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"Feel Special" is a song recorded by South Korean girl group Twice. It was composed by Hayley Aitken, Min Lee "Collapsedone", Ollipop and Park Jin-young, the latter of whom also wrote the lyrics for and produced the song. It was released by JYP Entertainment on September 23, 2019, along with its music video. It is the lead single and title track from the group's eighth EP Feel Special.
Background
Prior to the EP's release, the group released teasers on social media for the "Feel Special" music video, including individual clips for each member. On September 10, 2019, the day that Momo's clip was released, her name trended ahead of the Apple event on Twitter. Dahyun released a piano cover of the song on May 28, 2020, her 22nd birthday. She also performed vocals in the cover, however, she did not perform her rap part and instead played a piano solo. A Japanese version of "Feel Special" was included in the group's third Japanese language compilation album #Twice3, released on September 16, 2020.
Music and lyrics
"Feel Special" is a pop song written in the A-flat major key. Writing for Billboard, Tamar Herman described the song as "a vibrant, uplifting track", writing that the song "[opens] with quirky synths and [leads] into a groovy bass beat", slowly transitioning into "atmospheric verses and perky raps" and eventually enters "the boisterous, impactful chorus".
The lyrics of the song, which were written by Park Jin-young, was based on a conversation he had with members of Twice during dinner, in which they expressed the emotions they felt while dealing with the pressures of fame throughout the four years since their debut in 2015. "He expressed that into the lyrics," Nayeon explained. "This title track has our stories." She called the song one of the group's most memorable tracks. Members have regarded the song as being sincere and relatable with its personal and truthful lyrics. The key message of the song is "the shift from feeling insignificant to finding purpose".
In an interview with PopCrush, Chaeyoung said that the lyrics are meant to inspire fans to realize that they are not alone and appreciate the precious people around them during difficult times. Jeongyeon wants the song to serve as a motivation at times when people feel tired as life gets busy. Tzuyu said that the song "holds very true and sentimental lyrics" to their fans and the public, and noted that songs become tougher to perform as they get more relatable. She hopes that their fans can "find comfort in this song, and realize that they are not alone and it is awesome to love yourself". Mina has a solo verse in this song after the first chorus, towards the middle of the song. Kat Moon of Time pointed out that "the part she recorded for 'Feel Special' seems to echo the statements about her emotions toward performing". Dahyun stressed that the part after Mina's verse is the most important, which describes the sliver of hope appearing, and the progression "from nobody to somebody".
Reception
Critical reception
Jeff Benjamin of the South China Morning Post included "Feel Special" in his "10 Best K-pop songs of 2019", ranking at number three and describing the song as a "stunning, synth-driven single that not only continued Twice’s string of pristine chart-toppers, but also had a deeper message about taking care of yourself." Kim Do-heon of IZM gave a mixed review for the song, calling its production "stylish but outdated", and noted that while the single successfully aimed for a more mature image, its "completeness and method of expression are the lowest among Twice's discography." Nevertheless, he stated that the entirety of Feel Special as a whole is worth listening due to "the well-placed urban and chic electropop [sound] under the lonely and calm atmosphere created by the title track."
Impact
"Feel Special" was included in the Ubisoft dance rhythm game Just Dance 2021, which was released on November 12, 2020. On December 12, Joysound revealed the single to be the most popular K-pop song in Japanese karaoke for the year 2020, topping the "2020 Joysound Annual Ranking" list, and Twice having the most entries in the Top 20 with 4 songs. Joysound stated that Karaoke song rankings are an indicator to the kind of songs enjoyed by the Japanese general public, as opposed to album sales where fandom influence is inevitable.
Commercial performance
"Feel Special" reached the top of both Billboard'''s Kpop Hot 100 and World Digital Song Sales. It also peaked at number 4 on Billboard's Japan Hot 100, number 8 on RMNZ Hot Singles, number 9 on Gaon's Digital Chart, and number 13 on Oricon Digital Singles. The song also marks the group's first entry to Billboard's Canadian Hot 100, debuting at number 82.
In May 2020, "Feel Special" received Silver streaming certification for surpassing 30 million streams on Oricon Streaming Singles Chart from the Recording Industry Association of Japan (RIAJ).
Music video and promotion
The music video was released at 6 pm KST on September 23, 2019. It was watched more than 11 million times on YouTube in less than 16 hours after its release. In the video, members of the group are dressed up in unique looks to showcase their individual personalities and distinct roles in the group. Eight members of the group formed four pairs, in each pair, we see the members reach out to one another. Chaeyoung, who is inside a white dome, meets Mina as she approaches the dome and it turns transparent. Momo encounters Tzuyu, who is a goddess doll residing in a dollhouse. Nayeon, whose face is displayed on numerous TV screens, offers a smile of support to Jihyo. Dahyun, carrying an umbrella featuring Twice's colors, reaches out to Sana, who is sitting alone and soaked by the rain. Jeongyeon, not paired with any member, is seen feeling alone initially until she envisions herself joining other members of the group, enjoying herself and having fun. As of June 1, 2022, the video has over 400 million views.
Twice promoted "Feel Special" on several music programs in South Korea, including Inkigayo, M Countdown, and Show! Music Core'' from late-September to the middle of October. The group collected a total of seven wins for "Feel Special" throughout the course of its promotion. Twice also performed the song live during the Japanese leg of Twice World Tour 2019–2020 "Twicelights".
Credits and personnel
Credits adapted from Tidal.
Park Jin-young – production, composition, lyrics
Hayley Aitken – composition
Ollipop – composition
Min Lee "Collapsedone" – arrangement, composition
Twice – vocals
Charts
Weekly charts
Monthly charts
Year-end charts
Certifications
See also
List of Inkigayo Chart winners (2019)
List of K-pop Hot 100 number ones
List of M Countdown Chart winners (2019)
List of Music Bank Chart winners (2019)
References
2019 singles
2019 songs
Korean-language songs
Twice (group) songs
JYP Entertainment singles
Songs written by Hayley Aitken
Songs written by Park Jin-young
Billboard Korea K-Pop number-one singles | wiki |
MSI Wind may refer to:
MSI Wind Netbook, a laptop computer
MSI Wind PC, a desktop computer | wiki |
Depression is one of the most common psychiatric symptoms in Alzheimer's disease, occurring at all stages of the disease, but it often appears in a different form than other depressive disorders. In 2000, a workgroup of the U.S. National Institute of Mental Health created a set of provisional diagnostic criteria for depression of Alzheimer disease (dAD) as a separate diagnostic entity in its own right.
In 2005, psychiatrists at Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine created a set of operationalized criteria to aid the diagnosis of dAD in clinical practice.
Causes
Although caregivers often feel that the fact of an Alzheimer's diagnosis must be creating depression in the affected person, there is little or no evidence that this is true. In fact, it is not clear how many people are capable of comprehending an Alzheimer's diagnosis at the time it is made. The symptoms of dAD can arise at any point during the course of Alzheimer's disease, often at a stage quite late in cognitive decline.
Numerous neurological studies have found correlations between abnormalities in the brain and depression in dementia. For dAD in particular, positron emission tomography (PET) studies have found alterations of metabolism in the right superior frontal gyrus
Symptoms
The diagnostic criteria for depression in Alzheimer disease specify that it requires only 3 of the possible symptoms for major depressive disorder (MDD), rather than the 5 required to diagnose MDD itself, and the symptoms may fluctuate. Therefore, dAD often goes unrecognized within the spectrum of symptoms of Alzheimer's disease.
In general, people who have dAD tend to be anxious, agitated, delusional, or inattentive. Symptoms include irritability and social isolation. People with dAD are more likely than those with MDD to show a decline in their enjoyment of social contacts or customary activities, but are less likely to express or experience guilt or feel suicidal.
Diagnosis
Of course, diagnosis must rely on the criteria established by the NIMH working group on dAD.
Because of the cognitive decline characteristic of Alzheimer's disease, diagnosis of dAD needs to include independent interviews of the patient and caregiver. The Cornell Scale for Depression in Dementia is particularly useful because it allows for these separate assessments.
Treatment
Educating the caregiver about depression in dementia is of primary importance in addressing the problem. Caregivers need to understand the need for structure and comfort in the patient's daily activities, as well as the importance of including activities that the patient finds enjoyable and of trying to convey a sense of pleasure themselves. Caregivers also need an opportunity to "vent" and to understand and express when they have exceeded their ability to address the patient's needs.
Psychosocial
Controlled trials show that providing pleasant daily activities or exercise, for someone who has Alzheimer's disease, in conjunction with activities designed to support the caregiver, can produce positive results in addressing the associated depression.
Medication
There are no official clinical guidelines as yet about the use of antidepressant medication for dAD in particular. Medication may be justified for people with diagnosed dAD who are suicidal, violent, not eating or drinking, or who score high on the Cornell scale.
The evidence would seem to suggest similar efficacy for SSRIs and tricyclic antidepressants in initial treatment for dAD. If these treatments do not address the symptoms, it would be reasonable to try noradrenergic drugs, secondary amine tricyclic antidepressants, or a monoamine oxidase inhibitor.
A clinical trial testing sertraline (Zoloft) for depression of Alzheimer disease, launched by the NIMH in 2004, was due to be completed in the summer of 2009.
Sertraline, as per the latest studies has been found to be ineffective in improving cognitive outcomes in patients with Alzheimer's disease. Sertraline is also associated with increased incidence of gastrointestinal and respiratory adverse effects.
References
Alzheimer's disease
Depression (mood) | wiki |
Worms () — видеоигра в жанре пошаговой стратегии, разработанная и изданная компанией Team17 в году для консоли Xbox 360 в сервисе Xbox Live Arcade. Впоследствии Worms была портирована на PlayStation 3 (в сервисе PlayStation Network) и различные мобильные устройства. Игра является перезапуском одноимённой серии.
В 2009 году был выпущен сиквел — Worms 2: Armageddon.
Игровой процесс
Worms представляет собой пошаговую стратегическую игру, выполненную в двухмерной графике. Игровой процесс аналогичен предыдущим частям серии: игрок управляет командой червяков, которая должна уничтожить вражеских (количество команд, включая игрока, варьируется от 2 до 4). Противники делают свои ходы по очереди: во время хода один червяк из команды должен за ограниченный промежуток времени нанести урон червякам вражеской команды или же воздействовать на разрушаемый ландшафт. Для этого предусмотрены различные оружие и приспособления (например, базука и паяльная лампа), количество и использование которых может иметь определённые ограничения. У каждого червяка есть очки здоровья, которые уменьшаются в случае воздействия оружия и приспособлений, а также при падении со значительной высоты; если урон получил червяк, который совершает ход, то его ход заканчивается. Если очки здоровья уменьшатся до нуля или червяк упадёт в воду, то он погибает (в первом случае погибший червяк взрывает себя и на его месте появляется могила). Ландшафт может содержать различные объекты, большинство из которых так или иначе подвержены детонации (например, бочки с порохом и мины). Кроме того, иногда после хода червяка на ландшафт с воздуха сбрасываются ящики, содержащие аптечки, оружие или приспособления. Побеждает команда, в которой остался жив хотя бы один червяк, а во вражеских при этом не осталось ни одного живого червяка.
В игре присутствует одиночный и многопользовательский режимы. В одиночном режиме имеются такие типы игры, как «Быстрая игра» (), «Обучение» () и «Задачи» (). В «Быстрой игре» нужно выбрать один из трёх уровней сложности (начинающий, средний и профессиональный), после чего начинается случайное сражение между командами. В «Обучении» игрок последовательно проходит 3 урока, узнавая об основах игры. В «Задачах» игрок должен последовательно пройти 20 постепенно усложняющихся задач, представляющих собой сражения с другими командами. В многопользовательском режиме имеются локальная или же онлайновая игра, в которых могут сражаться до 4 игроков, выбирая одну из доступных визуальных тем ландшафтов и генерируя случайные ландшафты различного строения. Имеется также возможность самому создавать и настраивать команды червяков (например, имена членов команды и набор их фраз) и схемы игры (например, время хода и количество того или иного вооружения). Кроме того, в игре действует система трофеев и достижений.
Разработка и выход игры
Как и предыдущие части серии, игра разрабатывалась компанией Team17, она же выступила издателем. Worms была основана на предыдущей части серии, которая выпущена для портативных систем, Worms: Open Warfare, но при этом подверглась улучшениям (например, внедрена поддержка высокого разрешения изображения). На тот момент игра являлась экспериментальной для серии, став её перезапуском: разработчики поставили перед собой цель по созданию доступной игры, которая будет обладать невысокой ценой и не будет занимать много места на жёстком диске консоли. Такие решения были обусловлены началом «цифровой революции»: появлялись и стали развиваться цифровые игровые магазины и мобильные устройства, а сервис Xbox Live уже успел хорошо себя зарекомендовать. Благодаря этим факторам, создатели приняли решение выпустить Worms в сервисе Xbox Live Arcade для консоли нового поколения — Xbox 360.
Впервые Worms была показана 9 января 2007 года на выставке CES 2007. Выход же состоялся 7 марта 2007 года. Благодаря успеху игры, в 2009 году она была портирована на PlayStation 3, став доступной для покупки в её сервисе PlayStation Network, а также на устройства под управлением iOS. В 2011 году компанией EA Mobile также были изданы версии для смартфонов под управлением Android, Symbian и bada.
Оценки и мнения
Игра была преимущественно положительно воспринята прессой. Среди достоинств отмечены увлекательный геймплей, красочная графика и многопользовательский режим, но в качестве минусов называлось отсутствие некоторых видов вооружения из предыдущих частей серии. Средняя оценка составила 75 баллов из 100 возможных на Metacritic, а на GameRankings — 75.30%.
Портированная версия для PlayStation 3 тоже получила позитивные отзывы. Средняя оценка составила 76 баллов из 100 возможных на Metacritic, а на GameRankings — 76.20%.
Версия для iOS была оценена более сдержанно. Она подверглась критике из-за неудобного управления и отсутствия онлайн-игры. Её средняя оценка составила 64.17% на GameRankings.
Влияние
Worms, по словам разработчиков, сменила направление развитие серии в целом: благодаря успеху игры, последующие части франшизы тоже стали выпускаться в сервисах цифровой дистрибуции, а также на мобильных устройствах, включая эксклюзивные игры. В 2009 году вышел сиквел — Worms 2: Armageddon, в котором было добавлено больше видов вооружения и приспособлений, а также внесены многочисленные улучшения в игровой процесс; Worms 2: Armageddon получила позитивные отзывы от критиков, которые отметили отличную многопользовательскую составляющую, разнообразие контента и качественную графику.
Примечания
Компьютерные игры 2007 года
Компьютерные игры, разработанные Team17
Компьютерные игры, разработанные в Великобритании
Компьютерные игры, перезапускающие истории сначала
Игры для Xbox 360 Live Arcade
Игры для PlayStation Network
Игры для iOS
Игры для Android
Worms | wiki |
The qilaut (Inuit: "that by means of which the spirits are called up", syllabic: ᕿᓚᐅᑦ) or qilaat (Greenlandic) is a type of frame drum native to the Inuit cultures of the Arctic.
The drum is distinctive in that it has a handle and is made of caribou skin, which is not particularly resonant, giving it a dull, rumbling sound. It is beaten with a stick, the qatuk.
References
Membranophones
Inuit musical instruments
North American percussion instruments
Canadian musical instruments | wiki |
Machines of Loving Grace were an American industrial rock band.
Machines of Loving Grace may also refer to:
Machines of Loving Grace (album), a 1991 album by the band
"Machines of Loving Grace", a 2009 song by Princess Chelsea from Lil' Golden Book
Machines of Loving Grace: The Quest for Common Ground Between Humans and Robots, a 2015 nonfiction book by John Markoff
See also
All Watched Over by Machines of Loving Grace (disambiguation) | wiki |
Interspecies may refer to:
Interspecific, something occurring between species
Interspecific competition
Interspecies communication
Interspecies friendship
Interspecies family
Interspecies quorum sensing
Interspecies sex
Interspecies erotica
Interspecies breeding
Interspecific pregnancy
An organization founded by Jim Nollman | wiki |
Paul Niemeyer may refer to:
Paul Niemeyer (doctor) (1832–1890), German physician
Paul V. Niemeyer (born 1941), federal judge on the United States Court of Appeals for the Fourth Circuit
See also
Niemeyer | wiki |
La microdéformation (symbole : µdef) est une unité utilisée en mécanique des milieux continus pour exprimer les déformations, notamment mesurées par les jauges de déformation.
Cette unité adimentionnelle (les déformations sont homogènes à des taux d'allongement ) exprime, comme la partie par million (ppm), un taux de 10-6 soit un millionième (1 000 µdef = 0,1 %).
Unité de mécanique | wiki |
"Worrisome Heart" is a song written and composed by American jazz singer-songwriter Melody Gardot. It was released in as a promo single for her debut album of the same name.
Chart positions
External links
References
2008 singles
Melody Gardot songs
Songs written by Melody Gardot
2008 songs | wiki |
Richard Ivy Feacher (born February 11, 1954) is a former professional American football wide receiver. Feacher played in nine National Football League seasons from 1976–1984, primarily for the Cleveland Browns. Holds the record for the fastest 100 yard dash 9.6, and was a star football player for the Hernando High School Leopards, located in Brooksville, Florida. In 2011, Feacher was inducted into the Hernando High School Hall of Fame.
References
External links
1954 births
Living people
People from Crystal River, Florida
American football wide receivers
Mississippi Valley State Delta Devils football players
New England Patriots players
Cleveland Browns players
Players of American football from Florida | wiki |
Khuushuur ( ; ; ) is a meat pastry or dumpling popular in Mongolia that is relatively similar to similar items in Russian and other cuisines like chiburekki. The meat, beef, mutton, or camel, is ground up and mixed with onion (or garlic), salt and other spices. The cook rolls the dough into circles, then places the meat inside the dough and folds the dough in half, creating a flat half-circular pocket. The cook then closes the pockets by pressing the edges together. A variety of khuushuur has a round shape produced by pressing the dough and mince together using the dough roller.
After making the pockets, the cook fries them in oil until the dough turns a golden brown. The khuushuur is then served hot, and can be eaten by hand.
This type of Mongolian cuisine is similar to buuz in that the meat is prepared in the same way and cooked in a dough pocket, the principal difference being that buuz is steamed instead of fried.
See also
Buuz
External links
Recipe
Recipe
Recipe
Dumplings
Savoury pies
Deep fried foods
Mongolian cuisine | wiki |
Placobdella parasitica is a species of leech found in North America. Leeches are habitual ectoparasites of vertebrates in aquatic environments. Placobdella parasitica is differentiated from other members of the genus Placobdella by its smooth dorsal surface, simple to complicated pigmentation, and abdomen with 8 to 12 stripes.
References
External links
Leeches
Invertebrates of North America
Animals described in 1824
Taxa named by Thomas Say
Parasites of reptiles | wiki |
The Brothers Grimm were German collectors and publishers of folk tales.
Brothers Grimm may also refer to:
The Brothers Grimm (film), a 2005 fantasy by Terry Gilliam
Brothers Grimm (comics), Marvel Comics supervillains
Brothers Grimm (album), by Drapht
Brothers Grim (band), a Russian pop-rock group
Brothers Grym, an American hip-hop group
"Brothers Grimm", an All Grown Up! episode
The Wonderful World of the Brothers Grimm, a 1962 film by Henry Levin and George Pal
See also
Grimm (disambiguation)
Grimsby (film), released in the United States as The Brothers Grimsby | wiki |
Make-A-Wish UAE is charity organization in the United Arab Emirates that grants the wishes (experiences) of children with life-threatening medical conditions. Make-A-Wish UAE is an affiliate of Make-A-Wish Foundation.
Awards
Winner of "Local Foundation of the Year" at the Middle East Philanthropy Awards 2013
References
Worldwish.org,. 'The Make-A-Wish Story | Make-A-Wish International'. N.p., 2015. Web. 29 Aug. 2015.
Make A Wish UAE,. 'Make A Wish UAE'. N.p., 2015. Web. 29 Aug. 2015.
Charities based in the United Arab Emirates | wiki |
This is a list of all tornadoes that were confirmed by local offices of the National Weather Service in the United States in April 2012.
United States yearly total
April
April 2 event
April 3 event
April 5 event
April 6 event
April 7 event
April 9 event
April 11 event
April 12 event
April 13 event
April 14 event
April 15 event
April 16 event
April 20 event
April 21 event
April 25 event
April 26 event
April 27 event
April 28 event
April 29 event
April 30 event
See also
Tornadoes of 2012
Notes
References
04
Tornado,04
Tornado
2012, 04 | wiki |
In hydrology, a Venturi flume is a device used for measuring the rate of flow of a liquid in situations with large flow rates, such as a river. It is based on the Venturi effect, for which it is named. It was first developed by V.M. Cone in Fort Collins, Colorado.
The Venturi flume consists of a flume with a constricted section in the center. By the Venturi effect, this causes a drop in the fluid pressure at the center of the constriction. By comparing the fluid pressure at the center of the flume with that earlier in the device, the rate of flow can be measured.
References
Fluid mechanics
Fluid dynamics | wiki |
The Speed of Sound – album di Ronnie Montrose del 1988
The Speed of Sound – EP degli In Stereo del 2016
Pagine correlate
Speed of Sound | wiki |
The Delfino is a concept car built by Alfa Romeo in 1983.
The car was a 2-door coupé designed by Bertone, and was based on the Alfa Romeo Alfa 6 platform. It was presented at the Geneva Motor Show in 1983.
The Delfino had a Busso V6 engine that displaced , and developed of power at 5600 rpm.
References
External links
Delfino
Bertone concept vehicles
Cars introduced in 1983 | wiki |
Mario Merola could refer to:
Mario Merola (singer) (1934-2006), an Italian singer and actor
Mario Merola (lawyer) (1922-1987), a former Bronx District Attorney | wiki |
An eccrine nevus is an extremely rare cutaneous condition that, histologically, is characterized by an increase in size or number of eccrine secretory coils.
See also
Apocrine nevus
Nevus comedonicus
List of cutaneous conditions
References
External links
Epidermal nevi, neoplasms, and cysts | wiki |
Sacerdotii nostri primordia ("From the beginning of our priesthood") was the second encyclical of Pope John XXIII, issued 1 August 1959. It commemorated the 100th anniversary of the death of St. John Vianney, the patron saint of priests.
See also
List of encyclicals of Pope John XXIII
Saint John Vianney's prayer to Jesus
References
text on Vatican website.
Papal encyclicals
Works by Pope John XXIII
1959 in Christianity
1959 documents
August 1959 events | wiki |
An Apocrine nevus is an extremely rare cutaneous condition that is composed of hyperplastic mature apocrine glands.
See also
Eccrine nevus
Seborrheic keratosis
List of cutaneous conditions
References
External links
Epidermal nevi, neoplasms, and cysts
Apocrine | wiki |
The Sheriff of Tarbert was the sheriff principal of Tarbertshire. The position continued in existence until 1633, when it was amalgamated into the position of the Sheriff of Argyll.
Past sheriffs
16th century
William Hardy 1553
References
Tarbert
Argyll and Bute | wiki |
Richmond Flowers may refer to:
Richmond Flowers Sr. (1918–2007), Alabama's Attorney General
Richmond Flowers Jr. (born 1947), American football player
Richmond Flowers III (born 1978), American football wide receiver from the 2001 NFL Draft | wiki |
Batting order may refer to:
Batting order (baseball), the sequence in which the members of the offense bat against the pitcher
Batting order (cricket), the sequence in which batters play through their team's innings | wiki |
Acanthoma fissuratum is a cutaneous condition characterized by local thickening of the skin in response to pressure caused by an eyeglass frame.
See also
Seborrheic keratosis
List of cutaneous conditions
References
External links
Epidermal nevi, neoplasms, and cysts | wiki |
Granuloma fissuratum may refer to:
Acanthoma fissuratum
Epulis fissuratum
Epidermal nevi, neoplasms, and cysts
Conditions of the mucous membranes | wiki |
Holy Hill may refer to:
in England
Holy Hill, a monastery in England
in Ireland
The Holy Hill Hermitage in Ireland
in the United States
Holy Hill National Shrine of Mary, Help of Christians, Erin, Wisconsin, also known as Holy Hill and listed as that on the National Register of Historic Places
Holy Hill, a hill in Berkeley, California which is the site of a number of seminaries and the library of the Graduate Theological Union | wiki |
Grata recordatio ('With joyful recollection') was the third encyclical issued by Pope John XXIII, and was issued on 26 September 1959. It urges the use of the Rosary in the month of October following the tradition to do so by Pope Leo XIII.
See also
List of encyclicals of Pope John XXIII
References
text on Vatican website.
Papal encyclicals
Works by Pope John XXIII
1959 documents
1959 in Christianity
September 1959 events | wiki |
In geometry, an apex (plural apices) is the vertex which is in some sense the "highest" of the figure to which it belongs. The term is typically used to refer to the vertex opposite from some "base". The word is derived from the Latin for 'summit, peak, tip, top, extreme end'.
Isosceles triangles
In an isosceles triangle, the apex is the vertex where the two sides of equal length meet, opposite the unequal third side.
Pyramids and cones
In a pyramid or cone, the apex is the vertex at the "top" (opposite the base). In a pyramid, the vertex is the point that is part of all the lateral faces, or where all the lateral edges meet.
