In 2010, following the parliamentary expenses scandal, the payment of MPs' salaries and allowances, and many staff, was moved from the Fees Office, which was effectively self-policing by MPs of their expenses, to a more autonomous body, the Independent Parliamentary Standards Authority. In 2010 the IPSA was also given the responsibility of setting MPs' salary levels. It is accountable to the Speaker's Committee for the IPSA, comprising the Speaker, the Leader of the House, the Chair of the Standards and Privileges Committee and five MPs selected by the Speaker (one of whom is the Shadow Leader of the House).
The National Audit Office, another independent parliamentary body, has some audit authority.
See also
The Green Book (UK Parliament)
List of salaries of heads of state and government
Ministerial and Other Salaries Act 1975
References
External links
Members’ pay and expenses and ministerial salaries 2019/20
House of Commons of the United Kingdom
Salaries of office-holders
UK members of parliament | wiki |
Subsets and Splits
No community queries yet
The top public SQL queries from the community will appear here once available.