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Alloy steel is steel that is alloyed with a variety of elements in total amounts between 1.0% and 50% by weight to improve its mechanical properties.
Type of Alloy Steel
Alloy steels are broken down into two groups: low alloy steels and high alloy steels. The difference between the two is disputed. Smith and Hashemi define the difference at 4.0%, while Degarmo, et al., define it at 8.0%. Most commonly, the phrase "alloy steel" refers to low-alloy steels.
Strictly speaking, every steel is an alloy, but not all steels are called "alloy steels". The simplest steels are iron (Fe) alloyed with carbon (C) (about 0.1% to 1%, depending on type) and nothing else (excepting negligible traces via slight impurities); these are called carbon steels. However, the term "alloy steel" is the standard term referring to steels with other alloying elements added deliberately in addition to the carbon. Common alloyants include manganese (the most common one), nickel, chromium, molybdenum, vanadium, silicon, and boron. Less common alloyants include aluminium, cobalt, copper, cerium, niobium, titanium, tungsten, tin, zinc, lead, and zirconium.
Properties
The following is a range of improved properties in alloy steels (as compared to carbon steels): strength, hardness, toughness, wear resistance, corrosion resistance, hardenability, and hot hardness. To achieve some of these improved properties the metal may require heat treating.
Although alloy steels have been made for centuries, their metallurgy was not well understood until the advancing chemical science of the nineteenth century revealed their compositions. Alloy steels from earlier times were expensive luxuries made on the model of "secret recipes" and forged into such tools as knives and swords. Modern alloy steels of the machine age were developed as improved tool steels and as newly available stainless steels. Today alloy steels find uses in a wide array of applications, from everyday hand tools and flatware to highly demanding applications such as in the turbine blades of jet engines and in nuclear reactors.
Because of the ferromagnetic properties of iron, some steel alloys find important applications where their responses to magnetism are very important, including in electric motors and in transformers.
Low-alloy steels
A few common low alloy steels are:
D6AC
300M
256A
Material science
Alloying elements are added to achieve certain properties in the material. The alloying elements can change and personalize properties—their flexibility, strength, formability, and hardenability. As a guideline, alloying elements are added in lower percentages (less than 5%) to increase strength or hardenability, or in larger percentages (over 5%) to achieve special properties, such as corrosion resistance or extreme temperature stability. Manganese, silicon, or aluminium are added during the steelmaking process to remove dissolved oxygen, sulfur and phosphorus from the melt. Manganese, silicon, nickel, and copper are added to increase strength by forming solid solutions in ferrite. Chromium, vanadium, molybdenum, and tungsten increase strength by forming second-phase carbides. Nickel and copper improve corrosion resistance in small quantities. Molybdenum helps to resist embrittlement. Zirconium, cerium, and calcium increase toughness by controlling the shape of inclusions. Sulfur (in the form of manganese sulfide), lead, bismuth, selenium, and tellurium increase machinability. The alloying elements tend to form either solid solutions or compounds or carbides. Nickel is very soluble in ferrite; therefore, it forms compounds, usually Ni3Al. Aluminium dissolves in the ferrite and forms the compounds Al2O3 and AlN. Silicon is also very soluble and usually forms the compound SiO2•MxOy. Manganese mostly dissolves in ferrite forming the compounds MnS, MnO•SiO2, but will also form carbides in the form of (Fe,Mn)3C. Chromium forms partitions between the ferrite and carbide phases in steel, forming (Fe,Cr3)C, Cr7C3, and Cr23C6. The type of carbide that chromium forms depends on the amount of carbon and other types of alloying elements present. Tungsten and molybdenum form carbides if there is enough carbon and an absence of stronger carbide forming elements (i.e., titanium & niobium), they form the carbides W2C and Mo2C, respectively. Vanadium, titanium, and niobium are strong carbide forming elements, forming vanadium carbide, titanium carbide, and niobium carbide, respectively. Alloying elements also have an effect on the eutectoid temperature of the steel. Manganese and nickel lower the eutectoid temperature and are known as austenite stabilizing elements. With enough of these elements the austenitic structure may be obtained at room temperature. Carbide-forming elements raise the eutectoid temperature; these elements are known as ferrite stabilizing elements.
See also
HSLA steel
Microalloyed steel
SAE steel grades
Reynolds 531
References
Bibliography
.
Groover, M. P., 2007, p. 105-106, Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing: Materials, Processes and Systems, 3rd ed, John Wiley & Sons, Inc., Hoboken, NJ, .
Steels | wiki |
In ice hockey, the Stanley Cup Finals (also known as the Stanley Cup Final among various media) is the championship series of the National Hockey League (NHL) to determine the winner of the Stanley Cup. The series is played in a best of seven format, meaning that a team must win four games in order to win the series and the Cup. Games that are tied at the end of regulation time go to overtime. In the history of the NHL, there have been 17 series which have ended on a game-winning goal in overtime.
The first overtime Cup winning goal was scored by Bill Cook of the New York Rangers in game four of the final against goaltender Lorne Chabot and the Toronto Maple Leafs. Mush March of the Chicago Black Hawks repeated the feat in against Wilf Cude and the Detroit Red Wings, also in game four. The 1933 and 1934 series were played in a best of five format; the current best of seven format was adopted beginning in .
Pete Babando in and Tony Leswick in , both with the Red Wings, scored the only game seven Cup winning goals. Babando scored against Chuck Rayner and the Rangers while Leswick scored against Gerry McNeil and the Montreal Canadiens. The goal in 1954 was the second overtime Cup winner allowed by McNeil, the only goaltender to have allowed more than one, the first having been scored in by Bill Barilko of the Maple Leafs.
Twice in Stanley Cup history has a team won the Cup on an overtime series winner one season, and then lost the same way the next season. The Canadiens won the series in overtime, only to lose it the following year to Detroit. The Dallas Stars won the Stanley Cup vs the Buffalo Sabres, only to lose it the following year to the New Jersey Devils.
Overtime Series Winners
References
Notes
External links
Over | wiki |
A tithe (; from Old English: teogoþa "tenth") is a one-tenth part of something, paid as a contribution to a religious organization or compulsory tax to government. Today, tithes are normally voluntary and paid in cash or cheques or more recently via online giving, whereas historically tithes were required and paid in kind, such as agricultural produce. After the separation of church and state, church tax linked to the tax system are instead used in many countries to support their national church. Donations to the church beyond what is owed in the tithe, or by those attending a congregation who are not members or adherents, are known as offerings, and often are designated for specific purposes such as a building program, debt retirement, or mission work.
Many Christian denominations hold Jesus taught that tithing must be done in conjunction with a deep concern for "justice, mercy and faithfulness" (cf. Matthew 23:23). Tithing was taught at early Christian church councils, including the Council of Tours in 567, as well as the Third Council of Mâcon in 585. Tithing remains an important doctrine in many Christian denominations, such as the Congregationalist Churches, Methodist Churches and Seventh-day Adventist Church. Some Christian Churches, such as those in the Methodist tradition, teach the concept of Storehouse Tithing, which emphasizes that tithes must be prioritized and given to the local church, before offerings can be made to apostolates or charities.
Traditional Jewish law and practice has included various forms of tithing since ancient times. Orthodox Jews commonly practice ma'aser kesafim (tithing 10% of their income to charity). In modern Israel, some religious Jews continue to follow the laws of agricultural tithing, e.g., ma'aser rishon, terumat ma'aser, and ma'aser sheni.
Ancient Near East
None of the extant extrabiblical laws of the Ancient Near East deal with tithing, although other secondary documents show that it was a widespread practice in the Ancient Near East. William W. Hallo (1996) recognises comparisons for Israel with its ancient Near Eastern environment; however, as regards tithes, comparisons with other ancient Near Eastern evidence is ambiguous, and Ancient Near Eastern literature provides scant evidence for the practice of tithing and the collection of tithes.
The esretu – "ešretū" the Ugarit and Babylonian one-tenth tax
Listed below are some specific instances of the Mesopotamian tithe, taken from The Assyrian Dictionary of the Oriental Institute of the University of Chicago, Vol. 4 "E" p. 369:
[Referring to a ten percent tax levied on garments by the local ruler:] "the palace has taken eight garments as your tithe (on 85 garments)"
"...eleven garments as tithe (on 112 garments)"..
"...(the sun-god) Shamash demands the tithe..."
"four minas of silver, the tithe of [the gods] Bel, Nabu, and Nergal..."
"...he has paid, in addition to the tithe for Ninurta, the tax of the gardiner"
"...the tithe of the chief accountant, he has delivered it to [the sun-god] Shamash"
"...why do you not pay the tithe to the Lady-of-Uruk?"
"...(a man) owes barley and dates as balance of the tithe of the **years three and four"
"...the tithe of the king on barley of the town..."
"...with regard to the elders of the city whom (the king) has **summoned to (pay) tithe..."
"...the collector of the tithe of the country Sumundar..."
"...(the official Ebabbar in Sippar) who is in charge of the tithe..."
Tyre and Carthage
According to Diodorus Siculus, the Carthaginians, who were originally Tyrian colonists, customarily sent Melqart (Heracles in Interpretatio graeca) a tenth of all that was paid into the public revenue.
Hebrew Bible
Patriarchs
In , Abraham, after rescuing Lot, met with Melchizedek. After Melchizedek's blessing, Abraham gave him a tenth of everything he has obtained from battle:
In , Jacob, after his visionary dream of Jacob's Ladder and receiving a blessing from God, promises God a tenth:
Mosaic law
The tithe is specifically mentioned in the Books of Leviticus, Numbers and Deuteronomy. The tithe system was organized in a seven-year cycle, corresponding to the Shmita-cycle. This mandatory tithe was distributed locally "within thy gates" () to support the Levites and assist the poor.
Every year, Bikkurim, Terumah, Ma'aser Rishon and Terumat Ma'aser were separated from the grain, wine and oil (). (As regards other fruit and produce, the Biblical requirement to tithe is a source of debate.) The first tithe is giving of one tenth of agricultural produce (after the giving of the standard terumah) to the Levite (or Aaronic priests). Historically, during the First Temple period, the first tithe was given to the Levites. Approximately at the beginning of the Second Temple construction, Ezra and his Beth din implemented its giving to the kohanim.
Unlike other offerings which were restricted to consumption within the tabernacle, the second tithe could be consumed anywhere . On years one, two, four and five of the Shemittah-cycle, God commanded the Children of Israel to take a second tithe that was to be brought to the place of the Temple (). The owner of the produce was to separate and bring 1/10 of his finished produce to the Old City of Jerusalem after separating Terumah and the first tithe, but if the family lived too far from Jerusalem, the tithe could be redeemed upon coins (). Then, the Bible required the owner of the redeemed coins to spend the tithe "to buy whatever you like: cattle, sheep, wine or other fermented drink, or anything you wish" (). Implicit in the commandment was an obligation to spend the coins on items meant for human consumption.
