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Druga przestrzen ("The Second Space") is the last poetry collection by Czesław Miłosz. It was first published in 2002.
The collection has been studied in the religious context.
References
2002 poetry books
Polish poetry collections
Poetry by Czesław Miłosz | wiki |
Aritra (Bengali: অরিত্র) or Aritro is a masculine South Asian name mostly common among people of Bengali origin in India and Bangladesh. The name generally means "one who shows the right path" or "navigator". The meaning derives from a earlier usage meaning "helmsman" or "one who steers a sailboat". Some other sources claim its meaning as "one who kills enemies".
A variant of this name, Aritraa is a less frequent feminine name also found among Bengalis.
Notable people with the name include:
Aritra Dutta Banik, Bengali film actor
Aritra Dutta (born 1991), Singaporean cricketer
References
Indian masculine given names | wiki |
The Wars of the Delian League (477–449 BC) were a series of campaigns fought between the Delian League of Athens and her allies (and later subjects), and the Achaemenid Empire of Persia. These conflicts represent a continuation of the Greco-Persian Wars, after the Ionian Revolt and the first and second Persian invasions of Greece.
The Greek alliance, centred on Sparta and Athens, that had defeated the second Persian invasion had initially followed up this success by capturing the Persian garrisons of Sestos and Byzantium, both in Thrace, in 479 and 478 BC respectively. After the capture of Byzantium, the Spartans elected not to continue the war effort, and a new alliance, commonly known as the Delian League, was formed, with Athens very much the dominant power. Over the next 30 years, Athens would gradually assume a more hegemonic position over the league, which gradually evolved into the Athenian Empire.
Throughout the 470s BC, the Delian League campaigned in Thrace and the Aegean to remove the remaining Persian garrisons from the region, primarily under the command of the Athenian politician Cimon. In the early part of the next decade, Cimon began campaigning in Asia Minor, seeking to strengthen the Greek position there. At the Battle of the Eurymedon in Pamphylia, the Athenians and allied fleet achieved a stunning double victory, destroying a Persian fleet and then landing the ships' marines to attack and rout the Persian army. After this battle, the Persians took an essentially passive role in the conflict, anxious not to risk battle where possible.
Towards the end of the 460s BC, the Athenians took the ambitious decision to support a revolt in the Egyptian satrapy of the Persian Empire. Although the Greek task force achieved initial success, they were unable to capture the Persian garrison in Memphis, despite a three year long siege. The Persians then counter-attacked, and the Athenian force was itself besieged for 18 months, before being wiped out. This disaster, coupled with ongoing warfare in Greece, dissuaded the Athenians from resuming conflict with Persia. In 451 BC, a truce was agreed in Greece, and Cimon was able to lead an expedition to Cyprus. However, whilst besieging Kition Cimon died, and the Athenian force decided to withdraw, winning another double victory at the Battle of Salamis-in-Cyprus in order to extricate themselves. This campaign marked the end of hostilities between the Delian League and Persia, and some ancient historians claim that a peace treaty, the Peace of Callias, was agreed to cement the final end of the Greco-Persian Wars.
Sources and chronology
The military history of Greece between the end of the second Persian invasion of Greece and the Peloponnesian War (479–431 BC) is poorly attested by surviving ancient sources. This period, sometimes referred to as the pentekontaetia by ancient scholars, was a period of relative peace and prosperity within Greece. The richest source for the period, and also the most contemporary with it, is Thucydides's History of the Peloponnesian War, which is generally considered by modern historians to be a reliable primary account. Thucydides only mentions this period in a digression on the growth of Athenian power in the run up to the Peloponnesian War, and the account is brief, probably selective and lacks any dates. Nevertheless, Thucydides's account can be, and is used by historians to draw up a skeleton chronology for the period, on to which details from archaeological records and other writers can be superimposed.
Much extra detail for the period is provided by Plutarch, in his biographies of Aristides and especially Cimon. Plutarch was writing some 600 years after the events in question, and is therefore very much a secondary source, but he often explicitly names his sources, which allows some degree of verification of his statements. In his biographies, he explicitly draws on many ancient histories which have not survived, and thus often preserves details of the period which are omitted in Thucydides's brief account. The final major extant source for the period is the universal history (Bibliotheca historica) of the 1st century BC Sicilian, Diodorus Siculus. Much of Diodorus's writing concerning this period seems to be derived from the much earlier Greek historian Ephorus, who also wrote a universal history. However, from what little is known of Ephorus, historians are generally disparaging towards his history; for this period he seems to have simply recycled Thucydides's research, but used it to draw completely different conclusions. Diodorus, who has often been dismissed by modern historians anyway, is therefore not a particularly good source for this period. Indeed, one of his translators, Oldfather, says of Diodorus's account of the Eurymedon campaign that "...the three preceding chapters reveal Diodorus in the worst light...". There is also a reasonable body of archaeological evidence for the period, of which inscriptions detailing probable tribute lists of the Delian League are particularly important.
Chronology
Thucydides provides a succinct list of the main events occurring between the end of the second Persian invasion and the outbreak of the Peloponnesian War, but almost no chronological information. Various attempts have been made to reassemble the chronology, but there is no definitive answer. The assumption central to these attempts is that Thucydides is describing the events in the appropriate chronological order. The one firmly accepted date is 465 BC for the beginning of the siege of Thasos. This is based on an anonymous ancient scholiast's annotations to one of the existing manuscripts of Aeschines's works. The scholiast notes that the Athenians met disaster at 'Nine-Ways' in the archonship of Lysitheus (known to be 465/464 BC). Thucydides mentions this attack on the 'Nine-Ways' in connection with the beginning of the siege of Thasos, and since Thucydides says that the siege ended in its third year, the siege of Thasos therefore dates to c. 465–463 BC.
Similarly, the anonymous scholiast provides a probable date for the siege of Eion. This annotation places the fall of Eion in the archonship of Phaidon (known to be 476/475 BC). The siege may therefore have been between either 477–476 BC or 476–475 BC; both have found favour. The Battle of Eurymedon may be dated to 469 BC by Plutarch's anecdote about the Archon Apsephion (469/468 BC) choosing Cimon and his fellow generals as judges in a competition. The implication is that Cimon had recently achieved a great victory, and the most likely candidate is Eurymedon. However, since the Battle of Eurymedon seems to have occurred after the Athenian siege of Naxos (but before the siege of Thasos), the date of Eurymedon is clearly constrained by the date of Naxos. Whilst some accept a date of 469 or earlier for this Naxos, another school of thought places it as late as 467 BC. Since the Battle of Eurymedon seems to have occurred before Thasos, the alternative date for this battle would therefore be 466 BC.
The dating of Naxos is intimately connected with two other events in the Greek world which occurred at the same time. Thucydides claims that Pausanias, having been stripped of his command after the siege of Byzantium, returned to Byzantium as a private citizen soon after and took command of the city until he was expelled by the Athenians. He then crossed the Bosporus and settled in Colonae in the Troad, until he was accused of collaborating with the Persians and was recalled by the Spartans for trial (after which he starved himself to death). Thucydides again provides no chronology of these events. Shortly afterwards, the Spartans accused the Athenian statesman Themistocles, then in exile in Argos, of complicity in Pausanias's treason. As a result, Themistocles fled from Argos, eventually to Asia Minor. Thucydides states that on his journey, Themistocles inadvertently ended up at Naxos, at that time being besieged by Athenians. The three events, Pausanias's treason, Themistocles's flight and the siege of Naxos therefore occurred in close temporal sequence. These events certainly happened after 474 BC (the earliest possible date for Themistocles's ostracism), and have generally been placed in around 470/469 BC. However, there are several incongruities in the story of Themistocles if this date is accepted. A much later date for Pausanias's expulsion from Byzantium has been proposed, and if accepted, this pushes these three events into c. 467 BC, which resolves the problems regarding Themistocles, and also probably explains some incidental details mentioned in Plutarch's biography of Cimon. However, this modified timeline is not universally accepted by historians.
The Egyptian and Cyprian campaigns are somewhat easier to date. Thucydides says that the Egyptian campaign lasted six years and that three years later, the Athenians and Spartans signed a five-year truce. This treaty is known to date to 451 BC, so the Egyptian campaign dates from c. 460–454 BC. The Cyprian campaign, which directly followed the truce, thus dates to 451–450 BC.
Background
The Greco-Persian Wars had their roots in the conquest of the Greek cities of Asia Minor, and in particular Ionia, by the Persian Empire of Cyrus the Great shortly after 550 BC. The Persians found the Ionians difficult to rule, eventually settling for sponsoring a tyrant in each Ionian city. While Greek states had in the past often been ruled by tyrants, this was a form of government on the decline. By 500 BC, Ionia appears to have been ripe for rebellion against these Persian place-men. The simmering tension finally broke into open revolt due to the actions of the tyrant of Miletus, Aristagoras. Attempting to save himself after a disastrous Persian-sponsored expedition in 499 BC, Aristagoras chose to declare Miletus a democracy. This triggered similar revolutions across Ionia, and indeed Doris and Aeolis, beginning the Ionian Revolt.
The Greek states of Athens and Eretria allowed themselves to be drawn into this conflict by Aristagoras, and during their only campaigning season (498 BC) they contributed to the capture and burning of the Persian regional capital of Sardis. After this, the Ionian Revolt carried on (without further outside aid) for a further 5 years, until it was finally completely crushed by the Persians. However, in a decision of great historic significance, the Persian king Darius the Great decided that, despite successfully subduing the revolt, there remained the unfinished business of exacting punishment on Athens and Eretria for supporting the revolt. The Ionian Revolt had severely threatened the stability of Darius's empire, and the states of mainland Greece would continue to threaten that stability unless dealt with. Darius thus began to contemplate the complete conquest of Greece, beginning with the destruction of Athens and Eretria.
In the next two decades, there would be two Persian invasions of Greece, including some of the most famous battles in history. During the first invasion, Thrace, Macedon and the Aegean islands were added to the Persian Empire, and Eretria was duly destroyed. However, the invasion ended in 490 BC with the decisive Athenian victory at the Battle of Marathon. Between the two invasions, Darius died, and responsibility for the war passed to his son Xerxes I. Xerxes then led the second invasion personally in 480 BC, taking an enormous (although oft-exaggerated) army and navy to Greece. Those Greeks who chose to resist (the 'Allies') were defeated in the twin battles of Thermopylae and Artemisium on land and at sea respectively. All of Greece except the Peloponnesus thus fell into Persian hands, but then seeking to finally destroy the Allied navy, the Persians suffered a decisive defeat at the Battle of Salamis. The following year, 479 BC, the Allies assembled the largest Greek army yet seen and defeated the Persian invasion force at the Battle of Plataea, ending the invasion and the threat to Greece.
According to tradition, on the same day as Plataea, the Allied fleet defeated the demoralised remnants of the Persian fleet in the Battle of Mycale. This action marks the end of the Persian invasion, and the beginning of the next phase in the Greco-Persian wars, the Greek counter-attack. After Mycale, the Greek cities of Asia Minor again revolted, with the Persians now powerless to stop them. The Allied fleet then sailed to the Chersonesos, still held by the Persians, and besieged and captured the town of Sestos. The following year, 478 BC, the Allies sent a force to capture the city of Byzantium (modern day Istanbul). The siege was successful, but the behaviour of the Spartan general Pausanias alienated many of the Allies, and resulted in Pausanias's recall. The siege of Byzantium was the last action of the Hellenic alliance which had defeated the Persian invasion.
Delian League
After Byzantium, Sparta was eager to end her involvement in the war. The Spartans were of the view that, with the liberation of mainland Greece, and the Greek cities of Asia Minor, the war's purpose had already been reached. There was also perhaps a feeling that obtaining long-term security for the Asian Greeks would prove impossible. In the aftermath of Mycale, the Spartan king Leotychides had proposed transplanting all the Greeks from Asia Minor to Europe as the only method of permanently freeing them from Persian dominion. Xanthippus, the Athenian commander at Mycale, had furiously rejected this; the Ionian cities were originally Athenian colonies, and the Athenians, if no one else, would protect the Ionians. This marked the point at which the leadership of the Hellenic alliance effectively passed to the Athenians; with the Spartan withdrawal after Byzantium, the leadership of the Athenians became explicit.
The loose alliance of city states which had fought against Xerxes's invasion had been dominated by Sparta and the Peloponnesian league. With the withdrawal of these states, a congress was called on the holy island of Delos to institute a new alliance to continue the fight against the Persians. This alliance, now including many of the Aegean islands, was formally constituted as the 'First Athenian Alliance', commonly known as the Delian League. According to Thucydides, the official aim of the League was to "avenge the wrongs they suffered by ravaging the territory of the king." In reality, this goal was divided into three main efforts - to prepare against any future invasion, to seek revenge against Persia, and to organize a means of dividing spoils of war. The members were given a choice of either offering armed forces or paying a tax to the joint treasury; most states chose the tax. League members swore to have the same friends and enemies, and dropped ingots of iron into the sea to symbolize the permanence of their alliance. The ingots of iron were cast into the ocean because the oath the league members swore stipulated that their allegiance would not end, or be otherwise broken, until the iron floated to the surface. In other words, that they had made a pact perceived to be eternal. The Athenian politician Aristides would spend the rest of his life occupied in the affairs of the alliance, dying (according to Plutarch) a few years later in Pontus, whilst determining what the tax of new members was to be.
Non-Persian campaigns
Military expansion of the League
Thucydides provides just one example of the use of force to extend membership of the League, but since his account seems to be selective, there were presumably more; certainly, Plutarch provides details of one such instance. Karystos, which had collaborated with the Persians during the second Persian invasion, was attacked by the League at some point in the 470s BC, and eventually agreed to become a member. Plutarch mentions the fate of Phaselis, which Cimon compelled to join the league during his Eurymedon campaign.
Internal rebellions
Naxos attempted to leave the League c. 470/467 BC but was attacked by the Athenians and forced to remain a member. A similar fate awaited the Thasians after they tried to leave the League in 465 BC. Thucydides does not provide more examples, but from archaeological sources it is possible to deduce that there were further rebellions in the following years. Thucydides leaves us under no illusions that the behaviour of the Athenians in crushing such rebellions led firstly to the hegemony of Athens over the league, and eventually to the transition from the Delian League to the Athenian Empire.
Conflicts in Greece
During the period 479–461, the mainland Greek states were at least outwardly at peace with each other, even if divided into pro-Spartan and pro-Athenian factions. The Hellenic alliance still existed in name, and since Athens and Sparta were still allied, Greece achieved a modicum of stability. However, over this period, Sparta became increasingly suspicious and fearful of the growing power of Athens. It was this fear, according to Thucydides, which made the second, larger (and more famous) Peloponnesian War inevitable.
Athens sent troops in 462 BC to aid Sparta with the Messenian Revolt (c. 465–461 BC), under the terms of the old Hellenic alliance. The Spartans however, in the fear that Athens might interfere in the political situation between the Spartans and their helots, sent the Athenians home. This event directly led to the ostracism of Cimon (who had been leading the troops), the ascendancy of the radical democrats (led by Ephialtes and Pericles) over the previously dominant aristocratic faction (led by Cimon) in Athens, and the First Peloponnesian War between Athens and Sparta (and their respective allies).
This conflict was really the Athenians' own struggle, and need not have involved the Delian allies. After all, the League members had signed up to fight against the Persians, not fellow Greeks. Nevertheless, it does seem that at least at the Battle of Tanagra, a contingent of Ionians fought with the Athenians. The conflicts in Greece during these years are, however, not directly relevant to the history of the Delian League.
It can be seen, however, that the First Peloponnesian War may have hastened the transition of the Delian League from an Athenian-dominated alliance to an Athenian-ruled empire. During the early years of the war, Athens and her non-Delian allies scored a series of victories. However, the collapse of the simultaneous Delian League expedition in Egypt in 454 BC caused panic in Athens, and resulted in decreased military activity until 451 BC, when a five-year truce was concluded with Sparta. During the panic, the treasury of the League was moved from Delos to the perceived safety of Athens in 454 BC. Although Athens had in practice had a hegemonic position over the rest of the league since the rebellion of Naxos (470/467 BC) was put down, the process by which the Delian league gradually transformed into the Athenian Empire accelerated after 461 BC. The transfer of the treasury to Athens is sometimes used as an arbitrary demarcation between the Delian League and the Athenian Empire. An alternative 'end-point' for the Delian League is the final end of hostilities with the Persians in 450 BC, after which, despite the fact that the stated aims of the League were fulfilled, the Athenians refused to allow member states to leave the alliance.
Campaigns against Persia
Thrace
Siege of Eion
According to Thucydides, the League's opening campaign was against the city of Eion, at the mouth of the Strymon river. Since Thucydides does not provide a detailed chronology for his history of the league, the year in which this campaign took place is uncertain. The siege seems to have lasted from autumn of one year into the summer of the next, with historians supporting either 477–476 BC or 476–475 BC. Eion seems to have been one of the Persian garrisons left in Thrace during and after the second Persian invasion, along with Doriskos. The campaign against Eion should probably be seen as part of a general campaign aimed at removing the Persian presence from Thrace. Even though he does not directly cover this period, Herodotus alludes to several failed attempts, presumably Athenian, to dislodge the Persian governor of Doriskos, Mascames. Eion may have been worthy of particular mention by Thucydides because of its strategic importance; abundant supplies of timber were available in the region, and there were nearby silver mines. Furthermore, it was near the site of the future Athenian colony of Amphipolis, which was the site of several future disasters for the Athenians.
The force which attacked Eion was under the command of Cimon. Plutarch says that Cimon first defeated the Persians in battle, whereupon they retreated to the city, and were besieged there. Cimon then expelled all Thracian collaborators from the region in order to starve the Persians into submission. Herodotus indicates that the Persian commander, Boges, was offered terms upon which he might be allowed to evacuate the city and return to Asia. However, not wanting to be thought a coward by Xerxes, he resisted to the last. When the food in Eion ran out, Boges threw his treasure into the Strymon, killed his entire household and then immolated them, and himself, on a giant pyre. The Athenians thus captured the city and enslaved the remaining population.
After the fall of Eion, other coastal cities of the area surrendered to the Delian League, with the notable exception of Doriscus, which was "never taken". The Achaemenids probably recalled the Governor of Doriscus Mascames with his garrison around 465 BC, and finally abandoned this last Achaemenid stronghold in Europe.
Skyros
Following the action at Eion, and possibly in the same campaign, the Athenians, still under Cimon, attacked the island of Skyros. This was not an anti-Persian action, but a pragmatic assault on a native population that had lapsed into piracy. As a result of this action, the Athenians "liberated the Aegean", and they sent colonists to the island to prevent the island returning to piracy.
Chersonesos
Cimon returned a decade later to complete the expulsion of Persian forces from Europe. This action seems to have occurred concurrently with the siege of Thasos, and so is generally dated to 465 BC. Evidently, even at this point, some Persian forces were holding (or had re-taken) some part of the Chersonesos with the help of native Thracians. Cimon sailed to the Chersonesos with just 4 triremes, but managed to capture the 13 ships of the Persians, and then proceeded to drive them out of the peninsula. Cimon then turned the Chersonesos (of which his father, Miltiades the Younger, had been tyrant before the Greco-Persian Wars began) over to the Athenians for colonisation.
Asia Minor
Once the Persian forces in Europe had largely been neutralised, the Athenians seem to have gone about starting to extend the League in Asia Minor. The islands of Samos, Chios and Lesbos seem to have become members of the original Hellenic alliance after Mycale, and presumably were also therefore original members of the Delian League. However, it is unclear exactly when the other Ionian cities, or indeed the other Greek cities of Asia Minor, joined the league, though they certainly did at some point.
Cimon's Eurymedon campaign itself seems to have begun in response to the assembly of a large Persian fleet and army at Aspendos, near the mouth of the Eurymedon River. It is usually argued that the Persians were the would-be aggressors, and that Cimon's campaign was launched in order to deal with this new threat. Cawkwell suggests that the Persian build-up was the first concerted attempt to counter the activity of the Greeks since the failure of the second invasion. It is possible that internal strife with the Persian empire had contributed to the length of time it took to launch this campaign. Cawkwell suggests that the Persian forces gathered at Aspendos were aiming to move along the southern coast of Asia Minor, capturing each city, until eventually the Persian navy could begin operating in Ionia again.
Plutarch says that upon hearing that the Persian forces were gathering at Aspendos, Cimon sailed from Cnidus (in Caria) with 200 triremes. It is highly likely that Cimon had assembled this force because the Athenians had had some warning of a forthcoming Persian campaign to re-subjugate the Asiatic Greeks. According to Plutarch, Cimon sailed with these 200 triremes to the Greek city of Phaselis (in Lycia) but was refused admittance. He therefore began ravaging the lands of Phaselis, but with the mediation of the Chian contingent of his fleet, the people of Phaselis agreed to join the league. They were to contribute troops to the expedition, and to pay the Athenians ten talents. By capturing Phaselis, the furthest east Greek city in Asia Minor (and just to the west of the Eurymedon), he effectively blocked the Persian campaign before it had begun, denying them the first naval base they needed to control. Taking further initiative, Cimon then moved to directly attack the Persian fleet at Aspendos.
Battle of the Eurymedon
Thucydides gives only the barest of details for this battle; the most reliable detailed account is given by Plutarch. According to Plutarch, the Persian fleet was anchored off the mouth of the Eurymedon, awaiting the arrival of 80 Phoenician ships from Cyprus. Several different estimates for the size of the Persian fleet are given. Thucydides says that there was a fleet of 200 Phoenician ships, and is generally considered the most reliable source. Plutarch gives numbers of 350 from Ephorus and 600 from Phanodemus.
Cimon, sailing from Phaselis, made to attack the Persians before the reinforcements arrived, whereupon the Persian fleet, eager to avoid fighting, retreated into the river itself. However, when Cimon continued to bear down on the Persians, they accepted battle. Regardless of their numbers, the Persian battle line was quickly breached, and the Persian ships then turned about, and made for the river bank. Grounding their ships, the crews sought sanctuary with the army waiting nearby. Despite the weariness of his troops after this first battle, Cimon landed the marines and proceeded to attack the Persian army. Initially the Persian line held the Athenian assault, but eventually, as at Battle of Mycale, the heavily armoured hoplites proved superior, and routed the Persian army. Thucydides says that 200 Phoenician ships were captured and destroyed. It is highly unlikely that this occurred during the apparently brief naval battle, so these were probably grounded ships captured after the battle and destroyed with fire, as has been the case at Mycale. According to Plutarch, Cimon then sailed with the Greek fleet as quickly as possible, to intercept the fleet of 80 Phoenician ships which the Persians had been expecting. Taking them by surprise, he captured or destroyed the entire fleet. However, Thucydides does not mention this subsidiary action, and some have cast doubt on whether it actually happened.
According to Plutarch, one tradition had it that the Persian king (who at the time would still have been Xerxes) had agreed a humiliating peace treaty in the aftermath of the Eurymedon (see below). However, as Plutarch admits, other authors denied that such a peace was made at this time, and the more logical date for any peace treaty would have been after the Cyprus campaign. The alternative suggested by Plutarch is that the Persian king acted as if he had made a humiliating peace with the Greeks, because he was so fearful of engaging in battle with them again. It is generally considered unlikely by modern historians that a peace treaty was made in the aftermath of Eurymedon. The Eurymedon was a highly significant victory for the Delian League, which probably ended once and for all the threat of another Persian invasion of Greece. It also seems to have prevented any Persian attempt to reconquer the Asiatic Greeks until at least 451 BC. The accession of further cities of Asia Minor to the Delian league, particularly from Caria, probably followed Cimon's campaign there. The Greeks do not appear to have pressed their advantage home in a meaningful way. If the later date of 466 BC for the Eurymedon campaign is accepted, this might be because the revolt in Thasos meant that resources were diverted away from Asia Minor to prevent the Thasians seceding from the League. The Persian fleet was effectively absent from the Aegean until 451 BC, and Greek ships were able to ply the coasts of Asia Minor with impunity.
Egypt
The Egyptian campaign, as discussed above, is generally thought to have begun in 460 BC. Even this date is subject to some debate however, since at this time Athens was already at war with Sparta in the First Peloponnesian War. It has been questioned whether Athens would really commit to an Egyptian campaign under these circumstances, and therefore suggested that this campaign began before the war with Sparta, in 462 BC. However, this date is generally rejected, and it seems that the Egyptian campaign was, on the part of Athens, simply a piece of political opportunism.
The Egyptian satrapy of the Persian Empire was particularly prone to revolts, one of which had occurred as recently as 486 BC. In 461 or 460 BC, a new rebellion began under the command of Inaros, a Libyan king living on the border of Egypt. This rebellion quickly swept the country, which was soon largely in the hands of Inaros. Inaros now appealed to the Delian League for assistance in their fight against the Persians.
There was a League fleet of 200 ships under Admiral Charitimides already campaigning in Cyprus at this time, which the Athenians then diverted Egypt to support the revolt. Indeed, it is possible that the fleet had been dispatched to Cyprus in the first place because, with Persian attention focused on the Egyptian revolt, it seemed a favourable time to campaign in Cyprus. This would go some way towards explaining the apparently reckless decision of the Athenians to fight wars on two fronts. Thucydides seems to imply that the whole fleet was diverted to Egypt, although it has also been suggested that such a large fleet was unnecessary, and some portion of it remained of the coast of Asia Minor during this period. Ctesias suggests that the Athenians sent 40 ships, whereas Diodorus says 200, in apparent agreement with Thucydides. Fine suggests a number of reasons that the Athenians may have been willing to engage themselves in Egypt, despite the ongoing war elsewhere; the opportunity to weaken Persia, the desire for a naval base in Egypt, the access to the Nile's huge grain supply, and from the viewpoint of the Ionian allies, the chance to restore profitable trading links with Egypt.
At any rate, the Athenians arrived in Egypt, and sailed up the Nile to join up with Inaros's forces. Charitimides led his fleet against the Achaemenids in the Nile river, and defeated a fleet consisting of 50 Phoenician ships. It was the last great naval encounter between the Greeks and the Achaemenids. Of the 50 Phoenician ships, he managed to destroy 30 ships, and capture the remaining 20 that faced him in that battle.
The Persian king Artaxerxes I had in the meantime assembled a relief force to crush the revolt, under his uncle Achaemenes. Diodorus and Ctesias give numbers for this force of 300,000 and 400,000 respectively, but these numbers are presumably over-inflated.
Battle of Papremis (460 BC)
According to Diodorus, the only detailed source for this campaign, the Persian relief force had pitched camp near the Nile. Although Herodotus does not cover this period in his history, he mentions as an aside that he "saw too the skulls of those Persians at Papremis who were killed with Darius' son Achaemenes by Inaros the Libyan". This provides some confirmation that this battle was factual, and provides a name for it, which Diodorus does not. Papremis (or Pampremis) seems to have been a city on the Nile delta, and a cult centre for the Egyptian equivalent of Ares/Mars. Diodorus tells us that once the Athenians had arrived, they and the Egyptians accepted battle from the Persians. At first the Persians' superior numbers gave them the advantage, but eventually the Athenians broke through the Persian line, whereupon the Persian army routed and fled. Some portion of the Persian army found refuge in the citadel of Memphis (called the 'White Castle'), however, and could not be dislodged. Thucydides's rather compressed version of these events is: "and making themselves masters of the river and two-thirds of Memphis, addressed themselves to the attack of the remaining third, which is called White Castle".
Siege of Memphis (459–455 BCE)
The Athenians and Egyptians thus settled down to besiege the White Castle. The siege evidently did not progress well, and probably lasted for at least four years, since Thucydides says that their whole expedition lasted 6 years, and of this time the final 18 months was occupied with the Siege of Prosoptis.