References
Parts of a triangle
Polyhedra | wiki |
The tawny owl (Strix aluco) is an opportunistic and generalized predator. Peak hunting activity tends to occur largely between dusk to midnight, with owls often following an erratic hunting pattern, perhaps to sites where previous hunts were successful. When feeding young, hunting may need to be prolonged into daylight in the early morning. Based on hand-reared young owls that re-released into the wild, hunting behaviour is quite innate rather than learned. Normally this owl hunts from a perch. Perching bouts usually last from about 8 to 14 minutes depending largely on habitat. Tawny owl's hunting from a perch or pole can recall a buzzard and the two take similar prey sizes as well. However, high initial speed and maneuvering among trees and bushes with great dexterity may allow it to surprise relatively large prey, more like a goshawk. The tawny owl is capable of lifting and carrying off in flight individual prey weighing up to at least . Their middle talon, the most enlarged claw on owls, measures an average of . While not as large as those of the Ural owl, the talons are extremely sharp, stout and quite decurved. The claws are considered to be visibly more overdeveloped than those of other European mid-sized owls and the footspan including the claws is fairly larger as well, at an average of about . The hunting owl often extends its wings to balance and control prey upon impact. Alternatively, this species may hunt from flight. This occurs from over the ground, often over open habitats such as bushes, marsh or grassland, forming a quartering or zigzag pattern over the opening. During these flights they cover about before changing direction. Hunting from flight was surprisingly prevalent in a Swedish study of two radio-tagged birds, with 34% of study time spent hunting from flight while 40% of the study time was spent on hunting from a perch. In a similar study in England, less than 1% of time was spent hunting from flight. In a more deliberate variation of hunting from flight, the hunting owl may examine crags and nest boxes or also hover around prey roosts. In the latter type of hunts, the tawny owls may strike branches and/or beat their wings together in front of denser foliage, bushes or conifers in order to disturb and flush prey such as small birds and bats, or may dive directly into said foliage. Hovering has also been recorded in differing circumstances, including one incidence of an owl hunting a small bird that was caught on the wing after a hovering flight. Tawny owls have also taken bats on the wing as well (such as ones snatched from near streep lamps when attempting to hunt themselves) and have been seen to hawk large, relatively slow-flying insects such as some beetles and moths in flight. Caterpillars may too be taken from trees. Usually these hunting variations are correlated with poor weather hampering the capture of preferred prey. Tawny owls eat worms with relative frequency, as they often hear them apparently from below the surface and snatch them up from shallow dirt or below leaf litter. Their worm-hunting style recalls worm hunting techniques by most other birds and they were recorded to eat 0.39 worms per minute during an hour of observation in England and were sometimes seen to feed on worms during daylight. Other hunting from the ground has been observed, often of insects such as beetles, but tawny owls have also been reported to "leap" upon from a ground vantage point in order to capture a vole, quite like foxes often do. There are now many accounts of tawny owls feeding on carrion from a wide range of sources, including hares, rats, sheep, and trout.
Upon capture, small prey like shrews and rodents are often swallowed whole, while others may be torn into pieces. Often prey is dismembered in order to more easily ingest it whole, i.e. decapitating mice, removing the legs from frogs while birds like sparrows are also regularly decapitated (with the head often eaten separately) and nearly all avian prey is plucked before being consumed. One tawny owl was observed to eat a squirrel by leaving the head intact and peeling the skin back from the neck, apparently leaving bones in place while consuming the flesh. Indigestible items, including fur, feathers, bones (which sometimes visibly protrude out of the peller), sometimes intestines and invertebrate carapaces, are regurgitated in large pellets, that can be anywhere in typical size from long with a diameter of . The pellets are typically grey coloured and are found in groups under trees used for roosting or nesting. At least some tawny owl pellets can measure up to long and can include large objects such as an intact bill of a snipe. Undigested material coughed up often reveals different prey than pellets. Estimated daily food requirements for a tawny owl is , which is proportionately lower (at about 14% of their own body mass) than the estimates for other medium-sized owls in Europe (at 23–26% of their own body mass), therefore tawny owls can appear to live off of relatively little food quite efficiently.
Prey spectrum
The tawny owl takes an extremely wide range of prey species. The global prey spectrum for tawny owls includes well over 400 prey species. They generally prefer small mammals in their diet, especially various species of rodent, where they are available. However, they are one are the least specialized owls in Europe when it comes to prey selection and can broadly be described as extremely opportunistic. Tawny owls respond to access of prey concentrations of virtually any variety, including birds, amphibians and insects as well as sometimes reptiles and fish, by taking them in large numbers, sometimes equal or even (more infrequently) greater numbers than mammalian prey. The difference between the generalist tawny owl and a specialized rodent-hunter like the long-eared owl was illustrated in a semi-captive experience where the two owl species were exposed to different classes of wild prey as they encountered it. In this experiment, only small mammals and roosting sparrows were attacked and eaten by both, though flying sparrrows were avoided by long-eared owls and not by the tawnys. In the stated study, the tawny owls would kill and eat amphibians and fish, while the long-eared owls would rarely kill and never eat these types of prey. In a study of five European biomes, with about 45 prey species per biome, the tawny owl was estimated to have tied for the second most prey species per biome after the Eurasian eagle-owl (Bubo bubo). Another European study found the mean food niche breadth, i.e. the estimated average by number of prey species per nest or study site, the tawny owl surpassed all European owls within the two of the three main regions of non-British Europe, with 5.84 mean food niche breadth in central Europe and 4.3 food niche breadth in the Mediterranean region. In the latter study, the eagle-owl food niche breadth was listed as 2.4 and 3.3 in these regions, respectively (tawny owls were excluded from analysis in the Scandivanian region due to their marginal range there). The tawny owl mostly focuses on fairly small-sized prey. One estimation of the mean prey size taken in all of Europe for the tawny owl was . In northern and central Europe, older studies place the mean prey size taken as usually between . Another study, of the aforementioned 5 European biomes, showed a drastically lower mean estimated prey size of , even slightly lower than the mean prey size taken by an owl like the Eurasian pygmy owl (Glaucidium passerinum), which weighs about one-eighth as much as tawny owl. Individual dietary studies show that the mean prey mass taken by tawny owls can vary from depending on prey access. A central Italian study showed how habitat type and resulting prey composition can vary mean prey size considerably, with broadleaf highland forest having a mean prey mass of , mixed forest having a mean mass of , urban areas having a mean prey mass of and coppice woodland having a high mean prey mass of .
Mammals
Tawny owls will potentially take any small mammals that they encounter. This was illustrated in Poland where the number of species taken by the owls was greater than the number of species biologists could capture themselves. They primarily take and derive most of their food energy from rodent prey. Dietary staples in much of their range are in particular the long-tailed Apodemus, commonly called field or wood mice, and the short-tailed rodents known as voles. Amongst voles, the widely distributed bank vole (Myodes glareolus) tends to be the most favored type over large portions of the range, though different species of the Microtus genus can become locally rather prominent. Microtus voles tend to forage in more open habitats such as fields than do the wooded edge-favoring bank vole and especially Apodemus mice, and so are usually selected more so where the preferred rodent types are rare or absent. Previous studies claimed that Apodemus mice were preferred where available over bank voles as the latter was considered "somewhat diurnal", however bank voles like many voles are more correctly considered cathemeral, potentially active any time of day or night, and may actually be readily accessible to hunting tawny owls. However, the bank voles favoring of heavier ground cover does limit access to them in the warmer months, whereas Apodemus mice are more likely to continue forage on open ground adjacent to woods and tend to be preferred at this time. It was found that bank voles become more vulnerable to tawny owls in areas where enlarged deer herds consume more of the ground cover. A broad study of different nations within central Europe found that Apodemus mice and bank voles could alternately take the primary food mantle, and that the variation of which was favorite was likely due to differing habitat and forest composition characteristics in the given regions.
In Finland, bank and Microtus voles were taken more or less in equivalent occurrence to their observed populations in the field. Similarly, in Poland, they took yellow-necked mice (Apodemus flavicollis) adults roughly in proportion to their occurrence in the wild. On the other hand, per the Polish study, juvenile yellow-necks were taken much less and subadults much more than their occurrence in the wild. Here, the tawny owls took slightly larger specimens on average than the average recorded in wild, at an estimated mean size taken of . In a study from Denmark, yellow-necked mice and bank voles that were caught by tawny owls were disproportionately large, adult males (55% and 73% of the time, respectively). In central Lithuania, tawny and long-eared owls took common voles (Microtus arvalis) than were 24% heavier on average than those encountered in the wild, which averaged (thus including younger voles). More surprisingly, the long-eared owls were taking voles averaging some 9% larger than those taken by tawny owls. Wild mice, bank voles and, to a more pronounced extent, Microtus voles undergo population cycles over a three-year (or sometimes four-year) span, which frequently requires the owls to alternate their foods when populations decline. This effect was studied in the British Kielder Forest and the nearby Kershope Burn. Here tawny owls are exceptionally dependent on field voles (Microtus agretis) as food, constituting about 64.3% of 1220 prey items in the area, but the Kielder forest field vole population had an exceptional four-year drought whereas in the same time frame Kershope kept a more stable owl population seemingly because it retained the typical three-year cycle. In Wytham, Britain, tawnys were thought to remove up to one-third of the local population of bank voles and one-third to three-quarters of the less numerous wood mouse (Apodemus sylvatica). On a plot of Wielkopolska, tawny owls are thought to remove an estimated 2,213 rodents annually, or 15 rodents per ha each year, which was about the same rate of loss of striped field mouse (Apodemus agrarius) per ha in the Warsaw area as well. In Białowieża Forest, tawny owls were estimated to remove in autumn 54% of the yellow-necked mice and 40% of bank voles.
In the largest known European diet studies, rodents usually are predominant. Amongst 68,070 prey items in Slovakia, the main prey were the yellow-necked mouse (23.8%), the bank vole (9.9%) and the common vole (9.14%). In the Czech Republic, the same three main prey species led the foods amongst 17,433 prey items, with the yellow-necked at 33.4%, the common vole at 15.7% and the bank vole at 11.2%. Among prey groups in Grunewald, Germany, with 13,359 vertebrate prey items studied, Apodemus species made up 25.7% of the foods and Microtus voles of about four species made up a further 16.7%. The diet differed in the German area of Herrnut, where the common vole was dominant in the foods at 53.3% of 8513 prey items. In a little over half of about 15 smaller prey studies for tawny owls in Poland, mammals led the food composition of owls by number, but in different areas and habitats of the nation, yellow-necked mice, common voles and bank voles could be at the top of the list. Of 43,000 mammal prey items in an older large study of central Europe, 66% were bank or Microtus voles, while a further 24% were Apodemus species. In Bourgogne-Franche-Comté, France, amongst 51,743 prey items, Apodemus species, presumably dominated by the wood mouse, made up 51.1% by number and 48.8% of the biomass followed by bank vole, at 20.4% by number and 15.6% by biomass. In western Switzerland, the diet was similar but far more homogeneous, with Apodemus species at 74.3% and bank vole at 18.7% among 10,176 prey items.
The northernmost food study for tawny owls thus far conducted showed that in Sweden, field voles were the main food amongst 578 prey items, at 30.5%, with bank voles being supplemental at 8.7%. However, the second most commonly taken prey in Sweden is the much larger European water vole (Arvicola amphibius), which weighs an estimated mean of , and presumably a very nutritious prey resource to these owls. The easternmost food study thus far known was a small one of 201 prey items for the tawny owls in Moscow, wherein the common vole was dominant at 72.6%. Of similar longitude, in the Caucasus, amongst 1236 prey items, the main foods were Ural field mouse (Apodemus uralensis) at 48.1% of the prey composition and edible dormouse (Glis glis) at 15%. The tawny owl takes many species of dormouse, which are nocturnal, largely arboreal and generally rarer within the forests and edges than common mice and vole prey. While many dormice are smallish (roughly vole or mouse sized), the edible species is often more than five times larger, being close in dimensions to the European water vole. Therefore, the prey biomass must have been hearty in Montenegro, where the edible dormouse was the main food, at 24.1% of 529 prey items. Other more easterly parts of Europe show relatively high balances of edible dormice as well, such as in Bulgaria, Romania and Slovenia. Another widely taken species is the hazel dormouse (Muscardinus avellanarius), as well as at least three further species. Another rodent of special interest due to its natural scarcity and its place in the diet of tawny owls is the northern birch mouse (Sicista betulina), which was found to constitute as much as 7% of the foods in some districts of Lithuania, but only contributed 0.6% of the foods overall in the country.
All told, no less than 80 rodent species are known to be taken by tawny owls. While most of these are characteristic prey such as various voles and lemmings and any type of murid rodent from the smallest available mice to the largest available rats, other rodents also taken. Black rats (Rattus rattus) were noted to be the main prey for tawny owls in Sicily, where they accounted for 35.3% by number of 351 prey items and 60.2% of the biomass, resulting in a relative high mean prey mass of here. Strong biomass contributions were noted of brown rats (Rattus norvegicus) elsewhere such as in Lublin in Poland (wherein they accounted for 41.5% of the biomass) and in Algeria (wherein they accounted for about 20% of the biomass), although many rats taken are on the young side rather than large adults, especially of the large brown species. The tawny owl's prey spectrum also extends to less accessible prey like squirrels (including ground squirrels), with more or less all the species of Europe and western Asia known to be taken by these owls despite their diurnality, as well as the nocturnal but scarce flying squirrels. The widespread red squirrel (Sciurus vulgaris), estimated to weigh an average of when taken, appear to recognize the tawny owl as a serious threat, with ones exposed to recordings of their calls recorded to interrupt feedings, engage in rapid movements and scold harshly. Hamsters may too be taken despite favoring and occurring in more open habitats than those usually hunted by tawny owls. In the southerly parts of the range, as they've acclimated to semi-desert, tawny owls can sometimes partially off of quite different murid rodents like jirds and gerbils as well as the non-murid blind mole rats. Rodent prey may range up to the size of probable juveniles of the non-native nutria (Myocastor coypus).
Shrews are a common component of the foods of tawny owls, less so their larger but generally less numerous distant cousins such as moles and hedgehogs. More than 20 species of shrew are known in the foods of this owl. While usually secondary, shrews are widely present in the pellets and prey remains in most studies. Unlike some owls such as long-eared owls they do not seem to disdain these musky-tasting and slight insectivores. Certainly the most reported variety would be the widespread common shrew (Sorex araneus). Exceptionally, in a large food study for Belgium, common shrews were the leading prey species, at 18.2% of 15,450 prey items. In a much smaller study in Norway during the summer, the common shrew was the leading prey species, constituting 30.4% of 69 prey items. However, given their small size, with the common shrew being one of the larger available species at merely , shrews are a marginal contributor to the owl's prey biomass and taken for subsistence until a more substantial food source is available. Exceptional quantities of shrews may be predicted in French studies (usually during preferred prey shortages), with shrew prey contributing up to 15% of the biomass overall and more locally, in the Oignies, to 29% of the biomass. Despite the low numbers of moles that are usually hunted, species such as the European mole (Talpa europaea) can be contribute heartily to the prey biomass, such as in Wytham, where the species made up 15.6% of the biomass. Although such prey is known to be relatively limited in the species' foods, tawny owls are known to hunt the smallest living mammal species (by weight), the Etruscan shrew (Suncus etruscus), up to the size of the largest mole, the Russian desman (Desmana moschata), as well as perhaps larger still, some small adults of the European hedgehog (Erinaceus europaeus).
On occasion, tawny owls will prey on young European rabbits (Oryctolagus cuniculus) as well as very young hares. Mostly neonatal or scarcely older rabbits are taken, with a few studies estimating the mean weight as caught as only . Access to European rabbit was said to cause the mean prey mass of tawny owls in parts of the Netherlands to an unprecidently high . One Spanish study claimed that up to 23% of the vertebrate prey for the tawny owl was made up of by rabbits, making them the smallest known avian predator to show a dependence on them. Though generally a minor part of the diet, a wide diversity of bats are taken by tawny owls, with over 30 species in their prey spectrum. Usually less than 1% of vertebrate prey consists of bats but in Poland, dietary relations have been studied between tawny owls living near bat caves and urban bat roosts, and locally up to as much as 2% of the diet (and 5.3% of the mammalian foods) can consist of bats. Studies have indicated that bat species are more or less hunted in proportion to their occurrence in mixed colonies and are taken more so within urbanized environments as well as when staple rodent prey is low. In Austria, 252 attacks by tawny owls were recorded at a colony of Geoffroy's bats (Myotis emarginatus), 31 of which were successful. In Great Britain, it is estimated that tawny owls eliminate at minimum 140,000 individual bats annually. While most bats encountered (and hunted) are fairly small-bodied, tawny owls may hunt bats of all sizes available, from the roughly common pipistrelle (Pipistrellus pipistrellus) to the greater noctule (Nyctalus lasiopterus) in Europe and to the Egyptian fruit bat (Rousettus aegyptiacus) outside of Europe. Other mammalian prey recorded have been mustelids. The tawny owl is known to hunt both common weasels in Europe, including fairly large stoats (Mustela erminea), weighing averages of up to , despite the potential risk of counterattacking by these bold and powerful hunters. Traces of an even bigger mustelid have been found, the European pine marten (Martes martes), in the foods of tawny owls, though it is a considerable possibility that this was scavenged rather than killed by the owl, much like the verified case of tawny owls scavenging remains of European polecats (Mustela putorius).
Birds
Tawny owls do not take birds as commonly as mammals. Unlike the unrelated lineages of diurnal birds of prey, owls in general seldom prefer avian prey, with most varieties preferring small mammals and/or insects, except on a local basis (the closest to a specialized hunter of other birds are some in the pygmy owl genus). Tawny owls do opportunistically hunt birds through most of the range, however. When it comes to avian prey, there is little evidence that any particular kind is sought out and the owls are likely to randomly come across other birds as an alternate food choice. Usually, European studies show that birds normally constitute less than 15% of the total foods of this owl. In central Europe within an older study, 6000 bird prey (or a little less than 10% of the recorded prey) items were recorded of nearly 100 species, 33% of which were sparrows. When capturing avian prey, the tawny owls not only pluck the prey but also often decapitate and inflict fairly extensive skeletal damage, especially when the victim is a relatively large bird. When a population of great (Parus major) and Eurasian blue tits (Cyanistes caeruleus) was artificially increased by researchers in the vicinity of tawny owl nests, it was found that, despite the tits not being common food, the owls did reduce the population of increased tit. Many more tits were taken during snow cover or while incubating, with male tits being often being taken in larger numbers, and tit numbers were further reduced when fewer rodents were available. In Gothenburg, Sweden, on 26 tawny territories the diversity of songbird species was higher (at 12.83 average species) inside tawny territories than outside (10.3 species). Attempts to study whether songbirds were significant in the foods found that bird altogether amounted to 6.78% of the total prey numbers (most likely to be thrushes), so were not significantly effected here. As is the case with other medium-sized owls in Europe, there is some evidence that local snow cover, arid habitats and/or urbanization will increase the importance of avian prey. There was a fairly strong indication of local urban habitat causing the tawny owl to take a large quantity of bird prey in Grunewald. Here, among 13,359 prey items, bird constituted 35.9% with primary prey of this group being house sparrow (Passer domesticus) and European greenfinch (Chloris chloris) and that avian prey was more reliable and productive in the area than rodent prey due to the cyclic populations of the latter. Elsewhere in Germany, in the Pankow borough of Berlin, the house sparrow was also the most regular prey species, at 19.2% of 1912 prey items. The diet of tawny owls in the Polish city of Toruń was also dominated by birds, with them making up 47.8% by number and 51.8% of the biomass against 39.8% of the number and 36.1% of the biomass by mammals. Here the diet was led by the house sparrow (25.9% by number, 22.6% biomass) and secondarily the Eurasian tree sparrow (Passer montanus). In Warsaw, birds were dominant in the city, at 73% of the food. However, much like Toruń, in the rural or outer suburban vicinity (i.e. the Kampinos Forest) outside the urbanized areas of Warsaw, other prey such as rodents and frogs were favored instead. The urbanization effect was particularly strongly noted in England, where birds constituted only about 4% of the foods in the countryside per two studies, but in Wythenshawe part of Manchester and Holland Park in London, birds made up 89% and 93% of the foods, respectively. The most important avian foods to English tawny owls were the house sparrow (at 27% and 52% in Wythenshawe and Holland Park), the common starling (Sturnus vulgaris) (at 33% in Wythenshawe) and the rock dove (at 22% in Holland Park). Some urban pairs in Italy derived about 50% of their food from rock doves and common swifts (Apus apus) of all ages, grabbing prey of the two species directly off their building ledge nests. In the Sahel of Algeria, where small native rodents are scarce, birds account for about 39% of the diet tawny owls amongst 2472 prey items, in particular the house and Spanish sparrows (Passer hispaniolensis), at 16.6% by number and 17% by biomass. Birds strongly dominated the foods of tawny owls in the Levant area, such as northern Israel, accounting for more than 70% of 229 prey items, especially Passer species. In the northern stretches of the range, when birds are taken, slightly larger avian prey such as thrushes, often averaging about , tend to be taken instead of sparrows and the like. In Amsterdamse-Waterleidingduinen area of the Netherlands, birds tended to dominate the biomass especially medium-sized passerines such as common starlings and Eurasian jays (Garrulus glandarius), with these contributing 54% of the biomass in high Apodemus mouse years to 62.7% in low mouse years in March–May. Smaller birds such as birds decrease from 21.1 to 3.1% in the spring while large birds such as pigeons and Eurasian woodcocks (Scolopax rusticola) may increase from 16.2 to 37.7% during high and low years for mice. In a small study from Norway, a large portion of diet consisted of birds in summer (61% of the biomass but only 23.2% by number) while, in winter, voles almost completely dominated the foods.
A huge diversity of birds may be taken by tawny owls, although most are not numerically significant. Slightly over half of the avian prey spectrum for tawny owls are various passerines down to the size of Europe's smallest bird, the goldcrest (Regulus regulus). At the other end of the size scale for passerine prey are corvids, including jays, magpies and assorted crows. In some cases, tawny owls have apparently preyed on adult crows of around their own size or slightly larger, such as an estimated carrion crow (Corvus corone). Frequently, the largest prey item found in dietary studies for tawny owls are relatively outsized birds, such as the aforementioned crow, or an estimated western jackdaw (Corvus monedula) in central Italy and a common kestrel (Falco tinniculus) of the same estimated weight in Suffolk. Although many species of dove are also taken, rock doves and common wood pigeon, the latter taken frequently as adults and estimated to average at when taken in England by two different studies, can be very hearty prey. Other large avian prey reported taken as adults by tawny owls (many of which approach or exceed the owls themselves in body mass) includes green-winged teal (Anas crecca), red grouse (Lagopus lagopus scotica), hazel grouse (Tetrastes bonasia), grey partridge (Perdix perdix), chukar (Alectoris chukar) common moorhen (Gallinula chloropus), Eurasian coot (Fulica atra), black-headed gull, black-legged kittiwake (Rissa tridactyla) and black woodpecker (Dryocopus martius). Larger gamebirds have been taken such as black grouse (Tetrao tetrix) and common pheasant (Phasianus colchicus) as well as are some large birds of prey are sometimes found in the foods of tawny owls but it is not clear that these adults and may refer only to juvenile individuals. Reportage of tawny owls predation on much larger western capercaillie (Tetrao urogallus) is quite likely to refer to juvenile capercaillie. In at least one case, a tawny owl preyed upon an adult mallard (Anas platyrhynchos), which, at a mean weight of around , is about twice a tawny owl's size and possibly the largest prey known to be tackled by the species.
Reptiles, amphibians and fish
Little evidence has been found of tawny owl predation on reptiles. Despite their scarcity about a dozen species are known to be hunted by this predator, including a couple species of snake and several lizard species. They are more or less taken incidentally, constituting always less than 2% of the foods in known European studies. An exceptional case was in Sahel, Algeria, where the Moorish gecko (Tarentola mauritanica) was the leading prey species at 16.75% of 2472 prey items. Amphibians are generally much more prominent in the tawny owl's diet, almost exclusively frogs. Nearly 20 species of amphibian are known to be taken, which includes two species of newt outside of the more typical frogs and toads. Key to predation on frogs is the composition of the habitat, with frogs and toads being apparently much more accessible in remote and conserved areas rather than developed lands. In different areas of Poland, the Rana genus of frogs led the prey composition such as in Białowieża Forest, where they made up 21.1% of the foods, in Wigry National Park where they constituted 17.4% of the diet and in the northeasterly section of the country where they made up 23.4% of 2046 vertebrate prey items. Elsewhere frogs and amphibians are regular but secondary foods. Of 3194 prey items in Finland, amphibians (probably all frogs) were secondary to rodents, and could account for from 16.6% in good vole years to 19.5%, the leading prey type by number, in bad vole years, with an average 17.5%. from all years. In Lithuania, frogs constituted 14.5% of 1125 prey items, with the common frog (Rana temporaria) in particular accounting for 11.2%. In Sahel, Algeria, the Mediterranean painted frog (Discoglossus pictus) was a fairly important prey resource, at 9.22% by number and 10.5% by biomass. The average size of frogs taken can be fairly variable, from an estimated , as claimed for central Italy and England, respectively. There are now several instances known of tawny owls preying on fish, though they are not known to be a significant food source anywhere in the distribution. About eight species of wild fish are known to have been captured, including probably young or infirm specimens of large fish such as northern pike (Esox lucius) and brown trout (Salmo trutta), with at least some instances of tawny owls also catching ornamental goldfish (Carassius auratus) as well.