In years three and six of the Shemittah-cycle the Israelites set aside the (second) tithe instead as the poor tithe, and it was given to the strangers, orphans, and widows.
The Levites, also known as the Tribe of Levi, were descendants of Levi. They were assistants to the Aaronic priests (who were the children of Aaron and, therefore, a subset of the Tribe of Levi) and did not own or inherit a territorial patrimony (). Their function in society was that of temple functionaries, teachers and trusted civil servants who supervised the weights and scales and witnessed agreements. The goods donated from the other Israelite tribes were their source of sustenance. They received from "all Israel" a tithe of food or livestock for support, and in turn would set aside a tenth portion of that tithe (known as the Terumat hamaaser) for the Aaronic priests.
An additional tithe mentioned in the Book of Leviticus () is the cattle tithe, which is to be sacrificed as a korban at the Temple in Jerusalem.
Book of Nehemiah
Tithing is mentioned several times in the Book of Nehemiah, believed to chronicle events in the latter half of the 5th century BC. outlines the customs regarding tithing. The Levites were to receive one tenth (the tithe) "in all our farming communities" and a tithe of the tithe were to be brought by them to the temple for storage. recounts how Eliashib gave Tobiah office space in the temple in a room that had previously been used to store tithes while Nehemaiah was away. When Nehemiah returned he called it an evil thing, threw out all Tobiah's household items and had his rooms purified so that they could once more be used for tithes.
Minor Prophets
The Book of Malachi has one of the most quoted Biblical passages about tithing, directed to the sons of Jacob:
Deuterocanonical
The deuterocanonical Book of Tobit provides an example of all three classes of tithes practiced during the Babylonian captivity:
Judaism
Orthodox Jews continue to follow the laws of Terumah and Ma'aser as well as the custom of tithing 10% of one's earnings to charity (ma'aser kesafim). Due to doubts concerning the status of persons claiming to be Kohanim or Levi'im arising after severe Roman/Christian persecutions and exile, the Hebrew Bible tithe of 10% for the Levites, and "tithe of the tithe" () of 10% of 10% (1%). The Mishnah and Talmud contain analysis of the first tithe, second tithe and poor tithe.
Animals are not tithed in the present era when the Temple is not standing.
Christianity
Many churches practiced tithing, as it was taught by the Council of Tours in 567, and in the Third Council of Mâcon in AD 585, a penalty of excommunication was prescribed for those who did not adhere to this ecclesiastical law. Tithes can be given to the Church at once (as is the custom in many Christian countries with a church tax), or distributed throughout the year; during the part of Western Christian liturgies known as the offertory, people often place a portion of their tithes (sometimes along with additional offerings) in the collection plate.
talks about giving cheerfully, encourages giving what you can afford, discusses giving weekly (although this is a saved amount for Jerusalem), exhorts supporting the financial needs of Christian workers, promotes feeding the hungry wherever they may be and states that pure religion is to help widows and orphans.
According to a 2018 study by LifeWay Research that interviewed 1,010 Americans, 86% of people with Evangelical beliefs say that tithe is still a biblical commandment today. In this number, 87% of Baptist believers, 86% of Pentecostal believers, 81% of Non-denominational believers share this position.
Denominational positions
Adventist Churches
The Seventh-day Adventist Church teaches in its Fundamental Beliefs that "We acknowledge God's ownership by faithful service to Him and our fellow men, and by returning tithes and giving offerings for the proclamation of His gospel and the support of His Church."
Anabaptist Churches
The Mennonite Church teaches that "tithing as a minimum baseline is one of the principles on which financial giving in this 'first fruits' system is based":
Baptist Churches
The National Baptist Convention of America teaches that "Baptists believe that a proper sense of stewardship begins with the 'tithe'; a presentation of which belongs to Him. 'The tithe is the Lord's.' We have not given as a result of presenting the tithe. Our giving begins with the offering {after we have tithed}."
The Treatise of the National Association of Free Will Baptists, Chapter XVI, specifically states that both the Old and New Testaments "teach tithing as God's financial plan for the support of His work."
The Southern Baptist Convention, in Article XIII of its Baptist Faith and Message, states that "God is the source of all blessings, temporal and spiritual; all that we have and are we owe to Him. Christians have a spiritual debtorship to the whole world, a holy trusteeship in the gospel, and a binding stewardship in their possessions. They are therefore under obligation to serve Him with their time, talents, and material possessions; and should recognize all these as entrusted to them to use for the glory of God and for helping others. According to the Scriptures, Christians should contribute of their means cheerfully, regularly, systematically, proportionately, and liberally for the advancement of the Redeemer's cause on earth." The tithe is not specifically mentioned, but traditionally it is taught and practiced in Southern Baptist churches.
Catholic Church
The Council of Trent, which was held after the Reformation, taught that "tithes are due to God or to religion, and that it is sacrilegious to withhold them", but the Catholic Church no longer requires anyone to give ten percent of income. The Church now simply asks Catholics to support the mission of their parish. According to the Catechism of the Catholic Church "The faithful also have the duty of providing for the material needs of the Church, each according to his own abilities"
Lutheran Churches
The Lutheran Church–Missouri Synod teaches that "Encourage[s] cheerful, first-fruit, proportionate (including but not limited to tithing) living and giving in all areas of life by Christian stewards".
Methodist Churches
The Discipline of The Allegheny Wesleyan Methodist Connection, which teaches the doctrine of the Storehouse Tithing, holds:
The Book of Discipline of the United Methodist Church states that it is the responsibility of ecclesiastics to "educate the local church that tithing is the minimum goal of giving in The United Methodist Church."
The Church of the Nazarene teaches Storehouse Tithing, in which members are asked to donate one-tenth of their income to their local church—this is to be prioritized before giving an offering to apostolates or charities.
Moravian Church
The Moravian Church encourages its members to "financially support the ministry of the Church toward the goal of tithing." It "deem[s] it a sacred responsibility and genuine opportunity to be faithful stewards of all God has entrusted to us: our time, our talents, [and] our financial resources".
Orthodox Churches
Tithing in medieval Eastern Christianity did not spread so widely as in the West. A Constitution of the Emperors Leo I (reigned 457–474) and Anthemius (reigned 467–472) apparently expected believers to make voluntary payments and forbade compulsion.
The Greek Orthodox Archdiocese of America teaches "proportionate giving and tithing as normal practices of Christian giving."
Pentecostal Churches
The Pentecostal Church of God teaches that "We recognize the scriptural duty of all our people, as well as ministers, to pay tithes as unto the Lord. Tithes should be used for the support of active ministry and for the propagation of the Gospel and the work of the Lord in general."
The International Pentecostal Holiness Church likewise instructs the faithful that:
Reformed Churches
The Book of Order of the Presbyterian Church (USA) states, with respect to the obligation to tithe:
The United Church of Christ, a denomination in the Congregationalist tradition, teaches that:
The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints
The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints (LDS Church) bases its tithing on the following additional scriptures:
Tithing is currently defined by the church as payment of one-tenth of one's annual income. Many church leaders have made statements in support of tithing. Every Latter-day Saint has an opportunity once a year to meet with their bishop for tithing settlement. The payment of tithes is mandatory for members to receive the priesthood or obtain a temple recommend for admission to temples.
The LDS Church is a lay ministry. The money that is given is used to construct and maintain its buildings as well as to further the work of the church. None of the funds collected from tithing is paid to local church officials or those who serve in the church. Those serving in full-time church leadership do receive stipends for living expenses, but they are paid from non-tithing resources, such as investments. Brigham Young University, a church-sponsored institution, also receives "a significant portion" of its maintenance and operating costs from tithes of the church's members.
Church collection of religious offerings and taxes
England and Wales
The right to receive tithes was granted to the English churches by King Ethelwulf in 855. The Saladin tithe was a royal tax, but assessed using ecclesiastical boundaries, in 1188. The legal validity of the tithe system was affirmed under the Statute of Westminster of 1285. The Dissolution of the Monasteries led to the transfer of many rights to tithe to secular landowners and the Crown – and tithes could be extinguished until 1577 under an Act of the 37th year of Henry VIII's reign. Adam Smith criticized the system in The Wealth of Nations (1776), arguing that a fixed rent would encourage peasants to work far more efficiently.
Dissenters
In the seventeenth century various dissenting groups objected to paying tithes to Church of England. Quakers were prominent among these, objecting to 'forced payments for the maintenance of a professional ministry'. In 1659 guidance was issued for a national system for recording the fines, impropriations and imprisonments for non-payment of tithes as seen in the following extract from a document.
These records were eventually collated and published in 1753 by Joseph Besse, documenting widespread persecution throughout the British Isles and further abroad. This only abated in the 1680s, due in no small measure to the efforts of William Penn who, through his father's earlier connections at court, was friendly with Charles I and James, Duke of York and interceded with them in behalf of Quakers in England and on the Continent, respectively.
See below for a fuller description and history, until the reforms of the 19th century, written by Sir William Blackstone and edited by other learned lawyers of the period.
End of the tithing system
The system gradually ended with the Tithe Commutation Act 1836, whose long-lasting Tithe Commission replaced them with a commutation payment, land award and/or rentcharges to those paying the commutation payment and took the opportunity to map out (apportion) residual chancel repair liability where the rectory had been appropriated during the medieval period by a religious house or college. Its records give a snapshot of land ownership in most parishes, the Tithe Files, are a socio-economic history resource. The rolled-up payment of several years' tithe would be divided between the tithe-owners as at the date of their extinction.
This commutation reduced problems to the ultimate payers by effectively folding tithes in with rents however, it could cause transitional money supply problems by raising the transaction demand for money. Later the decline of large landowners led tenants to become freeholders and again have to pay directly; this also led to renewed objections of principle by non-Anglicans. It also kept intact a system of chancel repair liability affecting the minority of parishes where the rectory had been lay-appropriated. The precise land affected in such places hinged on the content of documents such as the content of deeds of merger and apportionment maps.
Tithe redemption
Rent charges in lieu of abolished English tithes paid by landowners were converted by a public outlay of money under the Tithe Act 1936 into annuities paid to the state through the Tithe Redemption Commission. Such payments were transferred in 1960 to the Board of Inland Revenue, and those remaining were terminated by the Finance Act 1977.
The Tithe Act 1951 established the compulsory redemption of English tithes by landowners where the annual amounts payable were less than £1, so abolishing the bureaucracy and costs of collecting small sums of money.
Greece
There has never been a separate church tax or mandatory tithe on Greek citizens. The state pays the salaries of the clergy of the established Church of Greece, in return for use of real estate, mainly forestry, owned by the church. The remainder of church income comes from voluntary, tax-deductible donations from the faithful. These are handled by each diocese independently.