According to Thucydides, at first Artaxerxes sent Megabazus to try and bribe the Spartans into invading Attica, to draw off the Athenian forces from Egypt. When this failed, he instead assembled a large army under (confusingly) Megabyzus, and dispatched it to Egypt. Diodorus has more or less the same story, with more detail; after the attempt at bribery failed, Artaxerxes put Megabyzus and Artabazus in charge of 300,000 men, with instructions to quell the revolt. They went first from Persia to Cilicia and gathered a fleet of 300 triremes from the Cilicians, Phoenicians and Cypriots, and spent a year training their men. Then they finally headed to Egypt. Modern estimates, however, place the number of Persian troops at the considerably lower figure of 25,000 men given that it would have been highly impractical to deprive the already strained satrapies of any more man power than that. Thucydides does not mention Artabazus, who is reported by Herodotus to have taken part in the Second Persian invasion of Greece; Diodorus may be mistaken about his presence in this campaign. It is clearly possible that the Persian forces did spend some prolonged time in training, since it took four years for them to respond to the Egyptian victory at Papremis. Although neither author gives many details, it is clear that when Megabyzus finally arrived in Egypt, he was able to quickly lift the siege of Memphis, defeating the Egyptians in battle, and driving the Athenians from Memphis.
Siege of Prosopitis (455 BCE)
The Athenians now fell back to the island of Prosopitis in the Nile delta, where their ships were moored. There, Megabyzus laid siege to them for 18 months, until finally he was able to drain the river from around the island by digging canals, thus "joining the island to the mainland". In Thucydides's account the Persians then crossed over to the former island, and captured it. Only a few of the Athenian force, marching through Libya to Cyrene survived to return to Athens. In Diodorus's version, however, the draining of the river prompted the Egyptians (whom Thucydides does not mention) to defect and surrender to the Persians. The Persians, not wanting to sustain heavy casualties in attacking the Athenians, instead allowed them to depart freely to Cyrene, whence they returned to Athens. Since the defeat of the Egyptian expedition caused a genuine panic in Athens, including the relocation of the Delian treasury to Athens, Thucydides's version is probably more likely to be correct.
Battle of Mendesium
As a final disastrous coda to the expedition, Thucydides mentions the fate of a squadron of fifty triremes sent to relieve the siege of Prosopitis. Unaware that the Athenians had finally succumbed, the fleet put in at the Mendesian mouth of the Nile, where it was promptly attacked from the land, and from the sea by the Phoenician navy. Most of the ships were destroyed, with only a handful managing to escape and return to Athens. Total Athenian casualties of the expedition totaled some 50,000 men and 250 ships.
Cyprus
In 478 BC the Allies had, according to Thucydides, sailed to Cyprus and "subdued most of the island". Exactly what Thucydides means by this is unclear. Sealey suggests that this was essentially a raid to gather as much booty as possible from the Persian garrisons on Cyprus. There is no indication that the Allies made any attempt to actually take possession of the island, and shortly after they sailed to Byzantium. Certainly, the fact that the Delian League repeatedly campaigned in Cyprus suggests that the island was not garrisoned by the Allies in 478 BC, or that the garrisons were quickly expelled.
The next time Cyprus is mentioned is in relation to c. 460 BC, when a League fleet was campaigning there, before being instructed to head to Egypt to support Inaros's rebellion, with the fateful consequences discussed above. The Egyptian disaster would eventually lead the Athenians to sign a five-year truce with Sparta in 451 BC. Thereby freed from fighting in Greece, the League was again able to dispatch a fleet to campaign in Cyprus in 451 BC, under the recently recalled Cimon.
Siege of Kition
Cimon sailed for Cyprus with a fleet of 200 ships provided by the Athenians and their allies. However, 60 of these ships were sent to Egypt at the request of Amyrtaeus, the so-called "King of the Marshes" (who still remained independent of, and opposed to Persian rule). The rest of the force besieged Kition in Cyprus, but during the siege, Cimon died either of sickness or a wound. The Athenians lacked provisions, and apparently under the death-bed instructions of Cimon, the Athenians retreated towards Salamis-in-Cyprus.
Battles of Salamis-in-Cyprus
Cimon's death was kept a secret from the Athenian army. 30 days after leaving Kition, the Athenians and their allies were attacked by a Persian force composed of Cilicians, Phoenicians, and Cyprians, whilst sailing off Salamis-in-Cyprus. Under the 'command' of the deceased Cimon, they defeated this force at sea, and also in a land battle. Having thus successfully extricated themselves, the Athenians sailed back to Greece, joined by the detachment which had been sent to Egypt.
These battles formed the end of the Greco-Persian Wars.
Peace with Persia
After the Battles of Salamis-in-Cyprus, Thucydides makes no further mention of conflict with the Persians, simply saying that the Greeks returned home. Diodorus, on the other hand, claims that in the aftermath of Salamis, a full-blown peace treaty (the "Peace of Callias") was agreed with the Persians. Diodorus was probably following the history of Ephorus at this point, who in turn was presumably influenced by his teacher Isocrates — from whom we have the earliest reference to the supposed peace, in 380 BC. Even during the 4th century BC the idea of the treaty was controversial, and two authors from that period, Callisthenes and Theopompus appear to reject its existence.
It is possible that the Athenians had attempted to negotiate with the Persians previously. Plutarch suggests that in the aftermath of the victory at the Eurymedon, Artaxerxes had agreed a peace treaty with the Greeks, even naming Callias as the Athenian ambassador involved. However, as Plutarch admits, Callisthenes denied that such a peace was made at this point (c. 466 BC). Herodotus also mentions, in passing, an Athenian embassy headed by Callias, which was sent to Susa to negotiate with Artaxerxes. This embassy included some Argive representatives and can probably be therefore dated to c. 461 BC (after forging of the alliance between Athens and Argos). This embassy may have been an attempt to reach some kind of peace agreement, and it has even been suggested that the failure of these hypothetical negotiations led to the Athenian decision to support the Egyptian revolt. The ancient sources therefore disagree as to whether there was an official peace or not, and if there was, when it was agreed.
Opinion amongst modern historians is also split; for instance, Fine accepts the concept of the Peace of Callias, whereas Sealey effectively rejects it. Holland accepts that some kind of accommodation was made between Athens and Persia, but no actual treaty. Fine argues that Callisthenes's denial that a treaty was made after the Eurymedon does not preclude a peace being made at another point. Further, he suggests that Theopompus was actually referring to a treaty that had allegedly been negotiated with Persia in 423 BC. If these views are correct, it would remove one major obstacle to the acceptance of the treaty's existence. A further argument for the existence of the treaty is the sudden withdrawal of the Athenians from Cyprus in 450 BC, which makes most sense in the light of some kind of peace agreement. On the other hand, if there was indeed some kind of accommodation, Thucydides's failure to mention it is odd. In his digression on the pentekontaetia his aim is to explain the growth of Athenian power, and such a treaty, and the fact that the Delian allies were not released from their obligations after it, would have marked a major step in the Athenian ascendancy. Conversely, it has been suggested that certain passages elsewhere in Thucydides's history are best interpreted as referring to a peace agreement. There is thus no clear consensus amongst modern historians as to the treaty's existence.
The ancient sources which give details of the treaty are reasonably consistent in their description of the terms:
All Greek cities of Asia were to 'live by their own laws' or 'be autonomous' (depending on translation).
Persian satraps (and presumably their armies) were not to travel west of the Halys (Isocrates) or closer than a day's journey on horseback to the Aegean Sea (Callisthenes) or closer than three days' journey on foot to the Aegean Sea (Ephorus and Diodorus).
No Persian warship was to sail west of Phaselis (on the southern coast of Asia Minor), nor west of the Cyanaean rocks (probably at the eastern end of the Bosporus, on the north coast).
If the terms were observed by the king and his generals, then the Athenians were not to send troops to lands ruled by Persia.
Aftermath
As already noted, towards the end of the conflict with Persia, the process by which the Delian League became the Athenian Empire reached its conclusion. The allies of Athens were not released from their obligations to provide either money or ships, despite the cessation of hostilities. In Greece, the First Peloponnesian War between the power-blocs of Athens and Sparta, which had continued on and off since 460 BC, finally ended in 445 BC, with the agreement of a thirty-year truce. However, the growing enmity between Sparta and Athens would lead, just 14 years later, to the outbreak of the Second Peloponnesian War. This disastrous conflict, which dragged on for 27 years, would eventually result in the utter destruction of Athenian power, the dismemberment of the Athenian empire, and the establishment of a Spartan hegemony over Greece. However, not just Athens suffered. The conflict would significantly weaken the whole of Greece.
Repeatedly defeated in battle by the Greeks, and plagued by internal rebellions which hindered their ability to fight the Greeks, after 450 BC Artaxerxes and his successors adopted a policy of divide-and-rule. Avoiding fighting the Greeks themselves, the Persians instead attempted to set Athens against Sparta, regularly bribing politicians to achieve their aims. In this way, they ensured that the Greeks remained distracted by internal conflicts, and were unable to turn their attentions to Persia. There was no open conflict between the Greeks and Persia until 396 BC, when the Spartan king Agesilaus briefly invaded Asia Minor; as Plutarch points out, the Greeks were far too busy overseeing the destruction of their own power to fight against the "barbarians".
If the wars of the Delian League shifted the balance of power between Greece and Persia in favour of the Greeks, then the subsequent half-century of internecine conflict in Greece did much to restore the balance of power to Persia. In 387 BC, Sparta, confronted by an alliance of Corinth, Thebes and Athens during the Corinthian War, sought the aid of Persia to shore up her position. Under the so-called "King's Peace" which brought the war to an end, Artaxerxes II demanded and received the return of the cities of Asia Minor from the Spartans, in return for which the Persians threatened to make war on any Greek state which did not make peace. This humiliating treaty, which undid all the Greek gains of the previous century, sacrificed the Greeks of Asia Minor so that the Spartans could maintain their hegemony over Greece. It is in the aftermath of this treaty that Greek orators began to refer to the Peace of Callias (whether fictional or not), as a counterpoint to the shame of the King's Peace, and a glorious example of the "good old days" when the Greeks of the Aegean had been freed from Persian rule by the Delian League.
References
Bibliography
Primary sources
Herodotus, The Histories
Thucydides, History of the Peloponnesian War
Xenophon, Hellenica
Diodorus Siculus, Biblioteca Historica
Plutarch, Parallel Lives — Aristides, Cimon, Themistocles
Ctesias, Persica (from Photius's Epitome)
Secondary sources
Delian League
Delian League
Delian League
Delian League
Delian League
Delian League
Greco-Persian Wars
Delian League | wiki |
Second-generation immigrants in the United States are individuals born and raised in the United States who have at least one foreign born parent. Although the term is an oxymoron which is often used ambiguously, this definition is cited by major research centers including the United States Census Bureau and the Pew Research Center.
As the Fourteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution guarantees citizenship to any individual born in the U.S. who is also subject to the jurisdiction of the U.S., second-generation Americans are currently granted U.S. citizenship by birth. However, political debate over repealing this right has increased in recent years. Advocates of this motion claim that this right attracts unauthorized immigration to the U.S. The repeal of birthright citizenship would have the greatest impact on second-generation Americans who are Mexican Americans, as Mexico is the country of origin for the majority of undocumented immigrants in the U.S.
The growing presence of first-generation immigrants in the U.S. has led to a growth in the percentage of the population that can be categorized as second-generation Americans. This is due to immigrants being more likely than native born adults to have children. In 2009, immigrants, both legal and unauthorized, were the parents of 23% of all children in the U.S. The process by which second-generation immigrants undergo assimilation into U.S. society affects their economic successes and educational attainments, with the general trend being an improvement in earnings and education relative to the parental generation. Second-generation Americans have an increasingly important impact on the national labor force and ethnic makeup. People are likely to overestimate the population size of second-generation immigrants due to fear of their growing economic success and hold discriminatory attitudes towards them.
Statistics
In 2009, 33 million people in the United States were second-generation immigrants, representing 11% of the national population. There are significant differences in income and education levels between the second generation immigrant population and the first generation immigrant population in the United States. Second-generation immigrants are doing better overall and are assimilating more successfully into U.S. society.
Income
In comparison to first generation immigrants, second-generation immigrants are more likely to achieve higher earnings. In 2008, the median annual earnings for second-generation immigrants were $42,297 while the median annual earnings for first generation immigrants were $32,631. In the same year, the U.S. Census Bureau found that second-generation immigrants had higher earnings overall, with 42% of the second generation immigrant population earning above $50,000 compared to just 31% of the first generation immigrant population. Second-generation immigrants are also less likely to live in poverty relative to their first generation counterparts.
Education levels
Second-generation immigrants are more educated compared to first generation immigrants, exceeding parental education in many instances. A greater percentage of second-generation immigrants have obtained a level of education beyond a high school diploma, with 59.2% having at least some college education in 2009. Also in 2009, 33% of the second generation immigrant population had a bachelor's degree. The following graph depicts the data collected by the U.S. Census Bureau on educational attainments for immigrant generations in the year 2009.
In earlier studies, migration is shown to be a risk factor in child development. On the contrary, many immigrant adolescents perform equally or even better than national adolescents, specifically in school. Reports have shown that immigrant adolescents earn better grades in school than their national contemporaries, despite their lower socio-economic status. However, as immigrant youth assimilate into United States culture, their developmental and educational outcomes become less optimal. This phenomenon is known as the Immigrant Paradox. There are a couple explanations for this phenomenon, first of all being the free public education system of the United States. For Latino immigrants, free access to education is a major factor in deciding to immigrate to the U.S. and once they arrive, they stress upon their children the importance to succeed academically in order to make their lives better. Another factor increasing the initial educational success of immigrants is the fact that many of them are bilingual. Native bilingualism allows immigrants a distinct advantage in the completion of composite tasks.
Theories on cultural assimilation
The majority of immigrants in the United States are non-white. Immigrants come from diverse backgrounds and have unique cultures taken from their native countries. The children of such immigrants in the U.S., also known as "second-generation immigrants," experience a cultural conflict between that of their parents and that of mainstream U.S. society. The process by which these second-generation immigrants assimilate into society is increasingly being researched, and multiple theories on the cultural assimilation of second-generation immigrants have been proposed.
Segmented assimilation
The theory of segmented assimilation for second-generation immigrants is highly researched in the sociological arena. Segmented assimilation focuses on the notion that people take different paths in how they adapt to life in the United States. This theory states that there are three main different paths of assimilation for second-generation immigrants. Some immigrants assimilate smoothly into the white middle class of America, others experience downward assimilation, and others experience rapid economic success while preserving the values of their immigrant community.
This theory also includes the concept of modes of incorporation, which are the external factors within the host community that affect assimilation. These factors are created by the underlying policies of the government, the strength of prejudice in the society, and the makeup of coethnic communities within the society. These modes of incorporation affect how a child will assimilate into U.S. society, and determine how vulnerable the child will be towards downward assimilation. Factors that enhance such vulnerability include racial discrimination, location, and changes in the economy that have made it harder for intergenerational mobility.
In addition, differing modes of incorporation make available certain resources that second-generation immigrants can use to overcome challenges to the process of assimilation. If the child belongs to a group that has been exempt from the prejudice experienced by most immigrants, such as European immigrants, they will experience a smoother process of assimilation. A second generation immigrant can also make use of established networks in the coethnic community. These networks provide these children with additional resources beyond those offered by the government, such as gateways into well paying jobs in businesses established by the ethnic community.
Children of middle class immigrants have a greater likelihood of moving up the social ladder and joining American mainstream society than children of lower class immigrants, as they have access to both the resources provided by their parents and to the educational opportunities afforded to the middle class in the U.S.
Downward assimilation
Multiple factors affect the likelihood of downward assimilation, including race, location, and absence of mobility ladders. Generally, immigrants enter the sectors of the labor force that experience low pay, commonly through jobs in the service sector and manufacturing. Such jobs seldom offer chances for upward mobility. The lack of good pay and resources available to immigrant parents affects the likelihood of their U.S.-born children being able to rise out of poverty. Children born to low skilled immigrants may experience assimilation into the impoverished groups of the United States. Instead of adapting to the mainstream values and expectations of U.S. society, they take on the adversarial stance of the poor, entering the vicious cycle of poverty. According to the theory of segmented assimilation, second-generation immigrants are less likely to experience downward assimilation when their race does not align with groups that experience prejudice and discrimination, such as African Americans. Also, immigrant families can enter well established ethnic groups in the United States to increase their pool of resources, lowering the possibility of downward assimilation for their children.
Criticism
Not all studies coincide with the theory of segmented assimilation. Other studies have found that second generation immigrant groups' earnings are in line with native born groups. Arrest rates indicate similarities in the engagement of deviant behavior between second-generation immigrants and the white population in the U.S., contradicting the theory of segmented assimilation since these similarities support the idea of assimilation towards the dominant norm of mainstream U.S. society.
Despite the barriers that come from being born to immigrants who are generally low skilled, have little education, and have less knowledge of the English language compared to U.S. natives, second-generation immigrants are doing better than U.S. native groups of comparable racial backgrounds, contradicting the concept of downward assimilation. A major factor that contributes to second-generation immigrants doing so well is the drive to succeed and do better than their predecessors that is commonly instilled in these immigrants from childhood by their families. The theory of segment assimilation undermines such early socialization.
Second-generation immigrants of minority status in terms of ethnicity can also move up the social economic ladder via minority rights and resources available through programs directed at the betterment of minority groups in the U.S. Second-generation immigrants are also entering the labor force with higher levels of education compared to their parents, which helps balance the negative effects associated with having low skilled immigrant parents.
Another major criticism of segmented assimilation is that it predicts downward mobility for children of low skilled immigrants when studies have shown that upward mobility is more likely due to the children already starting off at the bottom.
Other theories
The theory of "straight line" assimilation, also known as linear assimilation or simple assimilation was developed based on the experiences of European immigrants to the U.S. in the early 20th century. This theory claims that as time passes and second-generation immigrants are exposed longer to the culture of mainstream U.S. society, the likelihood of assimilation into mainstream U.S. society increases. This theory predicts that each succeeding immigrant generation exhibits greater assimilation into mainstream society. With greater assimilation exhibited by each succeeding immigrant generation, unique ethnic characteristics that were clearly evident in the first generation fade away. The skin color of these immigrants led to them experiencing a smooth and straight line type of assimilation as they did not have to overcome the race barrier in their attempt to enter mainstream society.
Another theory on cultural assimilation centers on the racial/ethnic disadvantage model. This theory emphasizes that the process of assimilation for certain immigrant groups is blocked due to their race or ethnicity, meaning that discrimination in society and in the workplace hinders assimilation into mainstream U.S. society. The major critique of this theory is that it overstresses social barriers along racial and ethnic lines without providing adequate explanations for why many second-generation immigrants overcome these barriers and experience socioeconomic mobility.
Differences within the second generation immigrant population
There is a great deal of diversity in terms of ethnicities and races within the second immigrant generation population. This diversity among immigrants can be seen in language use, as the majority of second-generation immigrants are bilingual, with 2/3 speaking a language other than English in their homes. In addition, differing ethnicity and racial groups have experiences that are unique to their group. Hispanics, Asian Americans, and Caribbean Americans are three of the major groups that make up the population of second-generation immigrants in the United States.
Latinos
In 2003, the Pew Research Center projected that in the next twenty years, second generation Latinos will account for the largest percentage of the U.S. population. In 2003 it was also projected that, if current trends continue, over the next 20 years, 1/4 of the growth in the labor force will be due to second-generation immigrants who are Latino. 1/7 of new students enrolling in schools within this same time period will also be second generation Latinos. The increasing representation of second-generation immigrants who are Latino in the areas of work, school, and the larger population can be attributed to the continuing influx of Latino immigrants and the high fertility rate of Latino immigrants, which is higher than any other segment of the national population.
As the number of second generation Latinos/as grows, so will their political and economical influence. In relation to educational achievement, second generation Latinos follow the general trend for second-generation immigrants in the United States. In comparison to first generation Latino immigrants, second generation Latinos are more likely to intermarry with members of other racial groups. These higher rates of racial intermarriage leads to an increase in the birthrates of interracial children, aiding in the elimination of disparities in the U.S. that exist along ethnic lines.
Currently, Mexican Americans constitute the largest percentage of second-generation immigrants in the United States. Among male high school graduates, the employment rates are comparable to those experienced by native born whites. When location is controlled for, the employment rate of Mexican American second-generation immigrants surpasses that of native born, non-Hispanic whites. Among male Mexican American second-generation immigrants who have less than a high school diploma, employment rates are also higher than those of native born, non-Hispanic whites. Mexican second generation women experience an employment rate slightly below that of native whites. This gap in labor participation increases for those with less than a high school diploma. Similar levels of labor force participation does not necessarily mean similar earnings, as part-time is considered employment and Mexican Americans are more likely to take on jobs with lower pay.
Asian Americans
The use term Asian American in the U.S. was cultivated during the time of the Civil Rights era, when minorities alike endeavoured to be heard, and since then the Asian American identity has continued to develop. However, it is suggested that this umbrella term was created as a political construct to compartmentalise and control minorities. Within Asian Americans, those of East Asian descent are described as Orientals, however this term is considered derogatory in a similar way the term Negroes is negatively used to describe Blacks. Historically the predominant Asian ethnicity in the U.S. has been Chinese and Japanese, though among second generation Asian Americans ethnic diversity has increased considerably.
27% of the Asian population in the U.S. can be categorized as second-generation immigrants. The cultural assimilation of second generation Asians is diverse, coinciding with the theory of segmented assimilation. The diversification of the pool of Asian immigrants, where many are highly educated, plays a pivotal role in the assimilation of the second generation. Second generation Asian immigrants are therefore more likely to be born into a middle-class family than second-generation immigrants from other racial groups. Highly skilled Asian immigrants tend to settle in suburbs upon their arrival to the United States, further promoting the assimilation of their children into white middle class society. According to acculturation theory, the higher the self-esteem of an Asian and the closer they are to their parents, the less likely they are to internalise racism and more likely they are to maintain ethnic pride, desiring to associate with members of their own race.
Many of the negative stereotypes associated with Asian culture can be tied into critical race theory, and stereotypes are largely and grossly exaggerated and shockingly misrepresented in attempt to marginalise minorities and maintain ruling class hegemony to preserve existing Western power structures. These stereotypes are so powerful that some Asians who lack critical thinking skills become to believe them and act like them, losing their sense of identity to a political construct and internalising racism and thus having lower self-esteem. Parallels can be drawn between Asians and Jews, as whilst very different, both achieved success despite marginalisation - the derogatory stereotype of an Asian tiger mum, for instance, is similar to the political stereotype of a Jewish mother, whilst both claim to have experienced discrimination from Harvard University - educator of the ruling class - albeit in different ways. Asians are not monolithic, just like any other racial group, and it is political to generalise their background in this way. Similarly, there is the idea that Asians are not creative and are just focussed on STEM. This again can be considered as a political construct aiming to dehumanise and 'peck down' members of a foreign race in a manner of tall poppy syndrome because it fails to explain the fact that success in the maths and sciences requires a high degree of lateral thinking alongside an innovation mindset. Balancing two cultures enables more Asians in the West to be innovators, because they are able to consider more ideas from different schools of thought, and this helps explain their large success in entrepreneurship. Whilst they have not earned as many Nobel prizes compared to other ethnic groups, Asians have demonstrated to be particularly innovative in the area of technological innovation.
There is the popular notion that Asians are more likely to study STEM at university to make more money, but it should also be considered that they are less likely to gravitate towards the humanities and social sciences because a lot of the material in these subjects have been created in response to political pressures that ultimately serve against them, and they need to maintain a sense of what is true and objective in a society that tries to gaslight their reality out of them. For instance, much of History is taught from a Eurocentric perspective and is biased towards the West, and Drama frequently reflects an ethnocentric perception of East Asians rather than realistic and authentic depictions of East Asian cultures, colours, customs, and behaviors (Portrayal of East Asians in American film and theater). Whilst politics exists in the academic world of STEM, in general the subject material in these subjects are more objective and thus provides a less racist training ground for the development of critical thinking and analysis at university level. In addition, a career in STEM involves less discrimination and racism, and microagressions whilst existent are less common.
Furthermore, there is also the stereotype that in tandem with their propensity towards science, Asians are also musical. Many people who are innovative like arts but also science, drawing upon the complexity in music and joy of playing instruments within the beautiful, harmonical, and rhythmic community of an Orchestra to understand and contribute to other disciplines. For example, Albert Einstein liked physics but also playing the violin - this suggests that race may not be the variable behind this stereotype because correlation is not causation. Like all other humans, Asians also like other arts such as Painting and are well-rounded in their hobbies and cultural capital, however as this humanises Asians it is not in the interests of the political status quo to promote this image. There have been cases of racial misrepresentation and exaggeration due to political bias throughout history, for example Richard Nixon stated that "by getting the public to associate the hippies with marijuana and blacks with heroin, and then criminalizing both heavily, we could disrupt those communities. We could arrest their leaders, raid their homes, break up their meetings, and vilify them night after night on the evening news." Orchestration has connotations of strategy, planning, and logic; linking Music and musical instruments heavily with Asians further gives the impression that Asians are measuring, calculating, robotic, revising, and instrumental - and thus morally inferior. Political stereotypes such as this are an example of divide and rule and also cultural hegemony.
According to stereotype content model, Asians - alongside Jews - are viewed to be high in the 'competence' dimension, but low in the 'warmth dimension'; whereas the dominant White group are viewed to be high in the 'competence' dimension and also in the 'warmth' dimension'. This suggests that White people are more emotionally intelligent, compassionate and mature than Asian people - and thus morally superior. It implies that Asians are selfish and not very charitable, and thus undeserving of their high status in society, making them more likely to be scapegoated in times of threat. However, research shows that Asian and minority ethnic (BAME) volunteers and disabled people are more likely to have a less positive experience of volunteering and BAME volunteers have lower levels of satisfaction as volunteers. The collectivist culture of Asian countries makes Asian people helpful and considerate of their neighbour but does not encourage one to seek external rewards from moral acts.