Invertebrates
The tawny owl feeds more extensively on invertebrates than many of the more northerly European studies would indicate. Virtually, any variety of edible invertebrate would be eaten by these owls, though generally insects are taken due to the high occurrence of encounters. Nearly 70 invertebrate prey species have been noted. In the more southerly parts of Europe, much stronger numbers of invertebrates tend to be detected. In central Italy, invertebrates constituted 53.3% of 654 prey items, in particular scarab beetles (15.8%), land snails (12.1%), ground beetles (5.3%), Orthoptera (5.14%) and longhorn beetles (5%). In the vicinity of Umbria in Italy, 47.8% of 874 prey items were invertebrates, particularly keelback slugs and roundback slugs, which together made up 28.6% of the prey items followed among invertebrates by Melolonthinae subfamily of scarab beetles at about 7% of the prey. In Muránska planina National Park in Slovakia, keelback slugs were the most identified prey type among 13,912 prey items, accounting for 26.1%. Keelback slugs were also the main prey type in Bulgaria (accounting for 24.6% of 529 prey items), and detected in strong numbers in Romania, the Caucasus and Crimea (wherein they made up 21.8% of 514 prey items, but trailed by number the yellow-necked mouse). A strong dominance of insect prey was detected in food studies from Spain, with 64.3% of 1002 prey items from across the nation being invertebrates. In the Spanish region, the wood mouse was the identified single prey species (at 20% by number and 21% by biomass) but was closely followed by bush crickets (at 19.76% and 1.5% biomass), Rhizotrogus aestivus (10.76% by number, 0.5% biomass), European field cricket (Gryllus campestris) (8.85% by number, 1% biomass), minotaur beetle (Typhaeus typhoeus) (7.92% #, 1% biomass) and common dor beetle (Anoplotrupes stercorosus) (4.35% by number, 1% biomass). More locally within the Province of León, beetles collectively constituted 35.1% of the diet and Orthoptera constituted 14.4%. In Sahel, Algeria, invertebrates in total slightly outnumbered mammals, but lagged slightly behind birds in number. In general, insects in central and northern Europe are a regular but secondary food source, taken in similar volume to birds but far less significant as contributors to biomass. Tawny owls are said to take beetles in central Europe more frequently in April–May before ground cover becomes too extensive. An exceptional case of invertebrates being primary as a food source in a northerly country was recorded in the Peak District of England, wherein earthworms were the primary food type, at 40.4% of 926 prey items and 15.6% of the biomass. Strong numbers were detected here too of Geotrupes beetles, contributing 14% of the prey numbers.
Interspecies predatory relationships
In every part of its range, tawny owls co-exist with other birds of prey, with other owls presenting the strongest possibility for competition given their overlapping food selection and shared nocturnality. As perhaps the most numerous and one of the most widely distributed in the continent of the 13 owl species regularly occurring in Europe, ecological interactions of some kind have been recorded with most other species. Given their medium-sized frame and general adaptability, of special interest is how they co-exist with other medium-sized owls such as long-eared owls and barn owls. Many studies have contrasted particularly the food habits of long-eared owls living in proximity to tawny owls. Generally speaking, the long-eared owls in Europe are much more strongly disposed to being a specialist species than the tawny owl, relying almost entirely on voles. Although in the broad picture, the long-eared also feeds on other prey such as birds and insects, their food niche breadth is consistently lower than that of the tawny owls. For example, in a very large study of central Europe, the common vole species alone constituted about 76% of 57,500 prey items for long-eared owls. Long-eared owls also differ strongly from tawny owls in selecting much more open hunting grounds, such as old fields, usually hunting on the wing rather than from a perch and in utilizing abandoned (and often rather open) bird nests rather than natural cavities as nesting sites. In terms of peri-urbanisation, the long-eared and tawny owls are more or less equally adaptive to such areas. The food niche breadth is usually greater in Europe for the tawny owl than for the barn owl as well, although the barn owl appears to have a stronger liking of shrews as prey than does the tawny owl (shrews more than twice as often selected). The barn owl, although also by nature a cavity nester, does not generally acclimate to well-wooded areas where the tawny owl is at home. Both the long-eared and barn owls prefer voles where they are available, especially as both often hunt in open areas where they are common, whereas Apodemus mice tend to be slightly preferred by tawny owls. When conflicts ensue, the tawny owl tends to dominate these other medium-sized owls. This is in part due to their size advantage, with the tawny being larger by an average of 32% (of 3 standards of measurements, two from the wing, one by body mass) than the long-eared owl and 24% larger than the barn owl. Tawny owls are known to readily evict barn owls from their own nest sites, normally when taking up residency in towns or cities. It was additionally found that barn owls, being a species better adapted to warmer, more tropical areas, is at higher risk of starvation in cool weather than long-eared and tawny owls, with proportionately many more found dead in winter in France due presumably to inferior lipid fat reserves.
In the British Isles, the tawny owl is the largest and most powerful year-around native owl, ahead slightly of the long-eared and barn owls. Therefore, the tawny owl may be considered an apex predator here (despite still being vulnerable occasionally to diurnal raptors and ground predators). However, since the tawny owl never colonized Ireland, here the long-eared owl is the largest year-around owl (in these island much larger owls are very rare winter visitors, in the case of the snowy owl (Bubo scandiacus) or are probably accidentally introduced by humans, as is likely the Eurasian eagle-owl). However, in much of mainland Europe and elsewhere, tawny owls potentially overlap with larger owls and, depending on habitat composition and prey accessibilities, may be considered more correctly a mesopredator. Mainly in parts of northern and eastern Europe, tawny owls sometimes co-exist with their larger cousins, Ural owls. The Ural owl has generally similar nesting and feeding habits but tends to occur in slightly different habitats. Generally, the Ural is more broadly adaptive to taiga and similarly conifer based forests than are tawny owls and is also somewhat more likely to be active during daylight. In eastern Europe, the Ural species tends to occur more so at higher elevation in montane forest such as the Carpathian Mountains, especially those with extensive old growth of beech trees, while the tawny owls tend to occur at lower elevations and more mixed forest with fewer glades in these areas. A relatively low territory overlap of 13.3% was detected in Slovakia between tawny and Ural owl territories due to their differing habitats. Depending on range, the prey sizes taken by tawny owls tend to be considerably smaller than those selected by the more powerful Ural owl, with the latter's mean prey sizes averaging from 31 to 50% larger. However, the food niche breadth is up to two and a half times greater in the tawny than in the Ural owl. The Ural owl tends to dominate interspecific conflicts with tawny owls. On the contrary, in at least one case a tawny owl was observed to fiercely attack and drive off a Ural owl (although it may not be ruled out that this was a case of mobbing). A third and much larger still Strix species, the great grey owl, differs considerably in almost all respects of its life history from tawny owls. The great grey is adapted to taiga and other conifer based forests, both open and enclosed, and relies almost exclusively on voles for food. Almost cathemeral in activity, the great grey species may nest in a broad variety of situations in the boreal habitat but never utilizes tree cavities as does the tawny. Due to the latter species' specialization, the tawny owl is spared from any known ecological interactions with the great grey owl.
Much more dangerous than larger Strix species to the tawny owl is the Eurasian eagle-owl. A similar wide-ranging generalist, the eagle owl most often nests in and around rock formations, often in fairly mountainous areas, but locally is also adaptive to varying habitats and may too nesting in old birds nests or on the ground, usually between the trunks of large trees. In terms of their dietary habits, the eagle owl appears to be perhaps an even more indiscriminate predator, attacking animals of all taxonomic classes unfortunate enough to encounter them. Given its far larger size and much more powerful features, the eagle owl will attack much larger prey than tawny owls, even relative to their own size. Tawny owls are likely to avoid encounters with eagle-owls and are fortunate in many areas that the eagle-owl, which requires a larger home range and tends to more exclusively prefer remote areas than tawnys, can be scarce to absent in some parts of Europe. In some areas of Spain and Italy, tawny owls have adapted to live in the vicinity of wooded montane areas and even to nesting within rock formations. Both countries have healthy recovered populations of eagle-owls, so tawny owls appear to locally restrict their vocal activity and tend to occur on the fringes or outside active eagle-owl ranges. Unlike their larger, more powerful cousin, the Ural owl, the tawny owl is not infrequently victim to predation by larger raptors. There are at least 300 recorded instances of predation on tawny owls in Europe by Eurasian eagle-owls. They tend to be taken somewhat less than other medium-sized owls, especially long-eared owls, by eagle owls by virtue of using woodlands (which differ somewhat from the habitats usually used by eagle-owls) and nesting in tree hollows. The other greatest predatory threat is certain to be the northern goshawk (Accipiter gentilis). There are at least a hundred cases of goshawks taking the owls and, unlike the eagle-owl, the habitats of the goshawks do fairly closely mirror those of tawny owls with the owls only spared by its different primary times of activity.
Other predators long known to have taken tawny owls have included their larger cousins, the Ural owls as well as common buzzards (Buteo buteo), red kites (Milvus milvus) and peregrine falcons (Falco peregrinus). In addition, more reported raptorial predators have included the Bonelli's eagle (Aquila fasciata), golden eagle (Aquila chrysaetos), eastern imperial eagle (Aquila heliaca) and black kite (Milvus migrans) Outside of traditionally raptorial groups, birds such as corvids may destroy and/or compromise tawny owl nests, either for food, anti-predator behaviour and/or competition. Western jackdaws, in particular, appear to be persistent competitors for nest sites and sometimes are aggressive enough as to displace tawny owls from a disputed site. In extreme cases of competition with jackdaws, the owls may bring themselves to starvation trying to incubate their nests in the hole when a murder of jackdaws continuously visit, harass and place a new nest on top of the owl's eggs repeatedly. In other cases, the owls nestlings have been suffocated by the jackdaws building a nest directly on top of the still living owl broods. Mammalian predators are a fairly frequent threat to tawny owls as well, though tend to attack almost exclusively during the breeding season. European pine martens are known to be a considerable threat of all aged tawny owls at nests from nestlings to brooding females, as are probably stone martens (Martes foina). In a food study in France, 9% of the diet of pine martens was found to consist of tawny owls, with the data indicating that owls using nest boxes are more vulnerable to martens. Especially once reaching or around the age of fledging, red foxes (Vulpes vulpes) are known to take several young tawny owls (and perhaps an unwary adult), at times taking up to 39% of young owls in a population, as are probably cats (Felis silvestris) in some areas. However, in chance encounters during the day, tawny owls have been known to attack and successfully chase off pine martens and have been seen to do the same to red foxes, cats and dogs.
The tawny owl is a considerable predator itself of smaller owls. Data indicates that it is second deadliest owl to the smaller species of owl in Europe, behind only the eagle owl. Among their known owl prey species are Eurasian scops owls (Otus scops), Eurasian pygmy owls, little owls (Athene noctua), long-eared owls and boreal owls (Aegolius funereus). Additionally, they may hunt smaller diurnal birds of prey such as Eurasian sparrowhawks (Accipiter nisus), common kestrels (Falco tinnunculus), Eurasian hobbys (Falco subbuteo) and merlins (Falco columbarius). Reports of tawny owls killing common buzzards and northern goshawks are of nebulous detail and may refer in fact to nighttime nest robberies rather than overpowering adults of these larger, dangerous and often seemingly avoided raptors. Evidence from Slovenia has indicated that the tawny owl is more feared by small owls such as the boreal owl than even the larger, more powerful Ural owl, as they clustered more strongly as can be explained by habitat in the realm of Ural owl territories but seemed to avoid where possible tawny owl territories. Although there are more known instances of tawny owls hunting little owls, data in central Europe could not distinguish whether little owls were avoiding tawny owls or the wooded habitats they frequent to account for their sometimes spotty ranges. However, when forced to nest in quite close proximity to tawny owls and other medium-sized owl species due to clustered "islands" of habitat remaining in southeastern Poland, the productivity of little owls appeared to lower. Predation by tawny owls can be severe as well on Eurasian pygmy owls, to such an extent that they may have cause the regional extinction of the pygmy around World War II in the Black Forest after the smaller species was already depleted by deforestation. A successful reintroduction of Eurasian pygmys into the forest was followed by a natural range expansion back into the forest by tawnys, which again threatens the population growth of smaller owl.
References
Strix (genus)
Ethology
Eating behaviors | wiki |
Megan Ferguson is an American actress. In 2011, Ferguson married fellow actor Nico Evers-Swindell.
Filmography
Film
Television
References
External links
Living people
American film actresses
American television actresses
Year of birth missing (living people)
21st-century American actresses | wiki |
Robert Bruce, Earl of Carrick may refer to:
Robert de Brus, jure uxoris Earl of Carrick (1243–1304), Scottish nobleman
Robert I of Scotland (1274–1329), his son, who was Earl of Carrick before becoming King of Scots | wiki |
An anal hook or (North American informal) ass hook is a sex toy, often resembling a fish hook in appearance, intended for anal sexual penetration or other sexual activity. Anal hooks can be made from a multitude of materials, although stainless steel is the most common. Their design is typically a curved metal bar, with a metal ball on one end and a ring on the other. Unlike other toys intended for anal penetration, like dildos and anal beads, anal hooks are universally made from inflexible materials like stainless steel, and can much more readily cause injury if used improperly.
Bondage hooks should never be used for potentially load-bearing restraint because of the potential for injury. They are sometimes woven into rope harnesses on the body or into rope attached to the hair, neither of which involve load bearing on the hook itself.
References
Anal sex toys | wiki |
Photogeochemistry merges photochemistry and geochemistry into the study of light-induced chemical reactions that occur or may occur among natural components of Earth's surface. The first comprehensive review on the subject was published in 2017 by the chemist and soil scientist Timothy A Doane, but the term photogeochemistry appeared a few years earlier as a keyword in studies that described the role of light-induced mineral transformations in shaping the biogeochemistry of Earth; this indeed describes the core of photogeochemical study, although other facets may be admitted into the definition.
The domain of photogeochemistry
The context of a photogeochemical reaction is implicitly the surface of Earth, since that is where sunlight is available (although other sources of light such as chemiluminescence would not be strictly excluded from photogeochemical study). Reactions may occur among components of land such as rocks, soil and detritus; components of surface water such as sediment and dissolved organic matter; and components of the atmospheric boundary layer directly influenced by contact with land or water, such as mineral aerosols and gases. Visible and medium- to long-wave ultraviolet radiation is the main source of energy for photogeochemical reactions; wavelengths of light shorter than about 290 nm are completely absorbed by the present atmosphere, and are therefore practically irrelevant, except in consideration of atmospheres different from that of Earth today.
Photogeochemical reactions are limited to chemical reactions not facilitated by living organisms. The reactions comprising photosynthesis in plants and other organisms, for example, are not considered photogeochemistry, since the physiochemical context for these reactions is installed by the organism, and must be maintained in order for these reactions to continue (i.e. the reactions cease if the organism dies). In contrast, if a certain compound is produced by an organism, and the organism dies but the compound remains, this compound may still participate independently in a photogeochemical reaction even though its origin is biological (e.g. biogenic mineral precipitates or organic compounds released from plants into water).
The study of photogeochemistry is primarily concerned with naturally occurring materials, but may extend to include other materials, inasmuch as they are representative of, or bear some relation to, those found on Earth. For example, many inorganic compounds have been synthesized in the laboratory to study photocatalytic reactions. Although these studies are usually not undertaken in the context of environmental or Earth sciences, the study of such reactions is relevant to photogeochemistry if there is a geochemical implication (i.e. similar reactants or reaction mechanisms occur naturally). Similarly, photogeochemistry may also include photochemical reactions of naturally occurring materials that are not touched by sunlight, if there is the possibility that these materials may become exposed (e.g. deep soil layers uncovered by mining).
Except for several isolated instances, studies that fit the definition of photogeochemistry have not been explicitly specified as such, but have been traditionally categorized as photochemistry, especially at the time when photochemistry was an emerging field or new facets of photochemistry were being explored. Photogeochemical research, however, may be set apart in light of its specific context and implications, thereby bringing more exposure to this "poorly explored area of experimental geochemistry". Past studies that fit the definition of photogeochemistry may be designated retroactively as such.
Early photogeochemistry
The first efforts that can be considered photogeochemical research can be traced to the "formaldehyde hypothesis" of Adolf von Baeyer in 1870, in which formaldehyde was proposed to be the initial product of plant photosynthesis, formed from carbon dioxide and water through the action of light on a green leaf. This suggestion inspired numerous attempts to obtain formaldehyde in vitro, which can retroactively be considered photogeochemical studies. Detection of organic compounds such as formaldehyde and sugars was reported by many workers, usually by exposure of a solution of carbon dioxide to light, typically a mercury lamp or sunlight itself. At the same time, many other workers reported negative results. One of the pioneer experiments was that of Bach in 1893, who observed the formation of lower uranium oxides upon irradiation of a solution of uranium acetate and carbon dioxide, implying the formation of formaldehyde. Some experiments included reducing agents such as hydrogen gas, and others detected formaldeyhde or other products in the absence of any additives, although the possibility was admitted that reducing power may have been produced from the decomposition of water during the experiment. In addition to the main focus on synthesis of formaldehyde and simple sugars, other light-assisted reactions were occasionally reported, such as the decomposition of formaldehyde and subsequent release of methane, or the formation of formamide from carbon monoxide and ammonia.
In 1912 Benjamin Moore summarized the main facet of photogeochemistry, that of inorganic photocatalysis: "the inorganic colloid must possess the property of transforming sunlight, or some other form of radiant energy, into chemical energy." Many experiments, still focused on how plants assimilate carbon, did indeed explore the effect of a "transformer" (catalyst); some effective "transformers" were similar to naturally occurring minerals, including iron(III) oxide or colloidal iron hydroxide; cobalt carbonate, copper carbonate, nickel carbonate; and iron(II) carbonate. Working with an iron oxide catalyst, Baly concluded in 1930 that "the analogy between the laboratory process and that in the living plant seems therefore to be complete," referring to his observation that in both cases, a photochemical reaction takes place on a surface, the activation energy is supplied in part by the surface and in part by light, efficiency decreases when the light intensity is too great, the optimal temperature of the reaction is similar to that of living plants, and efficiency increases from the blue to the red end of the light spectrum.
At this time, however, the intricate details of plant photosynthesis were still obscure, and the nature of photocatalysis in general was still actively being discovered; Mackinney in 1932 stated that "the status of this problem [photochemical CO2 reduction] is extraordinarily involved." As in many emerging fields, experiments were largely empirical, but the enthusiasm surrounding this early work did lead to significant advances in photochemistry. The simple but challenging principle of transforming solar energy into chemical energy capable of performing a desired reaction remains the basis of application-based photocatalysis, most notably artificial photosynthesis (production of solar fuels).
After several decades of experiments centered around the reduction of carbon dioxide, interest began to spread to other light-induced reactions involving naturally occurring materials. These experiments usually focused on reactions analogous to known biological processes, such as soil nitrification, for which the photochemical counterpart "photonitrification" was first reported in 1930.
Classifying photogeochemical reactions
Photogeochemical reactions may be classified based on thermodynamics and/or the nature of the materials involved. In addition, when ambiguity exists regarding an analogous reaction involving light and living organisms (phototrophy), the term "photochemical" may be used to distinguish a particular abiotic reaction from the corresponding photobiological reaction. For example, "photooxidation of iron(II)" can refer to either a biological process driven by light (phototrophic or photobiological iron oxidation) or a strictly chemical, abiotic process (photochemical iron oxidation). Similarly, an abiotic process that converts water to O2 under the action of light may be designated "photochemical oxidation of water" rather than simply "photooxidation of water", in order to distinguish it from photobiological oxidation of water potentially occurring in the same environment (by algae, for example).
Thermodynamics
Photogeochemical reactions are described by the same principles used to describe photochemical reactions in general, and may be classified similarly:
Photosynthesis: in the most general sense, photosynthesis refers to any light-activated reaction for which the change in free energy (ΔGo) is positive for the reaction itself (without considering the presence of a catalyst or light). The products have higher energy than the reactants, and therefore the reaction is thermodynamically unfavorable, except through the action of light in conjunction with a catalyst. Examples of photosynthetic reactions include the splitting of water to form H2 and O2, the reaction of CO2 and water to form O2 and reduced carbon compounds such as methanol and methane, and the reaction of N2 with water to yield NH3 and O2.
Photocatalysis: this refers to reactions that are accelerated by the presence of a catalyst (the light itself is not the catalyst as may be erroneously implied). The overall reaction has a negative change in free energy, and is therefore thermodynamically favored. Examples of photocatalytic reactions include the reaction of organic compounds with O2 to form CO2 and water, and the reaction of organic compounds with water to give H2 and CO2.
Uncatalyzed photoreactions: photoinduced or photoactivated reactions proceed via the action of light alone. For example, photodegradation of organic compounds often proceeds without a catalyst if the reactants themselves absorb light.
Nature of reactants
Any reaction in the domain of photogeochemistry, either observed in the environment or studied in the laboratory, may be broadly classified according to the nature of the materials involved.
Reactions among naturally occurring compounds. Photogeochemistry, both observational and exploratory, is concerned with reactions among materials known to occur naturally, as this reflects what happens or may happen on Earth.
Reactions in which one or more of the reactants are not known to occur naturally. Studies of reactions among materials related to naturally occurring materials may contribute to understanding of natural processes. These complementary studies are relevant to photogeochemistry in that they illustrate reactions that may have a natural counterpart. For example, it has been shown that soils, when irradiated, can generate reactive oxygen species and that clay minerals present in soils can accelerate the degradation of synthetic chemicals; it may therefore be postulated that naturally occurring compounds are similarly affected by sunlight acting on soil. The conversion of N2 to NH3 has been observed upon irradiation in the presence of the iron titanate Fe2Ti2O7. While such a compound is not known to occur naturally, it is related to ilmenite (FeTiO3) and pseudobrookite (Fe2TiO5), and can form upon heating of ilmenite; this may imply a similar reaction with N2 for the naturally occurring minerals.
Photogeochemical catalysts
Direct catalysts
Direct photogeochemical catalysts act by absorbing light and subsequently transferring energy to reactants.
Semiconducting minerals
The majority of observed photogeochemical reactions involve a mineral catalyst. Many naturally occurring minerals are semiconductors that absorb some portion of solar radiation. These semiconducting minerals are frequently transition metal oxides and sulfides and include abundant, well-known minerals such as hematite (Fe2O3), magnetite (Fe3O4), goethite and lepidocrocite (FeOOH), and pyrolusite (MnO2). Radiation of energy equal to or greater than the band gap of a semiconductor is sufficient to excite an electron from the valence band to a higher energy level in the conduction band, leaving behind an electron hole (h+); the resulting electron-hole pair is called an exciton. The excited electron and hole can reduce and oxidize, respectively, species having suitable redox potentials relative to the potentials of the valence and conduction bands. Semiconducting minerals with appropriate band gaps and appropriate band energy levels can catalyze a vast array of reactions, most commonly at mineral-water or mineral-gas interfaces.
Organic compounds
Organic compounds such as "bio-organic substances" and humic substances are also able to absorb light and act as catalysts or sensitizers, accelerating photoreactions that normally occur slowly or facilitating reactions that might not normally occur at all.
Indirect catalysts
Some materials, such as certain silicate minerals, absorb little or no solar radiation, but may still participate in light-driven reactions by mechanisms other than direct transfer of energy to reactants.
Production of reactive species
Indirect photocatalysis may occur via the production of a reactive species which then participates in another reaction. For example, photodegradation of certain compounds has been observed in the presence of kaolinite and montmorillonite, and this may proceed via the formation of reactive oxygen species at the surface of these clay minerals. Indeed, reactive oxygen species have been observed when soil surfaces are exposed to sunlight. The ability of irradiated soil to generate singlet oxygen was found to be independent of the organic matter content, and both the mineral and organic components of soil appear to contribute to this process. Indirect photolysis in soil has been observed to occur at depths of up to 2 mm due to migration of reactive species; in contrast, direct photolysis (in which the degraded compound itself absorbs light) was restricted to a "photic depth" of 0.2 to 0.4 mm. Like certain minerals, organic matter in solution, as well as particulate organic matter, may act as an indirect catalyst via formation of singlet oxygen which then reacts with other compounds.
Surface sensitization
Indirect catalysts may also act through surface sensitization of reactants, by which species sorbed to a surface become more susceptible to photodegradation.
True catalysis
Strictly speaking, the term "catalysis" should not be used unless it can be shown that the number of product molecules produced per number of active sites is greater than one; this is difficult to do in practice, although it is often assumed to be true if there is no loss in the photoactivity of the catalyst for an extended period of time. Reactions that are not strictly catalytic may be designated "assisted photoreactions". Furthermore, phenomena that involve complex mixtures of compounds (e.g. soil) may be hard to classify unless complete reactions (not just individual reactants or products) can be identified.
Experimental approaches
The great majority of photogeochemical research is performed in the laboratory, as it is easier to demonstrate and observe a particular reaction under controlled conditions. This includes confirming the identity of materials, designing reaction vessels, controlling light sources, and adjusting the reaction atmosphere. However, observation of natural phenomena often provides initial inspiration for further study. For example, during the 1970s it was generally agreed that nitrous oxide (N2O) has a short residence time in the troposphere, although the actual explanation for its removal was unknown. Since N2O does not absorb light at wavelengths greater than 280 nm, direct photolysis had been discarded as a possible explanation. It was then observed that light would decompose chloromethanes when they were absorbed on silica sand, and this occurred at wavelengths far above the absorption spectra for these compounds. The same phenomenon was observed for N2O, leading to the conclusion that particulate matter in the atmosphere is responsible for the destruction of N2O via surface-sensitized photolysis. Indeed, the idea of such a sink for atmospheric N2O was supported by several reports of low concentrations of N2O in the air above deserts, where there is a high amount of suspended particulate matter. As another example, the observation that the amount of nitrous acid in the atmosphere greatly increases during the day lead to insight into the surface photochemistry of humic acids and soils and an explanation for the original observation.