Ireland
From the English Reformation in the 16th century, most Irish people chose to remain Roman Catholic and had by now to pay tithes valued at about 10 per cent of an area's agricultural produce, to maintain and fund the established state church, the Anglican Church of Ireland, to which only a small minority of the population converted. Irish Presbyterians and other minorities like the Quakers and Jews were in the same situation.
The collection of tithes was resisted in the period 1831–36, known as the Tithe War. Thereafter, tithes were reduced and added to rents with the passing of the Tithe Commutation Act in 1836. With the disestablishment of the Church of Ireland by the Irish Church Act 1869, tithes were abolished.
United States
While the federal government has never collected a church tax or mandatory tithe on its citizens, states collected a tithe into the early 19th century. The United States and its governmental subdivisions also exempt most churches from payment of income tax (under Section 501(c)(3) of the Internal Revenue Code and similar state statutes, which also allows donors to claim the donations as an income tax itemized deduction). Also, churches may be permitted exemption from other state and local taxes such as sales and property taxes, either in whole or in part. Clergy, such as ministers and members of religious orders (who have taken a vow of poverty) may be exempt from federal self-employment tax on income from ministerial services. Income from non-ministerial services are taxable and churches are required to withhold Federal and state income tax from this non-exempt income. They are also required to withhold employee's share of Social Security and Medicare taxes under FICA, and pay the employer's share for the non-exempt income.
Spain and Latin America
Both the tithe (diezmo), a levy of 10 per cent on all agricultural production, and "first fruits" (primicias), an additional harvest levy, were collected in Spain throughout the medieval and early modern periods for the support of local Catholic parishes.
The tithe crossed the Atlantic with the Spanish Empire; however, the Indians who made up the vast majority of the population in colonial Spanish America were exempted from paying tithes on native crops such as corn and potatoes that they raised for their own subsistence. After some debate, Indians in colonial Spanish America were forced to pay tithes on their production of European agricultural products, including wheat, silk, cows, pigs, and sheep.
The tithe was abolished in several Latin American countries, including Mexico, soon after independence from Spain (which started in 1810). The tithe was abolished in Argentina in 1826, and in Spain itself in 1841.
Governmental collection of Christian religious offerings and taxes
Austria
In Austria a colloquially called church tax (Kirchensteuer, officially called Kirchenbeitrag, i. e. church contribution) has to be paid by members of the Catholic and Protestant Church. It is levied by the churches themselves and not by the government. The obligation to pay church tax can just be evaded by an official declaration to cease church membership. The tax is calculated on the basis of personal income. It amounts to about 1.1 per cent (Catholic church) and 1.5 per cent (Protestant church).
Denmark
All members of the Church of Denmark pay a church tax, which varies between municipalities. The tax is generally around 1% of the taxable income.
Finland
Members of state churches pay a church tax of between 1% and 2% of income, depending on the municipality. In addition, 2.55 per cent of corporate taxes are distributed to the state churches. Church taxes are integrated into the common national taxation system.
Germany
Germany levies a church tax, on all persons declaring themselves to be Christians, of roughly 8–9% of their income tax, which is effectively (very much depending on the social and financial situation) typically between 0.2% and 1.5% of the total income. The proceeds are shared among Catholic, Lutheran, and other Protestant Churches.
The church tax (Kirchensteuer) traces its roots back as far as the Reichsdeputationshauptschluss of 1803. It was reaffirmed in the Concordat of 1933 between Nazi Germany and the Catholic Church. Today its legal basis is article 140 of the Grundgesetz (the German constitution) in connection with article 137 of the Weimar Constitution. These laws originally merely allowed the churches themselves to tax their members, but in Nazi Germany, collection of church taxes was transferred to the German government. As a result, both the German government and the employer are notified of the religious affiliation of every taxpayer. This system is still in effect today. Mandatory disclosure of religious affiliation to government agencies or employers constituted a violation of the original European data protection directives but is now permitted after the German government obtained an exemption.
Church tax (Kirchensteuer) is compulsory in Germany for those confessing members of a particular religious group. It is deducted at the PAYE level. The duty to pay this tax theoretically starts on the day one is christened. Anyone who wants to stop paying it has to declare in writing, at their local court of law (Amtsgericht) or registry office, that they are leaving the Church. They are then crossed off the Church registers and can no longer receive the sacraments, confession and certain services; a Roman Catholic church may deny such a person a burial plot. In addition to the government, the taxpayer also must notify his employer of his religious affiliation (or lack thereof) in order to ensure proper tax withholding.
This opt-out is also used by members of "free churches" (e.g. Baptists) (non-affiliated to the scheme) to stop paying the church tax, from which the free churches do not benefit, in order to support their own church directly.
Italy
Originally the Italian government of Benito Mussolini, under the Lateran treaties of 1929 with the Holy See, paid a monthly salary to Catholic clergymen. This salary was called the congrua. The eight per thousand law was created as a result of an agreement, in 1984, between the Italian Republic and the Holy See.
Under this law Italian taxpayers are able to vote how to partition the 0.8% ('eight per thousand') of the total income tax IRPEF levied by Italy among some specific religious confessions or, alternatively, to a social assistance program run by the Italian State. This declaration is made on the IRPEF form. This vote is not compulsory; the whole amount levied by the IRPEF tax is distributed in proportion to explicit declarations.
The last official statement of Italian Ministry of Finance made in respect of the year 2000 singles out seven beneficiaries: the Italian State, the Catholic Church, the Waldenses, the Jewish Communities, the Lutherans, the Seventh-day Adventist Church and the Assemblies of God in Italy.
The tax was divided up as follows:
87.17% Catholic Church
10.35% Italian State
1.21% Waldenses
0.46% Jewish Communities
0.32% Lutherans
0.28% Adventists of the Seventh Day
0.21% Assemblies of God in Italy
In 2000, the Catholic Church raised almost a billion euros, while the Italian State received about €100 million.
Scotland
In Scotland teinds were the tenths of certain produce of the land appropriated to the maintenance of the Church and clergy. At the Reformation most of the Church property was acquired by the Crown, nobles and landowners. In 1567 the Privy Council of Scotland provided that a third of the revenues of lands should be applied to paying the clergy of the reformed Church of Scotland. In 1925 the system was recast by statute and provision was made for the standardisation of stipends at a fixed value in money. The Court of Session acted as the Teind Court. Teinds were finally abolished by section 56 of the Abolition of Feudal Tenure etc. (Scotland) Act 2000.
Switzerland
There is no official state church in Switzerland; however, all the 26 cantons (states) financially support at least one of the three traditional denominations — Roman Catholic, Old Catholic, or Protestant — with funds collected through taxation. Each canton has its own regulations regarding the relationship between church and state. In some cantons, the church tax (up to 2.3 per cent) is voluntary but in others an individual who chooses not to contribute to church tax may formally have to leave the church. In some cantons private companies are unable to avoid payment of the church tax.
Tithes and tithe law in England before reform
Excerpts from Sir William Blackstone, Commentaries on the Laws of England:
Definition and classification and those liable to pay tithes
. . . tithes; which are defined to be the tenth part of the increase, yearly arising and renewing from the profits of lands, the stock upon lands, and the personal industry of the inhabitants:
the first species being usually called predial, as of corn, grass, hops, and wood;
the second mixed, as of wool, milk, pigs, &c, consisting of natural products, but nurtured and preserved in part by the care of man; and of these the tenth must be paid in gross:
the third personal, as of manual occupations, trades, fisheries, and the like; and of these only the tenth part of the clear gains and profits is due.
...
in general, tithes are to be paid for every thing that yields an annual increase, as corn, hay, fruit, cattle, poultry, and the like; but not for any thing that is of the substance of the earth, or is not of annual increase, as stone, lime, chalk, and the like; nor for creatures that are of a wild nature, or ferae naturae, as deer, hawks, &c, whose increase, so as to profit the owner, is not annual, but casual.
History
We cannot precisely ascertain the time when tithes were first introduced into this country. Possibly they were contemporary with the planting of Christianity among the Saxons, by Augustin the monk, about the end of the fifth century. But the first mention of them, which I have met with in any written English law, is in a constitutional decree, made in a synod held A.D. 786, wherein the payment of tithes in general is strongly enjoined. This canon, or decree, which at first bound not the laity, was effectually confirmed by two kingdoms of the heptarchy, in their parliamentary conventions of estates, respectively consisting of the kings of Mercia and Northumberland, the bishops, dukes, senators, and people. Which was a few years later than the time that Charlemagne established the payment of them in France, and made that famous division of them into four parts; one to maintain the edifice of the church, the second to support the poor, the third the bishop, and the fourth the parochial clergy.
Beneficiaries
And upon their first introduction (as hath formerly been observed), though every man was obliged to pay tithes in general, yet he might give them to what priests he pleased; which were called arbitrary consecrations of tithes: or he might pay them into the hands of the bishop, who distributed among his diocesan clergy the revenues of the church, which were then in common. But, when dioceses were divided into parishes, the tithes of each parish were allotted to its own particular minister; first by common consent, or the appointment of lords of manors, and afterwards by the written law of the land.
...It is now universally held, that tithes are due, of common right, to the parson of the parish, unless there be a special exemption. This parson of the parish, we have formerly seen, may be either the actual incumbent, or else the appropriator of the benefice: appropriations being a method of endowing monasteries, which seems to have been devised by the regular clergy, by way of substitution to arbitrary consecrations of tithes.
Exemptions
We observed that tithes are due to the parson of common right, unless by special exemption: let us therefore see, thirdly, who may be exempted from the payment of tithes ... either in part or totally, first, by a real composition; or secondly, by custom or prescription.
First, a real composition is when an agreement is made between the owner of the lands, and the parson or vicar, with the consent of the ordinary and the patron, that such lands shall for the future be discharged from payment of tithes, by reason of some land or other real recompence given to the parson, in lieu and satisfaction thereof.
Secondly, a discharge by custom or prescription, is where time out of mind such persons or such lands have been, either partially or totally, discharged from the payment of tithes. And this immemorial usage is binding upon all parties, as it is in its nature an evidence of universal consent and acquiescence; and with reason supposes a real composition to have been formerly made. This custom or prescription is either de modo decimandi, or de non-decimando.
A modus decimandi, commonly called by the simple name of a modus only, is where there is by custom a particular manner of tithing allowed, different from the general law of taking tithes in kind, which are the actual tenth part of the annual increase. This is sometimes a pecuniary compensation, as twopence an acre for the tithe of land : sometimes it is a compensation in work and labour, as that the parson shall have only the twelfth cock of hay, and not the tenth, in consideration of the owner's making it for him: sometimes, in lieu of a large quantity of crude or imperfect tithe, the parson shall have a less quantity, when arrived to greater maturity, as a couple of fowls in lieu of tithe eggs; and the like. Any means, in short, whereby the general law of tithing is altered, and a new method of taking them is introduced, is called a modus decimandi, or special manner of tithing.