According to the authoritarian and authoritative models of parenting, Asians are more likely to be raised under an Authoritarian parenting style, which is related to the fact that the Humanities ethnocentrically labels Asian societies and cultures as Authoritarian. This psychological model of understanding children's upbringing has a political spin, as it suggests that White parents - and thus White people - are morally superior, and Asian parents - and thus Asian people - are morally inferior. The reality is that just as there a great diversity in the way White people are raised, there is great diversity in the way different Asian people are raised, and it is political to compartmentalise the upbringing of an entire minority racial group in this way. The model contradicts itself, and states that children of Authoritarian parents are more likely to have an unhealthy relationship with drugs and alcohol, and worser health. Yet Asians have a high life expectancy and are also less likely to misuse drugs and alcohol in comparison to their counterparts from other ethnic groups. Moreover, the model states that children raised under an Authoritarian upbringing are more anxious due to a desire to succeed. Science shows that anxiety has evolutionary purpose, as whilst it can be unpleasant on a day to day basis, it is also what makes people more likely to take responsibility for their life outcome and have better health in the long run. Furthermore, children of immigrants are special in that, as their parents immigrated out of their country - in comparison to the ones who did not, they are probably more likely to have this genetic component for anxiety that aids their survival. Denigrating Asians (similar to Jews) in the West as anxious and neurotic through this authoritative vs authoritarian parenting model is political because it aims to deter them from taking responsibility for their life outcomes, making them believe they are mentally ill and that something - attributable to their upbringing and parents - is inherently wrong with them (psychiatry is political ). This leads to lower self-esteem in Asian children. The authoritative vs authoritarian parenting model also suggests that children of Authoritarian parents do less well academically, because they have a less close relationship with their parents and worser critical thinking skills, but then appears to make an exception for Asian children who manage to do well academically. This parenting model also suggests that children with Authoritarian parents, i.e., "Asian kids", have worser communication skills, but this fails to take into consideration that most children of immigrants have to learn a language that is not the same as the mother tongue of their parents so naturally they are not as good as communicating in the language of the majority and also have a different way of relating to others that is more natural to them. This can help explain why Asians are generally known for doing better in, and gravitating towards, quantitative subjects rather than qualitative subjects, and also why there exists a separate test for measuring Intelligence Quotient - which Asians do better in - called the Cattell Culture Fair Intelligence Test ("an attempt to measure cognitive abilities devoid of sociocultural and environmental influences"). Through academic propaganda that is constructed by Western academics who work within Western research institutions, cultural hegemony attempts to socialise children of Asian youth into disliking their family and culture, and this can explain why some Asian people refuse to marry people of their own race due to internalised racism. However, any child of an Asian parent who has been raised well, with loving parents, will be able to apply critical thinking to see through this. Nassim Nicholas Taleb argues that modern-education breeds "Intellectual Yet Idiots" who earn degrees from prestigious institutions. This suggests that it is important to apply critical thinking to biased academic theories widespread in society such as the authoritarian vs authoritative parenting model which links Asian people to Authoritarianism, and has the audacity to imply that there is something less human - a moral defect - about an entire racial group that is foreign in relation to the dominant majority. This psychological model allows White parents, and their children, to have higher self esteem than Asian parents, and their children. The theory constantly makes contradictions and exceptions when Asian children do not fit into the model, without explaining this further, and is ultimately inconsistent and thus biased. It also encourages some Asian youth to perform worser at school and not apply themselves to reach their full potential, and focus on disproving political stereotypes applied to their youth culture (namely that they are boring, antisocial, studious and quantitative) to the detriment of their intrinsic storyline as they are focussed on appearing 'popular', 'not Asian', 'a cool Asian', 'an Asian accepted by Whites', 'a non-academic Asian', failing to reflect on how much of their behaviour is a rebellion designed by cultural hegemony and deters them from achieving positions of power, wealth, charity, status and influence. It makes some Asian youth dislike other Asian youth (divide and rule). As Toni Morrison said well, “The function, the very serious function of racism is distraction. It keeps you from doing your work. It keeps you explaining, over and over again, your reason for being. Somebody says you have no language and you spend twenty years proving that you do. Somebody says your head isn’t shaped properly so you have scientists working on the fact that it is. Somebody says you have no art, so you dredge that up. Somebody says you have no kingdoms, so you dredge that up. None of this is necessary. There will always be one more thing.”
In the educational system, according to Critical race theory Asians are more likely to be unfairly accused of cheating because teachers have unconscious bias towards them. Additionally, Asians are accused of being uncreative, with people linking their high grades with a conformist personality that lacks critical thinking and soft skills, but this can be interpreted as an attempt to control and diminish their success in succeeding within the current systems our society are run under and thus receiving a higher quality of life. Asians are more likely to hold an internal locus of control and believe that hard work pays off, learning to dismiss and navigate (racist) workplaces in their journey upwards - and this helps explain why Asian men and women earned more than their White, Black and Hispanic counterparts.
Asian second-generation immigrants, like their Hispanic counterparts, tend to be bilingual. Children of Asian immigrants often attend language schools on the weekend to learn and maintain their cultural heritage, but are likely to have their proficiency in their parents' native language weakened while maintaining an emotional attachment to their family and heritage, which helps them develop their identity. While second generation Asian immigrants strive for the middle class white status, as many of their parents do, they develop a sensitivity to issues of race and ethnicity, which can be a major factor in the process of assimilation. This focus on success helps explain the high educational successes seen by second generation Asian immigrants, alongside their innate values revolving around the importance of family which protect them from some of the negative aspects of society such as drug abuse and divorce and lead to a high life expectancy, outliving Whites by an average of 8 years.
This assimilation is also known to create "intergenerational family conflict", however this is generally a natural way of the child to individuate from their parents and integrate into society as an adult and is prevalent in families across all races; the focal theme of the conflict, culture and race, is often the path of least resistance for an adolescent to generate momentum to construct themselves into adult society. Asians later come to be very close with their families, as they usually are with the expected exception of adolescence - and are more likely to help ageing parents. In contrast to their parents, second generation Asian Americans are less likely to tolerate racial stereotyping and racial discrimination, are more likely to marry non-Asians and are more aware of their minority status and the disadvantages associated with it. This has been linked to racism and discrimination experienced by minorities in the U.S. as this heightened sensitivity is common among all second generation groups of minority status, and this heightened sensitivity evokes an enhanced drive for success. This focus on achievement, combined with Asian people's innate talents and intellectual capabilities, helps explain the high educational successes seen by second generation Asian immigrants. College graduation rates are relatively high among second generation Asian Americans, with the two highest rates seen among the Chinese and Indian second generation.
Partly due to jealousy and envy related to their high socioeconomic success and a fear of what is different, Asians experience unique layers of discrimination in many aspects of their life, however these attitudes primarily come from White people and other minorities from lower socioeconomic backgrounds who have greater reason to feel threatened by their success. Currently, there is a prevailing idea that whilst Asians are successful at the entry level workplace, it is much rarer for them to take on leadership positions - and this is sometimes attributed to their 'lack of social skills'. However, the application of critical thinking suggests that this again is a negative stereotype and social construct that is inherently political and attempts for them to internalise racism and modify their personality to deter them and others from believing they have what it takes to climb the ladder to the very top. As more Asians learn how to navigate the political structures of the workplace and acquire confidence from seeing their co-ethnic network succeed as well, it is suggested that they will fully assimilate into existing Western power structures and become part of the new power elite. However, this does not rule out the importance of socioeconomic class, as like any type of social mobility in a society, the highest echelons of immigrant success is generally achieved by Asians whose parents immigrated from relatively high socioeconomic backgrounds from their home countries rather than those who immigrate due to a life threatening need. Currently, there is a lack of Asian representation in society, particularly for females. Asians are stereotyped to be submissive and neotenous, and whilst there may be a genetic and cultural component to this personality description, it can also be interpreted as a political construct to keep them subservient to White people and morally dependent. Asian American men are stereotyped as not masculine and effeminate and sensitive. Asian American women are often stereotyped to be submissive and petite, waiting 'to be saved'. Asians who are better at impression management are more likely to find success in the Western workplace. Many Asians, whose families are well educated and could have stayed in their home countries immigrate due to a desire to live in a culture which is more developed and better to raise their children in, for instance one which has a better education system. Asians are successful and considered peaceful, rarely contributing to crime, and thus they are generally well accepted by White people.
Asian Americans have been characterized as a panethnicity of various groups or individuals. These generalizations are mostly based on outward appearance but just as the French are very different to the English, the Japanese are very different to Korean. Today, however, because of awareness made known by second generation Asian Americans, people are learning to associate and recognize the diverse cultures that exist under the umbrella term of Asian Americans. Aspects of different Asian cultures are considered favourably across the globe - for instance, Kpop and Chinese food. Whilst different types of Asians who live in their home countries are not always allies with each other, for example the Japanese conflict with the Koreans, within the West, different Asians are more likely to get along with each other due to a shared understanding of life.
Caribbean Americans
Generally, first generation black immigrants of Caribbean origin in the United States tend to hold on tightly to their ethnic identities and resist the social pressures of identifying themselves as African Americans. Children born to these black Caribbean immigrants can easily enter the category of African Americans as they tend to lack the accents exhibited by their parents. A popular destination for these black immigrants is New York City, where the second generation black immigrant population is significant. Another popular destination is Florida, where in Miami there exists a strong Haiti community. In this community, also referred to as "Little Haiti", the Caribbean influence is clear as shops are decorated in bright Caribbean colors and decorations.
Further studies reveal that the identification of second-generation immigrants, of Caribbean heritage, as African Americans leads these children to be more aware of racial discrimination in the U.S. In addition, the assimilation into black society and black culture in the U.S. by these children is hindered by their parents' oppositional stance to American black culture, contributing to identity conflict. In the case of Haitians, first generation Haitians hold on strongly to their foreign identity, as they associate the preservation of their culture with stronger solidarity in the community. These first generation Haitians attempt to instill this same Haitian pride in their children as they want the children to succeed on the basis of ethnic solidarity and the preservation of Haitian culture, and not by giving in to American culture. This creates a clash between the ideas and values these children learn at home, and from their peers and the non-Haitian black community. Thus, these children face conflicting pressures from family, non-second generation immigrant peers, and discrimination by the larger society.
Racism is an important deterring factor to the process of assimilation for black second-generation immigrants, as it is for other second-generation immigrants of ethnic minorities. Children of middle class black immigrants undergo assimilation that coincides with one of the pathways theorized by segmented assimilation, in which they assimilate into mainstream society while attempting to hold on to their black culture. These children make use of the resources available to the middle class in the U.S. to prosper alongside their white counterparts, but are still affected by racial discrimination. They make use of so-called "black spaces," which are spaces exclusive to the black community, such as networks and ethnic enclaves designed for African Americans. Thus these spaces are free of racism and are used to connect with other African Americans and reconnect with the cultures of their parents. Similar to Asian second-generation immigrants born into the middle class, these black second-generation immigrants of middle class status are also aware of their inferior position and the disadvantages associated with being an ethnic minority in the United States.
References in pop culture
There are a few television series that feature at least one second generation immigrant in a starring role: Fresh Off the Boat, All-American Girl, Ugly Betty, Grey's Anatomy, Elementary, and The Mindy Project.
See also
Immigrant generations
Immigration
Immigration to the United States
Illegal immigration to the United States
Immigrant health care in the United States
Inequality within immigrant families in the United States
Race and ethnicity in the United States Census
References
Immigration to the United States | wiki |
The CONCACAF Awards are an association football award given annually to honor players, match officials and coaches from the North American region. It was established in 2013.
Criteria
Players, Coaches and Referees of any nationality are eligible to be nominated, so long as they meet at least one of the following criteria:
1. Have played/coached/refereed in an official CONCACAF tournament at club or national level
2. Have played/coached/refereed for a CONCACAF member national team in a FIFA-sanctioned international competition
3. Have played/coached/refereed in a domestic league within CONCACAF's territory.
For each award, an initial shortlist of 20 nominees was established by CONCACAF's 41 Member Associations and CONCACAF competitions' Technical Study Groups.
The final shortlist is voted on by three groups; Member Associations' national team coaches and captains, media, and fans. Each group's votes will provide a third of the total outcome.
Male award winners
Player of the Year
Goalkeeper of the Year
Coach of the Year
Referee of the Year
Female award winners
Player of the Year
Goalkeeper of the Year
Coach of the Year
Referee of the Year
Mixed
Goal of the Year
See also
List of sports awards honoring women
References
Association football in North America
Awards established in 2013
Women's association football trophies and awards | wiki |
The M.P.M. was an automobile built in Mount Pleasant, Michigan by the Mount Pleasant Motor Company from 1914 to 1915.
History
The M.P.M. was a medium-sized conventional car equipped with either a four-cylinder or eight-cylinder engine. After building 10 cars, financing could not be raised to continue production.
The company had plans to move its manufacturing plant to either Alma or Saginaw at the end of 1915, but the company closed before that happened.
References
Defunct motor vehicle manufacturers of the United States
Motor vehicle manufacturers based in Michigan
Defunct manufacturing companies based in Michigan
Brass Era vehicles
1910s cars
Cars introduced in 1914
Vehicle manufacturing companies established in 1914
Vehicle manufacturing companies disestablished in 1915 | wiki |
Most seat belt laws in the United States are left to the states and territories. However, the first seat belt law was a federal law, Title 49 of the United States Code, Chapter 301, Motor Safety Standard, which took effect on January 1, 1968, that required all vehicles (except buses) to be fitted with seat belts in all designated seating positions. This law has since been modified to require three-point seat belts in outboard-seating positions, and finally three-point seat belts in all seating positions. Seat belt use was voluntary until New York became the first state to require vehicle occupants to wear seat belts, . New Hampshire is the only state that has no enforceable laws requiring adults to wear seat belts in a vehicle.
Primary and secondary enforcement
U.S. seat belt use laws may be subject to primary enforcement or secondary enforcement. Primary enforcement allows a law enforcement officer to stop and ticket a driver if they observe a violation. Secondary enforcement means that a peace officer may only stop or cite a driver for a seat belt violation if the driver committed another primary violation (such as speeding, running a stop sign, etc.) at the same time. New Hampshire is the only U.S. state that does not by law require adult drivers to wear safety belts while operating a motor vehicle.
In 15 of the 50 states, non-use of seat belts is considered a secondary offense, which means that a police officer cannot stop and ticket a driver for the sole offense of not wearing a seat belt. (One exception to this is Colorado, where children not properly restrained is a primary offense and brings a much larger fine.) If a driver commits a primary violation (e.g., for speeding) they may additionally be charged for not wearing a seat belt. In most states, seat belt non-use was originally a secondary offense. Many states later changed it to a primary offense, the first being California in 1993. Of the 30 states with primary seat belt use laws, all but California, Connecticut, Hawaii, Iowa, New Mexico, New York, North Carolina, Oregon, and Washington originally had only secondary enforcement laws.
Thirty-four states, the District of Columbia, American Samoa, Guam, the Northern Mariana Islands, Puerto Rico and the U.S. Virgin Islands have primary enforcement laws for front seats.
Laws by state and territory
This table summarizes seat belt use laws in the United States.
Seat belt use laws often do not themselves apply to children. Even so, all 50 U.S. states, the District of Columbia, and all 5 inhabited U.S. territories have separate child restraint laws. The table shows only the base fine, but not applicable add-on fees in many areas, such as the head injury fund and court security fees, which can increase the total assessed fine by up to a factor of five. These are also "first offense" fines, and subsequent offenses may be much higher.
Twenty-three states, the District of Columbia, Guam, and the Northern Mariana Islands had seat belt usage of 90% or higher in 2017.
Note: As of 2017, aggregate seat belt usage in road vehicles in the entire United States is 89.7%.
1 Arizona's law is Primary for under the age of 5.
2 Colorado and Missouri's law is Secondary for adults but Primary for those under the age of 16.
3 Idaho, North Dakota, Pennsylvania, Vermont and Virginia's law is Secondary for adults but Primary for under 18.
4 Kansas, Maryland, and New Jersey, law is Secondary Enforcement for rear seat occupants (18+ in Kansas).5 These states assess points on one's driving record for the seat belt violation.6 In California, an additional penalty of $29 shall be levied upon every $10 or fraction thereof, of every fine, penalty, or forfeiture imposed by and collected by the court for criminal offenses, including all traffic offenses, except parking offenses as defined in subdivision (i) of Penal Code § 1463. The additional penalty is calculated as follows: $10 state penalty required by PC 1464, $7 county penalty required by GC 76000(e), $5 court facilities construction penalty required by GC 70372(a), $5 DNA Identification Fund penalty required by GC 76104.6 and 76104.7, $2 emergency medical services penalty required by GC 76000.5. Separately, Penal Code § 1465.8 requires an imposition of an additional fee of $40 for court security on every conviction for a criminal offense, including a traffic offense, except parking offenses as defined in Penal Code § 1463. Additionally, GC 70373 requires a $35 criminal facilities conviction assessment.
Damages reduction
A person involved in a car accident who was not using a seat belt may be liable for damages far greater than if they had been using a seat belt. However, when in court, most states protect motorists from having their damages reduced in a lawsuit due to the non-use of a seat belt, even if they were acting in violation of the law by not wearing the seat belt. Currently, damages may be reduced for the non-use of a seat belt in 16 states: Alaska, Arizona, California, Colorado, Florida (See F.S.A. 316.614(10)), Iowa, Michigan, Missouri, Nebraska, New Jersey, New York, North Dakota, Ohio, Oregon, West Virginia, and Wisconsin.
Effectiveness
Seat belt laws are effective in reducing car crash deaths. One study found that mandatory-seatbelt laws reduced traffic fatalities in youths by 8% and serious traffic-related injuries by 9%, respectively. Primary-seatbelt laws seem to be more effective at reducing crash deaths than secondary laws.
See also
Seat belt legislation
Seat belt use rates in the United States
Transportation safety in the United States
Notes
References
Automotive safety
United States law-related lists
Vehicle law
Seat belts
External Links
Federal Regulations Regarding Use of Seat Belts in Commercial Vehicles | wiki |
Hustler TV is an American semi-hardcore pornographic premium television channel available through satellite, video on demand and digital cable. The channel is dedicated to offering explicit adult material, uncut and uncensored from Hustler. The channel is owned by LFP Broadcasting.
See also
Hustler TV Canada
Hustler TV (Europe)
Blue Hustler
References
External links
American pornographic television channels
Nudity in television
Television pornography | wiki |
Flight 615 may refer to:
United Airlines Flight 615, crashed on 24 August 1951
Lufthansa Flight 615, hijacked on 29 October 1972
0615 | wiki |
Alaryngeal speech is speech using an airstream mechanism that uses features other than the glottis to create voicing. There are three types: esophageal, buccal, and pharyngeal speech. Each of these uses an alternative method of creating phonation to substitute for the vocal cords in the larynx. These forms of alaryngeal speech are also called "pseudo-voices".
Esophageal speech
Esophageal speech uses air supply to create phonation from the esophagus and pharyngo-esophageal segment to act as a replacement for the glottis. It is usually acquired following speech therapy after laryngectomy as a replacement for laryngeal speech.
Buccal speech
This is created by producing an air bubble between the left (or right) upper jaw and the cheek that can act as an alternative "lung". The person then uses muscular action to drive the air through a small gap between or behind the teeth into the mouth. The sound so produced makes a high rough sound. This then is articulated to make speech. It is usually acquired as a taught or self-learnt skill for entertainment. It can be used as a method of singing. It is also known as Donald Duck talk due to its use by Clarence Charles "Ducky" Nash for the voice of the Disney Donald Duck character.
sung buccal voice can have a range of three octaves (69 Hz to 571 Hz)
maximum duration of phonation for a series of sustained vowels is 2 seconds.
from most intelligible to least: glides, fricatives, plosives, affricates, and nasals.
on rhyme-test 76% of buccal spoken words were intelligible.
buccal speech is more than two octaves above that of esophageal speakers (this gives it a raised pitch compared to normal speech).
The VoQS indication for buccal speech is {ↀ}. For example, a buccal raspberry (interdental trill) can be written .
Pharyngeal speech
This is created by producing the air supply needed for phonation in the pharynx and creating a replacement for the glottis using the tongue and the upper alveolus, the palate, or the pharyngeal wall.
In one case, pharyngeal speech was studied in a 12-year-old girl that used it as her exclusive form of speech following tracheotomy at 2 years of age. Such speech was impaired in spite of ten years of her exclusive use of it for communication. Fifty percent of her time while speaking was silence. Of the other fifty percent, half was spent creating “quasiperiodic” speech-like sound and the other half spent creating noise. This produced an “unpleasant, markedly hoarse voice quality which was consistently evident in her pharyngeal speech". This contrasts with skilled esophageal speakers that spend less than 20% of their time producing noise. Such speech has limited success in making some place of articulation and especially manner of articulation and voicing phonetic distinctions. There are also difficulties in creating consonant clusters and polysyllabic words. Such speech was "generally well understood by immediate family members" but "reported to be largely unintelligible to outsiders".
Importance
Pharyngeal speech can be produced in the early stages of learning esophageal speech. However both buccal and pharyngeal speech are less clear than trained esophageal speech and "should not be regarded as a desirable or practical primary method of alaryngeal speech".
A further importance is to theories of the evolution of human speech since alaryngeal speech shows that speech is not dependent entirely upon evolved anatomy as it can be created using vocal tract anatomy in an adaptive manner.
See also
Electrolarynx
Airstream mechanism
Phonation
Vocal extended technique
Whistled language
Notes
Larynx disorders
Human voice
Phonation
Vocal skills | wiki |
Fort Jackson may refer to several places or things:
Fort Jackson (Alabama), also called Fort Toulouse, a War of 1812 fort
Fort Jackson (Colorado), a frontier trading post located near present-day Ione, Colorado
Fort Jackson, Louisiana, an American Civil War–era fort
Fort Jackson (Pennsylvania), a frontier and Revolutionary War fort in western Pennsylvania
Fort Jackson (South Carolina), a modern U.S. Army post
Fort Jackson (Virginia), an American Civil War–era fort that defended Washington, D.C.
Fort Jackson (Wisconsin), an American fort used during the Black Hawk War of 1832
Fort James Jackson, a War of 1812 fort that defended Savannah, Georgia
USS Fort Jackson (1862), an American Civil War–era ship
Treaty of Fort Jackson, an 1814 treaty
Battle of Forts Jackson and St. Philip, a battle in the American Civil War | wiki |
A Marvelous Work and a Wonder is a 1950 book by LeGrand Richards on the history and doctrine of the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints (LDS Church). The book was intended as a missionary tool and is traditionally cited as the best-selling Mormon book of all time (not including the standard works). As of 2001, it was said to have sold over three million copies.
In 1937, as president of the LDS Church's Southern States Mission, Richards wrote a document entitled "The Message of Mormonism" to assist missionaries in presenting Mormon teachings. In 1950, as presiding bishop of the church, Richards expanded his document into a full-length book, which he named after a phrase used in the King James Version of Isaiah 29:13–14; Richards identified the teachings of the LDS Church as the wonder referred to. The book was published by Deseret Book, a publisher owned by the LDS Church.
Richards donated all proceeds of the sale of the book to the missionary funds of the LDS Church. The book is considered a Mormon classic and for several years was among the few non-scriptural works that full-time LDS Church missionaries were asked to study. However, A Marvelous Work and a Wonder is no longer part of the "approved missionary library."
References
1950 non-fiction books
1950 in Christianity
Deseret Book books
LDS non-fiction
The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints texts
Works by apostles (LDS Church) | wiki |
Micromania may refer to:
Micromania (video game retailer), a French video game retailer
Micromanía, a Spanish computer game magazine
"Micromania", a song by Romina Contiero
Micromania (moth), a synonym of the moth genus Anthracia | wiki |
Serbianism may refer to:
Serbianism (linguistics), a linguistic feature of Serbian language, especially a Serbian idiom or phrasing that appears in some other language.
Serbianism (nationalism), nationalist ideology that advocates and promotes national and political interests of Serbia or Serbians.
Anti-Serbianism, negative or derogatory attitude towards Serbia or Serbians.
Philo-Serbianism, positive or affirmative attitude towards Serbia or Serbians.
See also
Serbia (disambiguation)
Serbians
Names of the Serbs and Serbia | wiki |
Smoked egg is a food that involves the smoking of eggs and fish eggs. Smoked eggs can be prepared with hard boiled eggs that are then smoked, or by smoking uncooked eggs in their shells. Additionally, smoked egg has been defined as a type of hors d'oeuvre of hard boiled eggs that are shelled, marinated and then smoked.
Smoked caviar
Some caviars that are sometimes smoked include cod roe, which is common in Norway, mullet roe and sturgeon roe. Another product is smoked-egg liquor, which can be derived from raw frozen salmon roe.
Dishes
Smoked eggs can be made into smoked egg pâté. Additional dishes and foods prepared from smoked eggs are egg salad, vinaigrette dressing and dips One version of niçoise salad uses a smoked egg foam as an ingredient. Purées prepared with smoked egg have been used to enhance the flavor of various dishes.
See also
References
Bibliography
Steven Raichlen (2010). Planet Barbecue!: 309 Recipes, 60 Countries. Workman Publishing.
Further reading
Shanghainese Homestyle Cooking. pp. 86–87.
Hard Smoked Eggs. O, The Oprah Magazine.
External links
Israeli smoked egg pate . Primal Grill with Steve Raichlen.
Chinese cuisine
Vietnamese cuisine
Egg dishes
Smoked food | wiki |
Action Man is an action figure toy.
Action Man may also refer to:
Connected to the toy
Action Man (1993–2006 toyline), the second-generation Hasbro Action Man
Action Man: 40th Anniversary, a 2006 series of reproduction figures
Action Man (1995 TV series), an American children's animated television show
Action Man (2000 TV series), a Canadian CGI animated TV series
Action Man (comics), a UK comic series
Action Man: Robot Atak, a 2004 direct-to-DVD CGI animated film
Action Man: Search for Base X, a 2001 action video game
Action Man: Destruction X, a 2000 action video game
Action Man: Jungle Storm, a 2000 action video game
Action Man: Raid on Island X, a 1999 action video game
Action Man: Operation Extreme, a 1999 action video game
Action Man A.T.O.M., a French-American animated television series
Not connected to the toy
Action Man (film), a 1967 French film
Dick Beyer (1930–2019), wrestler
"Action Man", a song by Widespread Panic from the album Don't Tell the Band
"Action Man", a song by Cephas & Wiggins from the album Cool Down
The Action Man, a Venture Bros. character
See also
Man of Action (disambiguation) | wiki |
Aquarium is a Tetris variant puzzle arcade game released by Excellent System in 1996 in Japan only. Play consists of matching three fish shapes rows to make them disappear.
External links
Aquarium at Arcade History
1996 video games
Arcade video games
Arcade-only video games
Falling block puzzle games
Japan-exclusive video games
Video game clones
Video games developed in Japan
Video games with underwater settings | wiki |
Helvetisms (New Latin Helvetia "Switzerland" and -ism) are features distinctive of Swiss Standard German, that distinguish it from Standard German. The most frequent Helvetisms are in vocabulary and pronunciation, but there are also some distinctive features within syntax and orthography.
The French and Italian spoken in Switzerland have similar terms, which are also known as Helvetisms. Current French dictionaries, such as the Petit Larousse, include several hundred helvetisms.
Background
The definitive work for German orthography, the Duden, explicitly declares a number of helvetisms as correct Standard German – albeit with the [schweiz.] annotation, denoting that the usage of the word is limited to Switzerland. However, not all words may be considered part of the "Swiss standard language"/"Swiss standard German" category, because frequency of usage must be evaluated as well; if this does not apply, or if a word's use is known to span only one or more specific dialectal regions, the word must be categorized "dialectal" (German: mundartlich, often abbreviated mdal.)
In orthographical terms, the most significant difference to Standard German outside Switzerland is the absence of ß (eszett). (After having been officially abandoned in the Canton of Zürich in 1935, this character gradually fell into disuse, until it was eventually dropped by the Neue Zürcher Zeitung in 1974.)
In everyday language, Helvetisms may be used both consciously and unconsciously by a Swiss German native speaker. Classic examples of Helvetism usage throughout entire literary works are found in a large part of Swiss literature, notably Jeremias Gotthelf's novels located in the Emmental; a contemporary example would be Tim Krohn in his Quatemberkinder. Another group, the most notable of whom is Peter Bichsel, deliberately use Helvetisms to arouse a sort of emotional attachment to the readers' home country: Bichsel is notorious for using dialectal words like Beiz (instead of Kneipe [English: "pub"]), or Kasten (instead of Schrank [English: "cupboard/cabinet/closet"]) in his "San Salvador" short story. Lastly, there is yet another group of authors whose readers are known to be located all over the German-speaking territory (Germany, Austria, Switzerland as well as some smaller minorities in other European countries) and therefore traditionally refrain from using any Helvetisms in their literary works.
In addition, words which are used outside Switzerland, but which originate from Swiss German may be called "Helvetisms".
Analogously to "Helvetisms", there are also Austricisms and Germanisms (also Teutonicisms).