Photogeochemical reactions
The following table lists some reported reactions that are relevant to photogeochemical study, including reactions that involve only naturally occurring compounds as well as complementary reactions that involve synthetic but related compounds. The selection of reactions and references given is merely illustrative and may not exhaustively reflect current knowledge, especially in the case of popular reactions such as nitrogen photofixation for which there is a large body of literature. Furthermore, although these reactions have natural counterparts, the probability of encountering optimal reaction conditions may be low in some cases; for example, most experimental work concerning CO2 photoreduction is intentionally performed in the absence of O2, since O2 almost always suppresses the reduction of CO2. In natural systems, however, it is uncommon to find an analogous context where CO2 and a catalyst are reached by light but there is no O2 present.
Reactions in the nitrogen cycle
Reactions in the carbon cycle
Other reactions, including coupled cycles
References
Geochemistry
Photochemistry | wiki |
Samuel Shapiro may refer to:
Samuel H. Shapiro (1907–1987), 34th Governor of Illinois
Samuel Shapiro (Maine politician) (born 1927), Maine politician
Shmuel Shapiro (born 1974), Singer
Samuel Sanford Shapiro (born 1930), statistician who developed the Shapiro–Wilk test | wiki |
Medium-density polyethylene (MDPE) is a type of polyethylene defined by a density range of 0.926–0.940 g/cm3. It is less dense than HDPE, which is more common.
MDPE can be produced by chromium/silica catalysts, Ziegler-Natta catalysts or metallocene catalysts. MDPE has good shock and drop resistance properties. It also is less notch sensitive than HDPE. Stress cracking resistance is better than that of HDPE. MDPE is typically used in gas pipes and fittings, sacks, shrink film, packaging film, carrier bags, and screw closures.
In the United Kingdom, black (or blue) MDPE is often used for water and waste water plumbing, and may also be referred to as 'black alkathene.'
See also
Cross-linked polyethylene (PEX)
Low-density polyethylene (LDPE)
Linear low-density polyethylene (LLDPE)
High-density polyethylene (HDPE)
Ultra-high-molecular-weight polyethylene (UHMWPE)
Stretch wrap
Plastic recycling
Electrofusion
References
External links
Medium Density Polyethylene Specialty Rinse Tanks
MDPE UK Supplier
Polyolefins
Plastics
Packaging materials | wiki |
"Revelations" is the seventh episode of season three of the television show Buffy the Vampire Slayer. It was written by Doug Petrie, directed by James A. Contner, and first broadcast on November 17, 1998.
Plot
Gwendolyn Post arrives unannounced as Faith's new watcher. She is British, rude, confident, and looks down on all the Scoobies, especially Giles. She warns them that the demon Lagos is in Sunnydale looking for the Glove of Myhnegon, a powerful gauntlet.
While doing research, Xander and Willow kiss for a second time. Xander goes looking for the Glove of Myneghon, but is distracted when he sees Angel, of whose resurrection the Scoobies had been unaware. Xander follows Angel, hoping to re-stake him, but observes Angel and Buffy kissing. Angel shows Buffy that he has recovered the glove. As Giles is meeting with Gwendolyn, Xander arrives to tell him about Angel. Gwendolyn does not overhear the conversation, but knows that they are keeping something from her.
The next morning, the gang stages an intervention with Buffy. Both Xander and Cordelia are openly hostile about Angel and see him as a serious threat, unable to separate him from the recent misdeeds of Angelus. Willow is less sure and advises caution, partly motivated by guilt about her own private romantic indiscretions with Xander. Buffy tells them that Angel has the glove and that they are going to destroy it. Giles ultimately comes to Buffy's defense, but in private scolds her for not telling him about Angel's return.
Gwendolyn goes to visit Faith at the motel and mentions that Giles is having a secret meeting with Buffy and her friends. The angry Faith ends up in a bar with Xander, who tells her that Angel is alive and has the glove, adding that Buffy knew about Angel's resurrection and possession of the glove but tried to keep it secret. The two nurse their grudges together; Faith decides to slay Angel and Xander eagerly volunteers to accompany her.
Giles tells Gwendolyn where the glove is, and that "a friend of Buffy's" has it. He wants to discuss destroying it with her, but when he turns his back, Gwendolyn bludgeons him, knocking him out. Xander returns with Faith to get weapons, but he finds Giles unconscious and gravely injured; he calls an ambulance. Faith assumes that Angel attacked Giles, but Xander thinks it unlikely as there are no bite marks. Faith leaves to hunt down Angel. Xander tells Buffy about Faith's goal. Gwendolyn shows up at the mansion first and tries to kill Angel, not knowing that he is a vampire. Faith arrives as Angel is fighting with Gwendolyn. She assumes Angel is after the glove and attacks him. Buffy attempts to stop her, but Gwendolyn tells Faith to attack Buffy, and the two slayers fight.
Having successfully distracted the slayers and enlisted the help of Xander and Willow, Gwendolyn puts on the glove and tests its power to manipulate lightning. The gang now realize who the real enemy is, and unite against her. Angel saves Willow from Gwendolyn's lightning bolt attack. Faith draws her fire which allows Buffy to throw a piece of glass to sever her gloved arm, leading to Gwendolyn's death by electrocution when the next bolt of lightning strikes.
Buffy reconciles with her friends, who show willingness to forgive Angel. Giles finds out Gwendolyn was kicked out of the Watchers' Council 'for misuses of dark power' and went rogue. Buffy tries to reason with Faith, but Faith is thrown and confused by Post's betrayal and retorts that she has resolved not to trust anyone.
Reception
Valerie Frankel described the episode's villain, Gwendolyn Post, as "arguably the most powerful woman of the show". She said that while Post appears to be the strong female mentor that Buffy and Faith otherwise lack, it is significant that "innocent Willow", who represents Buffy's sensitive side, is threatened by her. Noel Murray of The A.V. Club said the final battle was predictable, but praised the scene where Post puts on the glove and has her arm severed by Buffy.
References
External links
Buffy the Vampire Slayer (season 3) episodes
1998 American television episodes | wiki |
This article summarizes the outcomes of all official matches played by the Jamaica national football team by opponent and by decade, since they first played in official competitions in 1925.
All-time results
The following table shows Jamaica's all-time international record, correct as of 17 May 2022.
Results
2009
2010
2011
2012
2013
2014
2015
2016
2017
2018
2019
2020
2021
2022
2023
External links
Jamaica at FIFA
Jamaica at CONCACAF
References
General
Citations
Results | wiki |
Lyd may refer to:
LYD, the abbreviation for a Libyan dinar
PKP class Lyd2, a diesel hydraulic locomotive
Lyd (locomotive), a 2010-built narrow-gauge steam locomotive based on a design for the Lynton and Barnstaple Railway
River Lyd (disambiguation), the name of two rivers in England
A common diminutive of Lydia | wiki |
A plant cuticle is a protecting film covering the outermost skin layer (epidermis) of leaves, young shoots and other aerial plant organs (aerial here meaning all plant parts not embedded in soil or other substrate) that have no periderm. The film consists of lipid and hydrocarbon polymers infused with wax, and is synthesized exclusively by the epidermal cells.
Description
The plant cuticle is a layer of lipid polymers impregnated with waxes that is present on the outer surfaces of the primary organs of all vascular land plants. It is also present in the sporophyte generation of hornworts, and in both sporophyte and gametophyte generations of mosses The plant cuticle forms a coherent outer covering of the plant that can be isolated intact by treating plant tissue with enzymes such as pectinase and cellulase.
Composition
The cuticle is composed of an insoluble cuticular membrane impregnated by and covered with soluble waxes. Cutin, a polyester polymer composed of inter-esterified omega hydroxy acids which are cross-linked by ester and epoxide bonds, is the best-known structural component of the cuticular membrane. The cuticle can also contain a non-saponifiable hydrocarbon polymer known as Cutan. The cuticular membrane is impregnated with cuticular waxes and covered with epicuticular waxes, which are mixtures of hydrophobic aliphatic compounds, hydrocarbons with chain lengths typically in the range C16 to C36.
Cuticular wax biosynthesis
Cuticular wax is known to be largely composed of compounds which derive from very-long-chain fatty acids (VLCFAs), such as aldehydes, alcohols, alkanes, ketones, and esters. Also present are other compounds in cuticular wax which are not VLCFA derivatives, such as terpenoids, flavonoids, and sterols, and thus have different synthetic pathways than those VLCFAs.
The first step of the biosynthesis pathway for the formation of cuticular VLCFAs, occurs with the de novo biosynthesis of C16 acyl chains (palmitate) by chloroplasts in the mesophyll, and concludes with the extension of these chains in the endoplasmic reticulum of epidermal cells. An important catalyzer thought to be in this process is the fatty acid elongase (FAE) complex.
To form cuticular wax components, VLCFAs are modified through either two identified pathways, an acyl reduction pathway or a decarbonylation pathway. In the acyl reduction pathway, a reductase converts VLCFAs into primary alcohols, which can then be converted to wax esters through a wax synthase. In the decarbonylation pathway, aldehydes are produced and decarbonylated to form alkanes, and can be subsequently oxidized to form secondary alcohols and ketones. The wax biosynthesis pathway ends with the transportation of the wax components from the endoplasmic reticulum to the epidermal surface.
Functions
The primary function of the plant cuticle is as a water permeability barrier that prevents evaporation of water from the epidermal surface, and also prevents external water and solutes from entering the tissues. In addition to its function as a permeability barrier for water and other molecules (prevent water loss), the micro and nano-structure of the cuticle have specialised surface properties that prevent contamination of plant tissues with external water, dirt and microorganisms. Aerial organs of many plants, such as the leaves of the sacred lotus (Nelumbo nucifera) have ultra-hydrophobic and self-cleaning properties that have been described by Barthlott and Neinhuis (1997). The lotus effect has applications in biomimetic technical materials.
Dehydration protection provided by a maternal cuticle improves offspring fitness in the moss Funaria hygrometrica and in the sporophytes of all vascular plants. In angiosperms the cuticle tends to be thicker on the top of the leaf (adaxial surface), but is not always thicker. The leaves of xerophytic plants adapted to drier climates have more equal cuticle thicknesses compared to those of mesophytic plants from wetter climates that do not have a high risk of dehydration from the under sides of their leaves.
"The waxy sheet of cuticle also functions in defense, forming a physical barrier that resists penetration by virus particles, bacterial cells, and the spores and growing filaments of fungi".
Evolution
The plant cuticle is one of a series of innovations, together with stomata, xylem and phloem and intercellular spaces in stem and later leaf mesophyll tissue, that plants evolved more than 450 million years ago during the transition between life in water and life on land. Together, these features enabled upright plant shoots exploring aerial environments to conserve water by internalising the gas exchange surfaces, enclosing them in a waterproof membrane and providing a variable-aperture control mechanism, the stomatal guard cells, which regulate the rates of transpiration and CO2 exchange.
References
Plant anatomy
Plant physiology | wiki |
Work experience is voluntary work by young people, often students.
Work Experience may also refer to:
Work Experience (film), a 1989 British short comedy film
"Work Experience" (The Inbetweeners), an episode of the British sitcom The Inbetweeners
"Work Experience" (The Office), an episode of the British sitcom The Office
The Work Experience, a British comedy series
Rhod Gilbert's Work Experience, a British comedy series | wiki |
Psittaculidae is a family containing Old World parrots. It consists of five subfamilies: Agapornithinae, Loriinae, Platycercinae, Psittacellinae and Psittaculinae.
This family has been accepted into The Clements Checklist of Birds of the World in 2014, and the IOC World Bird List.
The family contains 192 species divided into 53 genera.
References
Parrots | wiki |
A 3D rig is a device for mounting two cameras together to one 3D-system in order to shoot stereoscopic films and images.
Background
To create stereoscopic depth illusion in movie or photography, two slightly different images have to be viewed at the same time, each of them presented to one eye.
In order to capture moving objects, the images have to be taken in exactly the same moment. Therefore, it is necessary to shoot with two cameras that are in sync. In addition to that the cameras have to be geometrically aligned accurately, to minimize the amount of stereoscopic errors.
A 3D Rig, as a result, must provide the possibility to mount two cameras, with a horizontal offset and adjust the cameras in all possible axes. For 3D moviemaking, it is also necessary that the horizontal distance between the cameras can be adjusted via remote control while shooting.
It is important that the rigs have a high stability. This is to assure that they do not deform during movement, for example on a crane. Otherwise this could impact or destroy the camera alignment.
In general there are two types of 3D Rigs, side-by-side rigs and mirror rigs.
Side-by-side rig
Set-up
The least complex way to take pictures or shoot film in 3D is having two cameras mounted side-by-side. They are aligned parallel to each other, or can be angulated so that their optical axes meet at a chosen distance. In some systems the cameras are fixed to the rig body and can not be moved. More professional side-by-side-rigs, however, offer the possibility to change the interaxial distance easily.
When to use
A side-by-side rig is a proper way to do wide shots like landscape or overviews in sport broadcasting, however they cannot be used for close-ups since the minimum distance between the cameras is limited to the size of the lenses.
Advantages
Side-by-side rigs are comparably easy to build and therefore cheap.
They also often provide bigger possible interaxial distances then mirror rigs, which can be used to create a miniaturization effect.
Disadvantages
Side-by-side rigs cannot be used for close-ups since the minimum distance between the cameras is limited to the size of the lenses. For close-up shots though it is necessary to have smaller interaxial distances. For most shooting situations in live action film therefore mirror rigs are used.
Mirror rig
Set-up
In a mirror rig the two cameras look through a beamsplitter. One camera sees right through it. The other one captures the reflected image. One camera is placed above or below the other one at a ninety-degree angle. In some rigs only one camera can be moved. This can throw the system's weight out of balance, which can cause problems when used on a camera stabilization mount (e.g. Steadicam). Others offer the possibility to move both cameras simultaneously.
When to use
The mirror rig is the one to choose for shooting live action film.
“It makes the best 3D pictures, and some stereographers would say ‘the only good 3D pictures’”.
Because the cameras in this set-up aren’t physically in their way, the distance between the optical axes of the cameras can be smaller than the size of the lenses and even down to zero. Shots with small interaxial distances are possible, which is necessary for shooting in a classical movie style with close-up and detail shots.
Advantages
Mirror rigs make telling stories with classical tools of film narration possible. For close-ups, two shots, details and most dialogue scenes, the interaxial distance has to be not more than a couple of millimeters. This is only possible with a mirror rig.
To simply zoom in or use long lenses to get close-up shots with a side-by-side rig leads to a bad roundness.
Another advantage is, that the images can be used for the geometrical alignment of the cameras since stereoscopic errors can be seen most easily when the interaxial distance is zero.
Disadvantages
With the mirror there is one more optical element that has to be handled and manufactured carefully, which makes these rigs usually more expensive than side-by-side rigs.
"The use of mirrors makes it sensitive to dust and fast accelerations. The mirror needs to be big enough to accommodate wide angles. It requires accurate mirror placement toward the cameras; otherwise keystone artifacts will affect the images."
The mirror itself also takes away one f-stop since the light is split up for the two cameras. Mirrors of bad quality can produce a color mismatch that has to be corrected in postproduction. In addition to that every mirror filters the light according to its polarization. This leads to brightness differences between the two images especially at reflections and transparent objects.
See also
Multiple-camera setup
Omnidirectional camera
Stereo photography techniques
References
Stereoscopy
3D television | wiki |
The yakatat is a type of bowed string instrument native to Alaska, described by ethnomusicologist Daniel Brinton.
References
Bowed string instruments
Inuit musical instruments | wiki |
Sasda may refer to:
South African Sheepdog Association or SASDA
Sasda, a clan of the Bharwad people of India | wiki |
Modal metaphysics is a branch of philosophy that investigates the metaphysics underlying statements about possible or a priori statements.
See also
Modal logic
Modal neo-logicism
References
Subfields of metaphysics | wiki |
O Estádio Lokomotiv é um estádio de futebol localizado em Moscou, na Rússia.
Inaugurado em 2002, tem capacidade para 28.800 torcedores e é casa do clube de futebol FC Lokomotiv Moscou.
Ligações Externas
Estádio Lokomotiv
Worldstadiums.com
Yahoo Maps - Foto por Satélite
Lokomotiv
Lokomotiv
Lokomotiv Moscou | wiki |
Superior Bay is a narrow inlet of Lake Superior along the border of Minnesota and Wisconsin. It is long and wide. A small strait connects it to the Saint Louis Bay to the west, into which the Saint Louis River empties. Superior Bay is located between the city of Superior and the Park Point neighborhood of Duluth. The Duluth Harbor Basin is nearby.
References
Bays of Wisconsin
Geography of Duluth, Minnesota
Bodies of water of Douglas County, Wisconsin
Bays of Lake Superior | wiki |
Donald Graham Hill (1 November 1938 – 24 August 2005) was a judge that served on the Federal Court of Australia. He was prominent in the field of taxation law.
References
1938 births
2005 deaths
Judges of the Federal Court of Australia | wiki |
The Bem Sex-Role Inventory (BSRI) is a measure of masculinity and femininity, and is used to research gender roles. It assesses how people identify themselves psychologically. Sandra Bem's goal of the BSRI was to examine psychological androgyny and provide empirical evidence to show the advantage of a shared masculine and feminine personality versus a sex-typed categorization. The test is formatted with 60 different personality traits which participants rate themselves based on a 7-point Likert scale. Traits are evenly dispersed, 20 masculine, 20 feminine, and 20 filler traits thought to be gender neutral. All traits in the BSRI are positively valued personality aspects. Numerous past studies have found that gender categorizations are correlated with many stereotypical gendered behaviors.
History
"In the field of psychology, much research is conducted involving individuals' perceptions of gender roles, and behavioral as well as attitudinal correlates. Gender roles may be defined as "expectations about what is appropriate behavior for each sex". One can also add to this definition the expectations which are held about appropriate personality characteristics." The Bem Sex-Role Inventory was created by Sandra Bem in an effort to measure androgyny. It was published in 1974. Stereotypical masculine and feminine traits were found by surveying 100 Stanford undergraduate students on which traits they found to be socially desirable for each sex. The original list of 200 traits was narrowed down to the 40 masculine and feminine traits that appear on the present test. Normative data was found from a 1973 sample for 444 males and 279 females and a 1978 sample of 340 females and 476 males all also from Stanford University undergraduates.
Scoring and interpretation
Participants are asked to rate themselves on each trait using a Likert scale. One indicates never or almost never true, while a seven would indicate always or almost always true. Originally androgyny was calculated by finding the t-ratio difference between masculine and feminine scores; however, in 1981 Bem advises users to utilize a split median technique for more accurate scoring.
The Bem Sex-Role Inventory offers four different possible resulting categorizations: masculine, feminine, androgynous and undifferentiated. Previously, an androgynous score was thought to be the result of equal masculine and feminine traits, while a sex-typed masculine or feminine score is the result of more traits belonging in one or the other category. The fourth type of score, undifferentiated, was seen as the result of extremely low masculine and feminine traits.
However, after the change in scoring technique, androgynous is the result of scoring above the median in both masculine and feminine categories. Sex-typed scores, masculine and feminine, are the result of scoring above the median in one gender and below the median in the other. An undifferentiated score is now a result of scoring below the median in both masculine and feminine categories. In other words, since scores are based on normative data, an androgynous classification occurs when a subject scores above 50% of the comparison group in both masculine and feminine categories, while a sex-typed classification is the result of scoring above half the comparison group in only one gender category.
Reliability and validity
The BSRI is very empirically sound. Bem reports coefficient alphas of .78 for femininity scales and .87 for the masculinity scale. BSRI, also has demonstrated high test-retest reliability.
However, since this is a self-report inventory, how reliable the assessment is depends on how accurately participants rate themselves. An androgynous score is the result of extremely masculine and feminine scores and an undifferentiated score is the result of extremely low masculine and feminine scores. It has been theorized that perhaps tendencies to rate oneself extremely low and extremely high on traits can affect a subjects' resulting gender placement.
The degree of reliability of each scoring technique is up for debate. When comparing the old t ratio scoring to the newly endorsed median split technique, 42.3% of participants had a different resulting categorization. Since the median split method bases scores more heavily on the normative data of that population, a participant can be categorized differently based on the population of subjects they take the test with. For example, results may differ if the test was administered to a group of marines versus students at a private girls highschool. This challenges the test's between sample reliability. As stated by Elazae Pedhazur in a clip from his critique, "Bem concludes her discussion by stating, 'Finally, we urge investigators to further analyze their data without categorizing individual subjects in any way, i.e., through the use of multiple regression technique.' While endorsing what appears to be a suggestion to conduct studies within the framework of trait-treatment interactions, one cannot help wondering: Where has androgyny gone?"
Bem Sex-Role Inventory (short form)
The short form of the BSRI consists of 30 items. It has a strong .90 correlation with the original BSRI. This short form of the test allows for increased internal consistency. Bem reports similar masculinity coefficient alphas and higher femininity coefficient alphas with this form. The short form discards the traits "feminine", "masculine", and "athletic" from the self-report scales. Specifically, the short form removed some feminine traits that could be seen as less socially desirable such as "gullible" and "childlike". Masculine categories depict "assertive-dominance" and "instrumentality", while feminine categories depict "nurtureness-interpersonal warmth" and "expressiveness".
See also
Gender expression
Sex and gender distinction
Notes and references
Gender roles
Role status
Androgyny
Personality tests measuring masculinity-femininity | wiki |
PRHS may refer to one of the following high schools:
Palmetto Ridge High School in Orangetree, Florida, USA
Park Ridge High School in Park Ridge, New Jersey, USA
Parrsboro Regional High School in Parrsboro, Nova Scotia, Canada
Paso Robles High School in Paso Robles, California, USA
Paul Robeson High School (disambiguation), multiple schools
Peachtree Ridge High School in Suwanee, Georgia, USA
Pearl River High School (disambiguation), multiple schools
Pentucket Regional High School in West Newbury, Massachusetts, USA
Pinelands Regional High School in Tuckerton, New Jersey, USA
Pine-Richland High School in Gibsonia, Pennsylvania, USA
Plymouth Regional High School in Plymouth, New Hampshire, USA
Porter Ridge High School in Union County, North Carolina, USA
Prairie Ridge High School in Crystal Lake, Illinois, USA | wiki |
RBCL may refer to:
RbCl or Rubidium chloride, an alkali metal halide
rbcL or RuBisCO large subunit, a plant gene | wiki |
Twisted (canção) - de Keith Sweat
Twisted (série de televisão) - transmitida pela ABC Family em 2013
WarioWare: Twisted! - um jogo eletrônico
Desambiguação | wiki |
The 2010 Royal Rumble was the 23rd annual Royal Rumble professional wrestling pay-per-view (PPV) event produced by World Wrestling Entertainment (WWE). It was held for wrestlers from the promotion's Raw, SmackDown, and ECW brand divisions. The event took place on January 31, 2010, at the Philips Arena in Atlanta, Georgia. As has been customary since 1993, the Royal Rumble match winner received a world championship match at that year's WrestleMania. For the 2010 event, the winner received their choice to challenge for either Raw's WWE Championship, SmackDown's World Heavyweight Championship, or the ECW Championship at WrestleMania XXVI—this was the last Royal Rumble in which the ECW Championship was an option as the ECW brand was disbanded in February, also deactivating the title, thus also being WWE's last PPV to include the ECW brand.
Six professional wrestling matches were featured on the event's supercard, a scheduling of more than one main event. The main event was the 2010 Royal Rumble match, which featured wrestlers from all three brands. SmackDown's Edge, the twenty-ninth entrant, won the match by last eliminating Raw's John Cena, the nineteenth entrant. The primary match on the Raw brand was for the WWE Championship between reigning champion Sheamus and Randy Orton, which Sheamus won by disqualification. The primary match on the SmackDown brand was between The Undertaker and Rey Mysterio for the World Heavyweight Championship, which The Undertaker won to retain the championship. The featured match on the ECW brand was between Christian and Ezekiel Jackson for the ECW Championship, which Christian won to retain.
Production
Background
The Royal Rumble is an annual gimmick pay-per-view (PPV), produced every January by World Wrestling Entertainment (WWE) since 1988. It is one of the promotion's original four pay-per-views, along with WrestleMania, SummerSlam, and Survivor Series, dubbed the "Big Four". It is named after the Royal Rumble match, a modified battle royal in which the participants enter at timed intervals instead of all beginning in the ring at the same time. The 2010 event was the 23rd event in the Royal Rumble chronology and was scheduled to be held on January 31, 2010, at the Philips Arena in Atlanta, Georgia. It featured wrestlers from the Raw, SmackDown, and ECW brands.
The Royal Rumble match generally features 30 wrestlers. Traditionally, the winner of the match earns a world championship match at that year's WrestleMania. For 2010, the winner could choose to challenge for either Raw's WWE Championship, SmackDown's World Heavyweight Championship, or the ECW Championship at WrestleMania XXVI.
Storylines
The card consisted of seven matches, as well as one dark match. The matches resulted from scripted storylines, where wrestlers portrayed heroes, villains, or less distinguishable characters to build tension and culminated in a wrestling match or series of matches. Results were predetermined by WWE's writers on the Raw, SmackDown, and ECW brands, with storylines produced on their weekly television shows, Raw, SmackDown, and ECW.