A prescription de non-decimando is a claim to be entirely discharged of tithes, and to pay no compensation in lieu of them. Thus the king by his prerogative is discharged from all tithes. So a vicar shall pay no tithes to the rector, nor the rector to the vicar, for ecclesia decimas non-folvit ecclesiae. But these personal to both the king and the clergy; for their tenant or lessee shall pay tithes of the same land, though in their own occupation it is not tithable. And, generally speaking, it is an established rule, that in lay hands, modus de non-decimando non-valet. But spiritual persons or corporations, as monasteries, abbots, bishops, and the like, were always capable of having their lands totally discharged of tithes, by various ways: as
By real composition :
By the pope's bull of exemption :
By unity of possession; as when the rectory of a parish, and lands in the same parish, both belonged to a religious house, those lands were discharged of tithes by this unity of possession :
By prescription; having never been liable to tithes, by being always in spiritual hands :
By virtue of their order; as the knights templars, cistercians, and others, whose lands were privileged by the pope with a discharge of tithes. Though, upon the dissolution of abbeys by Henry VIII, most of these exemptions from tithes would have fallen with them, and the lands become tithable again; had they not been supported and upheld by the statute 31 Hen. VIII. c. 13. which enacts, that all persons who should come to the possession of the lands of any abbey then dissolved, should hold them free and discharged of tithes, in as large and ample a manner as the abbeys themselves formerly held them. And from this original have sprung all the lands, which, being in lay hands, do at present claim to be tithe-free: for, if a man can shew his lands to have been such abbey lands, and also immemorially discharged of tithes by any of the means before-mentioned, this is now a good prescription de non-decimando. But he must shew both these requisites; for abbey lands, without a special ground of discharge, are not discharged of course; neither will any prescription de non-decimando avail in total discharge of tithes, unless it relates to such abbeylands.
Islam
Zakāt ( ) or "alms giving", one of the Five Pillars of Islam, is the giving of a small percentage of one's assets to charity. It serves principally as the welfare contribution to poor and deprived Muslims, although others may have a rightful share. It is the duty of an Islamic state not just to collect zakat but to distribute it fairly as well.
Zakat is payable on three kinds of assets: wealth, production, and animals. The more well-known zakat on wealth is 2.5 per cent of accumulated wealth, beyond one's personal needs. Production (agricultural, industrial, renting, etc.), is subject to a 10 per cent or 5 per cent zakat (also known as Ushur (عُشر), or "one-tenth"), using the rule that if both labor and capital are involved, 5% rate is applied, if only one of the two are used for production, then the rate is 10 per cent. For any earnings, that require neither labor nor capital, like finding underground treasure, the rate is 20 per cent. The rules for zakat on animal holdings are specified by the type of animal group and tend to be fairly detailed.
Muslims fulfill this religious obligation by giving a fixed percentage of their surplus wealth. Zakat has been paired with such a high sense of righteousness that it is often placed on the same level of importance as performing the five-daily repetitive ritualised prayer (salat). Muslims see this process also as a way of purifying themselves from their greed and selfishness and also safeguarding future business. In addition, Zakat purifies the person who receives it because it saves him from the humiliation of begging and prevents him from envying the rich. Because it holds such a high level of importance the "punishment" for not paying when able is very severe. In the 2nd edition of the Encyclopaedia of Islam it states, "...the prayers of those who do not pay zakat will not be accepted". This is because without Zakat a tremendous hardship is placed on the poor which otherwise would not be there. Besides the fear of their prayers not getting heard, those who are able should be practicing this third pillar of Islam because the Quran states that this is what believers should do.
Non-Muslims (able-bodied adult males of military age) living in an Islamic state are required to pay Jizya, this exempts them from military service and they do not pay Zakat.
Ismaili Muslims pay tithes to their spiritual leader the Aga Khan, known by the Gujarati language term dasond, which in turn refers to one-eighth of the earned income of the community member.
Sikhism
Daswandh (Punjabi: ਦਸਵੰਧ), sometimes spelled Dasvandh, is the one tenth part (or 10 per cent) of one's income that should be donated in the name of the God, according to Sikh principles.
Non-religious
Outside religion, there are also organizations that encourage secular tithing.
Giving What We Can promotes a public commitment to donate at least 10% of one's income to the most effective charities.
See also
Alms, giving to others as an act of virtue
Charity
Church of the Tithes in Kyiv
Council on the Disposition of the Tithes
Peter's Pence
Pittance
Freedom of religion by country
Tithe: A Modern Faerie Tale novel by Holly Black
Tithe dispute
Tithing, historic English legal, administrative or territorial unit
Zakat, form of alms-giving treated in Islam as a religious obligation or tax
Notes
References
Albright, W. F. and Mann, C. S. Matthew, The Anchor Bible, Vol. 26. Garden City, New York, 1971.
The Assyrian Dictionary of the Oriental Institute of the University of Chicago, Vol. 4 "E." Chicago, 1958.
Fitzmyer, Joseph A. The Gospel According to Luke, X-XXIV, The Anchor Bible, Vol. 28A. New York, 1985.
Speiser, E. A. Genesis, The Anchor Bible, Vol.1. Garden City, New York, 1964.
Kelly, Russell Earl, "Should the Church Teach Tithing? A Theologian's Conclusions about a Taboo Doctrine," IUniverse, 2001.
Matthew E. Narramore, "Tithing: Low-Realm, Obsolete & Defunct" – April 2004 – ()
Croteau, David A. "You Mean I Don't Have to Tithe?: A Deconstruction of Tithing and a Reconstruction of Post-Tithe Giving" (McMaster Theological Studies)
Further reading
External links
Theologian Russell Kelly on tithing
Storehouse Tithing by Herb Evans
Q & A On Tithing By Russ Kelly
Articles By New Testament Scholar Dr. David Croteau
Do Christian Tithe?
Christian law
Personal taxes
Economy and religion
Giving
Religious terminology | wiki |
Family Matters is a television sitcom that premiered on September 22, 1989 on ABC, then moved to CBS for its final season which ended on July 17, 1998. A total of 215 episodes were produced spanning nine seasons.
Series overview
Episodes
Season 1 (1989–90)
Season 2 (1990–91)
Season 3 (1991–92)
Season 4 (1992–93)
Season 5 (1993–94)
Season 6 (1994–95)
Season 7 (1995–96)
Season 8 (1996–97)
Season 9 (1997–98)
References
External links
Episodes
Lists of American sitcom episodes | wiki |
Crayon Physics Deluxe is a puzzle video game designed by Petri Purho and released on January 7, 2009. An early version, titled Crayon Physics, was released for Windows in June 2007. Deluxe won the grand prize at the Independent Games Festival in 2008. It features a heavy emphasis on two-dimensional physics simulations, including gravity, mass, kinetic energy and transfer of momentum. The game includes a level editor and enables its players to download and share custom content via an online service.
Gameplay
The objective of each level in Crayon Physics Deluxe is to guide a ball from a predetermined start point so that it touches all of the stars placed on the level. The ball and nearly all objects on the screen are affected by gravity. The player cannot control the ball directly, but rather must influence the ball's movement by drawing physical objects on the screen. Depending on how the object is drawn, it becomes a rigid surface, a pivot point, a wheel or a rope, and the object can then interact with the ball by hitting it, providing a surface to roll on, dragging, carrying or launching the ball, etc. The player can also nudge the ball left or right by clicking on it, and in some levels, rockets appear and can be used as part of the solution.
The game challenges players to come up with creative solutions to each puzzle, and provides additional rewards for elegant solutions that do not rely on "brute force methods". It comes with more than seventy levels, and also features a level editor and an online Playground, where players can upload and download custom levels.
Development
Crayon Physics
Crayon Physics, the original prototype of this game, is Purho's tenth "rapid-prototype project" inspired by the rules of the Experimental Gameplay Project, and was developed in five days using resources freely available under a Creative Commons license. The game was first released for Windows. On June 10, 2007, Purho announced that he would be developing a level editor to permit user-created levels, although by June 15 fans of the game had already worked out the level format and had released new levels for the game. The level editor was released on June 30. Crayon Physics was built with Simple DirectMedia Layer middle-layer and released as freeware.
Crayon Physics Deluxe
On October 12, 2007, Purho announced Crayon Physics Deluxe, which would feature an intuitive level editor, more levels, and a modification to the game engine to preserve the player's drawings instead of turning them into rectangles. The follow-up took a year and eight months to develop. It won the Seumas McNally Grand Prize at the Independent Games Festival in February 2008. Chris Baker of Slate Magazine also wrote that Crayon Physics Deluxe was more talked about than Gears of War 2 at the 2008 Game Developers Conference.
Microsoft Windows, Mac OS X, Linux and Android versions of this game were released along with Humble Indie Bundle for Android 4 on November 8, 2012.
Platforms
Published by Hudson Soft, Crayon Physics Deluxe was released for the iOS on January 1, 2009 and in Spring 2010 for the iPhone via Apple's App Store. A version for the PC was released six days later. An unofficial clone was made for the DS, but only in free play mode and under the title of Pocket Physics. A port for Windows Mobile was also made, but later pulled. It can still be downloaded unofficially. Ports for Mac and Linux were announced as available on July 27, 2011. Crayon Physics is pre-loaded on some Android devices including the Samsung Galaxy Note 10.1.
Reception
The PC version received "generally favorable reviews" according to the review aggregation website Metacritic.
References
External links
Official website
Crayon Physics freeware prototype
Numpty Physics A free, GPL licensed clone.
Crayon Physics (Android) at Android-apk.org
2009 video games
Android (operating system) games
Creative Commons-licensed video games
Drawing video games
Indie video games
IOS games
Linux games
MacOS games
Puzzle video games
Seumas McNally Grand Prize winners
Windows games
Video games developed in Finland
Single-player video games | wiki |
One-way travel or one way is a travel paid by a fare purchased for a trip on an aircraft, a train, a bus, or some other mode of travel without a return trip. One-way tickets may be purchased for a variety of reasons, such as if one is planning to permanently relocate to the destination, is uncertain of one's return plans, has alternate arrangements for the return, or if the traveler is planning to return, but there is no need to pay the fare in advance. For some modes of travel, often for buses, trams or metros, return tickets may not be available at all.
For air trips, normal return tickets are valid for 12 months or 365 days, so in the case of a passenger that wants to stay at the destination for more than 365 days (12 months in one year) then a one-way ticket is advised by airlines and travel agents
Depending on the provider, buying two one-way tickets may or may not be more expensive than buying a round trip ticket. At times, buying two one-way tickets may actually be less expensive, especially if the two tickets are on different airlines.
The hijackers involved in the September 11 attacks purchased one-way tickets, and in aftermath of the attacks, purchasers of one-way airline tickets were in some cases subject to a higher risk of additional security screening.