Examples of Helvetisms
Figures of speech
mit abgesägten Hosen dastehen (den kürzeren gezogen haben, being in an unlucky and hopeless situation)
aus Abschied und Traktanden (fallen) (außer Betracht fallen, when a thing doesn't matter anymore)
es macht den Anschein (es hat den Anschein, it seems)
in den Ausgang gehen (ausgehen, going out)
von Auge (mit bloßem Auge, by naked eye)
ausjassen (aushandeln, bargaining something/negotiating)
von Beginn weg (von Beginn an, from the beginnings)
ab Blatt (spielen) (vom Blatt spielen/ohne Übung, playing a piece for the first time, seeing the notes for the first time/not having practised)
(etwas verwerfen, refusing or dismiss something, e.g., a project)
Einsitz nehmen (Mitglied in einem Gremium werden, becoming a member of a gremium)
dastehen wie der Esel am Berg (dastehen wie der Ochse vorm Berg, getting stuck and perplexed by an unexpected situation)
die Faust im Sack machen (die Faust in der Tasche ballen, holding back/hiding aggression)
innert nützlicher Frist (angemessen schnell, in a quick way)
das Fuder überladen (des Guten zuviel tun, doing too much)
handkehrum (andererseits, on the other hand)
Hans was Heiri (Jacke wie Hose, when two things result in the same or are the same; either way)
es hat (es gibt, there are)
sein Heu nicht auf derselben Bühne haben mit (nicht dieselben Ansichten haben wie, to not find somebody's personality very appealing, having other interests/attitudes)
jemandem geht der Knopf auf (jemandem geht ein Licht auf, suddenly getting an idea to solve a problem; "a light bulb goes up")
den Rank finden (eine Lösung finden, finding a solution)
zu reden geben (für Gesprächsstoff sorgen, a thing being controversial, being much discussed)
kein Schleck (kein Honigschlecken, no picnic)
neben den Schuhen stehen (falsch liegen/sich nicht wohl fühlen in seiner Haut, to not feel well in a situation)
es streng haben (viel zu tun haben, having a lot of work)
in Tat und Wahrheit (in Wirklichkeit, the truth is...)
einen Tolggen im Reinheft haben (einen (Schönheits-) Fehler haben, having one single flashy mistake)
gut tönen (gut klingen/vielsprechend sein, sounding good/interesting)
gut schmecken (gut riechen, to smell good; the literal translation would be tasting good)
keinen Wank tun/machen (sich nicht rühren, to be still, not moving)
es wird sich weisen (es wird sich zeigen, the future will show it)
werweisen (hin und her raten or sich nicht entscheiden können, guessing without a clue, or not being decisive)
Jetzt ist genug Heu unten (Jetzt reicht es!, enough!)
(etwas) versorgen (einräumen put something into [e.g. a cupboard or a cabinet]; in Standard German, versorgen means to attend to someone)
Swiss specifics
In the area's cuisine, local culture and politics, there are numerous peculiarities that are not well known outside Switzerland and which do not have an equivalent standard German expression.
Cuisine: Älplermagronen (meal with cut potatoes, Hörnli (Pipette Rigate), cream and melted cheese, Basler Läckerli, Gnagi, Kaffee fertig (coffee with schnaps), Quorn
Local culture: Hornussen (a native throwing game, especially in the Canton of Bern), der/das Nouss ("dish" used in Hornussen), Schwingen (a kind of ring fight), Schwinget (tournament for said ring fight)
State: Gemeindeversammlung (gathering of the voting community), Halbkanton (half-canton), Initiative, Landsgemeinde, Ständerat, Ständemehr, Vernehmlassung
Pronunciation
Because of their characteristic pronunciation, speakers of Swiss Standard German will be instantly recognized by other German speakers in most cases.
In general, the pronunciation of Swiss Standard German is influenced by the respective Swiss German dialect of each speaker. The degree of that influence may vary according to their education.
Stress
Swiss German exhibits a strong trend toward stressing all words on the initial syllable:
Family names including a preposition (such as von) are accented on the preposition rather than on the following word.
Acronyms are stressed on the first letter rather than the last.
Many loanwords are stressed on the first syllable regardless of how they are pronounced in the original language. Examples include Apostroph, Billet, Filet, Garage, Papagei, Portemonnaie and the exclamation Merci (thank you, borrowed from French).
Consonants
/b d g z/ are voiceless lenes
There is no final-obstruent devoicing.
/v/ is pronounced as an approximant ; in some words, it is replaced by a voiceless lenis , e.g. in Möve or Advent.
Double consonants are often geminated, e.g. immer as .
Initial is pronounced as a , for instance in local names like Chur and Cham or in foreign words like China or Chemie, Chirurgie etc.
The ending is pronounced , not , e.g. König 'king'
is pronounced [xs] or [çs], not [ks], e.g. Dachs as [] or sechs as 'six'.
is not vocalized (that is, SSG is rhotic). In Switzerland, Vater 'father' is pronounced and not .
In Switzerland (except the eastern part and Basel-Stadt) the alveolar is more usual than the uvular or .
There is often no glottal stop which in other varieties of German is present at start of vowel-initial words.
For some speakers, is always pronounced as , and not differentiated into [x] and [ç], e.g. in nicht instead of 'not'.
For some speakers, is pronounced as velar affricate , e.g. Kunst .
For a few, are pronounced instead of in all positions, e.g. Ast as 'branch'.
Vowels
Unstressed is often not pronounced as schwa, but as or , e.g. Gedanke or 'thought'.
is usually pronounced as an open like in English "hat", "patch".
Depending on the dialect, may be pronounced as a back ).
Depending on the dialect, short vowels may be pronounced more closed, e.g. Bett instead of 'bed', offen instead of 'open', Hölle instead of 'hell'.
Depending on the dialect, long vowels may be pronounced more open, e.g. See instead of 'lake', schon instead of 'already', schön instead of 'beautiful'.
Prosody
A special feature of Swiss Standard German, is a somewhat "singing" cadence. That means that each word's stressed syllable isn't only marked through the higher voice volume, but also through a distinguishable modification of the voice's sound. In general, the pitch of the stressed syllable sinks.
In the announcement Profitieren Sie! (Benefit!) in the shopping malls' transmissions, the pitch sinks from pro- to -fi-, until it has reached the deepest point at -tie-; at -ren and Sie the voice approximately reaches its original pitch again.
Orthography
In orthography, the most visible difference from Standard German usage outside Switzerland is the absence of ß (officially abolished in the Canton of Zürich in 1935; the sign fell gradually out of use and was dropped by the Neue Zürcher Zeitung (NZZ) in 1974).
French and Italian loanwords are written in their original forms in spite of the spelling reform. Majonäse stays Mayonnaise, and Spagetti stays Spaghetti. The NZZ uses the spelling placieren (to place, from French placer) rather than platzieren, which is more common elsewhere.
Geographical names, such as streets, are mostly written together: Baslerstrasse, Genfersee, Zugerberg etc. Compound terms relating to nationality are often written as one word, such as Schweizergrenze ("Swiss border") and Schweizervolk (Swiss people) instead of Schweizer Grenze and Schweizer Volk.
The names of municipalities, towns, stations, and streets are often not written with a starting capital umlaut, but instead with Ae, Oe and Ue, such as the Zürich suburb Oerlikon, or the hamlet Aetzikofen, or the Bernese municipality Uebeschi. However, field names, such as Äbenegg, Ötikon (near Stäfa), or Überthal, and any other word, such as Ärzte (English: physicians), usually start with capital umlauts.
Finally, there are specialities like e.g.
Bretzel instead of Brezel ("pretzel")
Some of the above-mentioned characteristics are due to the general introduction of the typewriter in economics and administration. Because a Swiss typewriter must be able to write not only German texts but also French and Italian texts, the limited number of keys was not enough for all these languages' special characters to be included. So, the eszett and the uppercase umlauts (Ä, Ö and Ü), as well as other upper-case accented vowels (e.g. À and É, used in French and Italian), were omitted.
Syntax
Swiss German differs from Standard German in, for example, the gender of nouns (das E-Mail, das Tram and das SMS instead of die) or in the preposition that verbs require (jemanden anfragen instead of bei jemandem anfragen).
In general, more often than in Germany or Austria, the Swiss use expressly feminine nouns (Bundesrätin Ruth Metzler, Frieda U. wurde zur Primarschullehrerin gewählt) rather than the generic masculine (Bundesrat, Primarschullehrer etc.) to refer to occupations and positions held by women. The Binnen-I (as in ProfessorInnen) is standard in Switzerland but may be marked elsewhere as "politically correct".
Relative pronouns: The relative pronoun , considered clumsy and antiquated in Standard German, is used without hesitation: in (from Jahresbericht 2001, Annual report of the ETH Zürich).
Grammatical case
Rabatt is used in the dative case; in Standard German in the accusative case. Example: 20% Rabatt auf allen Artikeln.
Sentence structure
The syntax has many constructions with a shortened main clause and a following subordinate clause, which is only marked by the initial position of a verb, e.g.
Gut, gibt es Schweizer Bauern. instead of Es ist gut, dass es Schweizer Bauern gibt.
Schön, haben Sie heute Zeit. instead of (Es ist) schön, dass Sie heute Zeit haben.
Schade, bist du gestern nicht hier gewesen. instead of (Es ist) schade, dass du gestern nicht hier gewesen bist.
Grammatical gender
In his book Zündels Abgang, author Markus Werner uses Tram ("tram") – which takes the female article die in Germany's Standard German – with the typically Swiss neuter article das.
Swiss expressions loaned into Standard German
The word Putsch is one example which is widely used in political contexts, even in notable Standard German newspapers. The word Müsli, however, is a special case: in Swiss Standard German (and only there), Müsli is the diminutive of Mus ("mouse") and stands for "little mouse". To describe the food, the Swiss use the spelling Müesli (reflecting the pronunciation of the dialects).
Nature:
Gletscher (a glacier, in the Western Alps; in the East Alps a glacier is called a Ferner or Kees)
Gülle (liquid manure)
Lärche (larch)
Lawine (avalanche)
Murmeltier (marmot)
Senn (Alpine farmer)
Politics:
Putsch (putsch, or coup d'état)
Reichsdeutsche (Germans living in the German Empire; this term was coined in 1871 by Swiss German-speaking people.)
Überfremdung (so-called "over-foreignization" of the country)
conventions and customs:
Heimweh (homesickness; first described among Swiss soldiers who missed their homes in the Alps)
Vignette (automobile sticker verifying payment of a road tax)
kitchen:
(Bircher-)Müesli (muesli, a breakfast food with cereals, milk, yogurt, and fruits)
Cordon bleu (breaded cutlet dish of traditionally veal or pork pounded thin and wrapped around a slice of ham and a slice of cheese, breaded, and then pan fried)
Fondue (fondue, a melted cheese dish)
Raclette (raclette, a melted cheese dish)
Bündnerfleisch (a seasoned, dried meat, also called Bindenfleisch or Viande des Grisons.)
Other:
unentwegt (unflagging)
See also
Swiss German
Standard German
Swiss Standard German
References
External links
Helvetisms in the German "Universalwörterbuch": "Der schweizerische Wortschatz des Deutschen" von Maria Grazia Chiaro.
Dictionary project about Helvetisms and other variants of German language: "Wörterbuch der nationalen und regionalen Varianten der deutschen Standardsprache"
Blog about it: blogwiese.ch
Le français... et le romand – Swissinfo
German language
Swiss culture
Sociolinguistics | wiki |
is a book of poems and collage art by Nobel Prize-winning author Herta Müller. It was first published in 2005.
References
German poetry collections
2005 poetry books | wiki |
Cheese is a dairy product produced in wide ranges of flavors, textures, and forms by coagulation of the milk protein casein. It comprises proteins and fat from milk (usually the milk of cows, buffalo, goats, or sheep). During production, milk is usually acidified and either the enzymes of rennet or bacterial enzymes with similar activity are added to cause the casein to coagulate. The solid curds are then separated from the liquid whey and pressed into finished cheese. Some cheeses have aromatic molds on the rind, the outer layer, or throughout.
Over a thousand types of cheese exist and are produced in various countries. Their styles, textures and flavors depend on the origin of the milk (including the animal's diet), whether they have been pasteurized, the butterfat content, the bacteria and mold, the processing, and how long they have been aged. Herbs, spices, or wood smoke may be used as flavoring agents. The yellow to red color of many cheeses is produced by adding annatto. Other ingredients may be added to some cheeses, such as black pepper, garlic, chives, or cranberries. A cheesemonger, or specialist seller of cheeses, may have expertise with selecting, purchasing, receiving, storing and ripening cheeses.
For a few cheeses, the milk is curdled by adding acids such as vinegar or lemon juice. Most cheeses are acidified to a lesser degree by bacteria, which turn milk sugars into lactic acid, then the addition of rennet completes the curdling. Vegetarian alternatives to rennet are available; most are produced by fermentation of the fungus Mucor miehei, but others have been extracted from various species of the Cynara thistle family. Cheesemakers near a dairy region may benefit from fresher, lower-priced milk, and lower shipping costs.
Cheese is valued for its portability, long shelf life, and high content of fat, protein, calcium, and phosphorus. Cheese is more compact and has a longer shelf life than milk, although how long a cheese will keep depends on the type of cheese. Hard cheeses, such as Parmesan, last longer than soft cheeses, such as Brie or goat's milk cheese. The long storage life of some cheeses, especially when encased in a protective rind, allows selling when markets are favorable. Vacuum packaging of block-shaped cheeses and gas-flushing of plastic bags with mixtures of carbon dioxide and nitrogen are used for storage and mass distribution of cheeses in the 21st century. Plant-based cheese has a lower carbon footprint.
Etymology
The word cheese comes from Latin , from which the modern word casein is also derived. The earliest source is from the proto-Indo-European root *kwat-, which means "to ferment, become sour". That gave rise to or (in Old English) and (in Middle English). Similar words are shared by other West Germanic languages—West Frisian , Dutch , German , Old High German —all from the reconstructed West-Germanic form *kāsī, which in turn is an early borrowing from Latin.
The Online Etymological Dictionary states that "cheese" comes from:Old English (West Saxon), (Anglian) ... from West Germanic *kasjus (source also of Old Saxon kasi, Old High German , German , Middle Dutch , Dutch ), from Latin [for] "cheese" (source of Italian , Spanish , Irish , Welsh ).The Online Etymological Dictionary states that the word is of:unknown origin; perhaps from a PIE root *kwat- "to ferment, become sour" (source also of Prakrit "buttermilk;" Old Church Slavonic "leaven; fermented drink," "sour," - "to turn sour;" Czech "to turn sour, rot;" Sanskrit kvathati "boils, seethes;" Gothic hwaþjan "foam"). Also compare fromage. Old Norse , Danish , Swedish are related to Latin "broth, sauce, juice."When the Romans began to make hard cheeses for their legionaries' supplies, a new word started to be used: , from , or "molded cheese" (as in "formed", not "moldy"). It is from this word that the French , standard Italian , Catalan , Breton , and Occitan (or ) are derived. Of the Romance languages, Spanish, Portuguese, Romanian, Tuscan and Southern Italian dialects use words derived from (, , and for example). The word cheese itself is occasionally employed in a sense that means "molded" or "formed". Head cheese uses the word in this sense. The term "cheese" is also used as a noun, verb and adjective in a number of figurative expressions (e.g., "the big cheese", "to be cheesed off" and "cheesy lyrics").
History
Origins
Cheese is an ancient food whose origins predate recorded history. There is no conclusive evidence indicating where cheesemaking originated, whether in Europe, Central Asia or the Middle East. Earliest proposed dates for the origin of cheesemaking range from around 8000 BCE, when sheep were first domesticated. Since animal skins and inflated internal organs have, since ancient times, provided storage vessels for a range of foodstuffs, it is probable that the process of cheese making was discovered accidentally by storing milk in a container made from the stomach of an animal, resulting in the milk being turned to curd and whey by the rennet from the stomach. There is a legend—with variations—about the discovery of cheese by an Arab trader who used this method of storing milk.
The earliest evidence of cheesemaking in the archaeological record dates back to 5500 BCE and is found in what is now Kuyavia, Poland, where strainers coated with milk-fat molecules have been found.
Cheesemaking may have begun independently of this by the pressing and salting of curdled milk to preserve it. Observation that the effect of making cheese in an animal stomach gave more solid and better-textured curds may have led to the deliberate addition of rennet. Early archeological evidence of Egyptian cheese has been found in Egyptian tomb murals, dating to about 2000 BCE. A 2018 scientific paper stated that the world's oldest cheese, dating to approximately 1200 BCE (3200 years before present), was found in ancient Egyptian tombs.
The earliest cheeses were likely quite sour and salty, similar in texture to rustic cottage cheese or feta, a crumbly, flavorful Greek cheese. Cheese produced in Europe, where climates are cooler than the Middle East, required less salt for preservation. With less salt and acidity, the cheese became a suitable environment for useful microbes and molds, giving aged cheeses their respective flavors. The earliest ever discovered preserved cheese was found in the Taklamakan Desert in Xinjiang, China, dating back as early as 1615 BCE (3600 years before present).
Ancient Greece and Rome
Ancient Greek mythology credited Aristaeus with the discovery of cheese. Homer's Odyssey (8th century BCE) describes the Cyclops making and storing sheep's and goats' milk cheese (translation by Samuel Butler):
Columella's De Re Rustica (c. 65 CE) details a cheesemaking process involving rennet coagulation, pressing of the curd, salting, and aging. According to Pliny the Elder, it had become a sophisticated enterprise by the time the Roman Empire came into being. Pliny the Elder also mentions in his writings Caseus Helveticus, a hard Sbrinz-like cheese produced by the Helvetii. Cheese was an everyday food and cheesemaking a mature art in the Roman empire. Pliny's Natural History (77 CE) devotes a chapter (XI, 97) to describing the diversity of cheeses enjoyed by Romans of the early Empire. He stated that the best cheeses came from the villages near Nîmes, but did not keep long and had to be eaten fresh. Cheeses of the Alps and Apennines were as remarkable for their variety then as now. A Ligurian cheese was noted for being made mostly from sheep's milk, and some cheeses produced nearby were stated to weigh as much as a thousand pounds each. Goats' milk cheese was a recent taste in Rome, improved over the "medicinal taste" of Gaul's similar cheeses by smoking. Of cheeses from overseas, Pliny preferred those of Bithynia in Asia Minor.
Post-Roman Europe
As Romanized populations encountered unfamiliar newly settled neighbors, bringing their own cheese-making traditions, their own flocks and their own unrelated words for cheese, cheeses in Europe diversified further, with various locales developing their own distinctive traditions and products. As long-distance trade collapsed, only travelers would encounter unfamiliar cheeses: Charlemagne's first encounter with a white cheese that had an edible rind forms one of the constructed anecdotes of Notker's Life of the Emperor.
The British Cheese Board claims that Britain has approximately 700 distinct local cheeses; France and Italy have perhaps 400 each. (A French proverb holds there is a different French cheese for every day of the year, and Charles de Gaulle once asked "how can you govern a country in which there are 246 kinds of cheese?") Still, the advancement of the cheese art in Europe was slow during the centuries after Rome's fall. Many cheeses popular today were first recorded in the late Middle Ages or after—cheeses like Cheddar around 1500, Parmesan in 1597, Gouda in 1697, and Camembert in 1791.
In 1546, The Proverbs of John Heywood claimed "the moon is made of a green cheese." (Greene may refer here not to the color, as many now think, but to being new or unaged.) Variations on this sentiment were long repeated and NASA exploited this myth for an April Fools' Day spoof announcement in 2006.
Modern era
Until its modern spread along with European culture, cheese was nearly unheard of in east Asian cultures and in the pre-Columbian Americas and had only limited use in sub-Mediterranean Africa, mainly being widespread and popular only in Europe, the Middle East, the Indian subcontinent, and areas influenced by those cultures. But with the spread, first of European imperialism, and later of Euro-American culture and food, cheese has gradually become known and increasingly popular worldwide.
The first factory for the industrial production of cheese opened in Switzerland in 1815, but large-scale production first found real success in the United States. Credit usually goes to Jesse Williams, a dairy farmer from Rome, New York, who in 1851 started making cheese in an assembly-line fashion using the milk from neighboring farms; this made cheddar cheese one of the first US industrial foods. Within decades, hundreds of such commercial dairy associations existed.
The 1860s saw the beginnings of mass-produced rennet, and by the turn of the century scientists were producing pure microbial cultures. Before then, bacteria in cheesemaking had come from the environment or from recycling an earlier batch's whey; the pure cultures meant a more standardized cheese could be produced.
Factory-made cheese overtook traditional cheesemaking in the World War II era, and factories have been the source of most cheese in America and Europe ever since. By 2012, cheese was one of the most shoplifted items from supermarkets worldwide.
Production
In 2014, world production of cheese from whole cow milk was 18.7 million tonnes, with the United States accounting for 29% (5.4 million tonnes) of the world total followed by Germany, France and Italy as major producers (table).
Other 2014 world totals for processed cheese include:
from skimmed cow milk, 2.4 million tonnes (leading country, Germany, 845,500 tonnes)
from goat milk, 523,040 tonnes (leading country, South Sudan, 110,750 tonnes)
from sheep milk, 680,302 tonnes (leading country, Greece, 125,000 tonnes)
from buffalo milk, 282,127 tonnes (leading country, Egypt, 254,000 tonnes)
During 2015, Germany, France, Netherlands and Italy exported 10–14% of their produced cheese. The United States was a marginal exporter (5.3% of total cow milk production), as most of its output was for the domestic market.
The carbon footprint of a kilogram of cheese ranges from 6 to 12 kg of CO2eq, depending on the amount of milk used; thus it is generally lower than beef or lamb but higher than other foods.
Consumption
France, Iceland, Finland, Denmark and Germany were the highest consumers of cheese in 2014, averaging per person per annum.
Processing
Curdling
A required step in cheesemaking is separating the milk into solid curds and liquid whey. Usually this is done by acidifying (souring) the milk and adding rennet. The acidification can be accomplished directly by the addition of an acid, such as vinegar, in a few cases (paneer, queso fresco). More commonly starter bacteria are employed instead which convert milk sugars into lactic acid. The same bacteria (and the enzymes they produce) also play a large role in the eventual flavor of aged cheeses. Most cheeses are made with starter bacteria from the Lactococcus, Lactobacillus, or Streptococcus genera. Swiss starter cultures also include Propionibacter shermani, which produces propionic acid and carbon dioxide gas bubbles during aging, giving Swiss cheese or Emmental its holes (called "eyes").
Some fresh cheeses are curdled only by acidity, but most cheeses also use rennet. Rennet sets the cheese into a strong and rubbery gel compared to the fragile curds produced by acidic coagulation alone. It also allows curdling at a lower acidity—important because flavor-making bacteria are inhibited in high-acidity environments. In general, softer, smaller, fresher cheeses are curdled with a greater proportion of acid to rennet than harder, larger, longer-aged varieties.
While rennet was traditionally produced via extraction from the inner mucosa of the fourth stomach chamber of slaughtered young, unweaned calves, most rennet used today in cheesemaking is produced recombinantly. The majority of the applied chymosin is retained in the whey and, at most, may be present in cheese in trace quantities. In ripe cheese, the type and provenance of chymosin used in production cannot be determined.
Curd processing
At this point, the cheese has set into a very moist gel. Some soft cheeses are now essentially complete: they are drained, salted, and packaged. For most of the rest, the curd is cut into small cubes. This allows water to drain from the individual pieces of curd.
Some hard cheeses are then heated to temperatures in the range of . This forces more whey from the cut curd. It also changes the taste of the finished cheese, affecting both the bacterial culture and the milk chemistry. Cheeses that are heated to the higher temperatures are usually made with thermophilic starter bacteria that survive this step—either Lactobacilli or Streptococci.
Salt has roles in cheese besides adding a salty flavor. It preserves cheese from spoiling, draws moisture from the curd, and firms cheese's texture in an interaction with its proteins. Some cheeses are salted from the outside with dry salt or brine washes. Most cheeses have the salt mixed directly into the curds.
Other techniques influence a cheese's texture and flavor. Some examples are:
Stretching: (Mozzarella, Provolone) The curd is stretched and kneaded in hot water, developing a stringy, fibrous body.
Cheddaring: (Cheddar, other English cheeses) The cut curd is repeatedly piled up, pushing more moisture away. The curd is also mixed (or milled) for a long time, taking the sharp edges off the cut curd pieces and influencing the final product's texture.
Washing: (Edam, Gouda, Colby) The curd is washed in warm water, lowering its acidity and making for a milder-tasting cheese.
Most cheeses achieve their final shape when the curds are pressed into a mold or form. The harder the cheese, the more pressure is applied. The pressure drives out moisture—the molds are designed to allow water to escape—and unifies the curds into a single solid body.
Ripening
A newborn cheese is usually salty yet bland in flavor and, for harder varieties, rubbery in texture. These qualities are sometimes enjoyed—cheese curds are eaten on their own—but normally cheeses are left to rest under controlled conditions. This aging period (also called ripening, or, from the French, affinage) lasts from a few days to several years. As a cheese ages, microbes and enzymes transform texture and intensify flavor. This transformation is largely a result of the breakdown of casein proteins and milkfat into a complex mix of amino acids, amines, and fatty acids.
Some cheeses have additional bacteria or molds intentionally introduced before or during aging. In traditional cheesemaking, these microbes might be already present in the aging room; they are allowed to settle and grow on the stored cheeses. More often today, prepared cultures are used, giving more consistent results and putting fewer constraints on the environment where the cheese ages. These cheeses include soft ripened cheeses such as Brie and Camembert, blue cheeses such as Roquefort, Stilton, Gorgonzola, and rind-washed cheeses such as Limburger.
Types
There are many types of cheese, with around 500 different varieties recognized by the International Dairy Federation, more than 400 identified by Walter and Hargrove, more than 500 by Burkhalter, and more than 1,000 by Sandine and Elliker. The varieties may be grouped or classified into types according to criteria such as length of ageing, texture, methods of making, fat content, animal milk, country or region of origin, etc.—with these criteria either being used singly or in combination, but with no single method being universally used. The method most commonly and traditionally used is based on moisture content, which is then further discriminated by fat content and curing or ripening methods. Some attempts have been made to rationalise the classification of cheese—a scheme was proposed by Pieter Walstra which uses the primary and secondary starter combined with moisture content, and Walter and Hargrove suggested classifying by production methods which produces 18 types, which are then further grouped by moisture content.
Cooking and eating
At refrigerator temperatures, the fat in a piece of cheese is as hard as unsoftened butter, and its protein structure is stiff as well. Flavor and odor compounds are less easily liberated when cold. For improvements in flavor and texture, it is widely advised that cheeses be allowed to warm up to room temperature before eating. If the cheese is further warmed, to , the fats will begin to "sweat out" as they go beyond soft to fully liquid.
Above room temperatures, most hard cheeses melt. Rennet-curdled cheeses have a gel-like protein matrix that is broken down by heat. When enough protein bonds are broken, the cheese itself turns from a solid to a viscous liquid. Soft, high-moisture cheeses will melt at around , while hard, low-moisture cheeses such as Parmesan remain solid until they reach about . Acid-set cheeses, including halloumi, paneer, some whey cheeses and many varieties of fresh goat cheese, have a protein structure that remains intact at high temperatures. When cooked, these cheeses just get firmer as water evaporates.
Some cheeses, like raclette, melt smoothly; many tend to become stringy or suffer from a separation of their fats. Many of these can be coaxed into melting smoothly in the presence of acids or starch. Fondue, with wine providing the acidity, is a good example of a smoothly melted cheese dish. Elastic stringiness is a quality that is sometimes enjoyed, in dishes including pizza and Welsh rarebit. Even a melted cheese eventually turns solid again, after enough moisture is cooked off. The saying "you can't melt cheese twice" (meaning "some things can only be done once") refers to the fact that oils leach out during the first melting and are gone, leaving the non-meltable solids behind.