On the December 15, 2009 episode of ECW, general manager Tiffany announced that the ECW brand would host a competition called the "ECW Homecoming", where the winner will face Christian for the ECW Championship at the Royal Rumble. Featuring current and former wrestlers from the ECW brand, the first round of the competition consisted of eight singles matches. The winners would then qualify to the "Homecoming Finale" on the January 12, 2010 episode of ECW, where they would fight in an eight-man battle royal that will determine the competition winner. The first two qualifying matches were featured later that night with Ezekiel Jackson defeating Vladimir Kozlov and Kane defeating Zack Ryder. On the December 22, 2009 episode of ECW, Jack Swagger returned in a losing effort to Yoshi Tatsu, while Vance Archer advanced with a victory over Goldust. On the December 29, 2009 episode of ECW, Matt Hardy and Evan Bourne defeated Finlay and Mike Knox respectively to qualify. The two remaining qualifying matches were held on the January 5, 2010 episode of ECW and saw Shelton Benjamin defeating Chavo Guerrero Jr. and CM Punk defeating Mark Henry to qualify. Ezekiel Jackson won the "Homecoming Finale", last eliminating Kane, to earn the right to face Christian at the Royal Rumble.
On the January 4 episode of Raw, a fatal four-way match was held to determine the number one contender for WWE United States Championship featuring Montel Vontavious Porter, Mark Henry, Carlito and Jack Swagger. Porter emerged victorious by pinning Swagger, and earned a match against The Miz for the championship.
It was announced on December 31, 2009, on the company's official website that The Undertaker would be defending the World Heavyweight Championship at the Royal Rumble; the means of determining the challenger was stated to be via the "Beat the Clock Sprint", a series of matches that sees who ever wins their match in the fastest time would be declared the number-one contender. The sprint, held on the January 1, 2010, episode of SmackDown, consisted of four matches involving CM Punk, Kane, Chris Jericho, Rey Mysterio Jr., Dolph Ziggler, R-Truth, Matt Hardy, and Batista. The wrestler who won his match in the quickest time would earn the championship match. Punk defeated Hardy in his match, setting the time at 7:20. The next match featured Kane and Ziggler; both failed to beat the time limit and the match ended in a draw. Mysterio defeated his former rival Jericho one second faster than Punk's time, with 7:19. The final match was Batista versus R-Truth; the match resulted in another time-limit draw, due in part to interference from Mysterio. Despite Mysterio's fastest time, on-screen consultant Vickie Guerrero overruled the result, announcing a match the following week between Mysterio and Batista, who had disputably won his match. The match between the two on the January 8 episode of SmackDown was declared a no contest following both men being incapacitated. A rematch between the two was held the following week, this time inside a steel cage. Mysterio won the match, earning the right to face The Undertaker at the Royal Rumble.
The main event for Raw was determined on the January 11 episode with guest host Mike Tyson announcing the winner of a Triple Threat match later that night between John Cena, Kofi Kingston, and Randy Orton would advance to face Sheamus at the Royal Rumble for the WWE Championship. Orton ultimately won with the help of Legacy, who took out Cena and Kingston for him.
Since November of the previous year, WWE Women's Champion Michelle McCool had been relentlessly insulting Mickie James over a perceived weight issue. The two had a match at TLC: Tables, Ladders & Chairs, which saw McCool win, continuing the torment. James confronted McCool on the January 15 episode of SmackDown during a mocking monologue about James, leading to the champion assaulting her. It was also confirmed that day that McCool would defend her title again at the Royal Rumble against James.
Event
Before the event aired live on pay-per-view, an untelevised match took place in which Gail Kim, Kelly Kelly, Eve Torres, and Bella Twins (Nikki and Brie) defeated Maryse, Katie Lea Burchill, Jillian Hall, Alicia Fox, and Natalya in a 10-Diva tag team match.
Preliminary matches
The event opened with Christian defending the ECW Championship against Ezekiel Jackson, who was accompanied by William Regal. Regal attempted to interfere but the referee noticed, ejecting Regal from ringside. Christian executed the Killswitch on Jackson to retain the title.
Next, The Miz defended the WWE United States Championship against Montel Vontavious Porter, as Theodore Long booked in a backstage segment. After MVP chased Miz into the ring, Miz pinned him with a small package to retain the title.
After that, Sheamus defended the WWE Championship against Randy Orton. Sheamus dominated most of the match, targeting Orton's left arm. Sheamus attempted Pale Justice on Orton but Orton countered the move with a Rope Hung DDT. Orton pinned Sheamus but Sheamus touched the bottom rope, voiding the pinfall. Orton attempted a punt on Sheamus but Sheamus countered and targeted Orton's left arm. Cody Rhodes interfered and attacked Sheamus, meaning Sheamus retained the title by disqualification. After the match, Orton confronted and attacked Rhodes. Ted DiBiase Jr. came out but was also attacked by Orton. Sheamus attacked Orton with a Brogue Kick and celebrated his victory.
Next, Michelle McCool defended the WWE Women's Championship against Mickie James. McCool was accompanied by Layla. Before the match began, McCool taunted James by calling her "Piggy James" and Layla wore a fat suit to mock James. As the match started, "Piggy James" Layla tried to attack the genuine James but McCool accidentally executed a Big Boot on Layla. James took advantage and executed a Mickie DDT to win the title.
The fifth match featured The Undertaker defending the World Heavyweight Championship against Rey Mysterio Jr. After countering a Last Ride, Mysterio executed two 619s on Undertaker. Mysterio attempted a West Coast Pop but Undertaker caught Mysterio and executed a Last Ride to retain the title.
Main event
The main event was the Royal Rumble match for a world championship match at WrestleMania XXVI. Dolph Ziggler and Evan Bourne, the first two entrants, were quickly eliminated by the third entrant CM Punk. After eliminating both men, Punk began talking on the microphone, boasting of his intention to win, carrying this on for all of his time in the match. Punk quickly eliminated the fourth entrant, JTG, before being stopped by The Great Khali, the fifth entrant. The sixth person to enter the match was Beth Phoenix, who became only the second WWE Diva to participate in a Royal Rumble, after Chyna. Phoenix eliminated Khali by pulling him over the top rope while kissing him but was eliminated by Punk immediately afterwards. Triple H entered at number eight and eliminated Punk. Montel Vontavious Porter, the fourteenth entrant, was attacked by The Miz during his ring entrance and taken backstage by medical personnel without entering the match. Miz then entered at number sixteen but Porter returned to the match and eliminated both himself and Miz. The other half of D-Generation X, Shawn Michaels, entered at number eighteen and he and Triple H eliminated all the other competitors in the match, leaving themselves. Michaels and Triple H were immediately joined by the nineteenth entrant, John Cena. After double-teaming Cena and taking him down, Michaels performed a Sweet Chin Music on Triple H to eliminate him. Another notable moment in the match came when R-Truth eliminated Big Show and Mark Henry at the same time. Chris Jericho entered the ring as the twenty-eighth entrant and was soon joined by the twenty-ninth entrant, Edge, who was making his return following a six-month hiatus due to injury. Edge performed spears on Jericho, Michaels and Cena before eliminating Jericho. Batista entered at number thirty as the final entrant. This brought the final four down to Michaels, Cena, Edge and Batista. After all four competitors traded moves on each other, Batista eliminated Michaels, who tried to rejoin the match but was stopped, resulting in him superkicking a referee before walking to the back frustrated. After a quick back and forth, Cena eliminated Batista, bringing the final two down to himself and Edge. Cena countered a spear attempt from Edge and went to eliminate him, but Edge instead eliminated Cena to win the match. In doing so, Edge would gain the new record of spending the least amount of time in the rumble match before winning it. He was in the match for 7 minutes and 37 seconds, besting the previous record set by Cena by 51 seconds. This record lasted for 12 years until it was broken by Brock Lesnar in 2022.
Reception
The Royal Rumble received generally positive reviews from critics. The event earned 462,000 pay-per-view buys, an increase of 12,000 on the 2009 Royal Rumble.
Aftermath
After failing to win the Royal Rumble match and losing an Elimination Chamber qualifying match to Randy Orton, Shawn Michaels cost The Undertaker the World Heavyweight Championship against Chris Jericho in the SmackDown Elimination Chamber match at Elimination Chamber. As a result, Michaels challenged Undertaker to a rematch of their WrestleMania XXV match at WrestleMania XXVI. Undertaker agreed on the term that if Michaels lost, he would retire from professional wrestling. A stipulation was added that the match would be contested under no disqualifications and no countouts. At WrestleMania, Undertaker defeated Michaels to extend his WrestleMania winning streak to 18–0 and Michaels was forced to retire.
As a result of winning the 2010 Royal Rumble match, Edge earned the opportunity to wrestle for a world championship of his choosing at WrestleMania XXVI. After Chris Jericho won the World Heavyweight Championship from The Undertaker in an Elimination Chamber match at Elimination Chamber, Edge announced that he would wrestle Jericho, whom Edge had shared the WWE Undisputed Tag Team Championships with at the time of his injury, for the title. At WrestleMania, Jericho defeated Edge to retain the title. After the match, Edge would be frustrated, spearing Chris Jericho through the barricade in the process at ringside. The rivalry ended after Edge defeated Jericho in a Steel Cage match at Extreme Rules.
John Cena eliminated Batista from the Royal Rumble match, which started a conflict between Batista and Cena. On the February 1 episode of Raw, Cena rescued Bret Hart from an assault by Batista and Vince McMahon. After the show ended, Cena tried to help Hart but was attacked by Batista. At Elimination Chamber, Cena won the WWE Championship from Sheamus in an Elimination Chamber match. After the match, McMahon ordered Cena to defend the title against Batista. Batista defeated Cena to win the WWE Championship. At WrestleMania XXVI, Cena defeated Batista to regain the WWE Championship. Cena would retain the title against Batista in a Last Man Standing match at Extreme Rules and in an "I Quit" match at Over the Limit, which forced Batista to quit WWE.
After the Royal Rumble, Christian and Ezekiel Jackson continued to feud over the ECW Championship. On February 2, however, WWE Chairman Vince McMahon announced that ECW would be going off the air and would air its final episode on February 16. On the final episode of ECW, Jackson, with the help of William Regal, defeated Christian in an Extreme Rules match to become the final ECW Champion. Afterwards, the ECW brand was discontinued, subsequently retiring the championship. This would in turn be the last Royal Rumble in which three titles were an option for the Rumble winner until 2020.
Results
Royal Rumble entrances and eliminations
– Raw
– SmackDown
– ECW
– Winner
1 – MVP was attacked by The Miz during his entrance, but later entered the match shortly after Miz's entry and eliminated both himself and Miz from the match.
References
External links
Official website
Official microsite
2010
Events in Atlanta
2010 in Georgia (U.S. state)
Professional wrestling in Atlanta
2010 WWE pay-per-view events
January 2010 events in the United States | wiki |
1856 in archaeology
Explorations
Excavations
Finds
First remains of Neanderthal Man found in the Neandertal Valley of Germany.
Publications
Births
28 September: Edward Herbert Thompson, Mayanist
Deaths
See also
List of years in archaeology
1855 in archaeology
1857 in archaeology
References
Archaeology
Archaeology by year
Archaeology
Archaeology | wiki |
The Yamaha Raptor 700R is a full-size all terrain vehicle (ATV) or quad bike. The Raptor 700R is Yamaha's second generation of the Raptor (first gen being the Raptor 660) and is powered by a 686cc single cylinder overhead cam electronically fuel injected engine, with electric start and a five-speed manual transmission with a single-speed reverse.
Specifications
References
External links
Yamaha Motor Corporation
Raptor 700R | wiki |
Jugular vein ectasia is a venous anomaly that commonly presents itself as a unilateral neck swelling in children and adults. It is rare to have bilateral neck swelling due to internal jugular vein ectasia.
References
External links
Vascular diseases | wiki |
Exile (banda estadunidense)
Exile (banda japonesa)
Exile (canção de Enya) - de 1989
Exile (produtor) - cujo nome real é Aleksander Manfredi
Exile (álbum) - da dupla britânica de synthpop Hurts
Desambiguação | wiki |
Donnie Loves Jenny is an American reality television series which premiered on January 7, 2015, on the A&E cable network. Announced in November 2014, the series chronicles the lives of Donnie Wahlberg and Jenny McCarthy as newlyweds. The series premiered with a one-hour wedding episode.
The show is co-produced by D&J Productions, a production company launched by Wahlberg and McCarthy. Both of them have previously appeared on Wahlburgers, another reality series which airs on the same network. "We’re thrilled to join Donnie and Jenny as they begin the next chapter of their lives," said David McKillop, Executive Vice President of the network. "Viewers have enjoyed following their relationship on ‘Wahlburgers’ and we look forward to sharing this next part of their journey," he also added.
Episodes
Season 1 (2015)
Season 2 (2015)
Season 3 (2016)
References
External links
2010s American reality television series
2015 American television series debuts
English-language television shows
A&E (TV network) original programming
2016 American television series endings
Television series about marriage
Wahlberg family
American television spin-offs
Reality television spin-offs | wiki |
Holiday Lakes est une petite ville située au centre du comté de Brazoria, au Texas, aux États-Unis.
Démographie
Lors du recensement de 2010, la ville comptait une population de . Elle est estimée, le , à .
Références
Voir aussi
Article connexe
Texas
Liens externes
.
.
Source de la traduction
Town au Texas
Comté de Brazoria | wiki |
Marine 5 may refer to:
Marine 5 (Rhode Island fireboat)
The Marine 5: Battleground, a 2017 American film from The Marine franchise | wiki |
The Mayor of Havering was a position first established in 1965 with the creation of the London Borough of Havering. It replaced the mayor of Romford.
The Mayor is a councillor elected by Havering Council at a Mayor-making ceremony in May to serve for a year, during which time they act as the borough's civic and ceremonial head.
List of Mayors
References
Havering
London Borough of Havering | wiki |
Musique
Motörhead : groupe de heavy metal britannique ;
Motörhead : album éponyme de 1997 ;
Jim « Motorhead » Sherwood, membre du groupe The Mothers of Invention.
Autres
Motorhead : jeu vidéo de 1998. | wiki |
Powderfinger (Neil Young) (1979), een lied van Neil Young
Powderfinger (band), een Australische rockband (1989-2010) | wiki |
Stoß may refer to:
Stoß (card game), a German gambling card game usually known as Tempeln
Stoß (unit), a unit of cattle stock density
See also
Stoss (disambiguation) | wiki |
Urú may refer to:
Urú, the Spanish name for the spot-winged wood quail
Urú or eclipsis, a type of initial consonant mutation in the Irish language
See also
Uru (disambiguation)
Urús, a village in Girona, Catalonia, Spain | wiki |
Brad Hubbert (born June 5, 1941 in Boligee, Alabama) is an American former collegiate and professional football player.
See also
Other American Football League players
References
1941 births
Living people
People from Boligee, Alabama
American football running backs
Arizona Wildcats football players
San Diego Chargers players
American Football League All-Star players
American Football League players
Players of American football from Alabama | wiki |
A longeing cavesson (UK English: lungeing) is a piece of equipment used when longeing a horse. A longeing cavesson consists of a heavy, padded noseband, metal rings to attach the longe line, a throatlatch, and sometimes additional straps such as a jowl strap or a browband for added stability. It is placed on the horse's head in a manner somewhat akin to a halter, but provides significantly more control than a halter, without placing pressure on the horse's mouth as a bridle would. The noseband should be just below the cheekbone, several inches above the nostrils sitting on the nasal bone, and fitted snugly. The jowl strap should be very snug to prevent the cavesson from slipping into the horse's eye.
The key feature of a longeing cavesson is the strategic placement of rings for varying places to attach the longe line: one at the top of the nasal bone and one each side of the noseband. Many other types of headgear may be used for longeing, but the longeing cavesson is most commonly associated with dressage and related training methods and is designed to allow more subtle communication between handler and horse.
A longeing cavesson may be used with a snaffle bridle. The cavesson is put on under the bridle, with the noseband of the cavesson under the bridle cheekpieces. On some horses, the bridle cheekpieces may need to be lengthened to allow this. If the bridle also has its own cavesson, it may need to be removed to reduce bulk and avoid interference with other components.
See also
Bridle
Halter
Headgear (horse)
de:Zaumzeug#Kappzaum | wiki |
The woolly mammoth (Mammuthus primigenius) is an extinct species of mammoth that lived during the Pleistocene until its extinction in the Holocene epoch. It was one of the last in a line of mammoth species, beginning with the African Mammuthus subplanifrons in the early Pliocene. The woolly mammoth began to diverge from the steppe mammoth about 800,000 years ago in East Asia. Its closest extant relative is the Asian elephant. The Columbian mammoth (Mammuthus columbi) lived alongside the woolly mammoth in North America, and DNA studies show that the two hybridised with each other.
The appearance and behaviour of this species are among the best studied of any prehistoric animal because of the discovery of frozen carcasses in Siberia and North America, as well as skeletons, teeth, stomach contents, dung, and depiction from life in prehistoric cave paintings. Mammoth remains had long been known in Asia before they became known to Europeans in the 17th century. The origin of these remains was long a matter of debate, and often explained as being remains of legendary creatures. The mammoth was identified as an extinct species of elephant by Georges Cuvier in 1796.
The woolly mammoth was roughly the same size as modern African elephants. Males reached shoulder heights between and weighed up to . Females reached in shoulder heights and weighed up to . A newborn calf weighed about . The woolly mammoth was well adapted to the cold environment during the last ice age. It was covered in fur, with an outer covering of long guard hairs and a shorter undercoat. The colour of the coat varied from dark to light. The ears and tail were short to minimise frostbite and heat loss. It had long, curved tusks and four molars, which were replaced six times during the lifetime of an individual. Its behaviour was similar to that of modern elephants, and it used its tusks and trunk for manipulating objects, fighting, and foraging. The diet of the woolly mammoth was mainly grasses and sedges. Individuals could probably reach the age of 60. Its habitat was the mammoth steppe, which stretched across northern Eurasia and North America.
The woolly mammoth coexisted with early humans, who used its bones and tusks for making art, tools, and dwellings, and hunted the species for food. The population of woolly mammoths declined at the end of the Pleistocene, disappearing throughout most of its mainland range, although isolated populations survived on St. Paul Island until 5,600 years ago, on Wrangel Island until 4,000 years ago, and possibly (based on ancient eDNA) in the Yukon up to 5,700 years ago and on the Taymyr Peninsula up to 3,900 years ago. After its extinction, humans continued using its ivory as a raw material, a tradition that continues today. With a genome project for the mammoth completed in 2015, it has been proposed the species could be revived through various means, but none of the methods proposed are yet feasible.
Taxonomy
Remains of various extinct elephants were known by Europeans for centuries, but were generally interpreted, based on biblical accounts, as the remains of legendary creatures such as behemoths or giants. They were thought to be remains of modern elephants that had been brought to Europe during the Roman Republic, for example the war elephants of Hannibal and Pyrrhus of Epirus, or animals that had wandered north. The first woolly mammoth remains studied by European scientists were examined by Hans Sloane in 1728 and consisted of fossilised teeth and tusks from Siberia. Sloane was the first to recognise that the remains belonged to elephants. Sloane turned to another biblical explanation for the presence of elephants in the Arctic, asserting that they had been buried during the Great Flood, and that Siberia had previously been tropical before a drastic climate change.
Others interpreted Sloane's conclusion slightly differently, arguing the flood had carried elephants from the tropics to the Arctic. Sloane's paper was based on travellers' descriptions and a few scattered bones collected in Siberia and Britain. He discussed the question of whether or not the remains were from elephants, but drew no conclusions. In 1738, the German zoologist Johann Philipp Breyne argued that mammoth fossils represented some kind of elephant. He could not explain why a tropical animal would be found in such a cold area as Siberia, and suggested that they might have been transported there by the Great Flood.
In 1796, French biologist Georges Cuvier was the first to identify the woolly mammoth remains not as modern elephants transported to the Arctic, but as an entirely new species. He argued this species had gone extinct and no longer existed, a concept that was not widely accepted at the time. Following Cuvier's identification, German naturalist Johann Friedrich Blumenbach gave the woolly mammoth its scientific name, Elephas primigenius, in 1799, placing it in the same genus as the Asian elephant. This name is Latin for "the first-born elephant". Cuvier coined the name Elephas mammonteus a few months later, but the former name was subsequently used. In 1828, the British naturalist Joshua Brookes used the name Mammuthus borealis for woolly mammoth fossils in his collection that he put up for sale, thereby coining a new genus name.
Where and how the word "mammoth" originated is unclear. According to the Oxford English Dictionary, it comes from an old Vogul word mēmoŋt, "earth-horn". It may be a version of mehemot, the Arabic version of the biblical word "behemoth". Another possible origin is Estonian, where maa means "earth", and mutt means "mole". The word was first used in Europe during the early 17th century, when referring to maimanto tusks discovered in Siberia. American president Thomas Jefferson, who had a keen interest in palaeontology, was partially responsible for transforming the word "mammoth" from a noun describing the prehistoric elephant to an adjective describing anything of surprisingly large size. The first recorded use of the word as an adjective was in a description of a wheel of cheese (the "Cheshire Mammoth Cheese") given to Jefferson in 1802.
By the early 20th century, the taxonomy of extinct elephants was complex. In 1942, American palaeontologist Henry Fairfield Osborn's posthumous monograph on the Proboscidea was published, wherein he used various taxon names that had previously been proposed for mammoth species, including replacing Mammuthus with Mammonteus, as he believed the former name to be invalidly published. Mammoth taxonomy was simplified by various researchers from the 1970s onwards, all species were retained in the genus Mammuthus, and many proposed differences between species were instead interpreted as intraspecific variation.
Osborn chose two molars (found in Siberia and Osterode) from Blumenbach's collection at Göttingen University as the lectotype specimens for the woolly mammoth, since holotype designation was not practised in Blumenbach's time. Soviet palaeontologist Vera Gromova further proposed the former should be considered the lectotype with the latter as paralectotype. Both molars were thought lost by the 1980s, and the more complete "Taimyr mammoth" found in Siberia in 1948 was therefore proposed as the neotype specimen in 1990. Resolutions to historical issues about the validity of the genus name Mammuthus and the type species designation of E. primigenius were also proposed. The paralectotype molar (specimen GZG.V.010.018) has since been located in the Göttingen University collection, identified by comparing it with Osborn's illustration of a cast.
Evolution
The earliest known members of the Proboscidea, the clade which contains modern elephants, existed about 55 million years ago around the Tethys Sea. The closest known relatives of the Proboscidea are the sirenians (dugongs and manatees) and the hyraxes (an order of small, herbivorous mammals). The family Elephantidae existed 6 million years ago in Africa and includes the modern elephants and the mammoths. Among many now extinct clades, the mastodon (Mammut) is only a distant relative of the mammoths, and part of the separate family Mammutidae, which diverged 25 million years before the mammoths evolved. The following cladogram shows the placement of the genus Mammuthus among other proboscideans, based on characteristics of the hyoid bone in the neck:
Within six weeks from 2005-2006, three teams of researchers independently assembled mitochondrial genome profiles of the woolly mammoth from ancient DNA, which allowed them to confirm the close evolutionary relationship between mammoths and Asian elephants (Elephas maximus). A 2015 DNA review confirmed Asian elephants as the closest living relative of the woolly mammoth. African elephants (Loxodonta africana) branched away from this clade around 6 million years ago, close to the time of the similar split between chimpanzees and humans. A 2010 study confirmed these relationships, and suggested the mammoth and Asian elephant lineages diverged 5.8–7.8 million years ago, while African elephants diverged from an earlier common ancestor 6.6–8.8 million years ago.
In 2008, much of the woolly mammoth's chromosomal DNA was mapped. The analysis showed that the woolly mammoth and the African elephant are 98.55% to 99.40% identical. The team mapped the woolly mammoth's nuclear genome sequence by extracting DNA from the hair follicles of both a 20,000-year-old mammoth retrieved from permafrost and another that died 60,000 years ago. In 2012, proteins were confidently identified for the first time, collected from a 43,000-year-old woolly mammoth.
Since many remains of each species of mammoth are known from several localities, reconstructing the evolutionary history of the genus through morphological studies is possible. Mammoth species can be identified from the number of enamel ridges (or lamellar plates) on their molars; primitive species had few ridges, and the number increased gradually as new species evolved to feed on more abrasive food items. The crowns of the teeth became deeper in height and the skulls became taller to accommodate this. At the same time, the skulls became shorter from front to back to minimise the weight of the head. The short and tall skulls of woolly and Columbian mammoths (Mammuthus columbi) were the culmination of this process.
The first known members of the genus Mammuthus are the African species Mammuthus subplanifrons from the Pliocene, and M. africanavus from the Pleistocene. The former is thought to be the ancestor of later forms. Mammoths entered Europe around 3 million years ago. The earliest European mammoth has been named M. rumanus; it spread across Europe and China. Only its molars are known, which show that it had 8–10 enamel ridges. A population evolved 12–14 ridges, splitting off from and replacing the earlier type, becoming the southern mammoth (M. meridionalis) about 2–1.7 million years ago. In turn, this species was replaced by the steppe mammoth (M. trogontherii) with 18–20 ridges, which evolved in eastern Asia around 1 million years ago. Mammoths derived from M. trogontherii evolved molars with 26 ridges 400,000 years ago in Siberia and became the woolly mammoth. Woolly mammoths entered North America about 100,000 years ago by crossing the Bering Strait.
Subspecies and hybridisation
Individuals and populations showing transitional morphologies between each of the mammoth species are known, and primitive and derived species coexisted until the former disappeared. The different species and their intermediate forms have been termed "chronospecies". Many taxa intermediate between M. primigenius and other mammoths have been proposed, but their validity is uncertain; depending on author, they are either considered primitive forms of an advanced species or advanced forms of a primitive species. Distinguishing and determining these intermediate forms has been called one of the most long-lasting and complicated problems in Quaternary palaeontology. Regional and intermediate species and subspecies such as M. intermedius, M. chosaricus, M. p. primigenius, M. p. jatzkovi, M. p. sibiricus, M. p. fraasi, M. p. leith-adamsi, M. p. hydruntinus, M. p. astensis, M. p. americanus, M. p. compressus and M. p. alaskensis have been proposed.