See also
Repositioning cruise
References
Tickets | wiki |
Pretenders may refer to:
The Pretenders, a rock band
Pretenders (album), the 1980 debut album by the group
Pretenders (TV series), a 1972 British television series
The Pretenders (play) (Norwegian: Kongs-Emnerne), an 1863 play by Henrik Ibsen
The Pretenders (novel), a 1962 novel by F. Sionil José.
Pretenders, aspiring gods in the strategy game Dominions: Priests, Prophets and Pretenders and sequels
The Pretenders (2018 film), an American drama film
The Pretenders (1981 film), a Dutch film
The Pretenders (1916 film), a lost American silent film
See also
Pretender (disambiguation) | wiki |
Second class generally indicates a secondary level of service or importance. More specific, it may refer to:
Economy class, in transport
Travel class, in transport
Second Class, a rank in Boy Scouts of America
Second-class citizen
2.-class torpedo boat, Scandinavian ships
Second class honours, ranking second in a hierarchy of honours
Second class, a subdivision of military ranks
See also | wiki |
Jaguar (, ) is the luxury vehicle brand of Jaguar Land Rover, a British multinational car manufacturer with its headquarters in Whitley, Coventry, England. Jaguar Cars was the company that was responsible for the production of Jaguar cars until its operations were fully merged with those of Land Rover to form Jaguar Land Rover on 1 January 2013.
Jaguar's business was founded as the Swallow Sidecar Company in 1922, originally making motorcycle sidecars before developing bodies for passenger cars. Under the ownership of S. S. Cars Limited, the business extended to complete cars made in association with Standard Motor Co, many bearing Jaguar as a model name. The company's name was changed from S. S. Cars to Jaguar Cars in 1945. A merger with the British Motor Corporation followed in 1966, the resulting enlarged company now being renamed as British Motor Holdings (BMH), which in 1968 merged with Leyland Motor Corporation and became British Leyland, itself to be nationalised in 1975.
Jaguar was spun off from British Leyland and was listed on the London Stock Exchange in 1984, becoming a constituent of the FTSE 100 Index until it was acquired by Ford in 1990. Jaguar has, in recent years, manufactured cars for the British Prime Minister, the most recent delivery being an XJ in May 2010. The company also held a royal warrants from Queen Elizabeth II and holds one from Prince Charles.
Ford owned Jaguar Cars, also buying Land Rover in 2000, until 2008 when it sold both to Tata Motors. Tata created Jaguar Land Rover as a subsidiary holding company. At operating company level, in 2013 Jaguar Cars was merged with Land Rover to form Jaguar Land Rover Limited as the single design, manufacture, sales company and brand owner for both Jaguar and Land Rover vehicles.
Since the Ford ownership era, Jaguar and Land Rover have used joint design facilities in engineering centres at Whitley in Coventry and Gaydon in Warwickshire and Jaguar cars have been assembled in plants at Castle Bromwich and Solihull.
On 15 February 2021, Jaguar Land Rover announced that all cars made under the Jaguar brand will be fully electric by 2025.
History
Founding
The Swallow Sidecar Company was founded in 1922 by two motorcycle enthusiasts, William Lyons and William Walmsley. In 1934 Walmsley elected to sell-out and in order to buy the Swallow business (but not the company which was liquidated) Lyons formed S.S. Cars Limited, finding new capital by issuing shares to the public.
Jaguar first appeared in September 1935 as a model name on an SS 2½-litre sports saloon. A matching open two seater sports model with a 3½-litre engine was named SS Jaguar 100.
On 23 March 1945, the S. S. Cars shareholders in general meeting agreed to change the company's name to Jaguar Cars Limited. Said chairman William Lyons "Unlike S. S. the name Jaguar is distinctive and cannot be connected or confused with any similar foreign name."
Though five years of pent-up demand ensured plenty of buyers production was hampered by shortage of materials, particularly steel, issued to manufacturers until the 1950s by a central planning authority under strict government control. Jaguar sold Motor Panels, a pressed steel body manufacturing company bought in the late 1930s, to steel and components manufacturer Rubery Owen, and Jaguar bought from John Black's Standard Motor Company the plant where Standard built Jaguar's six-cylinder engines. From this time Jaguar was entirely dependent for their bodies on external suppliers, in particular then independent Pressed Steel and in 1966 that carried them into BMC, BMH and British Leyland.
Jaguar made its name by producing a series of successful eye-catching sports cars, the Jaguar XK120 (1948–54), Jaguar XK140 (1954–57), Jaguar XK150 (1957–61), and Jaguar E-Type (1961–75), all embodying Lyons' mantra of "value for money". The sports cars were successful in international motorsport, a path followed in the 1950s to prove the engineering integrity of the company's products.
Jaguar's sales slogan for years was "Grace, Space, Pace", a mantra epitomised by the record sales achieved by the MK VII, IX, Mks I and II saloons and later the XJ6. During the time this slogan was used, but the exact text varied.
The core of Bill Lyons' success following WWII was the twin-cam straight six engine, conceived pre-war and realised while engineers at the Coventry plant were dividing their time between fire-watching and designing the new power plant. It had a hemispherical cross-flow cylinder head with valves inclined from the vertical; originally at 30 degrees (inlet) and 45 degrees (exhaust) and later standardised to 45 degrees for both inlet and exhaust.
As fuel octane ratings were relatively low from 1948 onwards, three piston configuration were offered: domed (high octane), flat (medium octane), and dished (low octane).
The main designer, William "Bill" Heynes, assisted by Walter "Wally" Hassan, was determined to develop the Twin OHC unit. Bill Lyons agreed over misgivings from Hassan. It was risky to take what had previously been considered a racing or low-volume and cantankerous engine needing constant fettling and apply it to reasonable volume production saloon cars.
The subsequent engine (in various versions) was the mainstay powerplant of Jaguar, used in the XK 120, Mk VII Saloon, Mk I and II Saloons and XK 140 and 150. It was also employed in the E Type, itself a development from the race winning and Le Mans conquering C and D Type Sports Racing cars refined as the short-lived XKSS, a road-legal D-Type.
Few engine types have demonstrated such ubiquity and longevity: Jaguar used the Twin OHC XK Engine, as it came to be known, in the Jaguar XJ6 saloon from 1969 through 1992, and employed in a J60 variant as the power plant in such diverse vehicles as the British Army's Combat Vehicle Reconnaissance (Tracked) family of vehicles, as well as the Fox armoured reconnaissance vehicle, the Ferret Scout Car, and the Stonefield four-wheel-drive all-terrain lorry. Properly maintained, the standard production XK Engine would achieve 200,000 miles of useful life.
Two of the proudest moments in Jaguar's long history in motor sport involved winning the Le Mans 24 hours race, firstly in 1951 and again in 1953. Victory at the 1955 Le Mans was overshadowed by it being the occasion of the worst motorsport accident in history. Later in the hands of the Scottish racing team Ecurie Ecosse two more wins were added in 1956 and 1957.
In spite of such a performance orientation, it was always Lyons' intention to build the business by producing world-class sporting saloons in larger numbers than the sports car market could support. Jaguar secured financial stability and a reputation for excellence with a series of elegantly styled luxury saloons that included the 3-litre and 3½ litre cars, the Mark VII, VIII, and IX, the compact Mark I and 2, and the XJ6 and XJ12. All were deemed very good values, with comfortable rides, good handling, high performance, and great style.
Combined with the trend-setting XK 120, XK 140, and XK 150 series of sports car, and nonpareil E-Type, Jaguar's elan as a prestige motorcar manufacturer had few rivals. The company's post-War achievements are remarkable, considering both the shortages that drove Britain (the Ministry of Supply still allocated raw materials) and the state of metallurgical development of the era.
Daimler
In 1950, Jaguar agreed to lease from the Ministry of Supply the Daimler Shadow 2 factory in Browns Lane, Allesley, Coventry, which at the time was being used by The Daimler Company Limited and moved to the new site from Foleshill over the next 12 months. Jaguar purchased Daimler – not to be confused with Daimler-Benz or Daimler AG—in 1960 from BSA. From the late 1960s, Jaguar used the Daimler marque as a brand name for their most luxurious saloons.
Ownership
An end to independence
Pressed Steel Company Limited made all Jaguar's (monocoque) bodies leaving provision and installation of the mechanicals to Jaguar. In mid-1965 British Motor Corporation (BMC), the Austin-Morris combine, bought Pressed Steel. Lyons became concerned about the future of Jaguar, partly because of the threat to ongoing supplies of bodies, and partly because of his age and lack of an heir. He therefore accepted BMC's offer to merge with Jaguar to form British Motor (Holdings) Limited. At a press conference on 11 July 1965 at the Great Eastern Hotel in London, Lyons and BMC chairman George Harriman announced, "Jaguar Group of companies is to merge with The British Motor Corporation Ltd., as the first step towards the setting up of a joint holding company to be called British Motor (Holdings) Limited". In due course BMC changed its name to British Motor Holdings at the end of 1966.
BMH was pushed by the Government to merge with Leyland Motor Corporation Limited, manufacturer of Leyland bus and truck, Standard-Triumph and, since 1967, Rover vehicles. The result was British Leyland Motor Corporation, a new holding company which appeared in 1968, but the combination was not a success. A combination of poor decision making by the board along with the financial difficulties of, especially, the Austin-Morris division (previously BMC) led to the Ryder Report and to effective nationalisation in 1975.
Temporary return to independence
Over the next few years it became clear that because of the low regard for many of the group's products insufficient capital could be provided to develop and begin manufacture of new models, including Jaguars, particularly if Jaguar were to remain a part of the group.
In July 1984, Jaguar was floated off as a separate company on the stock market – one of the Thatcher government's many privatisations– to create its own track record.
Installed as chairman in 1980, Sir John Egan is credited for Jaguar's unprecedented prosperity immediately after privatisation. In early 1986 Egan reported he had tackled the main problems that were holding Jaguar back from selling more cars: quality control, lagging delivery schedules, poor productivity. He laid off about one third of the company's roughly 10,000 employees to cut costs. Commentators later pointed out he exploited an elderly model range (on which all development costs had been written off) and raised prices. He also intensified the effort to improve Jaguar's quality. In the US the price increases were masked by a favourable exchange rate.
Ford Motor Company era
Ford made offers to Jaguar's US and UK shareholders to buy their shares in November 1989; Jaguar's listing on the London Stock Exchange was removed on 28 February 1990. In 1999 it became part of Ford's new Premier Automotive Group along with Aston Martin, Volvo Cars and, from 2000, Land Rover. Under Ford's ownership, Jaguar never made a profit.
Under Ford's ownership Jaguar expanded its range of products with the launch of the S-Type in 1999 and X-type in 2001. After PAG acquired Land Rover in May 2000 purchase by Ford, the brand became closely associated with Jaguar. In many countries they shared a common sales and distribution network (including shared dealerships), and some models shared components, although the only shared production facility was Halewood Body & Assembly – which manufactured the technically related X-Type and the Freelander 2. Operationally the two companies were effectively integrated under a common management structure within Ford's PAG.