As its temperature continues to rise, cheese will brown and eventually burn. Browned, partially burned cheese has a particular distinct flavor of its own and is frequently used in cooking (e.g., sprinkling atop items before baking them).
Cheeseboard
A cheeseboard (or cheese course) may be served at the end of a meal before or following dessert, or replacing the last course. The British tradition is to have cheese after dessert, accompanied by sweet wines like Port. In France, cheese is consumed before dessert, with robust red wine. A cheeseboard typically has contrasting cheeses with accompaniments, such as crackers, biscuits, grapes, nuts, celery or chutney. A typical cheeseboard may contain four to six cheeses, for example: Mature Cheddar or Comté (hard: cow's milk cheeses); Brie or Camembert (soft: cow's milk); a blue cheese such as Stilton (hard: cow's milk), Roquefort (medium: ewe's milk) or Bleu d'Auvergne (medium-soft cow's milk); a soft/medium-soft goat's cheese (e.g. Sainte-Maure de Touraine, Pantysgawn, Crottin de Chavignol).
A cheeseboard long was used to feature the variety of cheeses manufactured in Wisconsin, where the state legislature recognizes a "cheesehead" hat as a state symbol.
Nutrition and health
The nutritional value of cheese varies widely. Cottage cheese may consist of 4% fat and 11% protein while some whey cheeses are 15% fat and 11% protein, and triple-crème cheeses are 36% fat and 7% protein. In general, cheese is a rich source (20% or more of the Daily Value, DV) of calcium, protein, phosphorus, sodium and saturated fat. A 28-gram (one ounce) serving of cheddar cheese contains about of protein and 202 milligrams of calcium. Nutritionally, cheese is essentially concentrated milk, but altered by the culturing and aging processes: it takes about of milk to provide that much protein, and to equal the calcium, though values for water-soluble vitamins and minerals can vary widely.
Cardiovascular disease
National health organizations, such as the American Heart Association, Association of UK Dietitians, British National Health Service, and Mayo Clinic, among others, recommend that cheese consumption be minimized, replaced in snacks and meals by plant foods, or restricted to low-fat cheeses to reduce caloric intake and blood levels of LDL fat, which is a risk factor for cardiovascular diseases. There is no high-quality clinical evidence that cheese consumption lowers the risk of cardiovascular diseases.
Pasteurization
A number of food safety agencies around the world have warned of the risks of raw-milk cheeses. The U.S. Food and Drug Administration states that soft raw-milk cheeses can cause "serious infectious diseases including listeriosis, brucellosis, salmonellosis and tuberculosis". It is U.S. law since 1944 that all raw-milk cheeses (including imports since 1951) must be aged at least 60 days. Australia has a wide ban on raw-milk cheeses as well, though in recent years exceptions have been made for Swiss Gruyère, Emmental and Sbrinz, and for French Roquefort. There is a trend for cheeses to be pasteurized even when not required by law.
Pregnant women may face an additional risk from cheese; the U.S. Centers for Disease Control has warned pregnant women against eating soft-ripened cheeses and blue-veined cheeses, due to the listeria risk, which can cause miscarriage or harm the fetus.
Cultural attitudes
Although cheese is a vital source of nutrition in many regions of the world and it is extensively consumed in others, its use is not universal.
Cheese is rarely found in Southeast and East Asian cuisines, presumably for historical reasons as dairy farming has historically been rare in these regions, due in part to low rates of lactase persistence. Paneer (pronounced [pəniːr]) is a fresh cheese common in North India and Pakistan. It is an unaged, non-melting soft cheese made by curdling milk with a fruit- or vegetable-derived acid, such as lemon juice. Its acid-set form, (cheese curd) before pressing, is called chhena. In Nepal, the Dairy Development Corporation commercially manufactures cheese made from yak milk and a hard cheese made from either cow or yak milk known as chhurpi. Bhutan also produces a similar cheese called Datshi which is a staple in most Bhutanese curries. The national dish of Bhutan, ema datshi, is made from homemade yak or mare milk cheese and hot peppers. In Yunnan, China, several ethnic minority groups produce Rushan and Rubing from cow's milk. Cheese consumption may be increasing in China, with annual sales doubling from 1996 to 2003 (to a still small 30 million U.S. dollars a year). Certain kinds of Chinese preserved bean curd are sometimes misleadingly referred to in English as "Chinese cheese" because of their texture and strong flavor.
Strict followers of the dietary laws of Islam and Judaism must avoid cheeses made with rennet from animals not slaughtered in a manner adhering to halal or kosher laws. Both faiths allow cheese made with vegetable-based rennet or with rennet made from animals that were processed in a halal or kosher manner. Many less orthodox Jews also believe that rennet undergoes enough processing to change its nature entirely and do not consider it to ever violate kosher law. (See Cheese and kashrut.) As cheese is a dairy food, under kosher rules it cannot be eaten in the same meal with any meat.
Rennet derived from animal slaughter, and thus cheese made with animal-derived rennet, is not vegetarian. Most widely available vegetarian cheeses are made using rennet produced by fermentation of the fungus Mucor miehei. Vegans and other dairy-avoiding vegetarians do not eat conventional cheese, but some vegetable-based cheese substitutes (soy or almond) are used as substitutes.
Collecting cheese labels is called "tyrosemiophilia".
Odorous cheeses
Even in cultures with long cheese traditions, consumers may perceive some cheeses that are especially pungent-smelling, or mold-bearing varieties such as Limburger or Roquefort, as unpalatable. Such cheeses are an acquired taste because they are processed using molds or microbiological cultures, allowing odor and flavor molecules to resemble those in rotten foods. One author stated: "An aversion to the odor of decay has the obvious biological value of steering us away from possible food poisoning, so it is no wonder that an animal food that gives off whiffs of shoes and soil and the stable takes some getting used to."
Effect on sleep
There is some support from studies that dairy products can help with insomnia.
Scientists have debated how cheese might affect sleep. There is some evidence that the tryptophan in cheese can be sleep-inducing, as it is a hormone that reduces stress and stabilizes nerve cells. The high levels of calcium in cheese facilitate the use of tryptophan in the body to produce melatonin, which induces sleep. An antithetical folk belief that cheese eaten close to bedtime can cause nightmares may have arisen from the Charles Dickens novella A Christmas Carol, in which Ebenezer Scrooge attributes his visions of Jacob Marley to the cheese he ate. This belief can also be found in folklore that predates this story. The theory has been disproven multiple times, although night cheese may cause vivid dreams or otherwise disrupt sleep due to its high saturated fat content, according to studies by the British Cheese Board. Other studies indicate it may actually make people dream less.
Figurative expressions
In the 19th century, "cheese" was used as a figurative way of saying "the proper thing"; this usage comes from Urdu cheez "a thing", from Persian cheez, from Old Persian...ciš-ciy [which means] "something". The term "cheese" in this sense was "[p]icked up by [colonial] British in India by 1818 and [was also] used in the sense of "a big thing", for example in the expression "he's the real cheez". The expression "big cheese" was attested in use in 1914 to mean an "important person"; this is likely "American English in origin". The expression "to cut a big cheese" was used to mean "to look important"; this figurative expression referred to the huge wheels of cheese displayed by cheese retailers as a publicity stunt. The phrase "cut the cheese" also became an American slang term meaning to flatulate. The word "cheese" has also had the meaning of "an ignorant, stupid person".
Other figurative meanings involve the word "cheese" used as a verb. To "cheese" is recorded as meaning to "stop (what one is doing), run off", in 1812 (this was "thieves' slang"). To be "cheesed off" means to be annoyed. The expression, "Say cheese" in a photograph-taking context (when the photographer wants the people to smile for the photo), which means "smile", dates from 1930 (the word was probably chosen because the "ee" encourages people to make a smile). The verb "cheese" was used as slang for "be quiet" in the early 19th century in Britain. The fictional "...notion that the moon is made of green cheese as a type of a ridiculous assertion is from 1520s". The figurative expression "to make cheeses" is an 1830s phrase referring to schoolgirls who amuse themselves by "...wheeling rapidly so one's petticoats blew out in a circle then dropping down so they came to rest inflated and resembling a wheel of cheese". In video game slang "to cheese it" means to win a game by using a strategy that requires minimal skill and knowledge or that exploits a glitch or flaw in game design.
The adjective "cheesy" has two meanings. The first is literal, and means "cheese-like"; this definition is attested to from the late 14th century (e.g., "a cheesy substance oozed from the broken jar"). In the late 19th century, medical writers used the term "cheesy" in a more literal sense, "to describe morbid substances found in tumors, decaying flesh, etc." The adjective also has a figurative sense, meaning "cheap, inferior"; this use "... is attested from 1896, perhaps originally U.S. student slang". In the late 19th century in British slang, "cheesy" meant "fine, showy"; this use is attested to in the 1850s. In writing lyrics for pop music, rock music or musical theatre, "cheesy" is a pejorative term which means "blatantly artificial" (OED).
See also
Dutch cheese markets
List of cheese dishes
List of cheeses
List of dairy products
List of microorganisms used in food and beverage preparation
Sheep milk cheese
References
Bibliography
Further reading
Layton, T.A. (1967) The ... Guide to Cheese and Cheese Cookery. London: Wine and Food Society (reissued by the Cookery Book Club, 1971)
External links
Cheese.com – includes an extensive database of different types of cheese.
Classification of cheese – why is one cheese type different from another?
Ancient dishes
Condiments
Dairy products
Articles containing video clips
Types of food | wiki |
() is a poetry collection in Romanian by the Nobel Prize-winning author Herta Müller. It was first published in 2005 by Polirom.
References
2005 poetry books
Romanian poetry collections | wiki |
Fashionista or fashionistas may also refer to:
Fashionista, an avid leader and follower of fashion
Fashionista (website), a website about fashion
Entertainment
Fashionista (TV series), an Australian TV series
"Fashionista", a song by Namie Amuro from Genic
"Fashionista", a song by Monice
"Fashionista", a song by Chai from Punk
Fashionistas (film), a 2002 American pornographic film
Fashionistas, a modern line of Barbie-brand dolls with more body-shape options (curvy, petite, and tall) than the originals
The Fashionistas, minor villains in the Kim Possible animated TV series
See also
Fashion influencer
Fashion victim
Fashion activism | wiki |
Outhouse may refer to:
Outhouse, a small structure containing a simple toilet (North American meaning)
Any outbuilding near a dwelling e.g. a shed or barn (outside North America)
The Outhouse (venue), a former music venue outside Lawrence, Kansas, United States
The OUTHouse, a New Zealand talkshow dealing with lesbian and gay issues
The Outhouse, a Canadian television series about home improvement
People
John Outhouse, schoolteacher
See also
The Outhouse Classic, a winter race in Michigan, USA
Outhouse lily (Fritillaria camschatcensis), a kind of flower
Outhouse tipping, vandalism consisting of tipping over an outhouse or portable toilet
Barn (unit), or "outhouse", a unit of cross section area used in nuclear and particle physics
Off-color humor, aka "outhouse humor", toilet humour
Osthouse, a place in France | wiki |
Jaguar is a 1979 Filipino film noir directed by Lino Brocka. It was entered into the 1980 Cannes Film Festival. The story is based on the real-life "Brown Derby Shooting" in 1960 as documented by Quijano de Manila in the article "The Boy Who Wanted to Become Society", later republished in the non-fiction crime anthology, Reportage on Crime (1977).
Cast
Phillip Salvador as Poldo Miranda
Amy Austria as Cristy Montes
Menggie Cobarrubias as Sonny Gaston
Anita Linda as Mother
Johnny Delgado as Direk San Pedro
Mario Escudero as Mang Berto
Jimmy Santos
Gigi Salvador as Apple
Joel Lamangan as Press
Roi Vinzon as Edmon
See also
Kisapmata
Bayan Ko: Kapit sa Patalim
Orapronobis
Manila
References
External links
1979 films
1979 drama films
Films directed by Lino Brocka
Philippine drama films
1970s English-language films | wiki |
In golf, Competition Stableford Adjustment (CSA) is a method used to adjust a player's score at the end of a round before calculating any handicap adjustments. Its purpose is to compensate for occasions when scores deviate significantly from the expected average under normal conditions.
Using CSA, players can be added 1, 2 or 3 or subtracted 1 Stableford points to/from their score, which then affects how much their handicap is modified after the competition. The amount of the adjustment is determined by calculating how many players performed much better or much worse compared to their ability, measured as a percentage of all competitors, and then comparing to appropriate tables published by the relevant golf association. Points may be added when scoring is difficult because of bad weather or condition of the course, or conversely a point may be subtracted on days that conditions are particularly favorable for producing good scores. Despite its name, CSA can be applied in all types of stroke play, though the points need to be converted in Stableford format beforehand.
CSA was formerly a component of the EGA Handicap System. It was replaced by Computed Buffer Adjustment (CBA), which moves the handicap buffer zone instead of adjusting the player's score, in 2013.
References
Golf terminology | wiki |
A deep vein is a vein that is deep in the body. This contrasts with superficial veins that are close to the body's surface.
Deep veins are almost always beside an artery with the same name (e.g. the femoral vein is beside the femoral artery). Collectively, they carry the vast majority of the blood. Occlusion of a deep vein can be life-threatening and is most often caused by thrombosis. Occlusion of a deep vein by thrombosis is called deep vein thrombosis.
Because of their location deep within the body, operation on these veins can be difficult.
List
Internal jugular vein
Upper limb
Brachial vein
Axillary vein
Subclavian vein
Lower limb
Common femoral vein
Femoral vein
Profunda femoris vein
Popliteal vein
Peroneal vein
Anterior tibial vein
Posterior tibial vein
References
Veins | wiki |
Mary Reynolds may refer to:
Arts
Mary Reynolds (artist) (1891–1950), American artist and bookbinder
Mary Reynolds (landscape designer), Irish landscape designer
Mary Reynolds Aldis (1872–1949), American playwright and poet
Marilyn Miller (born Mary Ellen Reynolds; 1898–1936), American Broadway performer
Others
Lynn Carlin (born 1938), born Mary Reynolds, American former actress
Mary Reynolds (baseball) (1921–1991), American baseball player
Mary Reynolds (politician) (1889–1974), Irish politician and farmer
Mary T. Reynolds (c. 1931–2000), American authority on James Joyce
Mary Palmer (née Reynolds; 1716–1794), British author
Mary Reynolds Babcock (1908–1953), American philanthropist
Ruth Mary Reynolds (1916–1989), American educator and civil rights activist
See also
Debbie Reynolds (born Mary Francis Reynolds) (1932–2016), American actress | wiki |
Peggy is a 1977 album by Peggy Lee that was arranged and conducted by Pete Moore.
Track listing
"The Hungry Years" (Neil Sedaka, Howard Greenfield) - 3:25
"Here Now" (Mark A. Trujillo, Dan Kimpel) - 3:16
"I Go to Rio" (Peter Allen) - 2:42
"I'm Not in Love" (Graham Gouldman, Eric Stewart) - 4:42
"Star Sounds" (Johnny Mercer) - 3:30
"What I Did for Love" (Edward Kleban, Marvin Hamlisch) - 3:39
"Misty" (Johnny Burke, Erroll Garner) -3:19
"Every Little Movement" (Otto Harbach, Karl Hoschna) - 3:10
"Courage, Madam" (Peggy Lee, Pete Moore) - 4:15
"Switchin' Channels" (Ken Barnes, Moore) - 3:15
"Just for Tonight" (Jan Jessel, Ray Jessel) - 3:20
"Lover" (Richard Rodgers, Lorenz Hart) - 4:06
Personnel
Peggy Lee – vocals
Arranged By, Music Director – Pete Moore
Backing Vocals – Clare Torry, Joan Baxter, Maggie Stredder, Peggy Lee
Sleeve Design – Bill Smith
Photography By – Hans Albers
Producer – Ken Barnes
Synthesizer – Pete Moore
Programmed By – Dave Lawson
References
External links
https://peggyleediscography.com/p/LeePolydor.php
1977 albums
Albums produced by Ken Barnes (writer)
Peggy Lee albums
Polydor Records albums | wiki |
Superficial veins are veins that are close to the surface of the body, as opposed to deep veins, which are far from the surface.
Superficial veins are not paired with an artery, unlike the deep veins, which are typically associated with an artery of the same name.
Superficial veins are important physiologically for cooling of the body. When the body is too hot, the body shunts blood from the deep veins to the superficial veins to facilitate heat transfer to the body's surroundings. Superficial veins are often visible underneath the skin. Those below the level of the heart tend to bulge out, which can be readily witnessed in the hand, where the veins bulge significantly less after the arm has been raised above the head for a short time. Veins become more visually prominent when lifting heavy weight, especially after a period of proper strength training.
Physiologically, the superficial veins are not as important as the deep veins (as they carry less blood) and are sometimes removed in a procedure called vein stripping, which is used to treat varicose veins.
Some named superficial veins
external jugular vein
Upper limb
cephalic vein – glides along the biceps: the "signature vein" of bodybuilders
median cubital vein – often used to draw blood (venipuncture).
basilic vein – usually the largest vein in the arm: often used for dialysis access
Lower limb
small saphenous vein
great saphenous vein – often "harvested" for coronary artery bypass surgery
See also
Deep veins
Varicose veins
Vascularity
References
External links
The Veins of the Lower Extremity, Abdomen, and Pelvis – Gray's Anatomy.
Varicose vein therapy – medlineplus.org
Veins | wiki |
The karate competition at the World Games 2017 took place from 25 to 26 July, in Wrocław in Poland, in the GEM Sports Complex. 96 sportsmen from 39 nations participated in the event.
Schedule
All times are in Central European Summer Time (UTC+02:00).
Tuesday, 25 July 2017
10:00–15:00 Men's Kata, Kumite 60 kg, Kumite 67 kg, Women's Kata, Kumite 50 kg, Kumite 55 kg preliminaries and semifinals
17:00–19:00 Men's Kata, Kumite 60 kg, Kumite 67 kg, Women's Kata, Kumite 50 kg, Kumite 55 kg medal competitions
Wednesday, 26 July 2017
10:00–15:00 Men's Kumite 75 kg, Kumite 84 kg, Kumite +84 kg, Women's Kumite 61 kg, Kumite 68 kg, Kumite +68 kg preliminaries and semifinals
17:00–19:00 Men's Kumite 75 kg, Kumite 84 kg, Kumite +84 kg, Women's Kumite 61 kg, Kumite 68 kg, Kumite +68 kg medal competitions
Participating nations
Algeria (4)
Argentina (1)
Australia (4)
Austria (2)
Azerbaijan (2)
Brazil (4)
Chile (1)
China (1)
Chinese Taipei (1)
Croatia (1)
Denmark (1)
Dominican Republic (2)
Egypt (5)
Fiji (1)
France (10)
Georgia (1)
Germany (2)
Great Britain (1)
Greece (1)
Hungary (1)
Iran (5)
Italy (2)
Japan (7)
Kazakhstan (2)
Montenegro (1)
Morocco (1)
Netherlands (1)
New Zealand (2)
Peru (2)
Poland (11)
Saudi Arabia (1)
Senegal (1)
Slovakia (2)
Spain (3)
Switzerland (1)
Turkey (2)
Ukraine (3)
United States (3)
Venezuela (2)
Medalists
Kata
Men's kumite
Women's kumite
Medals table
References
External links
Results book (Archived version)
2017 World Games
2017
World Games | wiki |
The Northwest League of Minor League Baseball is one of three High-A baseball leagues in the United States. A league champion is determined at the end of each season. Champions have been determined by postseason playoffs, winning the regular season pennant, or being declared champion by the league office. As of 2022, the first- and second-half winners meet in a best-of-five series to determine a league champion. If the same team wins both halves, the team with the next best full-season winning percentage will qualify.
League champions
Score and finalist information is only presented when postseason play occurred. The lack of this information indicates a declared league champion.
Championship wins by team
Active Northwest League teams appear in bold.
Notes
Bellingham and Eugene were declared co-champions.
References
C
Northwest
Northwest League champions
Northwest League | wiki |
Música
Rebel Heart (álbum), de Madonna
"Rebel Heart" (canção de Madonna)
"Rebel Heart" (canção de The Corrs)
Desambiguação | wiki |
Devudu Chesina Manushulu may refer to:
Devudu Chesina Manushulu (1973 film)
Devudu Chesina Manushulu (2012 film)
Devudu Chesina Manushulu (soundtrack) | wiki |
Faithfull may refer to:
People
Emily Faithfull, founder of The Victoria Press
Lilian Faithfull CBE (1865-1952), an English teacher, headmistress, women's rights advocate, magistrate, social worker and humanitarian
Lucy Faithfull, Baroness Faithfull, a British social worker
Marianne Faithfull, British singer and actress
Valentine Faithfull (1820–1894), British clergyman and cricketer
Other
Faithfull Majesty (Rex Fidelissimus), a sobriquet attached to the Portuguese monarchy
Faithfull, a song by Pearl Jam
See also
Faithful (disambiguation)
English-language surnames | wiki |
You're Hired may refer to:
You're Hired (TV series), a 2009 Hong Kong comedy series
The Apprentice: You're Hired!, the final episode of The Apprentice: You're Fired! | wiki |
John Klima is the name of:
John Klima (editor) (born 1971), editor of the science fiction magazine Electric Velocipede
John Klima (artist) (born 1965), American new media artist and professor at Rhode Island School of Design | wiki |
Quercus pumila, the runner oak or running oak, is a species of oak. It is native to the southeastern United States (Mississippi, Alabama, Florida, Georgia, and the Carolinas).
Quercus pumila is a deciduous shrub usually less than tall. The bark is gray or dark brown. The leaves are up to long, with no teeth or lobes, hairless or nearly so on the upper surface, the underside usually with a thick coat of reddish-brown hairs.
References
External links
Discover Life
Luna Imaging
pumila
Flora of the Southeastern United States
Plants described in 1790 | wiki |
Creeping charlie is a common name for several species of flowering plants:
Glechoma hederacea, also known as "ground ivy", in the family Lamiaceae
Pilea nummulariifolia, in the family Urticaceae
Plectranthus verticillatus, in the family Lamiaceae | wiki |
The Maison Dorée (the "Gilded House") was a famous restaurant located at 20 Boulevard des Italiens, Paris.
Beginnings
The Maison Dorée story begins with the former hôtel particulier on this site of Mme de Ferrières, known to the Comte de Stainville-Choiseul, where later Madame Tallien lived. She was known as "Our Lady of Thermidor," the most famous of the Merveilleuses, a group of eccentric and madly fashionable women at the time of the French Directory (1795–99).
The story continues with the Café Hardy, famous during Napoleon's Empire, which was established at the junction of the Boulevard de Gand (now Boulevard des Italiens) and the rue Cerutti (now rue Laffitte). At the Café Hardy, according to the gastronome Grimod de La Reynière, "you could eat the best chops in Paris, and omelettes stuffed with truffles ... that would give appetite to a dying guy. "
It was the most expensive restaurant in Paris, heralded by contemporary newspapers: "You have to be rich to dine at Hardy and bold to dine at Riche" ("hardy" means "bold" in French; Café Riche was on the other side of the rue Laffitte).
The property was sold at a very high price in 1836 to the Hamel brothers, who already owned the café de Chartres, famous as Le Grand Véfour, at the Palais-Royal. The structure was largely rebuilt in 1839.
Maison Dorée
The famous restaurant of "La Maison Dorée", the building built in 1839 by Victor Lemaire, architect-entrepreneur, opened in 1841 was based by Louis Verdier, then managed by his sons Ernest and Charles. Initially, the restaurant was called "Restaurant of the Cité," but because of its luxurious design, with paintings and mirrors, and gilding on the balconies and balustrades, the public named it "Maison Dorée, the "Gilded House"."
The restaurant was divided into two sections: one section accessible from the boulevard, for ordinary people, and another section, accessible via rue Laffitte, for wealthy customers. This section had luxurious and discrete "Cabinets," or private rooms. The most desired was Cabinet 6, which was reserved for nobility as well as for very wealthy people. The restaurant's magnificent wine cellar, with 80,000 bottles of wine, attracted the rich revelers and party-goers of Paris.
People who dined there included the future King Edward VII, the great art collector Richard Seymour-Conway, 4th Marquess of Hertford (who lived opposite in 2 Rue Laffitte), and the Baron de Saint-Cricq. Novelists of the time could be found there, most famously Balzac, who had a character from his novels, Lucien de Rubempré, eat there. In the first book of the novel In Search of Lost Time, Marcel Proust's character Swann enters the restaurant looking for Odette: when he doesn't find her there, an overwhelming sense of fear makes clear to him that he has deeply fallen in love with her. The restaurant is also mentioned in the novel The Old Wives' Tale by Arnold Bennett.
It has been claimed that the dish tournedos Rossini was created by the chef of the Maison Dorée, Casimir Moisson, who created the recipe for the composer Gioachino Rossini, a regular customer.
In the building above the restaurants, several newspapers opened editorial offices. In 1853, Alexandre Dumas moved the offices of his newspaper Le Mousquetaire to the building.
The same building was the site of the 8th and last Impressionist painting exhibition, which took place on 15 May 1886. Impressionism, which had started at 35 boulevard des Capucines in 1874, ended on boulevard des Italiens 12 years later.
The end
The Maison Dorée finally closed in 1902. The building was divided into several offices and shops. In 1909, part of the building became a post office.
Banque Nationale de Paris, which was headquartered just across rue Laffitte, purchased the building in 1970 and had it renovated by architect Pierre Dufau. During the planning process, French Minister of Culture Maurice Druon, facing pressure from a neighborhood preservation committee, asked the company to maintain the building's historic facade. Dufau, "in one day of rage against the old timers," created a new project in which he proposed to integrate an entirely new interior into the historic facade. This marked the first transformation in what became a highly controversial movement called facadism.
Notes
Sources
http://www.terresdecrivains.com/La-Maison-Doree
Buildings and structures in the 2nd arrondissement of Paris
Buildings and structures in Paris
History of Paris
Restaurants in Paris | wiki |
Acragas castaneiceps is a species of jumping spider in the genus Acragas. The scientific name of this species was first published in 1900 by Simon. These spiders are found in Brazil.
References
External links
castaneiceps
Spiders described in 1900
Endemic fauna of Brazil
Spiders of Brazil | wiki |
The year 1800 in archaeology involved some significant events.
Explorations
Excavations
Bretby Castle, Derbyshire, England, a 16th-century fortified manor, is partially excavated.
Finds
Publications
Births
August 13 - Ippolito Rosellini, Tuscan Egyptologist (d. 1843)
October 8 - Jules Desnoyers, French geologist and archaeologist (d. 1887)
December 24 - Ferdinand Keller, Swiss archaeologist (d. 1881)
Charles Masson, born James Lewis, British explorer of Buddhist sites (d. 1853)
Deaths
June 28 - Théophile Corret de la Tour d'Auvergne, French antiquary (b. 1743)
References
Archaeology
Archaeology by year
Archaeology
Archaeology | wiki |
3,5-Diiodothyronine (3,5-T2) is an active thyroid hormone within the class of iodothyronines. It has two iodine atoms at positions 3 and 5 of its inner ring.
Biological effects
3,5-T2 is an active thyroid hormone. It stimulates the TR-beta receptor for thyroid hormones and thus increases energy expenditure. It has agonistic (thyromimetic) effects at myocardial tissue and pituitary, which results in 3,5-T2 suppressing TSH release. 3,5-T2 is an allosteric regulator of the cytochrome c oxidase, the complex IV of the electron transport chain. It increases its activity by preventing the interaction of adenosine triphosphate (ATP) as an allosteric inhibitor.
Clinical significance
In nonthyroidal illness syndrome 3,5-T2 concentrations are increased. This could explain why patients with low T3 syndrome don't benefit from substitution therapy with thyroid hormones.