A 2011 genetic study showed that two examined specimens of the Columbian mammoth were grouped within a subclade of woolly mammoths. This suggests that the two populations interbred and produced fertile offspring. A North American type formerly referred to as M. jeffersonii may be a hybrid between the two species. A 2015 study suggested that the animals in the range where M. columbi and M. primigenius overlapped formed a metapopulation of hybrids with varying morphology. It suggested that Eurasian M. primigenius had a similar relationship with M. trogontherii in areas where their range overlapped.
In 2021, DNA older than a million years was sequenced for the first time, from two mammoth teeth of Early Pleistocene age found in eastern Siberia. One tooth from Adycha (1–1.3 million years old) belonged to a lineage that was ancestral to later woolly mammoths, whereas the other from Krestovka (1.1–1.65 million years old) belonged to new lineage. The study found that half of the ancestry of Columbian mammoths came from relatives of the Krestovka lineage (which probably represented the first mammoths that colonised the Americas) and the other half from the lineage of woolly mammoths, with the hybridisation happening more than 420,000 years ago, during the Middle Pleistocene. Later woolly and Columbian mammoths also interbred occasionally, and mammoth species may have hybridised routinely when brought together by glacial expansion. These findings were the first evidence of hybrid speciation from ancient DNA. The study also found that genetic adaptations to cold environments, such as hair growth and fat deposits, were already present in the steppe mammoth lineage and were not unique to woolly mammoths.
Description
The appearance of the woolly mammoth is probably the best known of any prehistoric animal due to the many frozen specimens with preserved soft tissue and depictions by contemporary humans in their art. Fully grown males reached shoulder heights between and weighed up to . This is almost as large as extant male African elephants, which commonly reach a shoulder height of , and is less than the size of the earlier mammoth species M. meridionalis and M. trogontherii, and the contemporary M. columbi. The reason for the smaller size is unknown. Female woolly mammoths reached in shoulder heights and were built more lightly than males, weighing up to . A newborn calf would have weighed about .
These sizes are deduced from comparison with modern elephants of similar size. Few frozen specimens have preserved genitals, so the sex is usually determined through examination of the skeleton. The best indication of sex is the size of the pelvic girdle, since the opening that functions as the birth canal is always wider in females than in males. Though the mammoths on Wrangel Island were smaller than those of the mainland, their size varied, and they were not small enough to be considered "island dwarfs". The last woolly mammoth populations are claimed to have decreased in size and increased their sexual dimorphism, but this was dismissed in a 2012 study.
Woolly mammoths had several adaptations to the cold, most noticeably the layer of fur covering all parts of their bodies. Other adaptations to cold weather include ears that are far smaller than those of modern elephants; they were about long and across, and the ear of the 6- to 12-month-old frozen calf "Dima" was under long. The small ears reduced heat loss and frostbite, and the tail was short for the same reason, only long in the "Berezovka mammoth". The tail contained 21 vertebrae, whereas the tails of modern elephants contain 28–33. Their skin was no thicker than that of present-day elephants, between . They had a layer of fat up to thick under the skin, which helped to keep them warm. Woolly mammoths had broad flaps of skin under their tails which covered the anus; this is also seen in modern elephants.
Other characteristic features depicted in cave paintings include a large, high, single-domed head and a sloping back with a high shoulder hump; this shape resulted from the spinous processes of the back vertebrae decreasing in length from front to rear. These features were not present in juveniles, which had convex backs like Asian elephants. Another feature shown in cave paintings was confirmed by the discovery of a frozen specimen in 1924, an adult nicknamed the "Middle Kolyma mammoth", which was preserved with a complete trunk tip. Unlike the trunk lobes of modern elephants, the upper "finger" at the tip of the trunk had a long pointed lobe and was long, while the lower "thumb" was and was broader. The trunk of "Dima" was long, whereas the trunk of the adult "Liakhov mammoth" was long. The well-preserved trunk of a juvenile specimen nicknamed "Yuka" was described in 2015, and it was shown to possess a fleshy expansion a third above the tip. Rather than oval as the rest of the trunk, this part was ellipsoidal in cross section, and double the size in diameter. The feature was shown to be present in two other specimens, of different sexes and ages.
Coat
The coat consisted of an outer layer of long, coarse "guard hair", which was on the upper part of the body, up to in length on the flanks and underside, and in diameter, and a denser inner layer of shorter, slightly curly under-wool, up to long and in diameter. The hairs on the upper leg were up to long, and those of the feet were long, reaching the toes. The hairs on the head were relatively short, but longer on the underside and the sides of the trunk. The tail was extended by coarse hairs up to long, which were thicker than the guard hairs. The woolly mammoth likely moulted seasonally, and the heaviest fur was shed during spring.
Since mammoth carcasses were more likely to be preserved, possibly only the winter coat has been preserved in frozen specimens. Modern elephants have much less hair, though juveniles have a more extensive covering of hair than adults. This is thought to be for thermoregulation, helping them lose heat in their hot environments. Comparison between the over-hairs of woolly mammoths and extant elephants show that they did not differ much in overall morphology. Woolly mammoths had numerous sebaceous glands in their skin, which secreted oils into their hair; this would have improved the wool's insulation, repelled water, and given the fur a glossy sheen.
Preserved woolly mammoth fur is orange-brown, but this is believed to be an artefact from the bleaching of pigment during burial. The amount of pigmentation varied from hair to hair and within each hair. A 2006 study sequenced the Mc1r gene (which influences hair colour in mammals) from woolly mammoth bones. Two alleles were found: a dominant (fully active) and a recessive (partially active) one. In mammals, recessive Mc1r alleles result in light hair. Mammoths born with at least one copy of the dominant allele would have had dark coats, while those with two copies of the recessive allele would have had light coats. A 2011 study showed that light individuals would have been rare. A 2014 study instead indicated that the colouration of an individual varied from nonpigmented on the overhairs, bicoloured, nonpigmented and mixed red-brown guard hairs, and nonpigmented underhairs, which would give a light overall appearance.
Dentition
Woolly mammoths had very long tusks (modified incisor teeth), which were more curved than those of modern elephants. The largest known male tusk is long and weighs , but and was a more typical size. Female tusks were smaller and thinner, and weighing . For comparison, the record for longest tusks of the African bush elephant is . The sheaths of the tusks were parallel and spaced closely. About a quarter of the length was inside the sockets. The tusks grew spirally in opposite directions from the base and continued in a curve until the tips pointed towards each other, sometimes crossing. In this way, most of the weight would have been close to the skull, and less torque would occur than with straight tusks.
The tusks were usually asymmetrical and showed considerable variation, with some tusks curving down instead of outwards and some being shorter due to breakage. Calves developed small milk tusks a few centimetres long at six months old, which were replaced by permanent tusks a year later. Tusk growth continued throughout life, but became slower as the animal reached adulthood. The tusks grew by each year. Some cave paintings show woolly mammoths with small or no tusks, but whether this reflected reality or was artistic license is unknown. Female Asian elephants have no tusks, but no fossil evidence indicates that any adult woolly mammoths lacked them.
Woolly mammoths had four functional molar teeth at a time—two in the upper jaw and two in the lower. About of the crown was within the jaw, and was above. The crown was continually pushed forwards and up as it wore down, comparable to a conveyor belt. The teeth had up to 26 separated ridges of enamel, which were themselves covered in "prisms" that were directed towards the chewing surface. These were quite wear-resistant and kept together by cementum and dentine. A mammoth had six sets of molars throughout a lifetime, which were replaced five times, though a few specimens with a seventh set are known. The latter condition could extend the lifespan of the individual, unless the tooth consisted of only a few plates. The first molars were about the size of those of a human, , the third were 15 cm (6 in) long, and the sixth were about long and weighed . The molars grew larger and contained more ridges with each replacement. The woolly mammoth is considered to have had the most complex molars of any elephant.
Palaeobiology
Adult woolly mammoths could effectively defend themselves from predators with their tusks, trunks and size, but juveniles and weakened adults were vulnerable to pack hunters such as wolves, cave hyenas, and large felines. The tusks may have been used in intraspecies fighting, such as fights over territory or mates. Display of the large tusks of males could have been used to attract females and to intimidate rivals. Because of their curvature, the tusks were unsuitable for stabbing, but may have been used for hitting, as indicated by injuries to some fossil shoulder blades.
The very long hairs on the tail probably compensated for the shortness of the tail, enabling its use as a flyswatter, similar to the tail on modern elephants. As in modern elephants, the sensitive and muscular trunk worked as a limb-like organ with many functions. It was used for manipulating objects, and in social interactions. The well-preserved foot of the adult male "Yukagir mammoth" shows that the soles of the feet contained many cracks that would have helped in gripping surfaces during locomotion. Like modern elephants, woolly mammoths walked on their toes and had large, fleshy pads behind the toes.
Like modern elephants, woolly mammoths were likely very social and lived in matriarchal (female-led) family groups. This is supported by fossil assemblages and cave paintings showing groups, implying that most of their other social behaviours were likely similar to those of modern elephants. How many mammoths lived at one location at a time is unknown, as fossil deposits are often accumulations of individuals that died over long periods of time. The numbers likely varied by season and lifecycle events. Modern elephants can form large herds, sometimes consisting of multiple family groups, and these herds can include thousands of animals migrating together. Mammoths may have formed large herds more often, since animals that live in open areas are more likely to do this than those in forested areas. Trackways made by a woolly mammoth herd 11,300–11,000 years ago have been found in the St. Mary Reservoir in Canada, showing that in this case almost equal numbers of adults, subadults, and juveniles were found. The adults had a stride of , and the juveniles ran to keep up.
Adaptations to cold
The woolly mammoth was probably the most specialised member of the family Elephantidae. In addition to their fur, they had lipopexia (fat storage) in their neck and withers, for times when food availability was insufficient during winter, and their first three molars grew more quickly than in the calves of modern elephants. The expansion identified on the trunk of "Yuka" and other specimens was suggested to function as a "fur mitten"; the trunk tip was not covered in fur, but was used for foraging during winter, and could have been heated by curling it into the expansion. The expansion could be used to melt snow if a shortage of water to drink existed, as melting it directly inside the mouth could disturb the thermal balance of the animal. As in reindeer and musk oxen, the haemoglobin of the woolly mammoth was adapted to the cold, with three mutations to improve oxygen delivery around the body and prevent freezing. This feature may have helped the mammoths to live at high latitudes.
In a 2015 study, high-quality genome sequences from three Asian elephants and two woolly mammoths were compared. About 1.4 million DNA nucleotide differences were found between mammoths and elephants, which affect the sequence of more than 1,600 proteins. Differences were noted in genes for a number of aspects of physiology and biology that would be relevant to Arctic survival, including development of skin and hair, storage and metabolism of adipose tissue, and perceiving temperature. Genes related to both sensing temperature and transmitting that sensation to the brain were altered. One of the heat-sensing genes encodes a protein, TRPV3, found in skin, which affects hair growth. When inserted into human cells, the mammoth's version of the protein was found to be less sensitive to heat than the elephant's. This is consistent with a previous observation that mice lacking active TRPV3 are likely to spend more time in cooler cage locations than wild-type mice, and have wavier hair. Several alterations in circadian clock genes were found, perhaps needed to cope with the extreme polar variation in length of daylight. Similar mutations are known in other Arctic mammals, such as reindeer. A 2019 study of the woolly mammoth mitogenome suggest that these had metabolic adaptations related to extreme environments.
Diet
Food at various stages of digestion has been found in the intestines of several woolly mammoths, giving a good picture of their diet. Woolly mammoths sustained themselves on plant food, mainly grasses and sedges, which were supplemented with herbaceous plants, flowering plants, shrubs, mosses, and tree matter. The composition and exact varieties differed from location to location. Woolly mammoths needed a varied diet to support their growth, like modern elephants. An adult of 6 tons would need to eat daily, and may have foraged as long as 20 hours every day. The two-fingered tip of the trunk was probably adapted for picking up the short grasses of the last ice age (Quaternary glaciation, 2.58 million years ago to present) by wrapping around them, whereas modern elephants curl their trunks around the longer grass of their tropical environments. The trunk could be used for pulling off large grass tufts, delicately picking buds and flowers, and tearing off leaves and branches where trees and shrubs were present. The "Yukagir mammoth" had ingested plant matter that contained spores of dung fungus. Isotope analysis shows that woolly mammoths fed mainly on C3 plants, unlike horses and rhinos.
Scientists identified milk in the stomach and faecal matter in the intestines of the mammoth calf "Lyuba". The faecal matter may have been eaten by "Lyuba" to promote development of the intestinal microbes necessary for digestion of vegetation, as is the case in modern elephants. An isotope analysis of woolly mammoths from Yukon showed that the young nursed for at least 3 years, and were weaned and gradually changed to a diet of plants when they were 2–3 years old. This is later than in modern elephants and may be due to a higher risk of predator attack or difficulty in obtaining food during the long periods of winter darkness at high latitudes.
The molars were adapted to their diet of coarse tundra grasses, with more enamel plates and a higher crown than their earlier, southern relatives. The woolly mammoth chewed its food by using its powerful jaw muscles to move the mandible forwards and close the mouth, then backwards while opening; the sharp enamel ridges thereby cut across each other, grinding the food. The ridges were wear-resistant to enable the animal to chew large quantities of food, which often contained grit. Woolly mammoths may have used their tusks as shovels to clear snow from the ground and reach the vegetation buried below, and to break ice to drink. This is indicated on many preserved tusks by flat, polished sections up to long, as well as scratches, on the part of the surface that would have reached the ground (especially at their outer curvature). The tusks were used for obtaining food in other ways, such as digging up plants and stripping off bark.
Life history
The lifespan of mammals is related to their size, and since modern elephants can reach the age of 60 years, the same is thought to be true for woolly mammoths, which were of a similar size. The age of a mammoth can be roughly determined by counting the growth rings of its tusks when viewed in cross section, but this does not account for its early years, as these are represented by the tips of the tusks, which are usually worn away. In the remaining part of the tusk, each major line represents a year, and weekly and daily ones can be found in between. Dark bands correspond to summers, so determining the season in which a mammoth died is possible. The growth of the tusks slowed when foraging became harder, for example during winter, during disease, or when a male was banished from the herd (male elephants live with their herds until about the age of 10). Mammoth tusks dating to the harshest period of the last glaciation 25–20,000 years ago show slower growth rates.
Woolly mammoths continued growing past adulthood, like other elephants. Unfused limb bones show that males grew until they reached the age of 40, and females grew until they were 25. The frozen calf "Dima" was tall when it died at the age of 6–12 months. At this age, the second set of molars would be in the process of erupting, and the first set would be worn out at 18 months of age. The third set of molars lasted for 10 years, and this process was repeated until the final, sixth set emerged when the animal was 30 years old. When the last set of molars was worn out, the animal would be unable to chew and feed, and it would die of starvation. A study of North American mammoths found that they often died during winter or spring, the hardest times for northern animals to survive.
Examination of preserved calves shows that they were all born during spring and summer, and since modern elephants have gestation periods of 21–22 months, the mating season probably was from summer to autumn. δ15N isotopic analysis of the teeth of "Lyuba" has demonstrated their prenatal development, and indicates its gestation period was similar to that of a modern elephant, and that it was born in spring.
The best-preserved head of a frozen adult specimen, that of a male nicknamed the "Yukagir mammoth", shows that woolly mammoths had temporal glands between the ear and the eye. This feature indicates that, like bull elephants, male woolly mammoths entered "musth", a period of heightened aggressiveness. The glands are used especially by males to produce an oily substance with a strong smell called temporin. Their fur may have helped in spreading the scent further.
Palaeopathology
Evidence of several different bone diseases has been found in woolly mammoths. The most common of these was osteoarthritis, found in 2% of specimens. One specimen from Switzerland had several fused vertebrae as a result of this condition. The "Yukagir mammoth" had suffered from spondylitis in two vertebrae, and osteomyelitis is known from some specimens. Several specimens have healed bone fractures, showing that the animals had survived these injuries. An abnormal number of cervical vertebrae has been found in 33% of specimens from the North Sea region, probably due to inbreeding in a declining population. Parasitic flies and protozoa were identified in the gut of the calf "Dima".
Distortion in the molars is the most common health problem found in woolly mammoth fossils. Sometimes, the replacement was disrupted, and the molars were pushed into abnormal positions, but some animals are known to have survived this. Teeth from Britain showed that 2% of specimens had periodontal disease, with half of these containing caries. The teeth sometimes had cancerous growths.
Distribution and habitat
The habitat of the woolly mammoth is known as "mammoth steppe" or "tundra steppe". This environment stretched across northern Asia, many parts of Europe, and the northern part of North America during the last ice age. It was similar to the grassy steppes of modern Russia, but the flora was more diverse, abundant, and grew faster. Grasses, sedges, shrubs, and herbaceous plants were present, and scattered trees were mainly found in southern regions. This habitat was not dominated by ice and snow, as is popularly believed, since these regions are thought to have been high-pressure areas at the time. The habitat of the woolly mammoth supported other grazing herbivores such as the woolly rhinoceros, wild horses, and bison. The Altai-Sayan assemblages are the modern biomes most similar to the "mammoth steppe". A 2014 study concluded that forbs (a group of herbaceous plants) were more important in the steppe-tundra than previously acknowledged, and that it was a primary food source for the ice-age megafauna.
The southernmost woolly mammoth specimen known is from the Shandong province of China, and is 33,000 years old. The southernmost European remains are from the Depression of Granada in Spain and are of roughly the same age. DNA studies have helped determine the phylogeography of the woolly mammoth. A 2008 DNA study showed two distinct groups of woolly mammoths: one that became extinct 45,000 years ago and another one that became extinct 12,000 years ago. The two groups are speculated to be divergent enough to be characterised as subspecies. The group that became extinct earlier stayed in the middle of the high Arctic, while the group with the later extinction had a much wider range. Recent stable isotope studies of Siberian and New World mammoths have shown there were differences in climatic conditions on either side of the Bering land bridge (Beringia), with Siberia being more uniformly cold and dry throughout the Late Pleistocene. During the Younger Dryas age, woolly mammoths briefly expanded into north-east Europe, whereafter the mainland populations became extinct.
A 2008 genetic study showed that some of the woolly mammoths that entered North America through the Bering land bridge from Asia migrated back about 300,000 years ago and had replaced the previous Asian population by about 40,000 years ago, not long before the entire species became extinct. Fossils of woolly mammoths and Columbian mammoths have been found together in a few localities of North America, including the Hot Springs sinkhole of South Dakota where their regions overlapped. It is unknown whether the two species were sympatric and lived there simultaneously, or if the woolly mammoths may have entered these southern areas during times when Columbian mammoth populations were absent there.
Relationship with humans
Modern humans co-existed with woolly mammoths during the Upper Palaeolithic period when the humans entered Europe from Africa between 30,000 and 40,000 years ago. Before this, Neanderthals had co-existed with mammoths during the Middle Palaeolithic and already used mammoth bones for tool-making and building materials. Woolly mammoths were very important to ice age humans, and human survival may have depended on the mammoth in some areas. Evidence for such co-existence was not recognised until the 19th century. William Buckland published his discovery of the Red Lady of Paviland skeleton in 1823, which was found in a cave alongside woolly mammoth bones, but he mistakenly denied that these were contemporaries. In 1864, Édouard Lartet found an engraving of a woolly mammoth on a piece of mammoth ivory in the Abri de la Madeleine cave in Dordogne, France. The engraving was the first widely accepted evidence for the co-existence of humans with prehistoric extinct animals and is the first contemporary depiction of such a creature known to modern science.
The woolly mammoth is the third-most depicted animal in ice age art, after horses and bison, and these images were produced between 35,000 and 11,500 years ago. Today, more than 500 depictions of woolly mammoths are known, in media ranging from cave paintings and engravings on the walls of 46 caves in Russia, France, and Spain to engravings and sculptures (termed "portable art") made from ivory, antler, stone and bone. Cave paintings of woolly mammoths exist in several styles and sizes. The French Rouffignac Cave has the most depictions, 159, and some of the drawings are more than in length. Other notable caves with mammoth depictions are the Chauvet Cave, Les Combarelles Cave, and Font-de-Gaume. A depiction in the Cave of El Castillo may instead show Palaeoloxodon, the "straight-tusked elephant".
"Portable art" can be more accurately dated than cave art since it is found in the same deposits as tools and other ice age artefacts. The largest collection of portable mammoth art, consisting of 62 depictions on 47 plaques, was found in the 1960s at an excavated open-air camp near Gönnersdorf in Germany. A correlation between the number of mammoths depicted and the species that were most often hunted does not seem to exist, since reindeer bones are the most frequently found animal remains at the site. Two spear throwers shaped as woolly mammoths have been found in France. Some portable mammoth depictions may not have been produced where they were discovered, but could have moved around by ancient trading.
Exploitation
Woolly mammoth bones were used as construction material for dwellings by both Neanderthals and modern humans during the ice age. More than 70 such dwellings are known, mainly from the East European Plain. The bases of the huts were circular, and ranged from . The arrangement of dwellings varied, and ranged from apart, depending on location. Large bones were used as foundations for the huts, tusks for the entrances, and the roofs were probably skins held in place by bones or tusks. Some huts had floors that extended below ground. Some of the bones used for materials may have come from mammoths killed by humans, but the state of the bones, and the fact that bones used to build a single dwelling varied by several thousands of years in age, suggests that they were collected remains of long-dead animals. Woolly mammoth bones were made into various tools, furniture, and musical instruments. Large bones, such as shoulder blades, were used to cover dead human bodies during burial.
Woolly mammoth ivory was used to create art objects. Several Venus figurines, including the Venus of Brassempouy and the Venus of Lespugue, were made from this material. Weapons made from ivory, such as daggers, spears, and a boomerang, are known. A 2019 study found that woolly mammoth ivory was the most suitable bony material for the production of big game projectile points during the Late Plesistocene. To be able to process the ivory, the large tusks had to be chopped, chiseled, and split into smaller, more manageable pieces. Some ivory artefacts show that tusks had been straightened, and how this was achieved is unknown.
Several woolly mammoth specimens show evidence of being butchered by humans, which is indicated by breaks, cut marks, and associated stone tools. How much prehistoric humans relied on woolly mammoth meat is unknown, since many other large herbivores were available. Many mammoth carcasses may have been scavenged by humans rather than hunted. Some cave paintings show woolly mammoths in structures interpreted as pitfall traps. Few specimens show direct, unambiguous evidence of having been hunted by humans. A Siberian specimen with a spearhead embedded in its shoulder blade shows that a spear had been thrown at it with great force.
At a site in southern Polan that contains bones from over 100 mammoths, stone spear tips have been found embedded in bones, and many stone spear points in the site were damaged from impact against mammoth bones, indicating that mammoths were the major prey for people at the time. A specimen from the Mousterian age of Italy shows evidence of spear hunting by Neanderthals. The juvenile specimen nicknamed "Yuka" is the first frozen mammoth with evidence of human interaction. It shows evidence of having been killed by a large predator, and of having been scavenged by humans shortly after. Some of its bones had been removed, and were found nearby. A site near the Yana River in Siberia has revealed several specimens with evidence of human hunting, but the finds were interpreted to show that the animals were not hunted intensively, but perhaps mainly when ivory was needed. Two woolly mammoths from Wisconsin, the "Schaefer" and "Hebior mammoths", show evidence of having been butchered by Palaeoamericans.
Extinction
Most woolly mammoth populations disappeared during the late Pleistocene and mid-Holocene, alongside most of the Pleistocene megafauna (including the Columbian mammoth). This extinction formed part of the Quaternary extinction event, which began 40,000 years ago and peaked between 14,000 and 11,500 years ago. Scientists are divided over whether hunting or climate change, which led to the shrinkage of its habitat, was the main factor that contributed to the extinction of the woolly mammoth, or whether it was due to a combination of the two. Whatever the cause, large mammals are generally more vulnerable than smaller ones due to their smaller population size and low reproduction rates. Different woolly mammoth populations did not die out simultaneously across their range, but gradually became extinct over time. Most populations disappeared between 14,000 and 10,000 years ago. The youngest fossils of the mainland population are from the Kyttyk Peninsula of Siberia and date to 9,650 years ago.
A small population of woolly mammoths survived on St. Paul Island, Alaska, well into the Holocene with the most recently published date of extinction being 5,600 years B.P. The last population known from fossils remained on Wrangel Island in the Arctic Ocean until 4,000 years ago, well into the start of human civilization and concurrent with the construction of the Great Pyramid of ancient Egypt. However, ancient genetic evidence supports the existence of small mainland populations that died out at around the same time as their island counterparts; two studies in 2021 found that based on eDNA, mammoths survived in the Yukon until about 5,700 years ago, roughly concurrent with the St. Paul population, and on the Taymyr Peninsula of Siberia until 3,900 to 4,100 years ago, roughly concurrent with the Wrangel population. The Taymyr Peninsula, with its drier habitat, may have served as a refugium for the mammoth steppe, supporting mammoths and other widespread Ice Age mammals such as wild horses (Equus sp.).
DNA sequencing of remains of two mammoths, one from Siberia 44,800 years BP and one from Wrangel Island 4,300 years BP, indicates two major population crashes: one around 280,000 years ago from which the population recovered, and a second about 12,000 years ago, near the ice age's end, from which it did not. The Wrangel Island mammoths were isolated for 5000 years by rising post-ice-age sea level, and resultant inbreeding in their small population of about 300 to 1000 individuals led to a 20% to 30% loss of heterozygosity, and a 65% loss in mitochondrial DNA diversity. The population seems to have subsequently been stable, without suffering further significant loss of genetic diversity. Genetic evidence thus implies the extinction of this final population was sudden, rather than the culmination of a gradual decline.