On 11 June 2007, Ford announced that it planned to sell Jaguar, along with Land Rover and retained the services of Goldman Sachs, Morgan Stanley and HSBC to advise it on the deal. The sale was initially expected to be announced by September 2007, but was delayed until March 2008. Private equity firms such as Alchemy Partners of the UK, TPG Capital, Ripplewood Holdings (which hired former Ford Europe executive Sir Nick Scheele to head its bid), Cerberus Capital Management and One Equity Partners (owned by JP Morgan Chase and managed by former Ford executive Jacques Nasser) of the US, Tata Motors of India and a consortium comprising Mahindra and Mahindra (an automobile manufacturer from India) and Apollo Management all initially expressed interest in purchasing the marques from the Ford Motor Company.
Before the sale was announced, Anthony Bamford, chairman of British excavator manufacturer JCB had expressed interest in purchasing the company in August 2006, but backed out upon learning that the sale would also involve Land Rover, which he did not wish to buy. On Christmas Eve of 2007, Mahindra and Mahindra backed out of the race for both brands, citing complexities in the deal.
Tata Motors era
On 1 January 2008, Ford formally declared that Tata was the preferred bidder. Tata Motors also received endorsements from the Transport And General Worker's Union (TGWU)-Amicus combine as well as from Ford. According to the rules of the auction process, this announcement would not automatically disqualify any other potential suitor. However, Ford (as well as representatives of Unite) would now be able to enter into detailed discussions with Tata concerning issues ranging from labour concerns (job security and pensions), technology (IT systems and engine production) and intellectual property, as well as the final sale price. Ford would also open its books for a more comprehensive due diligence by Tata. On 18 March 2008, Reuters reported that American bankers Citigroup and JP Morgan would finance the deal with a US$3 billion loan.
On 26 March 2008, Ford announced that it had agreed to sell its Jaguar and Land Rover operations to Tata Motors of India, and that they expected to complete the sale by the end of the second quarter of 2008. Included in the deal were the rights to three other British brands, Jaguar's own Daimler, as well as two dormant brands Lanchester and Rover. On 2 June 2008, the sale to Tata was completed at a cost of £1.7 billion.
On 18 January 2008, Tata Motors, a part of the Tata Group, established Jaguar Land Rover Limited as a British-registered and wholly owned subsidiary. The company was to be used as a holding company for the acquisition of the two businesses from Ford – Jaguar Cars Limited and Land Rover. That acquisition was completed on 2 June 2008. On 1 January 2013, the group, which had been operating as two separate companies (Jaguar Cars Limited and Land Rover), although on an integrated basis, underwent a fundamental restructuring. The parent company was renamed to Jaguar Land Rover Automotive PLC, Jaguar Cars Limited was renamed to Jaguar Land Rover Limited and the assets (excluding certain Chinese interests) of Land Rover were transferred to it. The consequence was that Jaguar Land Rover Limited became responsible in the UK for the design, manufacture and marketing of both Jaguar and Land Rover products.
Plants
From 1922 the Swallow Sidecar company (SSC) was located in Blackpool. The company moved to Holbrook Lane, Coventry in 1928 when demand for the Austin Swallow became too great for the factory's capacity. The company started using the Jaguar name whilst based in Holbrooks Lane.
In 1951, having outgrown the original Coventry site they moved to Browns Lane, which had been a wartime "shadow factory" run by The Daimler Company. The Browns Lane plant ceased trim and final operations in 2005, the X350 XJ having already moved to Castle Bromwich two years prior, with the XK and S-Type following. The Browns Lane plant, which continued producing veneer trim for a while and housed the Jaguar Daimler Heritage centre until it moved to the British Motor Museum site, has now been demolished and is being redeveloped.
Jaguar acquired the Whitley engineering centre from Peugeot in 1986; which had originally been part of Chrysler Europe which the French firm had owned since the late 1970s. The decision to offload the site to Jaguar came as Peugeot discontinued the Talbot brand for passenger cars. In 2016, Jaguar also moved into part of the old Peugeot/Chrysler/Rootes site in Ryton-on-Dunsmore which closed a decade earlier – this now is the home of Jaguar Land Rover's classic restoration operation.
Jaguar's Radford plant, originally a Daimler bus plant but later a Jaguar engine and axle plant, was closed by Ford in 1997 when it moved all Jaguar engine production to its Bridgend facility.
In 2000, Ford turned its Halewood plant over to Jaguar following the discontinuation of its long running Escort that year for Jaguar's new X-Type model. It was later joined by the second-generation Land Rover Freelander 2, from 2007. Jaguars ceased being produced at Halewood in 2009 following the discontinuation of the X-Type; Halewood now becoming a Land Rover-only plant.
Since Jaguar Land Rover was formed following the merger of Jaguar Cars with Land Rover, facilities have been shared across several JLR sites, most of which are used for work on both the Jaguar and Land Rover brands.
Current cars
E-Pace
The Jaguar E-Pace is a compact SUV, officially revealed on 13 July 2017.
F-Pace
The F-Pace is a compact luxury crossover SUV – the first SUV from Jaguar. It was unveiled at the International Motor Show Germany in Frankfurt in September 2015.
F-Type
The F-Type convertible was launched at the 2012 Paris Motor Show, following its display at the Goodwood Festival of Speed in June 2012, and is billed as a successor to the legendary E-Type. In fact, the Series III E-Type already had a successor, in the form of the XJS, which was in turn replaced by the XK8 and XKR. The F-Type nevertheless returns to the 2-seat plan that was lost with the introduction of the Series III E-Type, which was available only in a 2+2-seat configuration. It was developed following the positive reaction to Jaguar's C-X16 concept car at the 2011 Frankfurt Auto Show. Sales will begin in 2013 with three engine choices; two variants of the AJ126 V6 petrol engine and the AJ133 V8 petrol engine.
I-Pace
The Jaguar I-Pace is an electric SUV, officially revealed on 1 March 2018. It is Jaguar's first electric car.
XE
The XE is the first compact executive Jaguar since the 2009 model year X-Type and is the first of several Jaguar models to be built using Jaguar's new modular aluminium architecture, moving the company away from the Ford derived platforms that were used in the past for the X-Type and XF. The use of Jaguar's own platform allows the XE to feature either rear-wheel drive or all-wheel drive configurations, and it is the first car in its segment with an aluminium monocoque structure. Originally announced at the 2014 Geneva Motor Show with sales scheduled for 2015.
XF
The Jaguar XF is a mid-size executive car introduced in 2008 to replace the S-Type. In January 2008, the XF was awarded the What Car? 'Car of the Year' and 'Executive Car of the Year' awards. The XF was also awarded Car of the Year 2008 from What Diesel? magazine. Engines available in the XF are 2.2-litre I4 and 3.0-litre V6 diesel engines, or 3.0 litre V6 and 5.0-litre V8 petrol engines. The 5.0 Litre engine is available in supercharged form in the XFR. From 2011, the 2.2-litre diesel engine from the Land Rover Freelander was added to the range as part of a facelift.
R models
Jaguar began producing R models in 1995 with the introduction of the first XJR, and the first XKR was introduced in 1997. Jaguar R, R-S and SVR models are designated to compete with the likes of Mercedes-AMG, BMW M and Audi S and RS.
Historic car models
The renamed Jaguar company started production with the pre-war 1.5, 2.5 and 3.5-litre models, which used engines designed by the Standard Motor Company. The 1.5-litre four-cylinder engine was still supplied by Standard but the two larger six-cylinder ones were made in house. These cars have become known unofficially as Mark IVs.
The first post-war model was the September 1948 Mark V available with either 2.5 or 3.5-litre engines. It had a slightly more streamlined appearance than pre-war models, but more important was the change to torsion bar independent front suspension and hydraulic brakes. In the spring of 1948 Lyons had returned from USA reporting Jaguar's individuality and perceived quality attracted the admiration of American buyers accustomed to the virtual uniformity of their home-grown vehicles.
The first big breakthrough was the launch in October 1948 of their new record-breaking engine design in their XK120 sportscar to replace the prewar SS Jaguar 100. It was powered by a new twin overhead camshaft (DOHC) 3.5-litre hemi-head six-cylinder engine designed by William Heynes, Walter Hassan and Claude Baily. The XK100 4-cylinder 2-Litre version had broken records in Belgium travelling at 177 mph. This XK engine had been designed at night during the war when they would be on fire watch in the factory. After several attempts a final design was achieved. That is until owner William Lyons said "make it quieter".
The sportscar bearing its prefix X had originally been intended as a short production model of about 200 vehicles. A test bed for the new engine until its intended home, the new Mark VII saloon, was ready.
The second big breakthrough was the large Mark VII saloon in 1950, a car especially conceived for the American market, Jaguar was overwhelmed with orders. The Mark VII and its successors gathered rave reviews from magazines such as Road & Track and The Motor. In 1956 a Mark VII won the prestigious Monte Carlo Rally. The XK120's exceptional reception was followed in 1954 by an improved XK140 then in May 1957 a fully revised XK150.
In 1955, the Two-point-four or 2.4-litre saloon (named by enthusiasts 2.4 Mark 1) was the first monocoque (unitary) car from Jaguar. Its 2.4-litre short-stroke version of the XK engine provided performance. In 1957, the 3.4-litre version with disk brakes, wire wheels and other options was introduced, with a top speed of . In October 1959, an extensively revised version of the car with wider windows and 2.4, 3.4, and 3.8-litre engine options became the Mark 2. The 3.8 Mark 2 was popular with British police forces for its small size and performance.
The Mark VIII of 1956 and Mark IX of 1958 were essentially updates of the Mark VII, but the oversize Mark X of 1961 was a completely new design of large saloon with all round independent suspension and unitary construction.
Jaguar launched the E-Type in 1961.
The independent rear suspension from the Mark X was incorporated in the 1963 S-Type, a Mark 2 lengthened to contain the complex rear suspension, and in 1967 the Mark 2 name was dropped when the small saloons became the 240/340 range. The 420 of 1966, also sold as the Daimler Sovereign, put a new front onto the S-type, although both cars continued in parallel until the S-Type was dropped in 1968. The slow-selling Mark X became the 420G in 1966 and was dropped at the end of the decade. Jaguar was saved by its new equally capacious but very much trimmer new XJ6.
Of the more recent saloons, the most significant is the XJ (1968–1992). From 1968 on, the Series I XJ saw minor changes, first in 1973 (to Series II), 1979 (Series III), a complete redesign for 1986/1987 in XJ40, further modifications in 1995 (X300), in 1997 with V8-power (X308), and a major advance in 2003 with an industry-first aluminium monocoque-chassis (X350). The most luxurious XJ models carried either the Vanden Plas (US) or Daimler (rest of world) nameplates. In 1972, the 12-cylinder engine was introduced in the XJ, while simultaneously being offered in the E Type.