References
External links
Iodinated tyrosine derivatives
Thyroid
Human hormones
Hormones of the hypothalamus-pituitary-thyroid axis
Hormones of the thyroid gland | wiki |
ALPG may refer to:
Australian Ladies Professional Golf, see ALPG Tour
Abundant Life Prayer Group
Prayer Tower
Oral Roberts Evangelistic Association (OREA) | wiki |
Guru Sishyulu may refer to:
Guru Sishyulu (1981 film), an Indian Telugu film
Guru Sishyulu (1990 film), an Indian Telugu film
See also
Guru Sishyan (disambiguation)
Guru–shishya tradition
Guru Shishyaru (disambiguation) | wiki |
Derivatives law is the area of law governing derivatives. It is associated with principles of contract law, and practitioners must also have a good understanding of insolvency, netting and set-off, and conflict of laws.
Over-the-counter derivatives are documented under master agreements, the most common of which is the International Swaps and Derivatives Association (ISDA) Master Agreement.
Contract law
Financial regulation
Derivatives (finance) | wiki |
Financial infidelity is spending money, possessing credit or credit cards, holding secret accounts or stashes of money, borrowing money, or otherwise incurring debt, without the knowledge of one's spouse, partner, or significant other. It includes any decisions that affect the financial plan in the relationship.
Financial infidelity may be on the rise, as a 2005 study showed that 30% of respondents had lied about financial information and 25% had withheld information, whereas a 2008 study showed that half the respondents had committed some form of financial infidelity.
References
Interpersonal conflict
Personal finance
External links
Your Cheatin' Wallet – story at The New York Times | wiki |
Big Science may refer to:
Big Science, a term used to describe changes in science since World War II
Big Science (Laurie Anderson album), a 1982 album by Laurie Anderson
Big Science (BWO album), a 2009 album by BWO
Big Science, a 2015 book by Michael Hiltzik | wiki |
Eisbein (literally: 'ice bone') is a German culinary dish of corned ham hock, usually cured and slightly boiled. The name originates from the practice of using the pig's leg bone for ice skating. In Southern parts of Germany, the common preparation is known as Schweinshaxe, and it is usually roasted. The Polish dish or and Swedish dish fläsklägg med rotmos are very similar, alternatively grilled on a barbecue; another similar dish is the Swiss and the Austrian Stelze.
Eisbein is usually sold already cured and sometimes smoked, and then used in simple hearty dishes. Numerous regional variations exist, for example in Berlin it is served with pease pudding. In Franconia, Eisbein is commonly served with mashed potatoes or sauerkraut, in Austria with horseradish and mustard instead.
See also
– also includes ham hock dishes
References
Notes
External links
German cuisine
Czech cuisine
Polish cuisine
Pomeranian cuisine
Pork dishes
Pickles
Salted foods
Smoked meat | wiki |
Morkovcha (Koryo-mar: /), also known as Korean-style carrots () or Korean carrot salad (), is a spicy marinated carrot salad. It is a Koryo-saram variant of kimchi.
History
Koryo-saram (ethnic Koreans located in post-Soviet countries) created the dish as they did not have supplies of Baechu cabbage, the main ingredient in traditional kimchi. In Central Asia, where many Koryo-saram have lived since the deportation of 1937, the salad is also named morkovcha, which is a combination of Russian morkov ("carrot") and Koryo-mar cha, derived from Korean chae () meaning salad-type banchan. The salad was unknown in South Korea until recently, when Russo-Koreans' return migration as well as Russian and Central Asian immigration became common. However, it has gained an international following, being served in most cafeterias throughout post-Soviet countries, sold in many supermarkets, and featured regularly as an appetizer (zakuska) and a side dish on dinner tables and in holiday feasts set by all ethnicities of the former Soviet Union.
Ingredients
The typical ingredients are finely julienned carrots, garlic, onion, ground red pepper, ground coriander seeds, vinegar, vegetable oil, salt and pepper. It may also include sesame seeds.
See also
References
Carrot dishes
Central Asian cuisine
Kimchi
Russian Korean cuisine
Salads
Soviet cuisine | wiki |
Mt. Vernon station (formerly Centre Street station) is a Baltimore Light Rail station in the Mount Vernon neighborhood of Baltimore, Maryland.
References
External links
Station from Centre Street from Google Maps Street View
Monument Street entrance from Google Maps Street View
1992 establishments in Maryland
Baltimore Light Rail stations
Mount Vernon, Baltimore
Railway stations in Baltimore
Railway stations in the United States opened in 1992 | wiki |
A train path is the infrastructure capacity needed to run a train between two places over a given time-period. Within the European Union, a train operator needs to purchase a train path from a rail infrastructure company to run a train on their tracks.
Overview
The number of rail paths available on a given railway line depends on a number of factors. The number of tracks and the type of signalling, specifically the number of blocks, are limits set by the actual infrastructure. A variable factor is the speed difference between trains. Optimal capacity is achieved when all trains run at the same speed. When that is not the case, faster trains will eventually catch up to slower trains, so trains have to be spaced much further apart to avoid interference.
Applications
Usually, train operators apply for train paths over a given period several months before the start of the period. After a deadline has passed, the rail infrastructure company uses all applications to create the working timetable. A number of rail infrastructure companies have defined different classes of train paths. More expensive classes are treated with priority during timetable construction and operation.
Delayed trains
If a train is delayed beyond a certain tolerance, it will "fall out" of its allocated train path. On congested lines, this will result in additional delays, as such a train is taken to passing sidings whenever that is necessary to let other trains pass.
Graphs
Train paths are usually shown on a time-distance graph, where time is shown horizontally, and distance (including a representation of the track layout) is shown vertically.
References
Rail infrastructure
Rail transport operations | wiki |
Chris Thomasson is a game designer who has worked primarily on role-playing games.
Career
Chris Thomasson was Paizo Publishing's editor for Dungeon magazine when he announced "The Shackled City Adventure Path" in 2003.
His D&D design work includes the third edition Fiend Folio (2003), Monster Manual III (2004), Dungeon Master's Guide II (2005), Magic of Eberron (2005), Complete Psionic (2006), and Complete Champion (2007).
References
External links
American game designers
Dungeons & Dragons game designers
Living people
Place of birth missing (living people)
Year of birth missing (living people) | wiki |
Station Wittmund (Bahnhof Wittmund) is een spoorwegstation in de Duitse plaats Wittmund, in de deelstaat Nedersaksen. Het station ligt aan de spoorlijn Emden - Jever. Het station telt één perronspoor. Op het station stoppen alleen treinen van de NordWestBahn.
Treinverbindingen
De volgende treinserie doet station Wittmund aan:
Wittmund
Wittmund | wiki |
Raptor is a 2001 American direct-to-video horror film directed by Jim Wynorski, produced by Roger Corman, and starring Eric Roberts, Melissa Brasselle, and Corbin Bernsen. It re-uses dinosaur footage from the Corman-produced Carnosaur film series, edited together with original footage shot by Wynorski. Raptor was produced by Corman's company New Concorde, which had worked on the Carnosaur films.
Plot
When a series of unexplained vicious animal attacks strikes his community, Sheriff Jim Tanner and his assistant Barbara trace them back to a Dr. Hyde, a former military researcher whose government funding for a dinosaur cloning project was cut. When the Pentagon discovers Hyde obtained foreign backing to continue his experiments, they send in a strike team to save Tanner and Barbara and stop Hyde.
Cast
Eric Roberts as Sheriff Jim Tanner
Melissa Brasselle as Barbara Phillips
Corbin Bernsen as Dr. Frank Hyde
Tim Abell as Captain Connelly
William Monroe as Captain York
Lorissa McComas as Lola Tanner, Sheriff Tanner's Daughter
Frank Novak as Lyle Shell
Bruce Nozick as FBI Agent
Harrison Page as Deputy
Grant Cramer as McCoy, Hyde's Henchman
Brian Lynn Graham as The Coroner
GiGi Erneta as Henderson
Reception
Psychotronic Video wrote that the dinosaur effects "are as painfully awful" as the Carnosaur films. Riley Black, writing for Smithsonian in 2011, criticized the film's recycled footage for its lack of continuity.
References
External links
Raptor at TCMDB
Raptor at Letterbox DVD
2001 horror films
Mad scientist films
2001 films
2000s monster movies
Films directed by Jim Wynorski
Films about dinosaurs
Films produced by Roger Corman
American horror films
2000s English-language films
2000s American films
English-language horror films | wiki |
Baltimore Arena station (formerly University Center / Baltimore Street) is a Baltimore Light Rail station in Baltimore, Maryland adjacent to the CFG Bank Arena.
References
External links
MTA Maryland - Light Rail stations
Station from Google Maps Street View
1992 establishments in Maryland
Baltimore Light Rail stations
Downtown Baltimore
Railway stations in Baltimore
Railway stations in the United States opened in 1992 | wiki |
The Martin Short Show is an American sitcom television series created by Paul Flaherty, Michael Short, and star Martin Short, that aired on NBC from September 15 until September 27, 1994 on NBC.
Overview
The series focuses on Marty Short, a comedian who tries to balance his work life as a sketch show host, and his home life with his wife and children.
Cast
Martin Short - Marty Short
Jan Hooks - Meg Harper Short
Noley Thornton - Caroline Short
Zack Duhame - Charlie Short
Andrea Martin - Alice Manoogan
Brian Doyle-Murray - Gary
Episodes
External links
1990s American sitcoms
NBC original programming
Television series by Universal Television
English-language television shows
1994 American television series debuts
1994 American television series endings | wiki |
The Military ranks of Tunisia are the military insignia used by the Tunisian Armed Forces and the Tunisian National Guard. Tunisia shares a rank structure similar to that of France.
Commissioned officer ranks
The rank insignia of commissioned officers.
Other ranks
The rank insignia of non-commissioned officers and enlisted personnel.
References
External links
Tunisia
Military of Tunisia
Tunisia | wiki |
Chocolate malt can refer to:
Chocolate malt, a mash ingredient
Malted milk
Milkshake | wiki |
BB4 may refer to:
BB4, a postcode district in the BB postcode area
Big Brother 4, a television programme in various versions
Bb4, the B♭ (musical note) a minor 7th above middle C | wiki |
"The Shower Principle" is the fifteenth episode of the sixth season of the American television comedy series 30 Rock, and the 117th overall episode of the series. It was directed by Stephen Lee Davis, and written by Tom Ceraulo. The episode originally aired on NBC in the United States on March 29, 2012.
In the episode, Liz (Tina Fey) realizes that every year in her life is exactly like the last and uses this knowledge to her advantage; Jack (Alec Baldwin) searches for a business pitch that will transform Kabletown; Jenna (Jane Krakowski) deals with a theatrical curse; and Tracy (Tracy Morgan) has trouble with the IRS.
Plot
In a meeting with her accountant about her taxes, Liz realizes that every year is exactly like the last. By consulting her journal entries from last year, she is able to anticipate and solve several workplace problems. After her new hobby of meditation fails to bring her peace, she realizes that her coworkers are what has left her in a rut.
Jack, appalled that boss Hank Hooper is planning to use profits to pay a dividend, seeks the business pitch that will convince Hank to invest the money in the company instead. He tries to distract himself with showers and golf, operating under the theory that putting his mind elsewhere will bring inspiration. He realizes that Liz is the only distraction that allows him to function, and in desperation turns to her suggestion of meditation. He immediately comes up with a plan to manufacture couches and control the entire TV viewing experience, a plan that Hank loves.
Jenna refuses to perform in a sketch based on Macbeth due to her belief in The Scottish Play curse. Liz casts Cerie to make Jenna jealous, which is met with immediate success. Jenna then suffers multiple serious accidents. New page Hazel admits these were her attempts to scare away Jenna so that Hazel can be Liz's best friend.
Tracy, realizing that it is almost tax day, starts to remember multiple income sources and needs to generate some cash by starring in a movie. This storyline is not resolved in the episode.
Reception
The episode's first showing attracted 3.14 million viewers. The A.V. Club gave the episode a C+.
References
External links
30 Rock (season 6) episodes
pt:Kidnapped by Danger | wiki |
"Mini" is the fifth episode of the sixth series of the British teen drama Skins. It premiered on E4 in the UK on 20 February 2012. The episode is told from the point of view of character Mini McGuinness.
Mini's hates her mum's pervy new live-in boyfriend, and to make matters worse, Alo has broken the rules of their 'no strings attached' secret relationship and declared his love for her. Mini feels trapped; she's lost control of her life and needs to get away. Ignoring advice from her mum and Liv, she seeks refuge with her dad, who's never been around that much, but promises it'll be different this time. He sweeps Mini into his glamorous and grown-up world where she feels a million miles away from her problems, but Mini has a bigger problem that she can't run away from and will ultimately have to face on her own.
Plot
As Mini is having sex with Alo in a nightclub toilet, he breaks the terms of their 'no-strings-attached' relationship by declaring he loves her. Freaked out, she returns home, but is kept awake by her mother and her irritating new live-in boyfriend Eric having sex. After having an argument with her mother, Shelley, about it the next day, Mini calls her father Gregory, and arranges to meet up at a local aquarium. The meeting goes well, and Mini begins to rebuild her relationship with Gregory, to the chagrin of her mother. As she begins to integrate herself into his life, including arranging to go to Sydney, and flirt with his assistant, she begins distancing herself from her friends at school. However, she has been hiding a dark secret that she cannot hide forever - she is pregnant.
The only person who notices, however, is Franky, who recognises her regular vomiting spells as morning sickness, and her defensive attitude when questioned about it only serves to confirm Franky's suspicions. Although Franky promises not to say anything, Mini's sudden temper starts to alienate her from the others, including Liv and Alo.
Things come to a head when the gang crashes a party that Gregory arranged, and Alo, after snorting some cocaine, is compelled to march over and confront Gregory's assistant, whom he believes has feelings for Mini, which upsets a lot of fellow partygoers, getting him thrown out and Mini declaring they're finished. Mini then seduces Gregory's assistant and they go off to have sex, but he stops himself, fearing for his job, and politely leaves, and he is replaced by Liv, who wants to talk to Mini about her sudden change in demeanour. After Mini once again pushes her away, and Liv gets angry and storms out, Franky questions Mini about her pregnancy, and she tearfully admits she has not come to terms with it herself yet. After some gentle coaxing, she goes to her father and confesses to the pregnancy. They then make arrangements to fly to Sydney in a couple of days, and Mini goes home to pack. Her mother implores her not to go, but she coldly brushes her off.
Mini returns to Gregory's home, but arrives to discover it completely empty - he has left for Sydney permanently, just as Mini had feared he would, with only a note saying "Sorry. I love you" and a cheque for £500. She tries to ring him, but he is already on the plane, and she collapses in the kitchen, ripping up the note as she cries. She then goes to Alo in the hope of making up with him, but he coldly tells her that he is fed up with her treatment of him and asks her to leave. She returns home and discovers her mother weeping in the kitchen. Her boyfriend comes outside to smoke a cigarette and finds Mini there, and she implores him not to do to her mother what her father did. The next day, Franky escorts Mini to an ultrasound clinic. There, an initially reluctant Mini is implored to look at the scan, and breaks down in tears of joy as she sees her baby for the first time on the screen.
References
2012 British television episodes
Skins (British TV series) episodes | wiki |
3D braided fabrics are fabrics in which yarn runs through the braid in all three directions, formed by inter-plaiting three orthogonal sets of yarn. The fiber architecture of three-dimensional braided fabrics provides high strength, stiffness, and structural integrity, making them suitable for a wide array of applications. 3D fabrics can be produced via weaving, knitting, and non-weaving processes.
History
Three-dimensional braiding is among the oldest and most important of textile processes, transforming small natural fibers into more functional forms. Fabrics used in 3D braiding, such as rope, have been used since 4,000 BC.
In 1748, patents for the first 3D braiding machines were initiated in England. Most 3D braiding machines of the time were developed by modifying 2D braiding machines. In 1767, the first braiding machines which produced two-dimensional fabrics whose properties were different from 3D fabrics appeared in Germany. During the 1960s, the U.S. Government, as well as industrial and academic researchers, developed 3D braiding machines for use in producing composite material preforms, such as carbon fiber composites.
Properties
3D braids show improved mechanical and structural properties. An important characteristic of 3D braids is their ability to form a variety of complex shapes; the direct manufacturing of complex structural shapes helps to eliminate the process of cutting to form joints, overlaps, and splices. 3D braided fabrics have high torsional stability and structural integrity.
Manufacturing Techniques
A track plate is kept at the bottom of the machine. Packages, which supply axial yarns, are kept beneath the track plate. Bobbins are mounted on the carrier, which is pushed by horn gears over the track plate. Braiding yarns are fed from these bobbins. The relative motion of the braiding yarns and the axial yarn determines the pattern and the structure of the braid.
The 3D braiding process is a minor modification of 2D braiding process, where the standing ends are added to the braiding yarns that are moving. The most important 3D braiding techniques are discussed below.
Circular braiding and over-braiding
In circular braiding, the bobbins (with opposite directions of rotation) move in two concentric orbits. The two orbits interfere to form dephased sinusoidal oscillations that determine the thread's pattern and crossing point. At this crossing point, the bobbins change their path to produce the upper and inner side of the braid. Generally, the circular braiding process produces braids with rotational symmetry. The over-braiding process follows the same principle as the circular braiding process, but the only modification is that the crossing point is located at the center.
Four-step braiding process
In this process, the bobbins move on the X and Y axes, which are mutually perpendicular to each other. In each step, the bobbins move to the neighboring crossing point in both axis and both directions, and stop for a specific interval of time. Basic arrangement of the braiding field is obtained after a minimum of four steps. This method produces braids which have a constant cross section.
Two-step braiding process
In the two-step braiding process, the bobbins move continuously without stopping. They move on the track plate through the complete structure and around the standing ends, such that the movements of bobbins are faster when compared to the four-step braiding process. The bobbins can move only in two directions, so the process is called the two-step braiding process.
3D rotary braiding
The 3D rotary braiding process consists of base plates with horn gears and mobile bobbins arranged upon them. Switches are used to control the position of the threads and horn gears.
Applications of 3D braided fabrics
3D braided fabrics have found applications in areas including medicine, aerospace, automobiles, train components, and reinforced hoses. The initial development of 3D braided fabrics came from the composite and medical industries. 3D braided fabrics can be manufactured in myriad varieties of cross-sections, and their near-net complex shapes made it possible to design very specialized products for both industries.
In helicopters, typical structural components like beams, sandwich structures, frames, and panels are manufactured using 3D braided profiles. Similarly, 3D fabrics are used to manufacture complex beam structures and floor panels in passenger cars. For train structures, different components manufactured from 3D braided profiles include the roof panel, interior components, side panels, and body structures.
In medicine
In the medical industry, 3D braided fabrics find applications in stent grafts, bifurcated stents, arm and leg prosthetics, and braided sutures. Surgeons initially used two separate implant procedures for bifurcation stenosis treatment, which was time-consuming. With the advent of 3D braided fabric, multiple dendrite circular braids were produced for bifurcation stenosis treatment, which is flexible and less time-consuming. With multiple tubular braided structures, various cardiovascular implants can be produced.
In manufacturing of reinforced composite
Braiding is a unique technology for producing high-volume, yet low-cost, composites. With 3D braided fabric as reinforcement, complex shapes can be manufactured inexpensively. The 3D braided reinforced composites also exhibit high delamination resistance.
References
External links
The Indian Textile Journal
Textiles
Textile techniques | wiki |
Sony Studios may refer to:
Sony Music Studios, a former music studio
Sony Pictures, a film studio company
Sony Pictures Studios, a film studio complex owned by Sony Pictures | wiki |
Thousand Ships Bay is a bay located on the south coast of Santa Isabel Island in the Solomon Islands, between San Jorge Island and Santa Isabel Island.
References
Tideschart.com tide table of Thousand Ships Bay
Tide-Forecast.com tide table of Thousand Ships Bay
Hammond World Travel Atlas''. Union, N.J.: Hammond World Atlas Corporation, c. 2004–2005. . Page 245.
Bays of the Solomon Islands | wiki |
An underground lake or subterranean lake is a lake underneath the surface of the Earth. Most naturally occurring underground lakes are found in areas of Karst topography, where limestone or other soluble rock has been weathered away, leaving a cave where water can flow and accumulate.
Natural underground lakes are an uncommon hydrogeological feature. More often, groundwater gathers in formations such as aquifers or springs.
The largest subterranean lake in the world is in Dragon's Breath Cave in Namibia, with an area of almost ; the second largest is The Lost Sea, located inside Craighead Caverns in Tennessee, United States, with an area of
Characteristics
An underground lake is any body of water that is similar in size to a surface lake and exists mostly or entirely underground; though, a precise scientific definition of what may be considered a "lake" is not yet well-established. Underground lakes could be classified as either “lakes” or "ponds", depending on characteristics of size, such as exposed surface area and/or depth.
The rarity of naturally-occurring underground lakes can be attributed to the way water behaves underground. Below the surface of the Earth, pressure exterted on water increases, causing it to be absorbed into the ground. The boundary at which there is sufficient sub-terranean pressure to completely saturate the ground with water is called the water table. The area above the water table is called the “unsaturated zone,” while the area below it is called the “saturated zone” . In the saturated zone, pressure is the primary force driving the flow of water. Lakes form primarily under the force of gravity – water is pulled down to the lowest point in an area, and gathers into a lake. Any water below the water table will be under pressure, and so does not form a lake; instead, it forms an aquifer.
Naturally-occurring underground lakes can form in Karst areas, where the weathering of soluble rocks leaves behind caverns and other openings in the earth. Surface water can find its way underground through these openings and pool up in larger caverns to form lakes.
Underground lakes can be formed by human processes, such as the flooding of mines. Two examples of these are lakes found in the slate mines at Blaenau Ffestiniog, such as Croesor quarry, and a lake in the Hallein Salt Mine in Austria.
Examples
Craighead Caverns, in Tennessee, United States
Dragon's Breath Cave, in Namibia
Kow Ata, in Turkmenistan
Moqua Well, in Nauru
Saint-Léonard underground lake, in Switzerland
Cross Cave, in Slovenia
Gallery
See also
References
External links
Caves
Karst formations | wiki |
Cameron är en stad i Calhoun County, South Carolina, USA. Vid folkräkningen år 2000 uppgick invånarantalet till 449. Den har enligt United States Census Bureau en area på 8,1 km², allt är land.
Orter i South Carolina
Calhoun County, South Carolina | wiki |
Luke Saville and Jordan Thompson were the defending champions but only Saville chose to defend his title, partnering Jarryd Chaplin. Saville lost in the quarterfinals to Tom Jomby and Eric Quigley.
Alex Bolt and Max Purcell won the title after defeating Jomby and Quigley 7–5, 6–4 in the final.
Seeds
Draw
References
Main Draw
Kentucky Bank Tennis Championships - Men's Doubles
2017 Men's Doubles | wiki |
This article is a list of the teams that have participated in the Major League Baseball (MLB) postseason, the elimination tournament conducted after the regular season by which MLB determines its World Series champion for a given year.
The MLB postseason format has evolved throughout its history, with the number of participating teams increasing from two (for its first six-plus decades) to the current 12, with a special format in 2020 having 16. The World Series was first played in 1903, when the champions of the established National League (NL) and the upstart American League (AL) met for a playoff series. From that time through 1968, the two leagues (which each had eight teams through 1960) each sent only its team with the best regular-season record to the World Series. In 1969, as each league had expanded to 12 teams, each league was divided into East and West divisions and another playoff round was created. This round became known as the League Championship Series (LCS), with the four division champions competing for a spot in the World Series every year. This format lasted until 1993.
In 1994, the again-expanded leagues were re-organized into three separate divisions, and another playoff round was established, called the Division Series (DS). In this format, for each league, the champions of the East, Central, and West divisions would be joined in the playoffs by a Wild Card team. The addition of the Wild Card allowed a team that was not a division winner but still had one of the top regular-season records to enter the postseason. In 1998, the system was slightly modified so that the division winners with better regular-season records would be rewarded with homefield advantage in the division series and LCS. In 2012, the structure was adjusted such that two teams from each league receive Wild Card berths and then play a single game against each other to determine who advances to the Division Series. It also eliminated the previous restriction that the wild card team could not play a team in its own division in the first round. In 2022, the current 12-team format was used, featuring a best-of-three Wild Card Series. However, in this format, the top two division winners in each league received an automatic berth to the Division Series, while the lowest-ranked division winner and three Wild Card teams would play in the Wild Card Series.
Three anomalies in the above-described system occurred. In 1904, the World Series did not take place because the National League champion did not wish to participate and the leagues had not yet agreed to require their champions to do so. In 1981, there was a Division Series due to a split season brought about by a midsummer player's strike. In 1994, the postseason did not take place due to a player's strike. And in 2020, after a shortened 60-game regular season due to the COVID-19 pandemic, a special best-of-three Wild Card Series was played; this involved the three division winners, three second-place teams from each division, and two Wild Card teams in each league.
Postseason appearances by franchise
Franchise records by postseason round
Updated through the 2022 postseason.
See also
List of Major League Baseball postseason series
List of Major League Baseball franchise postseason droughts
List of Major League Baseball franchise postseason streaks
External links
MLB Postseason History at Baseball-Reference.com
Postseason Teams | wiki |
WWE has maintained several professional wrestling world championships since Capitol Wrestling Corporation seceded from the National Wrestling Alliance in 1963 to become the World Wide Wrestling Federation (WWWF), which was later subjected to various name changes, including World Wrestling Federation (WWF) and World Wrestling Entertainment (WWE)—in April 2011, the company ceased using its full name and has since just been referred to as WWE. Whenever the WWE brand extension has been implemented, separate world championships have been created or allocated for each brand.
Overview
History
In the 1950s, Capitol Wrestling Corporation (CWC) was a member of the National Wrestling Alliance (NWA) and by 1963, its executives held a controlling stake over NWA operations. During this time, Buddy Rogers held the NWA World Heavyweight Championship until January 24, when Lou Thesz defeated Rogers for the championship in a one fall match. Claiming the championship can only be contested in a traditional two out of three falls match, the promotion disputed the change, and thus seceded from the NWA and became the World Wide Wrestling Federation (WWWF). The WWWF World Heavyweight Championship was then established and awarded to Buddy Rogers with the explanation that he won a fictional tournament in Rio de Janeiro, supposedly defeating Antonino Rocca in the finals. After several years, the WWWF became affiliated with the NWA once again, and "World" was dropped from the championship's name. In 1979, the WWWF was renamed World Wrestling Federation (WWF), and then after conclusively ending its affiliation with the NWA in 1983, the championship became known as the WWF World Heavyweight Championship. Although the full name appeared on the belt until 1998, the name was often abbreviated to WWF Championship, which became its official name in 1998.
In 1991, World Championship Wrestling (WCW), a member of the NWA, established the WCW World Heavyweight Championship to replace the NWA's world championship. That same year, reigning and inaugural WCW Champion Ric Flair left WCW with the Big Gold Belt, which had represented the championship, and joined the WWF. Flair then began appearing on WWF television with the Big Gold Belt, calling himself "The Real World Champion"; however, this was never officially recognized as a world championship in WWF. In 1993, WCW seceded from the NWA and grew to become a rival promotion to the WWF. Both organizations grew into mainstream prominence and were eventually involved in a television ratings war, dubbed the Monday Night Wars. Near the end of the ratings war, WCW began a financial decline, which culminated in WWF purchasing WCW in March 2001. As a result of the purchase, the WWF acquired, among other assets, WCW's championships. Thus, there were two world championships in the WWF: the original WWF Championship and the WCW Championship, which was eventually renamed the "World Championship".