Before their extinction, the Wrangel Island mammoths had accumulated numerous genetic defects due to their small population; in particular, a number of genes for olfactory receptors and urinary proteins became nonfunctional, possibly because they had lost their selective value on the island environment. It is not clear whether these genetic changes contributed to their extinction. It has been proposed that these changes are consistent with the concept of genomic meltdown; however, the sudden disappearance of an apparently stable population may be more consistent with a catastrophic event, possibly related to climate (such as icing of the snowpack) or a human hunting expedition.
The disappearance coincides roughly in time with the first evidence for humans on the island. The woolly mammoths of eastern Beringia (modern Alaska and Yukon) had similarly died out about 13,300 years ago, soon (roughly 1000 years) after the first appearance of humans in the area, which parallels the fate of all the other late Pleistocene proboscids (mammoths, gomphotheres, and mastodons), as well as most of the rest of the megafauna, of the Americas. In contrast, the St. Paul Island mammoth population apparently died out before human arrival because of habitat shrinkage resulting from the post-ice age sea-level rise, perhaps in large measure as a result of a consequent reduction in the freshwater supply.
Changes in climate shrank suitable mammoth habitat from 42,000 years ago to 6,000 years ago. Woolly mammoths survived an even greater loss of habitat at the end of the Saale glaciation 125,000 years ago, and humans likely hunted the remaining populations to extinction at the end of the last glacial period. Studies of an 11,300–11,000-year-old trackway in south-western Canada showed that M. primigenius was in decline while coexisting with humans, since far fewer tracks of juveniles were identified than would be expected in a normal herd. A 2021 study indicates, however, that although humans likely exerted a significant selective pressure on mammoths that led to them going extinct earlier than they otherwise would have, the final impetus for mammoth extinction was likely vegetation changes caused by a changed precipitation regime at the end of the Ice Age.
The decline of the woolly mammoth could have increased temperatures by up to at high latitudes in the Northern Hemisphere. Mammoths frequently ate birch trees, creating a grassland habitat. With the disappearance of mammoths, birch forests, which absorb more sunlight than grasslands, expanded, leading to regional warming.
Fossil specimens
Woolly mammoth fossils have been found in many different types of deposits, including former rivers and lakes, and in "Doggerland" in the North Sea, which was dry at times during the ice age. Such fossils are usually fragmentary and contain no soft tissue. Accumulations of modern elephant remains have been termed "elephants' graveyards", as these sites were erroneously thought to be where old elephants went to die. Similar accumulations of woolly mammoth bones have been found; these are thought to be the result of individuals dying near or in the rivers over thousands of years, and their bones eventually being brought together by the streams. Some accumulations are thought to be the remains of herds that died together at the same time, perhaps due to flooding. Natural traps, such as kettle holes, sink holes, and mud, have trapped mammoths in separate events over time.
Apart from frozen remains, the only soft tissue known is from a specimen that was preserved in a petroleum seep in Starunia, Poland. Frozen remains of woolly mammoths have been found in the northern parts of Siberia and Alaska, with far fewer finds in the latter. Such remains are mostly found above the Arctic Circle, in permafrost. Soft tissue apparently was less likely to be preserved between 30,000 and 15,000 years ago, perhaps because the climate was milder during that period. Most specimens have partially degraded before discovery, due to exposure or to being scavenged. This "natural mummification" required the animal to have been buried rapidly in liquid or semisolids such as silt, mud, and icy water, which then froze.
The presence of undigested food in the stomach and seed pods still in the mouth of many of the specimens suggests neither starvation nor exposure is likely. The maturity of this ingested vegetation places the time of death in autumn rather than in spring, when flowers would be expected. The animals may have fallen through ice into small ponds or potholes, entombing them. Many are certainly known to have been killed in rivers, perhaps through being swept away by floods. In one location, by the Byoryolyokh River in Yakutia in Siberia, more than 8,000 bones from at least 140 mammoths have been found in a single spot, apparently having been swept there by the current.
Frozen specimens
Between 1692 and 1806, a handful of reports of frozen mammoth remains with soft tissue were published reached Europe, though none were collected during that time. While frozen woolly mammoth carcasses had been excavated by Europeans as early as 1728, the first fully documented specimen was discovered near the delta of the Lena River in 1799 by Ossip Schumachov, a Siberian hunter. While in Yakutsk in 1806, Michael Friedrich Adams heard about the frozen mammoth. Adams recovered the entire skeleton, apart from the tusks, which Shumachov had already sold, and one foreleg, most of the skin, and nearly 18 kg (40 lb) of hair. During his return voyage, he purchased a pair of tusks that he believed were the ones that Shumachov had sold. Adams brought all to the Zoological Museum of the Zoological Institute of the Russian Academy of Sciences, and the task of mounting the skeleton was given to Wilhelm Gottlieb Tilesius. This was one of the first attempts at reconstructing the skeleton of an extinct animal. Most of the reconstruction is correct, but Tilesius placed each tusk in the opposite socket, so that they curved outward instead of inward. The error was not corrected until 1899, and the correct placement of mammoth tusks was still a matter of debate into the 20th century.
The 1901 excavation of the "Berezovka mammoth" is the best documented of the early finds. It was discovered at the Siberian Berezovka River (after a dog had noticed its smell), and the Russian authorities financed its excavation. The entire expedition took 10 months, and the specimen had to be cut to pieces before it could be transported to St. Petersburg. Most of the skin on the head as well as the trunk had been scavenged by predators, and most of the internal organs had rotted away. It was identified as a 35- to 40-year-old male, which had died 35,000 years ago. The animal still had grass between its teeth and on the tongue, showing that it had died suddenly. One of its shoulder blades was broken, which may have happened when it fell into a crevasse. It may have died of asphyxiation, as indicated by its erect penis. One third of a replica of the mammoth in the Museum of Zoology of St. Petersburg is covered in skin and hair of the "Berezovka mammoth".
By 1929, the remains of 34 mammoths with frozen soft tissues (skin, flesh, or organs) had been documented. Only four of them were relatively complete. Since then, about that many more have been found. In most cases, the flesh showed signs of decay before its freezing and later desiccation. Since 1860, Russian authorities have offered rewards of up to for finds of frozen woolly mammoth carcasses. Often, such finds were kept secret due to superstition. Several carcasses have been lost because they were not reported, and one was fed to dogs. Despite the rewards, native Yakuts were also reluctant to report mammoth finds to the authorities due to bad treatment of them in the past. In more recent years, scientific expeditions have been devoted to finding carcasses instead of relying solely on chance encounters. The most famous frozen specimen from Alaska is a calf nicknamed "Effie", which was found in 1948. It consists of the head, trunk, and a fore leg, and is about 25,000 years old.
In 1977, the well-preserved carcass of a seven- to eight-month-old woolly mammoth calf named "Dima" was discovered. This carcass was recovered near a tributary of the Kolyma River in northeastern Siberia. This specimen weighed about at death and was high and long. Radiocarbon dating determined that "Dima" died about 40,000 years ago. Its internal organs are similar to those of modern elephants, but its ears are only one-tenth the size of those of an African elephant of similar age. A less complete juvenile, nicknamed "Mascha", was found on the Yamal Peninsula in 1988. It was 3–4 months old, and a laceration on its right foot may have been the cause of death. It is the westernmost frozen mammoth found.
In 1997, a piece of mammoth tusk was discovered protruding from the tundra of the Taymyr Peninsula in Siberia, Russia. In 1999, this 20,380-year-old carcass and 25 tons of surrounding sediment were transported by an Mi-26 heavy lift helicopter to an ice cave in Khatanga. The specimen was nicknamed the "Jarkov mammoth". In October 2000, the careful defrosting operations in this cave began with the use of hair dryers to keep the hair and other soft tissues intact.
In 2002, a well-preserved carcass was discovered near the Maxunuokha River in northern Yakutia, which was recovered during three excavations. This adult male specimen was called the "Yukagir mammoth", and is estimated to have lived around 18,560 years ago, and to have been 282.9 cm (9.2 ft) tall at the shoulder, and weighed between 4 and 5 tonnes. It is one of the best-preserved mammoths ever found due to the almost complete head, covered in skin, but without the trunk. Some postcranial remains were found, some with soft tissue.
In 2007, the carcass of a female calf nicknamed "Lyuba" was discovered near the Yuribey River, where it had been buried for 41,800 years. By cutting a section through a molar and analysing its growth lines, they found that the animal had died at the age of one month. The mummified calf weighed , was high and in length. At the time of discovery, its eyes and trunk were intact and some fur remained on its body. Its organs and skin are very well preserved. "Lyuba" is believed to have been suffocated by mud in a river that its herd was crossing. After death, its body may have been colonised by bacteria that produce lactic acid, which "pickled" it, preserving the mammoth in a nearly pristine state.
In 2012, a juvenile was found in Siberia, which had man-made cut marks. Scientists estimated its age at death to be 2.5 years, and nicknamed it "Yuka". Its skull and pelvis had been removed prior to discovery, but were found nearby. After being discovered, the skin of "Yuka" was prepared to produce a taxidermy mount. In 2019, a group of researchers managed to obtain signs of biological activity after transferring nuclei of "Yuka" into mouse oocytes.
In 2013, a well-preserved carcass was found on Maly Lyakhovsky Island, one of the islands in the New Siberian Islands archipelago, a female between 50 and 60 years old at the time of death. The carcass contained well-preserved muscular tissue. When it was extracted from the ice, liquid blood spilled from the abdominal cavity. The finders interpreted this as indicating woolly mammoth blood possessed antifreezing properties. In 2022, a complete female baby woolly mammoth was found by a miner in the Klondike gold fields of Yukon, Canada. The specimen is estimated to have died 30.000 years ago, and was nicknamed "Nun cho ga", meaning "big baby animal" in the local Hän language. It is the best preserved woolly mammoth mummy found in North America, and was the same size as Lyuba.
Revival of the species
The existence of preserved soft tissue remains and DNA of woolly mammoths has led to the idea that the species could be resurrected by scientific means. Several methods have been proposed to achieve this. Cloning would involve removal of the DNA-containing nucleus of the egg cell of a female elephant and replacement with a nucleus from woolly mammoth tissue. The cell would then be stimulated into dividing and inserted back into a female elephant. The resulting calf would have the genes of the woolly mammoth, although its fetal environment would be different. Most intact mammoths have had little usable DNA because of their conditions of preservation. There is not enough to guide the production of an embryo.
A second method involves artificially inseminating an elephant egg cell with sperm cells from a frozen woolly mammoth carcass. The resulting offspring would be an elephant–mammoth hybrid, and the process would have to be repeated so more hybrids could be used in breeding. After several generations of cross-breeding these hybrids, an almost pure woolly mammoth would be produced. The fact that sperm cells of modern mammals are viable for 15 years at most after deep-freezing makes this method unfeasible.
Several projects are working on gradually replacing the genes in elephant cells with mammoth genes. By 2015 and using the new CRISPR DNA editing technique, one team, led by George Church, had some woolly mammoth genes edited into the genome of an Asian elephant; focusing on cold-resistance initially, the target genes are for the external ear size, subcutaneous fat, hemoglobin, and hair attributes. If any method is ever successful, a suggestion has been made to introduce the hybrids to a wildlife reserve in Siberia called the Pleistocene Park.
Some researchers question the ethics of such recreation attempts. In addition to the technical problems, not much habitat is left that would be suitable for elephant-mammoth hybrids. Because the species was social and gregarious, creating a few specimens would not be ideal. The time and resources required would be enormous, and the scientific benefits would be unclear, suggesting these resources should instead be used to preserve extant elephant species which are endangered. The ethics of using elephants as surrogate mothers in hybridisation attempts has been questioned, as most embryos would not survive, and knowing the exact needs of a hybrid elephant–mammoth calf would be impossible. Another concern is the introduction of unknown pathogens if de-extinction efforts were to succeed. In 2021, an Austin-based company raised funds to reintroduce the species in the Arctic tundra.
Cultural significance
The woolly mammoth has remained culturally significant long after its extinction. Indigenous peoples of Siberia had long found what are now known to be woolly mammoth remains, collecting their tusks for the ivory trade. Native Siberians believed woolly mammoth remains to be those of giant mole-like animals that lived underground and died when burrowing to the surface. Woolly mammoth tusks had been articles of trade in Asia long before Europeans became acquainted with them. Güyük, the 13th-century Khan of the Mongols, is reputed to have sat on a throne made from mammoth ivory. Inspired by the Siberian natives' concept of the mammoth as an underground creature, it was recorded in the 16th-century Chinese pharmaceutical encyclopedia, Ben Cao Gangmu, as yin shu, "the hidden rodent".
The indigenous peoples of North America used woolly mammoth ivory and bone for tools and art. As in Siberia, North American natives had "myths of observation" explaining the remains of woolly mammoths and other elephants; the Bering Strait Inupiat believed the bones came from burrowing creatures, while other peoples associated them with primordial giants or "great beasts". Observers have interpreted legends from several Native American peoples as containing folk memory of extinct elephants, though other scholars are skeptical that folk memory could survive such a long time.
Siberian mammoth ivory is reported to have been exported to Russia and Europe in the 10th century. The first Siberian ivory to reach western Europe was brought to London in 1611. When Russia occupied Siberia, the ivory trade grew and it became a widely exported commodity, with huge amounts being excavated. From the 19th century and onwards, woolly mammoth ivory became a highly prized commodity, used as raw material for many products. Today, it is still in great demand as a replacement for the now-banned export of elephant ivory, and has been referred to as "white gold".
Local dealers estimate that 10 million mammoths are still frozen in Siberia, and conservationists have suggested that this could help save the living species of elephants from extinction. Elephants are hunted by poachers for their ivory, but if this could instead be supplied by the already extinct mammoths, the demand could instead be met by these. Trade in elephant ivory has been forbidden in most places following the 1989 Lausanne Conference, but dealers have been known to label it as mammoth ivory to get it through customs. Mammoth ivory looks similar to elephant ivory, but the former is browner and the Schreger lines are coarser in texture. In the 21st century, global warming has made access to Siberian tusks easier, since the permafrost thaws more quickly, exposing the mammoths embedded within it.
Stories abound about frozen woolly mammoth meat that was consumed once defrosted, especially that of the "Berezovka mammoth", but most of these are considered dubious. The carcasses were in most cases decayed, and the stench so unbearable that only wild scavengers and the dogs accompanying the finders showed any interest in the flesh. Such meat apparently was once recommended against illness in China, and Siberian natives have occasionally cooked the meat of frozen carcasses they discovered. According to one of the more famous stories, members of The Explorers Club dined on meat of a frozen mammoth from Alaska in 1951. In 2016, a group of researchers genetically examined a sample of the meal, and found it to belong to a green sea turtle (it had also been claimed to belong to Megatherium). The researchers concluded that the dinner had been a publicity stunt. In 2011, the Chinese palaeontologist Lida Xing livestreamed while eating meat from a Siberian mammoth leg (thoroughly cooked and flavoured with salt) and told his audience it tasted bad and like soil. This triggered controversy and gained mixed reactions, but Xing stated he did it to promote science.
Alleged survival
There have been occasional claims that the woolly mammoth is not extinct and that small, isolated herds might survive in the vast and sparsely inhabited tundra of the Northern Hemisphere. In the 19th century, several reports of "large shaggy beasts" were passed on to the Russian authorities by Siberian tribesmen, but no scientific proof ever surfaced. A French chargé d'affaires working in Vladivostok, M. Gallon, said in 1946 that in 1920, he had met a Russian fur-trapper who claimed to have seen living giant, furry "elephants" deep into the taiga. Due to the large area of Siberia, the possibility that woolly mammoths survived into more recent times cannot be completely ruled out, but evidence indicates that they became extinct thousands of years ago. These natives likely had gained their knowledge of woolly mammoths from carcasses they encountered and that this is the source for their legends of the animal.
In the late 19th century, rumours existed about surviving mammoths in Alaska. In 1899, Henry Tukeman detailed his killing of a mammoth in Alaska and his subsequent donation of the specimen to the Smithsonian Institution in Washington, DC. The museum denied the story. The Swedish writer Bengt Sjögren suggested in 1962 that the myth began when the American biologist Charles Haskins Townsend travelled in Alaska, saw Inuit trading mammoth tusks, asked if mammoths were still living in Alaska, and provided them with a drawing of the animal. Bernard Heuvelmans included the possibility of residual populations of Siberian mammoths in his 1955 book, On The Track Of Unknown Animals; while his book was a systematic investigation into possible unknown species, it became the basis of the cryptozoology movement.
References
Bibliography
External links
Natural History Museum: "The last of the mammoths" – three-minute video about the extinction of the woolly mammoth, presented by Adrian Lister
National Geographic: "Mammoth tusk treasure hunt" – two-minute video about mammoth tusk collecting in modern Siberia
Mammoths
Pleistocene proboscideans
Pleistocene first appearances
Pleistocene mammals of North America
Holarctic fauna
Holocene extinctions
Extinct animals of Asia
Extinct animals of the United States
Extinct animals of Canada
Extinct mammals of Europe
Extinct mammals of North America
Fossil taxa described in 1799
Cenozoic animals of North America
Taxa named by Johann Friedrich Blumenbach
Symbols of Alaska | wiki |
The Long Island Serial Killer (also known as The Gilgo Beach Murders) is a 2013 American true crime horror film loosely based on the victims of the unidentified Long Island serial killer. He is believed to have murdered ten to seventeen women on Long Island between 1996 and 2010. The film is written by Joseph DiPietro and Michael Eimicke, and directed by DiPietro.
Plot
A serial killer is at large in New York, murdering prostitutes and disposing their bodies on the beaches of Long Island. A virtuous college student turns to escorting for noble reasons, unknowingly putting herself directly in his path.
Cast
Jennifer Polansky as Tina Everett
Adam Ginsberg as The Killer
Dewey Wynn as Mark
Renee Kay as Sheryl Graham
Ryan Kaiser as Jimmy
Lindsay DeLuca as Elizabeth Stark
Matthew Smolko as Rick
Josephine Pizzino as Jane Everett
Stav Livne as Sarah Coleman
Joe Mankowski as Benjamin Harvey
Guy Balotine as Jude
Chrissy Laboy as Michelle Coleman
Sara Antkowiak as Colette
Patrick Devaney as Detective Kaplan
Jeffrey Alan Solomon as Tyler
Production
The film was shot over the course of ten consecutive days, primarily in Nassau County and Manhattan, with additional scenes shot in Suffolk County, the boroughs of Queens and Brooklyn, as well as the city of Yonkers, and parts of Fairfield County, Connecticut. The film was scored using archival Production music from the KPM music library. DiPietro said the movie is "a work of fiction inspired by actual events". He did not want to make a documentary, and he explores "the lost girls" rather than focus on the killer.
Reception
The film premiered at Anthology Film Archives in New York City on November 12, 2013. The Huffington Post described the independent feature as a "compelling thriller about unsolved murder, the underside of the Internet, and the compulsive nature of guarding secrets."
References
External links
2013 horror films
2013 films
American horror thriller films
Films set in the 1990s
Films set in the 2000s
Long Island in fiction
Crime films based on actual events
2010s English-language films
2010s American films | wiki |
The comet darner (Anax longipes) is a common species of dragonfly of the family Aeshnidae.
Description
The comet darner is a large dragonfly and has a green thorax and bright red abdomen. Females have a brownish abdomen patterned with blue spots.
Distribution and habitat
Comet darners are found in shallow lakes and ponds which tend to have extensive beds and grasses and lack fish. They are found along the eastern United States from Missouri, Michigan, New England and some even further north.
Endangered status
Its endangered status is of least concern.
References
Aeshnidae
Insects described in 1861 | wiki |
Joe Kovacs (Born Joseph Stephen Kovacs; December 15, 1967) is an American puppeteer and actor.
Kovacs was born in Independence, Ohio. In 2006 and 2007, Kovacs handled the puppet Madame, including a performance on VH1's I Love the '70s.
References
1967 births
American puppeteers
Living people
People from Independence, Ohio
Male actors from Ohio | wiki |
Windsor Historic District, or Windsor Village Historic District or variations, may refer to:
Windsor Square Historic District, Phoenix, AZ, listed on the NRHP in Arizona
Windsor Village Historic Preservation Overlay Zone, Los Angeles, California
East Windsor Hill Historic District, South Windsor, CT, listed on the NRHP in Connecticut
Windsor Farms Historic District, South Windsor, CT, listed on the NRHP in Connecticut
Windsor Road Historic District, Newton, MA, listed on the NRHP in Massachusetts
Windsor Court Historic District, Southbridge, MA, listed on the NRHP in Massachusetts
Windsor Hills Historic District, Baltimore, MD, listed on the NRHP in Maryland
New Windsor Historic District, New Windsor, MD, listed on the NRHP in Maryland
Windsor Historic District (Windsor, New Jersey), listed on the NRHP in New Jersey
Windsor Village Historic District (Windsor, New York), listed on the NRHP in New York
Windsor Historic District (Windsor, North Carolina), listed on the NRHP in North Carolina
Windsor Village Historic District (Windsor, Vermont), listed on the NRHP in Vermont
See also
Windsor (disambiguation) | wiki |
Leucippus is a crater on the Moon's far side. It is relatively isolated from other named craters, although it is located just over one crater diameter to the south-southeast of the huge walled plain Landau. To the southwest of Leucippus is the larger satellite crater Leucippus Q.
The rim of Leucippus is eroded, with a smaller crater laid across the southern end. A small craterlet lies along the western inner wall. The edge and inner wall is generally lacking in detail, forming a relatively smooth, gentle slope down to the interior floor. This interior is offset slightly to the southeast, where the inner wall is narrower. The floor is about half the diameter of the crater. There is a small craterlet on the floor along the southern edge, and a few tiny craterlets mark the otherwise relatively level surface.
Satellite craters
By convention these features are identified on lunar maps by placing the letter on the side of the crater midpoint that is closest to Leucippus.
References
Impact craters on the Moon | wiki |
A marriage certificate (colloquially marriage lines ) is an official statement that two people are married. In most jurisdictions, a marriage certificate is issued by a government official only after the civil registration of the marriage.
In some jurisdictions, especially in the United States, a marriage certificate is the official record that two people have undertaken a marriage ceremony. This includes jurisdictions where marriage licenses do not exist. In other jurisdictions, a marriage license serves a dual purpose of granting permission for a marriage to take place and then endorsing the same document to record the fact that the marriage has been performed.
A marriage certificate may be required for a number of reasons. It may be required as evidence of change of a party's name, on issues of legitimacy of a child, during divorce proceedings, or as part of a genealogical history, besides other purposes.
Australia
Though marriage in Australia is regulated under federal law, the registration of marriages takes place under the respective state or territory laws, generally through an agency named "Registry of Births, Deaths and Marriages" or similar, and marriage certificates are issued by these agencies. Under Federal law, a certificate is issued at the time of marriage by a celebrant, for forwarding to the state or territory registry. A similar (sometimes cut-down) document is often given to the couple on the day of the marriage, it is generally handwritten. While legally valid as proof of marriage, is not generally acceptable as an official document. However, the state or territory marriage certificate is considered to be an acceptable and secure secondary identity document especially for the purposes of change of name, and needs to be obtained separately for a fee generally some time after the marriage. This document can be verified electronically by the Attorney-general of Australia's Document Verification Service. States and territories sometimes market commemorative marriage certificates, which generally have no official document status.
State and territory issued certificates are on A4 paper and provide: Date and place of marriage, full names, occupations, addresses, marital status (never validly married, divorced, widow/er), birth date & place, age, father's name, mother's maiden name of each the couple, the celebrant, witness names (generally two), the registrar official of the state or territory authority, and the date of registration. The registrar's signature and seal is printed/embossed on the certificate along with a number, and date of issue of certificate.
Marriage certificates are not generally used in Australia, other than to prove change-of-name, and proof of marital status in a divorce hearing. Some visa categories require a certificate (where a partner is to be associated with a primary applicant), however there are similar categories of partner visas that do not.
Since 2018, Australian federal law has recognised same-sex marriages. These marriages are registrable and documented in the conventional way.
United Kingdom
England and Wales
A marriage certificate is given to a couple who have married. Until the introduction of electronic registration of marriages in May 2021, copies were made in two registers: one was retained by the church or register office; the other, when the entire register is full, was sent to the superintendent registrar of the registration district. Every quarter, the minister or civil registrar prepared a further copy of all the marriage entries and sent them to the Registrar General.
The certificate lists the date of the marriage, and the full names of both spouses. Their ages are included (it is also permissible to write "full", meaning of age, and until 1850 some 75% of certificates said that; if the certificate reads "minor" or "under age", it means that, until 1929 when the law changed to 16, the bride was between 12 and 20 and the groom 14 and 20 years of age).
The certificate does not contain a specific record of the intended new surname(s), if one or both spouses wish to change their name. However, if one spouse wishes to take his or her spouse's surname, a marriage certificate obtained in England or Wales is sufficient evidence for getting the name changed on a British passport, bank accounts, and other purposes. Either spouse may adopt the surname of the other, or they may join their surnames together.
The certificate also records the previous marital status of both spouses. Those not previously married were "bachelor" or "spinster." From 1858 to 1952 a previously divorced groom was listed as "the divorced husband of…" with his ex-wife's maiden name listed, and vice versa for a divorced bride. The currently used wording is "previous marriage dissolved" with no further details given.