1992 saw the introduction of the mid-engined, twin-turbo XJ220, powered by a V6 engine. The XJ220 was confirmed the fastest production car in the world at the time after Martin Brundle recorded a speed of on the Nardo track in Italy.
Over the years many Jaguar models have sported the famous chrome plated Leaping Jaguar, traditionally forming part of the radiator cap. Known as "The Leaper", this iconic mascot has been the subject of controversy in recent times when banned for safety reasons from cars supplied to Europe whilst it continued to be fitted on cars destined for the United States, Middle East and Far East. It has now been dropped from all the latest Jaguar models, although some customers add it to their car as a customization.
The Jaguar S-Type, first appeared in 1999 and stopped production in 2008. It has now been replaced by the Jaguar XF. Early S-Types suffered from reliability problems but those were mostly resolved by the 2004 model year.
The Jaguar X-Type was a compact executive car launched in 2001, while the company was under Ford ownership, sharing its platform with the Ford Mondeo. X-Type production ended in 2009.
The Jaguar XK was a luxury grand tourer introduced in 2006, where it replaced the XK8. The XK introduced an aluminium monocoque bodyshell, and was available both as a two-door coupé and two-door cabriolet/convertible. Production ceased in 2014.
The Jaguar XJ was a full-size luxury saloon. The model was in production since 1968, with production ceasing in 2019, with the first generation being the last Jaguar car to have creative input by the company's founder, Sir William Lyons, although this is disputed as some Jaguar historians claim that the second generation XJ – the XJ40 series – was the last car which Lyons had influenced. The XJ40 originally launched in 1986 and went through two major revamps in 1994 (X300) and 1997 (X308) for a total production run of 17 years. In early 2003, the third generation XJ – the X350 – arrived in showrooms and while the car's exterior and interior styling were traditional in appearance, the car was completely re-engineered. Its styling attracted much criticism from many motoring journalists who claimed that the car looked old-fashioned and barely more modern than its predecessor, many even citing that the 'Lyons line' had been lost in the translation from XJ40 into X350 XJ, even though beneath the shell lay a highly advanced aluminium construction that put the XJ very near the top of its class.
Jaguar responded to the criticism with the introduction of the fourth generation XJ, launched in 2009. Its exterior styling is a departure from previous XJs, with a more youthful, contemporary stance, following the design shift that came into effect previously with the company's XF and XK models.
The 5-litre V8 engine in the XJ Supersport can accelerate the car from in 4.7 seconds, and has a UK emission rating of 289 g/km. To cater to the limousine market, all XJ models are offered with a longer wheelbase (LWB) as an option, which increases the rear legroom.
List
Large executive
1935–1955 litre saloon
1937–1948 Litre saloon
1948–1951 Mark V
1951–1957 Mark VII (& VIIM)
1957–1959 Mark VIII
1959–1961 Mark IX
1961–1966 Mark X
1966–1970 420G
1968–1987 XJ6 Series 1, 2 & 3
1972–1992 XJ12
1986–1994 XJ6 (XJ40)
1993–1994 XJ12 (XJ81)
1995–1997 XJ6 & XJ12 (X300 & X301)
1998–2003 XJ8 (X308)
2004–2007 XJ (X350)
2008–2009 XJ (X358)
Compact executive
1935–1949 Litre saloon
1955–1959 Mark 1
1959–1967 Mark 2
1963–1968 S-type
1966–1968 420
1966–1968 240 & 340
1999–2008 S-type
2001–2009 X-type
2007–2015 XF (X250)Sports
1948–1954 XK120
1954–1957 XK140
1957–1961 XK150
1961–1974 E-Type
1975–1996 XJ-S
1992–1994 XJ220
1997–2006 XK8/XKR (X100)
2006–2014 XK (X150)
Racing and competition
1950s C-Type
1950s D-Type
1960s E-Type Lightweight
1985–1992 XJR-5 through XJR-17
2009 XFR Bonneville Salt Flats speed record
2010 Jaguar RSR XKR GT2
Concept cars
E1A – The 1950s E-Type concept vehicle
E2 A – The second E-Type concept vehicle, which raced at LeMans and in the USA
XJ13 (1966) – Built to race at LeMans, never run
Pirana (1967) – Designed by Bertone
Ascot (1977)
XJ41/XJ42 (1982-1990) – the first F-Type; cancelled due to the Ford's takeover of Jaguar
XJ90 (1988-1991) – planned XJ40 replacement; cancelled due to Ford's takeover of Jaguar
Kensington (1990)
XK 180 (1998) – Roadster concept based on the XK8
F-Type (2000) – Roadster, similar to the XK8 but smaller
R-Coupé (2001) – Large four-seater coupé
Fuore XF 10 (2003)
R-D6 (2003) – Compact four-seat coupé
XK-RR – A high-performance version of last generation XK coupé
XK-RS – Another performance-spec version of last generation XK convertible
Concept Eight (2004) – Super-luxury version of the long-wheelbase model of the XJ
C-XF (2007) – Precursor to the production model XF saloon
C-X75 (2010) – Hybrid-electric sports car, originally intended for production but cancelled in 2012
B99 (2011)
C-X16 (2011) – Precursor to the production model F-Type
C-X17 (2013) – First ever Jaguar SUV concept
Project 7 – a 542 bhp V8-powered speedster based on the F-Type and inspired by the D-Type (2013)
Future-Type (2017)
Engines
Jaguar has designed in-house six generations of engines:
Historic:
XK6 – Inline-6
V12 – 60° V12
AJ6/AJ16 – 22° Inline-6
AJ-V6 – 60° V6 (Ford designed, Jaguar modified)
Current:
AJ-V8 – 90° V8
AJ126 – 90° V6
AJD-V6 – 60° V6 (Ford designed)
Ingenium – Inline-4
Motorsport
Jaguar has had major success in sports car racing, particularly in the Le Mans 24 Hours. Victories came in and with the C-Type, then in , and with the D-Type. The manager of the racing team during this period, Lofty England, later became CEO of Jaguar in the early 1970s. Although the prototype XJ13 was built in the mid-1960s it was never raced, and the famous race was then left for many years.
In 1982, a successful relationship with Tom Walkinshaw's TWR team commenced with the XJ-S competing in the European Touring Car Championship, which it won in 1984. In 1985, the TWR XJ-S won the Bathurst 1000 race. In the mid-1980s TWR started designing and preparing Jaguar V12-engined Group C cars for World Sports Prototype Championship races. The team started winning regularly from 1987, and won Le Mans in 1988 and 1990 with the XJR series sports cars. The Jaguar XJR-14 was the last of the XJRs to win, taking the 1991 World Sportscar Championship.
In 1999, Ford decided that Jaguar would be the corporation's Formula One entry. Ford bought out the Milton Keynes-based Stewart Grand Prix team and rebranded it as Jaguar Racing for the 2000 season. The Jaguar F1 program was not a success however, achieving only two podium finishes in five seasons of competition between and . At the end of 2004, with costs mounting and Ford's profits dwindling, the F1 team was seen as an unneeded expense and was sold to Red Bull energy drinks owner Dietrich Mateschitz, and it became Red Bull Racing.
On 15 December 2015, it was announced that Jaguar would return to motorsport for the third season of Formula E.
On 15 June 2018, Jaguar Vector Racing broke the world speed record for an electric battery powered boat. The Jaguar Vector V20E recorded an average speed of 88.61 mph across the two legs of the 1 km course on Coniston Water, England.
Notable sports racers:
Jaguar C-Type (1951–1953)
Jaguar D-Type (1954–1957)
Jaguar Lightweight E-Type
Jaguar XJ13
Jaguar XJR Sportscars
Jaguar XJR-9 (1988)
XJ220 (1988)
XJR-15 (1990)
Jaguar and the arts
For some time now, Jaguar has been active in the international arts scene. In particular, the company has collaborated with the artist Stefan Szczesny, implementing major art projects. In 2011, Jaguar presented the exhibition series "Shadows", which involved the installation of Szczesny's shadow sculptures in Sankt-Moritz, on Sylt and in Saint-Tropez. In 2012, a large number of sculptures, ceramics and paintings were shown in Frankfurt (and mainly in Frankfurt's Palmengarten).
As part of the collaboration with Szczesny, Jaguar has released the "Jaguar Art Collection".
See also
List of car manufacturers of the United Kingdom
References
External links
Jaguar Daimler Heritage Trust website
Vehicle manufacturing companies established in 1935
British brands
Car brands
Luxury motor vehicle manufacturers | wiki |
Jim McDonald is a fictional character from the British soap opera Coronation Street, played by Charles Lawson. He made his first appearance during the episode broadcast on 27 October 1989. He appeared as a regular character from 1989 to 2000, and has made brief comebacks between 2003 and 2018.
Jim was introduced in 1989 along with his wife Liz McDonald, (Beverley Callard) and then teenage sons Andy McDonald (Nicholas Cochrane) and Steve McDonald (Simon Gregson).
His storylines have often revolved around his family relationships and various crimes, which have resulted in several stints in prison. Early storylines for the character saw Jim and Liz's daughter Katie die shortly after birth, followed by an alcohol addiction which led to domestic violence and the collapse of his marriage, as well as a near fatal fight with his son Steve, which resulted in temporary paralysis, as well as a one-night stand with Steve's ex-girlfriend Fiona Middleton (Angela Griffin). Jim had a brief relationship with Gwen Davies (Annie Hulley), before remarrying Liz and then being sent down for the manslaughter of Jez Quigley (Lee Boardman), in revenge for a near fatal attack on Steve.
Later storylines have included Jim escaping from prison, Liz divorcing him for a second time, his attack on Liz’s new husband Vernon Tomlin (Ian Reddington), being imprisoned for a bank robbery, being diagnosed with the degenerative illness myotonic dystrophy, and concocting a plan to swindle Liz out of her money by pretending he had found their daughter Katie.
Storylines
1989–2000
Jim first arrives in Coronation Street in October 1989 with his wife Liz (Beverley Callard) and twin teenage sons Steve (Simon Gregson) and Andy (Nicholas Cochrane), buying 11 Coronation Street from Alf (Bryan Mosley) and Audrey Roberts (Sue Nicholls). He begins a bike repair shop and later becomes a mechanic for Kevin Webster (Michael Le Vell) at MVB Motors.
Jim suffers a personal tragedy with the death of his baby daughter, Katie McDonald. He splits from Liz soon afterwards after she berates him for punching Steve during an argument. Liz goes to manage a nearby pub for a while but they soon reconcile and give their marriage another chance. By 1994, Jim is drinking heavily and his angry nature developed rapidly. He finds himself arguing repeatedly with family and friends and his marriage hits new depths in 1996 when he hits her at a service station in Macclesfield and drives off after she admits having an affair with a former army colleague many years earlier. Jim is arrested soon afterwards for trying to break into their house and after further breaching the conditions of a restraining order, he spends several weeks in prison for burglary and criminal damage.