In December 2001, the two championships were unified at Vengeance. At the event, Stone Cold Steve Austin defeated Kurt Angle to retain the WWF Championship, while Chris Jericho defeated The Rock for the World Championship. After this, Jericho then defeated Austin, unifying the WWF and World Championships, and becoming the first Undisputed WWF Champion; the Undisputed championship retained the lineage of the WWF Championship and the World Championship was retired. The Undisputed Championship continued up through the beginning of the first brand extension, which saw wrestlers being drafted to the company's main television programs, Raw and SmackDown, each show representing the brand of the same name, with championships assigned to and authority figures appointed for each brand. The holder of the Undisputed Championship was the only male wrestler allowed to appear on both shows.
In May 2002, the WWF was renamed World Wrestling Entertainment (WWE) and the championships were renamed accordingly. At first, the Undisputed Championship remained unaffiliated with either brand as wrestlers from both brands could challenge the champion. Following the appointment of Eric Bischoff and Stephanie McMahon as General Managers of Raw and SmackDown, respectively, Stephanie McMahon convinced then-Undisputed Champion Brock Lesnar to become exclusive to the SmackDown brand, leaving the Raw brand without a world championship. In response, on September 2, Bischoff disputed Lesnar's status as champion, stating Lesnar was refusing to defend against the designated No. 1 contender, Triple H, and awarded the latter with the newly created World Heavyweight Championship. Immediately afterwards, Lesnar's championship dropped the epithet "Undisputed" and became known as the WWE Championship.
In 1994, Eastern Championship Wrestling seceded from the NWA and became Extreme Championship Wrestling (ECW) and established the ECW World Heavyweight Championship. In 2001, the ECW promotion folded due to bankruptcy and WWE bought the assets of ECW in 2003. In June 2006, WWE established a third brand dubbed ECW on which stars from the former promotion and newer talent competed. When ECW's Rob Van Dam won the WWE Championship at ECW One Night Stand, the ECW Championship was subsequently reactivated as the world championship of the ECW brand (and the third concurrently active world championship in WWE) and was awarded to Van Dam, who held both until he lost the WWE Championship to Raw's Edge the following month. The three world championships at one point or another switched brands over the course of the brand extension, usually as a result of the annual draft. The ECW brand was disbanded in 2010, subsequently deactivating the ECW Championship. The first brand extension ended in August 2011; earlier that year in April, the promotion ceased using its full name with "WWE" becoming an orphaned initialism.
On July 1, 2012 WWE Introduced the NXT Championship is a professional wrestling championship created and promoted by the American professional wrestling promotion WWE. It is defended as the top championship of the NXT brand division, the promotion's developmental territory. On July 26, 2012 Seth Rollins became the inaugural champion.
Following the end of the first brand extension, both the WWE Champion and World Heavyweight Champion could appear on both Raw and SmackDown. In November 2013, the night after Survivor Series, then-World Heavyweight Champion John Cena made a challenge to then-WWE Champion Randy Orton to determine an undisputed WWE world champion. Orton defeated Cena in a Tables, Ladders, and Chairs match at the TLC: Tables, Ladders & Chairs pay-per-view on December 15, 2013, to unify the championship. Subsequently, the unified championship was renamed WWE World Heavyweight Championship and retained the lineage of the WWE Championship; the World Heavyweight Championship was retired.
After Dean Ambrose became champion in June 2016, the title's name reverted to "WWE Championship". In light of the return of the WWE brand extension the following month, Ambrose was drafted to SmackDown and retained his title at Battleground on July 24 against Raw draftees Seth Rollins and Roman Reigns, making it exclusive to SmackDown. On the July 25 episode of Raw, to address the lack of a world championship for the brand, the WWE Universal Championship was created; Finn Bálor became the inaugural champion at SummerSlam. After the unveiling of the Universal Championship, the WWE Championship was renamed WWE World Championship, but reverted to WWE Championship in December 2016 during AJ Styles' first reign.
Superlative reigns
A "+" indicates that the title reign is ongoing.
Ten longest
The following list shows the ten longest world championship reigns in WWE history.
Longest per championship
The following list shows the longest reigning champion for each world championship created and/or promoted by WWE.
Most per championship
The following list shows the wrestlers with the most reigns for each world championship created and/or promoted by WWE.
Most total reigns
The following list shows the wrestlers who have the most world championship reigns in total, combining all titles they have held as recognized by WWE. This list also shows the titles that they won to achieve this record (minimum five world championship reigns).
Inaugural WWE World Heavyweight Championship holders
The following list shows the inaugural WWE World Heavyweight Championship belt holders and the years that they were first ever won in WWE history.
See also
Tag team championships in WWE
Women's championships in WWE
References
World heavyweight wrestling championships
WWE championships | wiki |
Morbid, svéd death/thrash/black metal együttes
Morbid, magyar magazin | wiki |
British Northrop Loom Co Ltd was an engineering firm based in Blackburn, Lancashire, England. The company manufactured machinery for producing textiles, particularly the Northrop Loom.
The firm was founded in 1902. It expanded rapidly around the time of the First World War, and by the 1950s it exported over 10,000 machines annually worldwide.
References
Manufacturing companies established in 1902
Companies based in Lancashire | wiki |
1. srpna – pondělí
2. srpna – úterý
6. srpna – sobota
7. srpna – neděle
9. srpna – úterý
12. srpna – pátek
14. srpna – neděle
15. srpna – pondělí
16. srpna – úterý
21. srpna – neděle
24. srpna – středa
26. srpna – pátek
30. srpna – úterý
Reference
Externí odkazy
Aktuality 2022 | wiki |
Play-Boy is a pinball machine released by Gottlieb in 1932. The game features a card gambling theme. It should not be confused with several other pinball machines with the name Playboy as from Rally Play Company, Bally, Data East and Stern.
Description
After the success of Baffle Ball, Gottlieb used the existing production line to produce a new game. The new playfield has card graphics and was cheaper to produce because the cast metal pieces were not required. Player can play for accumulated points or play card games such as blackjack or poker with the glass ball. Play-Boy was a success and was the beginning of Gottlieb's long tradition of playing card-themed games.
Play-Boy was advertised as 24 inches long by 16 inches wide and an optional wood or metal stand was available at extra cost. 10 balls cost 1 cent, with 5 cards each, if two players were playing.
Digital versions
Play-Boy is available in the Pinball Hall of Fame: The Gottlieb Collection.
References
External links
1932 pinball machines
Gottlieb pinball machines | wiki |
locate é um comando dos sistemas operacionais unix-like que localiza arquivos em um banco de dados. Esses dados devem ser atualizados periodicamente usando o comando updatedb.
Software relacionado ao sistema de arquivos do Unix
Programas padrões do Unix | wiki |
UNO 001 was the name of the only produced car from the planned UNO project to create a sports car made in Linköping, Sweden. The project started in the late 1980s with a budget of 3 million SEK and the backing of several strong financial backers. They managed to produce the UNO 001, but then something went wrong. In the 2000s it was for sale for 30000 SEK and it as of 2009 undergoing restoration.
The car is made steel tube frame with body parts of steel sheets. According to a 1980s commercial it could be assembled in two hours. Much of the parts used come from Saab, including the engine mounted in a mid engine configuration.
References
Defunct motor vehicle manufacturers of Sweden
Sports cars
Mid-engined vehicles | wiki |
is a Japanese sprinter specialising in the 400 metres. She competed in the 4 × 400 metres relay at the 2015 World Championships in Beijing and earlier won a silver medal in this event at the 2014 Asian Games.
International competitions
References
External links
1996 births
Living people
Japanese female sprinters
World Athletics Championships athletes for Japan
Athletes (track and field) at the 2014 Asian Games
Sportspeople from Shimane Prefecture
Asian Games medalists in athletics (track and field)
Asian Games silver medalists for Japan
Medalists at the 2014 Asian Games
21st-century Japanese women | wiki |
Malia O Ka Malu or Our Lady of Peace is an appellation of the Blessed Virgin Mary in the Hawaiian language. It is shortened from "Malia o ka Malu Hale Pule Nui", a title of the mother church of the Roman Catholic Diocese of Honolulu, the Cathedral of Our Lady of Peace.
Background
Other Hawaiian churches honoring the Virgin include
Maria Lanakila, Our Lady of Victory, in Lahaina
Malia Hoku O Ke Kai, Mary the Star of the Sea, in Kahala
Malia Puka O Ka Lani, Mary the Gate of Heaven, in Hilo
References
Catholic Church in Hawaii
Hawaiian language
Titles of Mary
Catholic Church in the United States | wiki |
England was included in a set of special commemorative postage stamps issued by the Royal Mail in 2006 to celebrate the component nations in the United Kingdom. The stamps featuring England were the final part of the British Journey series, which had previously featured Scotland, Northern Ireland, and Wales. They were available as mint stamps, as a presentation pack, stamps cards, and a first day cover.
British Journey series
These stamps were the final issue in the British Journey series; which started in 2003 with Scotland, followed in 2004 with Northern Ireland and Wales, and South West England in 2005. The series was brought to a premature end with this issue due to a lack of popularity amongst collectors.
Stamp details
The stamps were issued as a block of stamps, five wide by two deep. The photographs selected for this issue show no sky but are intended to demonstrate the colours and textures of the United Kingdom. All values are first class.
Photos
Carding Mill Valley, Shropshire
Beachy Head, Sussex
St Paul's Cathedral, London
Brancaster on the Norfolk coast
Derwent Edge in Derbyshire's Peak District
Robin Hood's Bay, Yorkshire
Buttermere in the Lake District
Chipping Campden in the Gloucestershire Cotswold hills
St Boniface Down, Isle of Wight
Chamberlain Square, Birmingham
Details
Designed by Phelan Barker Design
Stamp Size 35mm x 35mm (Square)
Printed by De La Rue Security Print
Print Process Photogravure
Perforations 14.5 x 14.5
Gum PVA
Presentation pack
The presentation pack was written by Simon Calder, travel editor of the Independent newspaper. He also wrote the pack for the airliners issue.
See also
List of British postage stamps
List of postage stamps
References
Postage stamps of the United Kingdom
England (British Postage Stamps) | wiki |
Zee Comedy Show (also known as Zee Comedy Factory) is an Indian Hindi-language comedy television series which premiered on 31 July 2021. The series airs on Zee TV. It is produced by Optimystix Entertainment. The presenters of this show are Farah Khan, Aditya Narayan, Sugandha Mishra, and others. Farah Khan was replaced by Mika Singh temporarily because she tested positive for COVID-19.
References
External links
Official Website
Zee Comedy Show on IMDb
2021 Indian television series debuts
Hindi-language television shows
Indian stand-up comedy television series
Indian television sketch shows
Zee TV original programming
Television series by Optimystix Entertainment | wiki |
Hot spell may refer to:
A heat wave
Hot Spell, a 1958 film
"Hot Spells", an episode of Darkwing Duck | wiki |
wait é um comando dos sistemas operacionais unix-like que faz uma pausa até que a execução de um processo anterior terminou.
Programas padrões do Unix
Software do Unix relacionado a gerenciamento de tarefas e de processos | wiki |
Multi-sketch is an animation method of story-telling where a sequence of hand-drawn sketches are created simultaneously while narrating it with voice. To achieve this a Tablet PC or digitizing tablet can be used to create improvised progressive line sketches which are captured to video.
Such types of cartoons are created in a freestyle unscripted manner, which makes them original, since the whole cartoon does not need editing after it is completed. The final multi-sketch can be sent to various video formats.
References
Drawing
Animation techniques | wiki |
That Luang is the national symbol and most important religious monument of Laos. Vientiane's most important Theravada Buddhist festival, "Boun That Luang", is held here for three days during
the full moon of the twelfth lunar month (November).
The monument
The That Luang dates from 1566. It has been destroyed and ransacked and renovated numerous times. The site is sacred as the Lao believe that the stupa enshrines a relic of Buddha.
Festivities
Monks and laypeople from all over Laos congregate to celebrate the occasion with three days of religious ceremony followed by a week of festivities, day and night. The procession of laypeople begins at Wat Si Muang in the city center and proceeds to That Luang to make offerings to the monks in order to accumulate merit for rebirth into a better life. The religious part concludes as laypeople, carrying incense and candles as offerings, circulate That Luang three times in honor of Buddha. Folk and popular music troupes and drama performances provide entertainment at the festival.
Further reading
The Politics of Ritual and Remembrance : Laos Since 1975, by Grant Evans, University of Hawai'i Press (1998)
Ladwig, Patrice (2015). Worshipping relics and animating statues. Transformations of Buddhist statecraft in contemporary Laos. Modern Asian Studies Vol.49/6, 2015, pp. 1875–1902.
Buddhist festivals in Laos | wiki |
Willem "Wil" Dadema (born 1933) is a retired heavyweight judoka from the Netherlands. Between 1955 and 1963 he won four medals at European championships. He was a national champion in 1960 and 1961.
References
1933 births
Living people
Dutch male judoka | wiki |
A continent pass (usually called something like Europe (air)pass, Pacific (air)pass or American (air)pass) is a product and service of an airline alliance. For a relatively low price the traveler can travel freely using all intra-continental flights the airline alliance offers on that continent. There are restrictions on the number of miles, flights or stops the traveler can make. Travelers can benefit from the extensive networks airline alliances offer and can earn reward points for each mile they fly by participating in the alliance's frequent flyer program.
See also
e-ticket
InterRail - a similar pass for European railways
Open-jaw ticket
Round-the-world ticket
References
Airline tickets | wiki |
Kof-K, a Teaneck, NJ-based Kosher certification agency, is one of the "Big Five."
As of 2010, more than one third of all food sold in the United States has kosher supervision, 80% of it from one of the "Big Five."
Its founder and rabbinic administrator was Rabbi Dr. Harvey (Zecharia) Senter, who died April 4, 2021 (אחרון של פסח).
While the Kof-K's certification is largely for products, they also certify kosher eateries.
See also
Hechsher
References
Kosher food certification organizations | wiki |
Pav bhaji (Marathi : पाव भाजी) is a fast food dish from India consisting of a thick vegetable curry (bhaji) served with a soft bread roll (pav). It originated in the city of Mumbai.
History
The dish originated as a fast lunchtime dish for textile mill workers in Mumbai. Pav bhaji was later served at restaurants throughout the city. Pav bhaji is now offered at outlets from simple hand carts to formal restaurants in India and abroad.
Preparation
Pav bhaji is a spiced mixture of mashed vegetables in a thick gravy served with bread. Vegetables in the curry may commonly include potatoes, onions, carrots, chillies, peas, bell peppers and tomatoes. Street sellers usually cook the curry on a flat griddle (tava) and serve the dish hot. A soft white bread roll is the usual accompaniment to the curry, but this does not preclude the use of other bread varieties such as chapati, roti or brown bread.
Variants
Variations on pav bhaji include:
Cheese pav bhaji, with cheese on top of the bhaji
Fried pav bhaji, with the pav tossed in the bhaji
Paneer pav bhaji, with paneer cheese in the bhaji
Mushroom pav bhaji, with mushrooms in the bhaji
Khada pav bhaji, with vegetable chunks in the bhaji
Jain pav bhaji, without onions and garlic and with plantains instead of potatoes
Kolhapuri pav bhaji, using a spice mix common in Kolhapur
References
Street food
Indian fast food
Maharashtrian cuisine
Curry dishes
Spicy foods
Chili pepper dishes
Indian cuisine | wiki |
In-text advertising is a form of contextual advertising where specific keywords within the text of a web-page are matched with advertising and/or related information units.
Description
Although contextual advertising in general refers to the inclusion of advertisements adjacent to relevant online context (e.g., Google AdSense), in-text advertising places hyperlinks directly into the text of the webpage.
In-text advertising is commonly available from In-Text Ad Networks like Kontera using technology such as IntelliTXT, or offered by publishers using Ad Serving technology from PowerLinks Media.
Advertising Model
In text advertising commonly works on a pay-per-click (PPC) model, which means that each time a website visitor clicks on an In-text ad, the websites owner gets paid by the advertiser. Other models include cost per impression (CPM), cost per action CPA and cost per play CPP for multimedia content ads (also known as Pay Per Play (PPP))
Criticism
The use of this type of advertising in news and journalism websites has been criticized by journalism ethics counselors as "ethically problematic at the least and potentially quite corrosive of journalistic quality and credibility." However, publishers such as the Indianapolis Star who use in-text advertising have reported that despite early objections by some readers, such complaints have "tapered off".
See also
In-image advertising
References
Contextual advertising
Online advertising methods
cs:Internetová reklama#Intextová reklama | wiki |
Ronda de Sant Pere is a thoroughfare in central Barcelona, Catalonia, Spain, one of the main roads in the lower side of Dreta de l'Eixample, part of the Eixample district. It runs from the Arc de Triomf, in Passeig de Lluís Companys, through Plaça Urquinaona towards Plaça de Catalunya, where the medieval city walls stood before the construction of Eixample. After Plaça de Catalunya it becomes Ronda de la Universitat.
It features the famous Rafael de Casanova monument, built in 1888 by Rossend Nobas, Josep Llimona and Alexandre Soler March for the Expo of that year, commemorating the Catalan leader who defended Barcelona during the Spanish War of Succession in the early 18th century. Several days every year, most notably on the National Day of Catalonia (September 11) and St George's Day (April 23), flower offerings take place by the statue.
The street is named after the neighbourhood of Sant Pere (Saint Peter), part of the Ciutat Vella district, located immediately below it, and the Monastery of Sant Pere de les Puel·les. Other streets in the area named after the saint include Carrer de Sant Pere més Alt, Carrer de Sant Pere Mitjà, Carrer de Sant Pere més Baix.
Transport
Barcelona Metro stations Arc de Triomf, Urquinaona (both on line L1 and Catalunya (on L1 and L3. The latter also includes a FGC-operated station including metro lines L6 and L7 and several other metropolitan railway lines.
Arc de Triomf railway station, operated by Renfe.
See also
List of streets and squares in Eixample, Barcelona
Ronda de la Universitat
Urban planning of Barcelona
References
External links
History of Eixample
Eixample
Streets in Barcelona
Odonyms referring to religion | wiki |
Noncompaction cardiomyopathy (NCC) is a rare congenital disease of heart muscle that affects both children and adults. It results from abnormal prenatal development of heart muscle.
During development, the majority of the heart muscle is a sponge-like meshwork of interwoven myocardial fibers. As normal development progresses, these trabeculated structures undergo significant compaction that transforms them from spongy to solid. This process is particularly apparent in the ventricles, and particularly so in the left ventricle. Noncompaction cardiomyopathy results when there is failure of this process of compaction. Because the consequence of non-compaction is particularly evident in the left ventricle, the condition is also called left ventricular noncompaction. Other hypotheses and models have been proposed, none of which is as widely accepted as the noncompaction model.
Symptoms range greatly in severity. Most are a result of a poor pumping performance by the heart. The disease can be associated with other problems with the heart and the body.
Signs and symptoms
Subjects' symptoms from non-compaction cardiomyopathy range widely. It is possible to be diagnosed with the condition, yet not to have any of the symptoms associated with heart disease. Likewise it's possible to have severe heart failure, even though the condition is present from birth, which may only manifest itself later in life. Differences in symptoms between adults and children are also prevalent with adults more likely to have heart failure and children from depression of systolic function.
Common symptoms associated with a reduced pumping performance of the heart include:
Breathlessness
Fatigue
Swelling of the ankles
Limited physical capacity and exercise intolerance
Two conditions though that are more prevalent in noncompaction cardiomyopathy are: tachyarrhythmia which can lead to sudden cardiac death and clotting of the blood in the heart.
Complications
The presence of NCC can also lead to other complications around the heart and elsewhere in the body. These are not necessarily common complications and no paper has yet commented on how frequently these complications occur with NCC as well.
Genetics
The American Heart Association's 2006 classification of cardiomyopathies considers noncompaction cardiomyopathy a genetic cardiomyopathy. Mutations in LDB3 (also known as "Cypher/ZASP") have been described in patients with the condition. There is recent information in which NCC has been seen in combination with 1q21.1 deletion Syndrome. Furthermore, mutations in DES (desmin), TTN (titin), RBM20 and LMNA could be detected in a large cohort of LVNC patients. Loss-of-function variants in the NONO gene have been associated with an X-linked form of noncompaction cardiomyopathy in males who also often present with developmental delays. TPM1 has also been implicated in development of the disease.
Diagnosis
Trabeculation of the ventricles is normal, as are prominent, discrete muscular bundles greater than 2mm. In non-compaction there are excessively prominent trabeculations. Echocardiography is the reference standard for diagnosing NCC, although it can be well defined by computer tomography scan, positron emission tomography and magnetic resonance imaging. Chin, et al., described echocardiographic method to distinguish non-compaction from normal trabeculation. They described a ratio of the distance from the trough and peak, of the trabeculations, to the epicardial surface. Non-compaction is diagnosed when the trabeculations are more than twice the thickness of the underlying ventricular wall.
Differential diagnosis
Heart conditions that noncompaction cardiomyopathy needs to be distinguished from include other types of congenital heart disease (which may coexist); other causes of heart failure, like dilated cardiomyopathy; and alternative causes of increased myocardial thickness, like hypertrophic or hypertensive cardiomyopathy.
The high number of misdiagnoses can be attributed to non-compaction cardiomyopathy being first reported in 1990; diagnosis is therefore often overlooked or delayed. Advances in medical imaging equipment have made it easier to diagnose the condition, particularly with the wider use of MRIs.
Management
One paper
has listed the various types of management of care that have been used for various types of NCC. These are similar to management programs for other types of cardiomyopathies which include the use of ACE inhibitors, beta blockers and aspirin therapy to relieve the pressure on the heart, surgical options such as the installation of pacemaker is also an option for those thought to be at a high risk of arrhythmia problems.
In severe cases, where NCC has led to heart failure, with resulting surgical treatment including a heart valve operation, or a heart transplant.
Prognosis
Due to non-compaction cardiomyopathy being a relatively new disease, its impact on human life expectancy is not very well understood. In a 2005 study that documented the long-term follow-up of 34 patients with NCC, 35% had died at the age of 42 +/- 40 months, with a further 12% having to undergo a heart transplant due to heart failure. However, this study was based upon symptomatic patients referred to a tertiary-care center, and so were experiencing more severe forms of NCC than might be found typically in the population. Sedaghat-Hamedani et al. also showed the clinical course of symptomatic LVNC can be severe. In this study cardiovascular events were significantly more frequent in LVNC patients compared with an age-matched group of patients with non-ischaemic dilated cardiomyopathy (DCM). As NCC is a genetic disease, immediate family members are being tested as a precaution, which is turning up more supposedly healthy people with NCC who are asymptomatic. The long-term prognosis for these people is currently unknown.
Epidemiology
Due to its recent establishment as a diagnosis, and it being unclassified as a cardiomyopathy according to the WHO, it is not fully understood how common the condition is. Some reports suggest that it is in the order of 0.12 cases per 100,000. The low number of reported cases though is due to the lack of any large population studies into the disease and have been based primarily upon patients with advanced heart failure. A similar situation occurred with hypertrophic cardiomyopathy, which was initially considered very rare; however is now thought to occur in one in every 200 to 500 people in the population, depending on the population.
Again due to this condition being established as a diagnosis recently, there are ongoing discussions as to its nature, and to various points such as the ratio of compacted to non-compacted at different age stages. However it is universally understood that non-compaction cardiomyopathy will be characterized anatomically by deep trabeculations in the ventricular wall, which define recesses communicating with the main ventricular chamber. Major clinical correlates include systolic and diastolic dysfunction, associated at times with systemic embolic events.
History
Non-compaction cardiomyopathy was first identified as an isolated condition in 1984 by Engberding and Benber. They reported on a 33-year-old female presenting with exertional dyspnea and palpitations. Investigations concluded persistence of myocardial sinusoids (now termed non-compaction). Prior to this report, the condition was only reported in association with other cardiac anomalies, namely pulmonary or aortic atresia. Myocardial sinusoids is considered not an accurate term as endothelium lines the intertrabecular recesses.
See also
Barth syndrome
Emery–Dreifuss muscular dystrophy
Myotubular myopathy
References
Further reading
Cardiomyopathy
Congenital heart defects | wiki |
A water hog is a machine that removes water from sports grounds. The water hog was invented by Hugh McLaughlin.
Driven by a rider, it has a wide, front roller that absorbs the water, transfers it to a storage tank, and allows it to be discharged in a safe location. Some water hogs can suck off excess water at a rate of 200 gallons per minute and throw it as far as 100 feet away from the machine. It is designed so that it will not damage the turf.
Originally devised for use on cricket pitches, it is now used at a wide range of sporting venues including golf putting greens, football grounds, American football stadiums, and at gaelic football stadiums where it has proved very successful.
Incidents
The water hog at the Taunton cricket ground failed, in May 2006, delaying the start of the Somerset v Hampshire C&G Trophy match, which was subsequently abandoned.
References
External links
Cricket equipment
Golf equipment
Off-road vehicles | wiki |
Racing.com (stylised as RACING.COM) is an Australian free-to-air standard-definition digital television channel, owned and operated by the Seven Network and Racing Victoria. The channel broadcasts live Victorian and South Australian horse racing, news, racing statistics and information, race replays, event calendars and other related media.
The service officially launched on 29 August 2015, after a blackout of Victorian horse races by Sky Racing, and is available to viewers in metropolitan areas, as well as regional areas via Southern Cross Television, and nationally via Foxtel.
History
Following a blackout of Victorian horse racing by Sky Racing on 16 June 2015, Seven West Media and Racing Victoria entered into talks and reached an agreement to broadcast an interim feed sourced from the Racing.com website's live stream starting 26 June 2015. Seven in regional areas began an interim broadcast on channel 68 on 28 July 2015. The channel was officially launched on 29 August 2015, with Southern Cross Television commencing broadcasting on the same day. Foxtel began broadcasting the channel on 12 September 2015.
Dubai World Cup Carnival 2016 announced that it will broadcast the final three meetings of the Dubai World Cup Carnival on Racing.com.
On 1 August 2017, Racing.com began broadcasting South Australian Racing following the successful closing of a seven-year content deal with Thoroughbred Racing South Australia in June.
See also
List of digital television channels in Australia
References
Seven Network
Digital terrestrial television in Australia
English-language television stations in Australia
Television channels and stations established in 2015
2015 establishments in Australia
Horse racing mass media
Sports television networks in Australia | wiki |
The towns and cities of Downstate New York were created by the U.S. state of New York as municipalities in order to give residents more direct say over local government. Present-day Westchester, Bronx, New York, Richmond, Kings, Queens, Nassau, and Suffolk counties were part of York Shire from 1664-August 1673 and again from February 1674 until 1683 at which point the Province of New York was divided into counties. From August 1673 to February 1674 New York was under Dutch control and English political units were suspended, then restored under English rule. York Shire was divided into three divisions called ridings, the East, West, and North ridings. In 1683 the colony of New York eliminated shires and ridings in favor of counties, the East Riding becoming Suffolk County, West Riding the counties of Richmond and Kings, while the North Riding became the counties of Westchester (including present-day Bronx), New York, and Queens (including present-day Nassau).
New York experimented with different types of municipalities before settling upon the current format of towns and cities occupying all the land in a county, and all previous forms were transformed into towns (or divided into multiple towns) in 1788 when all of the state of New York was divided into towns. Some early forms of government in earlier years included land patents with some municipal rights, districts, precincts, and boroughs. Though originally intended to be mere “…involuntary subdivisions of the state, constituted for the purpose of the more convenient exercise of governmental functions by the state for the benefit of all its citizens” as defined by the courts in 1916 (Short v. Town of Orange), towns gained home rule powers from the state in 1964, at which time towns became "a municipal corporation comprising the inhabitants within its boundaries, and formed with the purpose of exercising such powers and discharging such duties of local government and administration of public affairs as have been, or, maybe [sic] conferred or imposed upon it by law.”