On the 5th September 2005, the Registrar General in England and Wales officially abolished the traditional terms of "bachelor" and "spinster" and substituted "single" to coincide with the reform that introduced civil partnerships, explaining, "The word single will be used to mean a couple who has never been through a marriage or civil partnership."
Origins of the system
On the 1st July 1837, civil registration was introduced in England and Wales, providing a central record of all births, deaths and marriages. A Registrar General was appointed with overall responsibility and the country was divided into registration districts, each controlled by a superintendent registrar. Under this system, all marriage ceremonies have been certified by the issuing of a marriage certificate whose details are also stored centrally. From that date onward, marriage ceremonies could be performed, and certificates issued either by a clergyman of the Church of England, in a parish church, or by a civil registrar in a civil register office. Marriages performed according to the ceremonies of Quakers and Jews also continued to be recognised as legal marriages, and certificates were issued.
Russia
A certificate of marriage is the only legally valid document on the registration of marriage in Russia. Issued in the certification of the fact of state registration of the civil status act, signed by the head of the registry office and is sealed with its seal.
A state registration fee of 350 rubles is charged for state registration of acts of civil status.
For the marriage, the couple must file a joint statement confirming mutual voluntary consent for the conclusion of the marriage union, as well as the absence of circumstances preventing marriage. Future spouses sign a joint statement and indicate the date of its compilation. Simultaneously with the application it is necessary to provide documents proving the identity of future spouses; documents confirming the termination of the previous marriage, if any; permission to enter into marriage before reaching the marriageable age, if the person (person) entering into marriage is a minor.
The certificate of marriage contains the following information:
Surname (before and after the marriage), name, patronymic, date and place of birth, citizenship and nationality (if indicated in the record of the act of marriage) of each of the persons married
Date of marriage
Date of compilation and the number of the record of the marriage certificate
Place of state registration of marriage, namely the name of the registry office chosen by future spouses at will in the territory of the Russian Federation
Date of issue of the marriage certificate
United States
In parts of the United States, the certificate of marriage is recorded on the same document as the marriage license or application for marriage. While each state creates their own form for use with the recording of marriages, most states have a specific portion of the record to be completed by the official performing the ceremony.
In some states, such as Nevada, this portion also includes places for the parties to indicate a change in name, if any. If it does not, the marriage certificate can be used as documentation to justify a legal name change but not as proof that a name change has occurred. If there is no place for a change of name to be recorded, the name is changed as requested on government documents with proof of marriage.
Confidential marriages
In California, under Section 501 of the state's Family Code, a county clerk is authorised to issue a confidential marriage licence and subsequently grant a confidential marriage certificate; Section 511 of the same Code states that the records of marriages registered under this provision are not open to public inspection, except by an order of the court. This practice originated in 1878, and was originally intended for those persons in a common-law relationship who presented themselves as married and wanted to make such marriage official. The practice of confidential marriages is unique to California, and is only approximated by Michigan, which offers court-ordered secret marriages.
Consular marriages
Prior to 1989, the U.S. Department of State offered a Certificate of Witness to Marriage (form FS-97) for those couples whose marriages were solemnised in the presence of a consular official overseas. This was authorised by 22 U.S.C. 4192 on the condition that the parties had to be free to contract marriage under the laws of the District of Columbia. On November 9, 1989, this provision of the United States Code was repealed, and the Department accordingly ceased issuing such certificates.
China
References
External links
Identity documents
Marriage law | wiki |
Reduction is a surgical procedure to repair a fracture or dislocation to the correct alignment.
Description
When a bone fractures, the fragments lose their alignment in the form of displacement or angulation. For the fractured bone to heal without any deformity the bony fragments must be re-aligned to their normal anatomical position. Orthopedic surgery attempts to recreate the normal anatomy of the fractured bone by reduction of the displacement. This sense of the term "reduction" does not imply any sort of removal or quantitative decrease but rather implies a restoration: re ("back [to initial position]") + ducere ("lead"/"bring"), i.e., "bringing back to normal".
Because the process of reduction can briefly be intensely painful, it is commonly done under a short-acting anesthetic, sedative, or nerve block.
Once the fragments are reduced, the reduction is maintained by application of casts, traction, or held by plates, screws, or other implants, which may in turn be external or internal. It is very important to verify the accuracy of reduction by clinical tests and X-ray, especially in the case of joint dislocations.
Types
Reduction can be by "closed" or "open" methods:
Closed reduction is the manipulation of the bone fragments without surgical exposure of the fragments.
Open reduction is where the fracture fragments are exposed surgically by dissecting the tissues.
References
(primary source)
Orthopedic surgical procedures | wiki |
William Sharkey may refer to:
William L. Sharkey (1798–1873), American judge and politician
William J. Sharkey (US Navy officer) (1885–1918), officer in the United States Navy during World War I
William J. Sharkey (murderer) (1847–?), convicted murderer and minor New York City politician | wiki |
"For Blood" is the eighth episode and first-part finale of the eleventh season of the post-apocalyptic horror television series The Walking Dead. The 161st episode of the series overall, the episode was directed by Sharat Raju and written by Erik Mountain. "For Blood" was released on the streaming platform AMC+ on October 3, 2021, before airing on AMC on October 10, 2021.
In the episode, Maggie (Lauren Cohan), Negan (Jeffrey Dean Morgan), and Gabriel (Seth Gilliam) lead a herd to Meridian and sneak in among the confusion, while the Reapers, led by Pope (Ritchie Coster) and joined by Daryl (Norman Reedus) and Leah (Lynn Collins), try to fend them off. At Alexandria, the survivors attempt to wait out a violent storm when part of the wall falls down, letting walkers into the community. The episode has received positive reviews from critics.
Plot
Maggie, Negan, and Gabriel lead a herd of walkers to Meridian while disguised among them in masks. When the herd arrives, the lookouts at Meridian are confused by the herd's behavior. Daryl, recognizing the behavior, volunteers to lead them away. Pope instead tasks Paul with luring the walkers away. Paul starts to lead the herd away from Meridian but is ambushed on several sides and stabbed by Maggie. Paul is consumed by walkers, and Negan steals his radio. When the Reapers stop hearing from Paul they assume he is dead, which Pope reveals he assumed would happen. Leah confronts Pope, but he insists that sometimes sacrifices are necessary.
At Alexandria, the survivors shelter in one of the houses while a violent storm hits. While boarding up the windows to keep walkers and rain out, part of Alexandria's outer wall falls down, and Aaron asks for volunteers to go fix it. Connie and Kelly opt to help Aaron rebuild the wall, while Rosita stays behind to watch over the children in the house. While practicing with her weapon by the window, Gracie makes too much noise and attracts walkers to the house. Rosita runs outside and slays several walkers to buy them time, but the walkers’ numbers begin breaking down the door.
Negan and Elijah lead the herd back to Meridian's walls, which trigger landmines and explosives around the perimeter. Maggie and Gabriel break off to head inside. When they approach, Daryl kills one of the lookouts, and directs them to where they can sneak in. Maggie and Gabriel split up inside, with Gabriel climbing to the top floor of a building to defend Maggie with his rifle. She hot-wires a truck, and rams it into Meridian's front gate, allowing the herd inside the walls. Daryl meets Leah on a rooftop, and sensing her discomfort at Pope's recent decisions, invites her to run away with him. When she refuses, Daryl confesses that he is with Maggie's group, and that they were hiding among the dead horde. Despite feeling betrayed, Leah keeps his secret from Pope when he arrives on the rooftop, unveiling a hwacha.
Back at Alexandria, Rosita leads a retreat to the second floor of the house where they can pick off the walkers, however, Judith discovers Gracie hiding in the basement which is now flooding. They try to join the others only to be forced back to the flooding basement by the walkers that have now entered the house.
As the Reapers on the ground struggle to fend the walkers off, Pope orders the hwacha to be fired. Leah points out that this will also kill the Reapers on the ground, and stabs him to death when he won't back down. However, she refuses Daryl’s invitation to join her because of his killing of a reaper running to defend Pope, and radios her comrades that he killed Pope. Daryl flees and joins Maggie and Negan in fighting the Reapers and walkers in the battle at the gates, only for the Reapers to pull back. Leah, having taken command of the Reapers, then orders the hwacha to be fired upon the group and their horde.
Reception
Critical reception
The episode received positive reviews. On review aggregator site Rotten Tomatoes, "For Blood" has a score of 82%, with an average score of 7.4 across 11 reviews. The critical consensus reads: "An early climax for The Walking Deads final season, 'For Blood' stages a rousing confrontation against the Reaper threat – with a couple of gruesome surprises thrown into the mix."
Ron Hogan for Den of Geek gave the episode 3.5 out of 5 stars, writing that: "Both stories work well, and there’s no real break in the tension between the two. Both only turn the tension up leading to the season-pausing cliffhanger." Erik Kain for Forbes praised the episode's action, but criticized the lack of story progression in the season so far, writing that: "In the end, very little has actually happened this season so far despite eight of the 24 episodes being over and done".
Ratings
The episode was seen by 1.91 million viewers in the United States on its original air date. It marked an increase in ratings from the previous episode, which had 1.89 million viewers.
References
External links
"For Blood" at AMC
The Walking Dead (TV series) episodes
2021 American television episodes | wiki |
Plothen is een gemeente in de Duitse deelstaat Thüringen, en maakt deel uit van de Saale-Orla-Kreis.
Plothen telt inwoners.
Gemeente in Thüringen | wiki |
Manson Youth Institution is a Connecticut Department of Correction state prison for men under the age of 21. It is located in Cheshire, New Haven County, Connecticut. Although it has a capacity of 679, it currently houses less than half that (322 as of June 2019).
References
Prisons in Connecticut
Buildings and structures in New Haven County, Connecticut
1982 establishments in Connecticut | wiki |
Citizens State Bank or Citizen's State Bank may refer to:
Citizens State Bank (Gooding, Idaho), listed on the NRHP in Idaho
Citizens State Bank (Odenton, Maryland), listed on the NRHP in Maryland
Citizens State Bank (Edmond, Oklahoma), listed on the NRHP in Oklahoma
Citizen's State Bank (Marble City, Oklahoma), listed on the NRHP in Oklahoma
Citizens State Bank (Oklahoma City, Oklahoma), listed on the NRHP in Oklahoma
Citizens State Bank of Henry, Henry, SD, listed on the NRHP in South Dakota
Citizens State Bank of Gillett, Gillett, WI, listed on the NRHP in Wisconsin
See also
Citizens Bank (disambiguation) | wiki |
Faux passeports subtitled 'ou les mémoires d'un agitateur' in its original version, is a Belgian novel by Charles Plisnier. It was first published by Corrêa in 1937. It received the prestigious Prix Goncourt, making Plisnier the first foreigner to win the prize.
References
1937 Belgian novels
French-language novels
Prix Goncourt winning works | wiki |
Double House may refer to:
Places
Double House, Utrecht, Netherlands
McColloch-Weatherhogg Double House, Indiana, United States
C.H. Baker Double House, Iowa, United States
Walter M. Bartlett Double House, Iowa, United States
F.E. Haley Double House, Iowa, United States
Daniel T. Newcome Double House, Iowa, United States
Susie P. Turner Double House, Iowa, United States
Merrill Double House, Massachusetts, United States
William Shay Double House, New York, United States
Adams Street Double House, Ohio, United States
Other
Double House (manga), Japanese manga by Nanae Haruno
Alternate term for Double monastery
See also
Duplex (building) | wiki |
A Phantastron is a type of electron tube oscillator or timer circuit. It was invented during radar development during World War 2. It was described in the Radiation Laboratory series of books, in particular the one on waveforms.
Components
Resistors
Capacitors: determine the frequency of the oscillations and filters in the circuits.
Vacuum tubes: provides a current of electrons being shot.
Top panel and turret board: the outside covers of electron tube oscillator or timer circuit.
References
External links
Video: Phantastron all vacuum tube synthesizer
Vacuum tubes | wiki |
Journal d'Hirondelle is a novel by Belgian writer Amélie Nothomb. It was first published in 2006.
References
2006 Belgian novels
French-language novels
Novels by Amélie Nothomb
Éditions Albin Michel books | wiki |
A loom is a device used to weave cloth.
Loom or LOOM may also refer to:
Arts
Loom (video game), a graphical adventure game
Light Opera of Manhattan, an Off-Broadway repertory theatre company
Looms, fictional machines in the expanded universe of the television series Doctor Who; see Other
Loom (band), an English rock band from Warwickshire
The Loom, American rock band
Other uses
Loom, West Virginia, US
Wiring loom, an electrical cable assembly or harness
Rainbow Loom, a plastic toy loom used to weave colorful rubber bands into bracelets and charms
LOOM (ontology), a knowledge representation language
Loyal Order of Moose
Loom,_Inc., a technology company
See also
Heirloom
Loon (disambiguation) | wiki |
DEAE-Sepharose is a tradename for the anion-exchange reactive group, diethylaminoethanol (DEAE) covalently linked to Sepharose (a polysaccharide polymer).
References
External links
Polysaccharides | wiki |
En géométrie, une courbe plane est dite convexe si elle est la frontière d'un ensemble convexe.
Article connexe
Adhérence, intérieur et frontière d'un convexe
Géométrie convexe | wiki |
George Johnson House may refer to:
George Johnson House (Calamus, Iowa), listed on the NRHP in Clinton County, Iowa
George Johnson House (Lexington, Missouri), listed on the NRHP in Missouri | wiki |
The 2011 J. League Cup Final was the 20th final of the J. League Cup competition. The final was played at Tokyo National Stadium in Tokyo on 29 October 2011. The match was contested between the Urawa Red Diamonds who were defeated by the Kashima Antlers in extra time.
Route to the final
Urawa Red Diamonds
Kashima Antlers
Match
Assistant referees:
Haruhiro Otsuka
Tadaomi Aiba
Match Rules
90 minutes.
2 halves of extra-time if necessary.
Penalty shootout if scores still level.
Seven named substitutes.
Maximum of 3 substitutions.
See also
2011 J.League Cup
References
J.League Cup
2011 in Japanese football
Kashima Antlers matches
Urawa Red Diamonds matches | wiki |
A kisser is one who kisses.
Kisser or Kissers may also refer to:
Kisser (surname)
Kissers is a term used for the Followers of Christ church and its members
Kissers and Killers is an album name from The Choir (alternative rock band)
slang for Mouth or Face
See also
The Kiss (disambiguation)
Kiss Kiss (disambiguation) | wiki |
Rumors (or rumours) are pieces of purportedly true information that circulate without substantiating evidence.
rumors, or rumours may also refer to:
Literature
Rumors (play), a play by Neil Simon
Rumors: A Luxe Novel, a novel by Anna Godbersen
Music
Rumors (album), a 1976 album by Arrogance
Rumours (album), a 1977 album by Fleetwood Mac
"Rumors" (Timex Social Club song), 1986
"Rumors" (Lindsay Lohan song), 2004
"Rumors" (Lizzo song), 2021
"Rumors" (Gucci Mane song), 2022
"Rumors", a 2020 song by Ava Max from Heaven & Hell
"Rumors", a 2015 song by Adam Lambert from The Original High
"Rumours", a 1973 song by the band Hot Chocolate
Film and television
Rumors (film), a 1943 cartoon
Rumours (TV series), a Canadian sitcom
"Rumours" (Glee), a 2011 episode of Glee
"Rumors", an episode of The Suite Life of Zack & Cody
See also
Rumor (disambiguation) | wiki |
Loupe lights are used in conjunction with loupes. They are mainly used in the fields of medicine, dentistry and jewelry.
Because loupes magnify a small field of vision, the amount of light that is focused into through the loupe is less than what is seen by just the naked eye. The dimness experienced is negligible for a nonprofessional user, but for professionals who require accuracy and precision and work in a confined area like dentistry, a loupe light provides illumination that will dramatically increase the level of detail he/she can see through loupes.
Loupe lights in the field of dentistry
Loupe lights have become very advanced, and their use is growing. In the past, they used to be fiber optic and provided little portability in dentistry. Now, with technological advancements, LED loupe lights have become portable and more ergonomic - the lightest loupe light weighs just 3 grams. Loupe lights have decreased in size, become less bulky, are more comfortable to wear and have achieved a level of brightness that is almost blinding. Loupe lights that are corded tend to be much lighter than those that integrate battery packs within the light unit.
A loupe light allows dental practitioners to focus light into the oral cavity without patient discomfort from a bright light. Additionally, it is able to provide shadow-free light for the practitioner since it is mounted directly in between his/her eyes.
References
Optical devices
Light sources | wiki |
The 2006 Austin Wranglers season was the 3rd season for the franchise. Looking to rebound from a 6–10 season in 2005, the Wranglers started the season with a 4–0 start. Finishing the season with a 10–6, reversal of last season, record the Wranglers were sent home in the first round by the Philadelphia Soul.
Stats
Offence
Quarterback
Running backs
Wide receivers
Austin Wranglers Season, 2006 | wiki |
Láss tisztán! (2000) a Stratégia együttes első nagylemeze
Láss tisztán! (Quando sei nato non puoi più nasconderti) (2005) olasz film Marco Tullio Giordana rendezésében | wiki |
Xbox Fitness was a service for the Xbox One console, developed by Microsoft Studios in partnership with Sumo Digital, which featured fitness and exercise videos from trainers Jillian Michaels, Tracy Anderson, Tony Horton of P90X and Shaun T of Insanity. Xbox Fitness was one of the 22 game titles that launched with Xbox One. The game used the Kinect sensor to track the player's heart rate and estimated calories burned, and gave feedback about how well the player is performing the exercise activities.
The service used the Kinect 2.0 sensor to track the player's heart rate, estimate calories burned, and to provide feedback in form, balance, and power. Using Kinect technology, Xbox Fitness would read the player's heart rate without a monitor and see which muscles are most engaged by measuring the power, force, and transfer of weight in the body. It could also track balance, tempo, and form of the player's body. Xbox Fitness included workout routines that ranged from 10 minutes to 60 minutes and the service was free through December 2014 for Xbox Live Gold subscribers.
To motivate the player, in-workout challenges were presented and achievements could be earned. When the player is completing a workout, the silhouette of the body will appear on the right side of the screen with colors and movement to showcase which muscles are engaged and how hard each is working. Players will see how their Fit Points and scores compare to their past efforts, their friends, and the Xbox Live community. Xbox Fitness could also synchronise data with the Microsoft Health platform.
On June 27, 2016, Microsoft announced the discontinuation of Xbox Fitness; the ability to purchase content was removed effective immediately, and the service was disabled entirely on July 1, 2017, after which users were no longer be able to use Xbox Fitness or access its content. No refunds will be provided for purchased content.
See also
MSN Health & Fitness
Microsoft HealthVault
References
Xbox One-only games
Xbox One games
Sumo Digital games
Internet properties disestablished in 2017
Delisted digital-only games | wiki |
Carpenter jeans are jeans with many pockets and loops which can be used to carry objects such as tools and are often loose around the leg to be able to accommodate the affixed items. They are often worn by construction workers and carpenters, hence the name, to carry their tools so that their hands can be kept free yet the tools are still easily accessible.
Characteristics
Carpenter jeans are usually made of blue denim. Canvas may be the material in more durable styles, and colors may vary; white and beige are other popular colors. A 'hammer loop' is usually located on the left leg; although this was originally designed with the intention of allowing carpenters to carry tools without the need for a tool belt, most carpenters do not use the loop, because the hammer often falls out or bangs around the leg. Other features include extra pockets, sometimes located on the outer thighs, and extra rivets for durability. Another feature is wider belt loops, to accommodate a wider, thicker belt. Because of the weight of the tools carried in the pockets and loops, workers prerer a tightly cinched, wide 'work belt'.
Most carpenter jeans are made for function, not fashion, and are usually of a softer denim, some might be covered in fleece on the inside. The Carpenter Jeans are more comfortable than the original utilitarian jeans, with a looser fit. Carpenter jeans were quite popular in the late 1990s and early 2000s hip hop scene especially those by the Tommy Hilfiger brand who placed their trademark logo on the hammer loop.
See also
Cargo pants
Tactical pants
References
Jeans by type
Workwear
Trousers and shorts
1990s fashion
2000s fashion | wiki |
The 1969 AFL Championship Game was the tenth and final championship game of the American Football League, and the league's final game prior to its merger with the National Football League on February 1, 1970.
The game was held on January 4, 1970, at the Oakland-Alameda County Coliseum between the Western Division champion Oakland Raiders (12–1–1) and the division's second-place team, the Kansas City Chiefs (11–3). The two teams had the best records in the AFL regular season and both had won divisional playoff games two weeks earlier to advance to the championship. Oakland had swept the two hard-fought regular season games between the two teams, were favored by 4 to 5½ points, and had taken seven of the last eight meetings.
Tied at halftime, the Chiefs won 17–7 on the strength of seventeen unanswered points in the last three quarters and represented the AFL in Super Bowl IV the following week. This was the 616th and final AFL game.
Game summary
The Chiefs edged out Oakland 17–7 in a hard fought defensive struggle in which both teams combined for just 440 yards (233 for Oakland, 207 for KC) and each lost four turnovers. It was a very satisfying win for Kansas City, who had been swept by the Raiders during the season and lost 7 of their last 8 meetings, including a crushing 41–6 loss in the previous year's postseason.
The Raiders opened up the scoring with a 66-yard drive, featuring Daryle Lamonica's 24-yard completion to Warren Wells on the Chiefs' 3-yard line. Running back Charlie Smith ran the ball across the goal line on the next play, giving Oakland a 7-0 lead. Both defenses would take over the majority of the rest of the half, but with 3:24 remaining in the second quarter, Kansas City, who had only gained two first downs up to now, drove 75 yards to tie the game. Quarterback Len Dawson started off the drive with a 14-yard completion to Otis Taylor, while Robert Holmes' 8-yard run moved the ball into Raiders territory on their 42 for the first time in the game as the clock ran down to the 2-minute warning. On the next play, Dawson threw a 41-yard completion to receiver Frank Pitts. Then Wendell Hayes scored a 1-yard touchdown run to tie the game at seven at halftime.
Oakland seemed primed to respond in the third quarter with a drive to the Chiefs' 33-yard line, but in what turned out to be a crucial play, Lamonica jammed his thumb and fingers when his throwing hand struck the helmet of Chiefs defensive end Aaron Brown, and he had to miss the rest of the drive. Backup George Blanda took over and tried to take the team the rest of the way to the end zone, but a few players later, defensive back Emmitt Thomas made a clutch interception on the Chiefs' 5-yard line. Kansas City then drove 95 yards for a go-ahead score. The key play on the drive with a 35-yard reception by Taylor through triple coverage with the team facing 3rd and 13 from their own 2-yard line. Dawson later completed a 23-yard pass to Holmes on the drive, and defensive back Nemiah Wilson's pass interference penalty eventually gave Kansas City a first down on the Raiders' 7-yard line. Holmes carried the ball three straight times after that, the last a 5-yard touchdown run to put the Chiefs up 14–7.
Lamonica returned to the game in the 4th quarter, but was unable to lead the Raiders to any points, despite numerous opportunities. A promising drive into Kansas City territory was eliminated when Jim Kearney intercepted Lamonica's pass on the Chiefs 18-yard line. Two plays later, defensive end Carlton Oats recovered a fumble from Holmes on the Chiefs' 24. But on the next play, Oakland gave the ball right back with an interception to rookie cornerback Jim Marsalis. Amazingly, Oakland got the ball back on another Holmes fumble, this one recovered by linebacker Dan Conners on the Chiefs' 31. Still, the only result would be another Lamonica interception, this one to Thomas, who returned it 62 yards to the Raiders' 18-yard line, setting up Jan Stenerud's 22-yard field goal that increased Kansas City's lead to 17–7. Oakland had one last chance to get back in the game when defensive end Ike Lassiter recovered a fumble from Dawson on the Kansas City 13 with two minutes left. But Lamonica threw four straight incompletions and the Chiefs ran out the rest of the clock.
Neither quarterback had a particularly good day. Dawson completed only 7 of 17 passes for 129 yards, while Lamonica finished 15/39 for 167 yards and three interceptions. Charlie Smith was the sole offensive star of the game, with 31 rushing yards and a touchdown, along with 8 receptions for 86 yards.
Officials
Referee: Jack Vest
Umpire: Paul Trepinski
Head Linesman: Cal Lepore
Line Judge: Aaron Wade
Back Judge: Hugh Gamber
Field Judge: Bob Baur
The AFL (and NFL) had six game officials in 1969; the seventh official, the side judge, was added in .
Players' shares
The Chiefs players each received $7,000 and the Raiders players about $5,000 each. With the win, the Chiefs were guaranteed an additional $7,500 each, the loser's share in the Super Bowl; the Super Bowl winners earned $15,000 each.
Aftermath
The Chiefs went on to win the Super Bowl against the Minnesota Vikings, in a final showing of the AFL and its strength. Kansas City is the only team in the Super Bowl era to win the title without allowing as much as ten points in any postseason game.
The two leagues merged into one after this game, with the ten AFL teams and three NFL teams (Pittsburgh Steelers, Baltimore Colts, and Cleveland Browns) forming the American Football Conference. Super Bowl V was the first game for that conference, which the Colts won. After losing their first two appearances in 1993 and 2018, The Chiefs won the AFC Championship in 2019 and 2020. Conversely, the Raiders have appeared in eleven, winning four and losing seven; their last appearance (and win) was in 2002.
See also
1969 AFL season
1969 AFL playoffs
AFL Championship Games
Super Bowl IV
1969 NFL Championship Game
References
American Football League Championship Game
Kansas City Chiefs postseason
Oakland Raiders postseason
Championship Game
American football in the San Francisco Bay Area
American Football League Championship Game
American Football League Championship Game | wiki |
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