The following time-line shows the creation of the current towns from their predecessors stretching back to the earliest municipal entity over the area. It represents from which old town (s) a particular new town was created, but does not represent annexations of territory to and from towns that already existed. All municipalities are towns unless otherwise noted as patent, township, borough, district, or city.
Westchester and Bronx counties
Notes
New York County
Notes
Richmond County
Notes
Kings County
Notes
All towns and cities in Kings County were annexed to the City of Brooklyn starting in 1854 with Bushwick and Williamsburgh and ending with the last remaining town- Flatlands in 1896. At that point the city of Brooklyn and Kings County were coterminous. In 1898 the city and county would be annexed to the city of New York as the borough of Brooklyn and remain Kings County.
Queens and Nassau counties
Notes
Oyster Bay was English territory from 1650, whereas the other towns received patents from the Dutch.
Suffolk County
Notes
Brookhaven- from 1661-1664 Connecticut Colony.
East Hampton- from 1657-1664 Connecticut Colony.
Huntington- from 1660-1664 Connecticut Colony.
Southampton- from 1644-1664 Connecticut Colony; 1664-1673 Province of New York; 1673-1674 Connecticut Colony.
Southold- from 1640-1662 under the New Haven Colony; 1662-1664 Connecticut Colony.
See also
Administrative divisions of New York
Timeline of town creation in New York's Capital District
Timeline of town creation in the Hudson Valley
Timeline of town creation in Central New York
List of former municipalities in New York City
List of municipalities on Long Island
References
Former municipalities in New York (state)
Former municipalities
Long Island
Westchester County, New York
History of New York (state)
Former towns in New York City
Former villages in New York City | wiki |
Inequality within immigrant families refers to instances in which members of the same family have differing access to resources. Much literature focuses on inequality between families, but inequality often exists within families as well. Though within-family inequality is not unique to immigrant families, the processes of migration and assimilation into American society provide new channels through which such inequality may emerge.
Legal status
Immigrants to the United States vary widely in terms of their citizenship status. Some immigrants may lack documentation altogether. An individual's legal status in the United States determines many of the resources available to him or her. Legal status can thus provide the basis for many inequalities in the home.
Mixed-status families
The Citizenship Clause of the Fourteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution guarantees citizenship status to anyone born on United States soil "and subject to the jurisdiction thereof". This means that, regardless of parents' citizenship status, their children who are born in the United States are full citizens and are eligible for the rights and privileges that such status confers; this is called a mixed immigrant status family. Thus, within mixed-status families are a range of documentation patterns involving siblings: some born in the U.S. with birthright citizenship, some in the process of attempting to obtain documentation, and some fully undocumented.
U.S. immigration policies shape the opportunities for 16.6 million mixed immigrant families. The experiences of mixed immigrant status families need to be in sharper focus, especially the effects on children growing up in these families. There are an estimated 5.5 million children with unauthorized immigrant parents, about three-quarters of whom are U.S. born citizens. The nature of immigration policy dehumanizes individuals in mixed status families through practices that threat and harm, such as deportation procedures, which is when a migrant is formally removed from the United States and is banned from reentering. Immigration policies and practices do not only affect the undocumented population itself. However, U.S. born children growing up in families where there are undocumented members living are negatively impacted by these policies.
Children living in mixed immigration status households live with fear of deportation threats of parents or themselves. They often feel scared, sad and worried about possible separation. This can be traumatic and have negative effects on the children's well-being. As a result, children may interpret their reality as depriving and cruel. They may process their experiences with a consciousness that mirrors that of their undocumented parents, even though many are U.S. born citizens with all of the benefits rights, and privileges that U.S. citizenship carries.
Immigrant children—defined as those children under age eighteen who are either foreign-born or U.S.-born to immigrant parents—now account for one-fourth of the nation's 75 million children. By 2050 they are projected to make up one-third of more than 100 million U.S. children. This highlights that children of immigrants in mixed status families are growing in the United States. Therefore, it is of high importance to understand their experiences in this country and the impact that a mixed status has on the children growing up in these families facing unique needs and challenges. Mixed immigrant families' rights are being violated. When there is family separation through immigration practices, children in mixed status household are denied the right to grow up with their families. They are dehumanized, based on status of their parents.
Legal status can thus lead to a restructuring of traditional family roles. Family members who may have previously been the primary breadwinners in the country of origin may be unable to find gainful employment due to their undocumented status. Family members who are legal citizens and thus have access to a wider range of employment opportunities may therefore hold a greater measure of power within the family. When these family members are children, who might traditionally be expected to defer to their elders, such an imbalance in legal status may create an upheaval in the traditional familial relations.
Such unequal access to resources can create a power imbalance between family members who have citizenship status and those who do not. An individual's legal status may be used to keep him or her subjugated within the home and, in extreme cases, may prevent him or her from leaving an abusive situation.
Access to resources
Individuals who hold legal status in the United States enjoy many advantages over those who do not. Differences in legal status are also associated with differing access to various resources such as employment opportunities, as well as a host of social benefits. In addition, children in mixed-status families are at-risk and precisely the types of clients targeted by many social services, social workers, and public health organizations. For example, Hispanics in general are less likely to be insured, within the pan-ethnic Hispanic population, immigrants without legal authorization are less likely to have employer coverage and are currently excluded from purchasing coverage from the federal exchange in the Affordable Care Act.
Employment opportunities
Even when undocumented individuals are employed, their positions are often precarious. Approximately 40% of immigrant workers in low-wage jobs are undocumented. A lack of formal documentation means that many of these individuals must find work in the informal economy where there is a lack of protection for worker rights. Undocumented workers may have difficulty obtaining justice in cases of mistreatment since employers can easily threaten them with deportation. This leaves these immigrant workers vulnerable to exploitation. Exploitation may take many forms, one of these being wage theft. While there are regulations to protect the rights of workers, such as laws that cover private domestic work, these policies are often underutilized since workers may be unaware of their existence. Individuals who lack formal documentation may also feel less empowered to seek legal recourse because of fear of having their undocumented status made known.
Family members with legal status are more likely to have access to jobs with higher pay and benefits. Second generation immigrants in the United States, who are most likely full citizens, tend to have higher earnings and are less likely to be in poverty than first generation immigrants, some of whom lack formal legal status. Thus, the unequal access to employment opportunities can generate inequality among family members of different legal statuses.
Social benefits
Citizens of the United States are entitled to a host of social benefits. Government programs such as Food Stamps and Medicaid can provide support for low-income families. However, children who are U.S. citizens may not always be able to fully enjoy these benefits. Immigrant parents with limited English language ability may be unaware they are eligible for such benefits, or may not know how to take advantage of social welfare programs. Even legal non-citizens may find that their access to social supports is restricted due to welfare reforms. In addition, parents who are undocumented may be afraid to deal with government agencies, even if their citizen children are eligible for such assistance programs. When there is risk of deportation, it affects the likelihood of a mixed-status mother's use social services. The anti-immigrant sentiment increases this and then would deter mixed-status mothers to not to participate in government programs in which their U.S. born children are eligible to receive.
Health care
Undocumented immigrants in mixed status families tend to work in jobs that do not provide employee based health insurance and/or employed in occupations that pay off the books. Moreover, we can also expect that poor noncitizen children whose parents lack job-based coverage have lower rates of participation than poor citizen children of U.S. citizens. The lack of insurance for citizen children in mixed-status families means that these children are less likely to receive timely care for acute conditions, and less likely to have their chronic conditions diagnosed and appropriately managed.
Gender
Inequality in the family may occur along gender lines. This is not an issue unique to immigrant families. In many cultures around the world, men have traditionally held more power than women. Among families in the United States alone, gender inequality often exists, which is evident in the unequal sharing of household labor. The process of immigration entails a move to a new country, whose culture may have values that differ greatly from those of the home culture. In this transition from one geographical and social context to another, new forms of gender inequality can arise.
Shifts in gender roles
The United States prides itself on being a society that supports gender equality. While, in reality, much gender inequality persists, there are indeed laws in place to protect the equal rights of everyone, regardless of gender. Depending on the home country, U.S. society may contain a much higher level of gender equality than immigrants are accustomed to, particularly if immigrants come from a traditionally patriarchal society. The disparity in gender norms between different cultures may cause gender roles in the family to shift.
Immigrants may find that they are a part of a lower socioeconomic status group in the United States than they were in their home country. Immigration research shows that it is rarely the poorest citizens of the sending countries that immigrate to the United States, simply because they cannot afford the associated costs. This is particularly true when they come from countries where the cost of living is not as high as in the United States. Individuals who may have held professional occupations in their country of origin may find themselves in low-paying jobs if their certifications are not recognized by the United States. When families migrate to the United States from a country with a patriarchal society, men in particular may experience a loss of status.
While women are also affected by the family's loss of status, they may simultaneously experience a boost in their own status relative to men because of the greater gender equality present in American society. Men, who may have been accustomed to filling the role of sole "breadwinner" in their home country may find themselves unable to do so in the United States. This is due both to restricted access to jobs and to prevalence of new immigrants in the low-wage sector. Immigrants in these jobs are unlikely to be able to support their entire families solely on their earnings. The increase in the number of female-dominated industries in the United States means that there are often more employment options for women in the low-wage sector than for men. If women begin to take a more active role in financially providing for their family, this is generally accompanied by enhanced status within the family.
Domestic violence
While the rate of domestic violence among immigrant groups does not differ from that of the general population, immigrant victims of domestic violence may face additional challenges. While victims can be of either gender, women may be especially vulnerable. The process of immigrating to another country and adjusting to American culture can be stressful, increasing the likelihood of domestic violence. Factors such as limited English language ability, legal status, and lack of social ties may create additional barriers for those trying to escape such situations. Even when a woman does have access to social services that could help her escape an abusive situation, cultural norms may make it difficult for her to leave. If a woman decides to leave an abusive spouse she may run the risk of social ostracism and of bringing shame to her family. Thus, a woman may choose to stay and suffer abuse rather than face the social consequences of leaving her husband.
On the other hand, some individuals may actually find it easier to escape situations of abuse in the United States than they would have in their countries of origin. Among some immigrants there is much criticism of the way in which women in particular have been changed by American culture. Women may be seen as too Americanized because of the way they dress or their lack of deference to men. The general support for gender equality within American society can undermine traditional power hierarchies within the family in which men had control over the actions of women. One of the ways that such power is undermined is through the presence of laws against domestic violence. In some patriarchal societies, husbands may have complete control over their wives, including control over their bodies. U.S. laws do not support this sort of arrangement and women who are aware of their rights can utilize formal legal institutions to combat such gender imbalances within the family. The ability of government authorities to intervene in the realm of the family can undermine the traditional power balance and leave men feeling dispossessed.
Relationships across national borders
Families do not always immigrate as one unit. Given the various legal and economical factors associated with transnational migration, certain family members may find it easier to immigrate to the United States than others. In other cases, individuals may immigrate to the United States as an employment strategy, with no intention of permanently relocating their family to the U.S. The distribution of family members across national borders can generate unique forms of inequality within the families of immigrants.
Global relationships as a strategy to uphold gender roles
Some immigrants, particularly those from cultures in which women are subordinate to men, may express disapproval about the influence of American culture on girls and women. Men in particular may perceive women from their own cultural heritage who have assimilated into American society as too "independent" and thus incompatible with the traditional family structures that such men may wish to uphold. This may cause men to seek out spouses from their home countries, believing these women will be more willing to take on the traditional household duties of a wife. When these women come to the United States they may experience isolation, particularly if they do not have family members or friends already in the U.S. In such instances, men often control women's access to outside resources and support systems, creating a power imbalance within the home. In instances of domestic violence, this isolation may make it difficult for women to find the help they need.
Transnational families
Migration is often used as an employment strategy. Although many individuals choose to migrate permanently to another country, others may migrate on a more temporary basis or do so seasonally. When families do not all migrate together, they must negotiate family relationships across national borders. Which family members migrate and which stay behind can be important determinants of how inequality may manifest itself in these transnational families. Among families from Latin American countries, it is often the case that men will travel abroad to work. This means that the women in these families do the bulk of the day-to-day caring for the family.
In more recent years, scholars have noted a shift in the demographics of migrant workers. Particularly in Asian countries, but also in Latin American countries, a growing number of women are traveling abroad for jobs as domestic and service workers. In many of these cases, women take on jobs caring for the children of families in wealthier nations, while leaving their own children in the country of origin. This can mean that their own children are not well-cared for and may suffer as a result.
Distribution of household labor
Although women may take a greater role in providing for the family financially, this does not always mean that men take on a greater share of the housework. Studies on Taiwanese and Korean immigrants in New York found that the distribution of household labor in the home varied with class. In general, husbands in families belonging to the professional class were more likely to take on household work than in those belonging to the working class. Among Chicano families belonging to the professional class, a study found that husbands took on an even greater share of the household labor when compared to professional-class families from other ethnic groups. These studies found, however, that even among immigrant families in the professional class, wives still did the bulk of the work. Among many Vietnamese immigrant families, reproductive labor is still seen as the responsibility of women. In the United States, the scope of this household work is expanded to include dealing with larger institutions like schools, utility companies, and the health-care system. Women may also take over the task of finding housing and dealing with landlords. Language barriers and the threat of feeling powerless may lead men to avoid interactions with such bureaucracies, leaving the job of navigating these complex systems to women. This results in women having superior knowledge of the workings of such systems. Among Vietnamese immigrants, women are often thought of as experts on health-care, and men may defer to women since they have more knowledge of how the health-care system operates. In the case of Vietnamese immigrants, although women were still expected to take responsibility for a disproportionate amount of household-related labor, the change in the nature of such labor gives them the skills and the confidence to know how to deal with societal institutions. This knowledge provides women with a certain amount of leverage within the household and provides them with a greater amount of social and cultural capital relative to men.
Generation
Inequality may exist between members of different generations within a family. Assimilation into American society may create changes in the traditional family structure, particularly among immigrants who come from cultures in which age is a strong determinant of status and power. American culture places a high value on individuality. The high importance placed on self-determination in American culture may go against the traditional values of cultures in which children are expected to obey and respect the wishes of their parents in all facets of their lives. The migration process is often stressful and can lead to conflicts between family members, particularly those of different generations.
Degree of assimilation
Among many immigrant families, members of the younger generation tend to assimilate to American culture at a faster rate than members of older generations. This can create divides along generational lines. Members of the older generation may dislike the influence that American culture has on the younger generation, particularly shifts from communal values to a more individualistic mindset. On the other hand, members of the younger generation may view their elders as too set in their ways and out of touch with American society. Such sentiments can lead to conflict between family members. Points of contention include clothing, speech, displaying respect for elders, and dating practices.
Family members who identify more with the culture of their home country may experience frustration when they attempt to instill their cultural values into younger family members. Popular media, schools, and peers act as powerful socializing agents and members of the older generation may feel that they cannot compete with these pervasive cultural and social forces. Parents may blame television and magazines for the unwanted change they see in their children and if they decide to act by cracking down on their children's access to popular media, this may lead to further generational schisms.
These divides can also occur between members of the same generation, particularly between older siblings who may identify more strongly with their home country and younger siblings who may identify more with American culture. This is especially likely to occur when older siblings belong to the 1.5 generation, meaning that they were born abroad, and younger siblings were born in the United States. In many societies, older siblings are given greater responsibilities and may feel more pressure from parents to set a good example for their younger siblings by performing well in school and obtaining success. At the same time, this greater responsibility often affords older siblings a greater degree of power within the family. Older siblings may therefore also be more likely to uphold their parents' traditional values because of the power it affords them within the family. In America's more egalitarian culture, power hierarchies based on age are less likely to be accepted. Younger siblings may therefore reject the authority of their older siblings, fostering tensions within the family. The migration process can therefore destabilize traditional power hierarchies within the family based on age and in some cases may lead to a reversal of such hierarchies. Regardless of whether tension exists among members of different generations or members of the same generation, degree of assimilation may pave the way for divisions within the family.
Language proficiency
In many immigrant families, members of the younger generation have greater English language proficiency than their elders. In families where parents may know little to no English, children may act as interpreters. Young children may therefore be involved in important family matters, including finances. In cases where children are in charge of paying bills, they may be in a position to take a portion of their parents' money for their own use. Even when this is not the case, the role of interpreter gives a particular family member a certain measure of control over other family members who are unable to communicate as well in English.
Cultural capital
An interesting aspect of cultural capital that sometimes comes into play in immigrant families is familiarity with American laws. Parents may find that U.S. law is in conflict with their traditional means of disciplining their children. While parents may be accustomed to certain parental rights in their home country, these rights may not be protected in American society. There may be cases in which outside agents—either school officials, police officers, or government officials—become involved in conflicts between parents and children. This is particularly true in cases of alleged physical abuse. Children, who may be more familiar with American laws, can use this knowledge to gain assistance from individuals outside of the family. The involvement of outside agents may tip the traditional power balance within the family and affords family members who are more familiar with the rules and norms of the United States a certain degree of power over family members who are not as familiar with these laws. Among immigrants who come from cultures with strict hierarchies based on age, such interventions can be devastating to parents who may feel that their authority has been undermined. Family members who are better assimilated into American culture are more able, and probably more likely, to utilize their knowledge of American laws to change the dynamics of family relations. This generates inequality based on degree of assimilation since those who are less assimilated are more likely to lose face as the result of the penetration of such laws into the traditionally private domain of the family.
Duality of exclusion
Nichollas Walter in his study of youth immigrants reveal that the young immigrants constantly encounters the duality of exclusion and inclusion in their life. They often define themselves as Americans because their philosophies and mindsets are no different from other contemporary Americans. However, at the same time, they feel excluded in real life because they cannot easily debunk their undocumented immigrant status. This experience often hampers a stable formation of identity among these young second-generations. Consequently, due to their discouraging youth period, these young immigrants are often discouraged to participate in the politics even after they gained appropriate legal status for residency in the United States. Recently, there have been #DREAMers online movements on different social media platforms such as Facebook and Twitter. In fact, social media has become a key tool for the younger immigrant population in their process of assimilating into the U.S. society. By publicly sharing their narratives as undocumented immigrants, these young immigrants could successfully increase their political representation and solidify a sense of personal identity.
Social mobility and resources
Parents may feel that their authority over their children is weakened because there are greater resources available in the United States and children are thus less dependent upon their parents for financial support. Some parents believe that children's greater independence also makes them less likely to heed parent's teachings and advice. In particular, children in immigrant families may have greater access to education and work opportunities. These, in turn, can help facilitate social mobility, raising the socioeconomic status of subsequent generations of immigrants relative to first generation immigrants (see Second generation immigrants in the United States).
Education
In many immigrants' countries of origin, education is not free. Children therefore rely on their parents for the fees necessary to obtain an education. In some cases, this means that children are unable to complete their education because their parents are unable to pay the school fees or would rather invest that money someplace else, perhaps in another child's education. Girls, in particular, may be unlikely to complete their education because of many cultures' preference for boys. After immigrating to the United States, all children have access to free education through high school, and can apply for scholarships to help fund a college education as well. While parental contributions are still important, especially in the case of college tuition, this removes many of the barriers to educational achievement and also means that parents no longer have as much control over their children's access to educational opportunities.
Among some immigrant groups, especially those who come from origin countries in which education is not free or widely available, first-generation immigrants may have had little formal schooling. Immigrant parents tend to have lower levels of formal schooling than U.S.-born parents. Low levels of education among parents can have a negative impact on their children's ability to succeed in school. On the other hand, the effort that these immigrant parents put into trying to help their children do well in school can have a significant impact on the academic achievement of students. Parents thus have some measure of control over the likelihood that their children will succeed in school. If children perceive their parents as supportive, they will be more likely to do well in their academic endeavors, regardless of the practical help their parents are actually able to provide. If parents are not invested in their children's success in school—or if they create barriers to children's education by asking children to work rather than attend school—this lack of emotional support can have a negative impact on children's likelihood of educational success.
Children who were born before the family immigrated to the United States may have more difficulty succeeding academically than children who were born after the move to the United States, or who were very young at the time of immigration. This is likely due to the fact children who were born in the United States, or immigrated at a very early age, are more likely to be assimilated into American culture and to possess greater levels of English language ability than children who were born before the family immigrated. Other research confirms the fact that second generation groups tend to have higher levels of academic achievement than first generation groups.
Employment opportunities
First generation immigrants may be more likely to hold "ethnic 'niche' occupations" as well as occupations in low-wage sectors. This occupational concentration provides few opportunities for advancement beyond relatively low-wage service-sector jobs. The employment opportunities available to immigrants are often dependent on their English language proficiency. Recent immigrants are less likely to be fluent in English which may only give them access to low-wage jobs where English proficiency is not as important. Recent immigrants are thus overrepresented in low-wage occupations. Subsequent generations, however, are less likely to be so occupationally concentrated by ethnicity and nationality. Members of later generations generally have access to a wider range of jobs which provide them with greater opportunities for upward social mobility.
See also
Birthright citizenship in the United States
Care work
Educational inequality
Women migrant workers from developing countries
Gender inequality in the United States
Gender role
Immigrant health care in the United States
Immigration to the United States
Income inequality in the United States
Intra-household bargaining
Migrant worker
Second-generation immigrants in the United States
Social inequality
Social mobility
Sociology of the family
Transnational marriage
Work–family balance in the United States
References
Cultural assimilation
Family in the United States
Immigrants
Immigration to the United States
Social inequality | wiki |
One Way Furniture is a privately held American online retailer headquartered in Melville, New York. One Way focuses on home and office furniture and primarily services the United States and Canada.
History
The company, started by Mitchell Lieberman in 2002, provides bar stool, bedroom, kitchen and dining, living room, accent, entertainment, children's, college, office, and outdoor furniture along with lighting and lamps. He was the first seller of new furniture on eBay. The online furniture company has been selling online since 1997 when the internet was not a typical place to buy furniture.
In 2011, the company's ranking in search results was greatly affected with the Google Panda update. Lieberman used freelance writers to rewrite his site's content to recover from the change. Also that year, One Way Furniture acquired EverythingFurniture.com.
One Way Furniture has ranked in the Inc. 5000 for five years (2006-2010) and was listed in the Internet Retailer Top 500 in 2007. The company has also ranked in the Top 20 Home Furnishings Retailers by Furniture Today.
References
External links
OneWayFurniture.com
Online retailers of the United States
Companies based in New York (state)
Retail companies established in 2002 | wiki |
Agaritine is an aromatic hydrazine-derivative mycotoxin in mushroom species of the genus Agaricus. It is an α-aminoacid and a derivative of phenylhydrazine.
Occurrence
Agaritine is present as a natural phytochemical in fresh samples of at least 24 species of the genera Agaricus, Leucoagaricus, and Macrolepiota. Mushrooms of these species are found around the world. These mushrooms grow in a wide range of habitats; indeed, one species alone, Agaricus bisporus, is cultivated in over 70 countries and on every continent except Antarctica. A. bisporus, also known as the common button mushroom, is of particular socio-economic importance in developed countries.
Agaritine content varies between individual mushrooms and across species. Agaritine content (% fresh weight) in raw Agaricus bisporus, for example, ranges from 0.033% to 0.173%, with an average of 0.088%. The highest amount of agaritine is found in the cap and gills of the fruiting body, and the lowest in the stem. Agaritine oxidizes rapidly upon storage, however, and is totally degraded after 48 hours in aqueous solution with exposure to extraction with water or methanol and isolation from the extract by one of several methods. It has also been shown to decompose readily upon cooking (up to 90% reduction) as well as upon freezing (up to 75% reduction).
Toxicology
Studies of the potential toxicity of agaritine in humans are absent. In high amounts, it is used experimentally as a carcinogen. Agaritine is broken down by enzymes in animal kidneys into the toxic metabolites 4-(hydroxymethyl)phenylhydrazine and 4-(hydroxymethyl)benzenediazonium ions.
Biosynthesis
Agaritine is synthesized in the vegetative mycelium and then translocated into the fruiting body.
Industry
Extraction of agaritine from mushroom waste is conducted with water or methanol, and isolation from the extract is conducted by various methods. Total industrial syntheses of agaritine have been completed, with an 83% yield, and the overall yield of 33%.
See also
Agaritine gamma-glutamyltransferase
Genotoxicity
Gyromitrin
Monomethylhydrazine
References
Mycotoxins
Hydrazides
Primary alcohols
Amino acid derivatives | wiki |
The millioctave (moct) is a unit of measurement for musical intervals. As is expected from the prefix milli-, a millioctave is defined as 1/1000 of an octave. From this it follows that one millioctave is equal to the ratio 21/1000, the 1000th root of 2, or approximately 1.0006934 ().
Given two frequencies a and b, the measurement of the interval between them in millioctaves can be calculated by
Likewise, if you know a note b and the number n of millioctaves in the interval, then the other note a may be calculated by:
Like the more common cent, the millioctave is a linear measure of intervals, and thus the size of intervals can be calculated by adding their millioctave values, instead of multiplication, which is necessary for calculations of frequencies.
A millioctave is exactly 1.2 cents.
History and use
The millioctave was introduced by the German physicist Arthur von Oettingen in his book Das duale Harmoniesystem (1913). The invention goes back to John Herschel, who proposed a division of the octave into 1000 parts, which was published (with appropriate credit to Herschel) in George Biddell Airy's book on musical acoustics.
Compared to the cent, the millioctave has not been as popular because it is not aligned with just intervals. It is however occasionally used by authors who wish to avoid the close association between the cent and twelve-tone equal temperament. Some considers that the millioctave introduces as well a bias for the less familiar 10-tone equal temperament however this bias is common in the decimal system.
See also
Cent (music)
Savart
Musical tuning
Logarithm
Degree (angle)
Chiliagon
Notes
External links
Logarithmic Interval Measures
Equal temperaments
Intervals (music)
Units of measurement
1913 introductions
1000 (number) | wiki |
The 1788–89 United States presidential election in New Hampshire took place between December 15, 1788 and January 10, 1789, as part of the 1788–89 United States presidential election to elect the first President. Voters chose five representatives, or electors to the Electoral College, who voted for President and Vice President.
New Hampshire unanimously voted for independent candidate and commander-in-chief of the Continental Army, George Washington. The total vote is composed of 5,909 for Federalist electors, all of whom were supportive of Washington.
Results
See also
United States presidential elections in New Hampshire
References
New Hampshire
1789
1789 New Hampshire elections | wiki |
Multiplexing and multiple access may refer to:
Multiplexing, a method by which multiple analog or digital signals are combined into one signal over a shared medium
Multiple access, allows several terminals connected to the same transmission medium to transmit over a shared medium. | wiki |
A double scull is a rowing boat used in the sport of competitive rowing. It is designed for two persons who propel the boat by sculling with two oars each, one in each hand.
Racing boats (often called "shells") are long, narrow, and broadly semicircular in cross-section in order to reduce drag to a minimum. They usually have a fin towards the rear, to help prevent roll and yaw. Originally made from wood, shells are now almost always made from a composite material (usually carbon-fibre reinforced plastic) for strength and weight advantages. The riggers in sculling apply the forces symmetrically to each side of the boat.
Double sculls is one of the classes recognized by the International Rowing Federation and the Olympics.
In contrast to the combination of the coxed pair, in which the distribution of the riggers means the forces are staggered alternately along the boat, the symmetrical forces in sculling make the boat more efficient and so the double scull is faster than the coxless pair.
A double sculling skiff has a similar layout to a double scull and is rowed in a similar way, but usually has a cox as well as two rowers. It is clinker built with fixed seats and thole pins and can be skiffed for leisure purposes or for the sport of skiff racing.
See also
Rowing at the Summer Olympics
World Rowing Championships
Double Sculls Challenge Cup at Henley Royal Regatta
Single scull
Quad scull
References
Rowing racing boats | wiki |
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