Jim had a one-night stand with his son Steve's ex-girlfriend, Fiona Middleton (Angela Griffin). This results in Jim stopping her wedding to Alan McKenna (Glen Hugill) and confessing what had happened between them. As a result, Alan dumps Fiona as he now doubts that the child she is carrying is his. Steve is disgusted with Jim and reconciles with Fiona, helping her to raise her son, Morgan. Tests show that Jim's vasectomy hasn't failed and therefore Alan is Morgan's father but he still refuses to have any contact with Fiona or Morgan. Jim is badly injured after falling from scaffolding after a fight with Steve on a building site, and needs physiotherapy to regain his ability to walk. Jim then catches Liz in bed with Michael Wall (Dominic Rickhards), his physiotherapist, and throws her out. Jim and Liz soon agree to a divorce, and Liz leaves Coronation Street with Michael to start a new life in Milton Keynes. Steve is badly beaten by gangster Jez Quigley (Lee Boardman). Jim gets revenge by viciously beating Jez and leaving him unconscious in his flat. Jez later regains consciousness in hospital but collapses and dies from a ruptured Spleen after trying to suffocate Steve with a pillow while they are both in hospital. Jim gives himself up to the police and is remanded in prison to await trial. He remarries Liz and is later sentenced to eight years imprisonment for manslaughter.
2003–2005
Three years into his sentence and a year before his scheduled release on licence, Jim escapes from prison as he fears that Liz is having an affair with her manager at a pub in Blackpool. They try to flee to Ireland but stop to rescue Ashley Peacock (Steven Arnold) and his girlfriend Claire Casey (Julia Haworth), who are adrift in a boat. Jim is soon recaptured and returns to prison. Jim makes an appearance in December 2004, phoning from prison to wish his family a happy Christmas. Jim fights with another inmate, cancelling his parole, as a result and he is ordered to stay in prison, as Liz gives up waiting for Jim and divorces him again.
2007–2011
Jim returns to the Street after being released early for good behaviour. On his return to the street, Jim seems to have changed for the better—a reformed character, teetotal and friendly to all. Steve gives him a job valeting cars at the cab firm and lets him see his granddaughter, Amy Barlow (Amber Chadwick). However, Jim is upset about Liz's upcoming wedding to drummer, Vernon Tomlin (Ian Reddington), and eventually it gets the better of him. On Liz and Vernon's wedding day, Jim gives Vernon a severe beating after Vernon launches at him and hits Dev Alahan (Jimmi Harkishin) in the process. Steve breaks up the fight, and in no uncertain terms tells his father he is no longer welcome, forcing Jim to leave the Street.
Jim returns for Steve's wedding to Becky Granger (Katherine Kelly) along with Andy. When Becky is arrested and accused of dealing drugs, Jim finds out about Slug (Marshall Lancaster), the person who planted the drugs, and suggests to Steve that he give copies of Slug's photos to taxi businesses around Weatherfield, in the hope someone will recognise him and leaves again with Andy.
Jim returns to celebrate his 55th birthday with Steve. He meets Becky's nephew, Max Turner (Harry McDermott), and catches up with Kevin in The Rovers. He also attends the funeral of old friend, Jack Duckworth (Bill Tarmey). The next day, Jim sends Liz some flowers which are intercepted by her new boyfriend, Owen Armstrong (Ian Puleston-Davies), who goes to "The Flying Horse" and warns Jim to stay away. Jim later goes to The Rovers and bumps into Owen again, goading him about the flowers and telling Steve what Owen has done. On 1 December 2010, Jim returns again and is disappointed that Liz is not there. He clashes with Owen again and then later phones Steve and tells him that he is in hospital after getting into a fight in a pub. Steve visits him, along with Owen and after Steve had gone, Owen hints to Jim that he is behind the attack. When Steve goes to collect Jim from the hospital, Jim warns Steve that Owen was behind the beating and asked him to watch out for his and Liz's safety.
In March 2011, Jim meets Liz in a hotel bar. They have a drink and Liz tells him about Steve and Becky; he suggests that she buy the pub from Steve. Jim later walks Liz to her room and it is revealed that they had a one-night stand whilst in Spain. They agree to give their complicated marriage another go. He finds out that Steve and Becky bought a child called Max from Becky's sister, Kylie Platt (Paula Lane). The next day, he goes to The Rovers to speak to them and they tell him that they have had a fallout with Liz. Jim later meets up with Liz in the café and tells her that he thinks Becky is controlling Steve. In April, Jim agrees to buy the Rovers, which costs £120,000 in total and would allow Becky and Steve to flee the country. After numerous failed attempts to raise the money, he asks Kevin, who has just won the lottery, to put forward the cash and become a silent partner in the pub which Kevin agrees to think about. Confident that things are finally falling into place for him, he joins Liz behind the bar.
The next day, he visits Kevin at the garage but is stunned when Kevin reveals that he feels the venture is too risky. Jim reveals to Kevin how badly he needs the money but despite begging, Kevin won't budge. A desperate Jim then thinks he has no alternative than to rob a bank, and calls an old friend to receive a gun. He later goes into the bank, and pulls out the gun to the receptionist. She gets him the money but also hits the panic button, which automatically alerts police something is wrong. He almost gets out of the bank successfully but bumps into a woman as he quickly paces out, revealing his gun to everyone. Chaos ensues and as he attempts to calm everybody down, he is struck on the head with a chair. He furiously punches the attacker but before he can leave, he sees the police arrive outside and realises that he has no chance of escape. Jim takes everyone in the bank hostage and tells a policeman over the phone that he'll only co-operate if they get Liz to come down to the bank, to which they agree. After much talking, Liz manages to convince Jim to let the hostages go and come out. The police promptly arrest Jim and he shouts 'Elizabeth, I'm sorry!' to Liz as he is handcuffed in a police car. The following day, Liz visits Jim and tells him she'll be there when he comes out and joins Andy in Spain. Steve visits Jim to inform him Liz has left but will attend the trial. Steve visits Jim in custody and tells him that Liz has gone back to Spain. In October, Jim is sentenced to seven years imprisonment.
2014
Jim is tracked down in prison by fellow inmate Peter Barlow (Chris Gascoyne). Jim has the nickname "The Landlord" in prison due to his reputation of illegally selling alcohol to other prisoners. Jim agrees to give him booze, but then proceeds to cruelly blackmail Peter in a bid to get in contact with his son Steve in order to repair their relationship. He also wants to reconcile with Liz and be a part of his granddaughter Amy's (now played by Elle Mulvaney) life. Liz later visits Jim in prison and tells him that she and Steve want nothing more to do with him and that he lost his family years ago. A short while later, Jim finds Peter passed out from the booze he gave him and saves his life by calling the medical services.
Steve hears what happened and hopes that his father might finally be a changed man. He visits Jim inside and, eventually, they reconcile as father and son. Steve also promises to bring Amy to see him, leaving Jim delighted that things have worked out in his favour. He is however concerned that Peter will reveal how he got the booze and so pleads with him not to do so, even going as far as to threaten him. Peter then angrily tells Tracy Barlow (Kate Ford) that Jim had given him the booze, despite knowing that he was a recovering alcoholic, which in turn Tracy reveals to Steve. Steve refuses to visit Jim or bring Amy and cuts off contact. Devastated and furious, Jim has Peter beaten up.
On the request of Peter's stepmother Deirdre Barlow (Anne Kirkbride), Liz goes to visit Jim in order to stop him from harming Peter further. Jim turns to blackmail as he tells Liz that he will lay off Peter as long as she continues to see him. Liz complies, although when her boyfriend Tony Stewart (Terence Maynard) breaks off with her, she tells Jim that it is over and leaves the prison. When Liz tells Jim it will be her last visit, Jim reveals that he will soon be transferred to an open prison, which would allow him to be closer to the family and even return for visits to the street. Liz is disgusted and tells Steve that he has been using them both all along, since he knew full well that he would soon be out of there. An angry Steve arranges a visit and confronts Jim. Jim attempts to convince him that he was only trying to get his family back and that his heart was in the right place, but Steve furiously retorts that he has harmed numerous people along the way, including beating Peter up and blackmailing Liz. He grasses Jim up, revealing to officers that he had been using a mobile phone to harass Liz, which ruins his chances of being moved to an open prison. Jim is apoplectic with rage and has to be restrained by the prison guards whilst threatening Steve with revenge as they take him away. Steve, however, is not fazed and brands his father a "joke". It is to be believed that his sentence was extended because of his illegal actions.
In 2016, Jim calls Steve and receives a frosty reception from his son who attempts to hang up. However, Jim shocks him by revealing that he has a potentially serious hereditary condition called myotonic dystrophy and suggests that Steve get himself and Amy tested, as it passes down to offspring.
2018
Jim is released from Highfield Prison and after a few weeks, he returns to Weatherfield - to the shock and dismay of Liz and Steve, and feigns again that he is a changed man, although the pair of them refuse to buy into his claims. Jim meets with Liz at the Viaduct Bistro and reveals to her that he found out their daughter Katie is still alive as there was a mix up at the hospital over 20 years ago, and later introduces her to Hannah Gilmore (Hannah Ellis Ryan), supposedly their biological daughter. The revelation shocks Liz, although she is later ecstatic that she would finally be able to properly get to know the girl she thought she had lost. However, unknown to Liz and everyone else, Hannah is in fact impersonating Katie, and Jim is in on the scheme in order to get revenge on his family for abandoning him in prison. Jim shares a kiss with her in the car following the meeting with Liz at the bistro, feeling victory at tricking her.
When Steve questions whether Hannah is actually their daughter, Jim arranges for a second DNA test to be made which Hannah later tampers with in order to fool Liz and Steve. Later on in the pub, Hannah plants the seed in Liz's head that her and Jim need treatment for the myotonic dystrophy disease, and need the money fast. Jim, however, starts to feel guilty about his role in the con after visiting Katie's grave, and it's clear that cracks are starting to set in. Hannah stages a fall in The Rovers in order to convince Liz into letting her stay with her, which Jim is initially annoyed at because she did not tell him beforehand but is later secretly pleased that he'll see more of Liz. After more hints from Hannah, Liz decides to check her savings and finds out that she can raise £10,000 for the treatment. Jim and Hannah realise this is not enough and when Steve reveals that he is spending an enormous amount of money on his wedding to Tracy, they decide to target Johnny Connor (Richard Hawley). Jim had discovered that Liz and Johnny had slept together despite him being married to Jenny Bradley (Sally Ann Matthews) and they send him an anonymous text demanding £50,000.
Seeing that Johnny is panicking over his blackmailer, Jim and Hannah are confident that they'll soon be out of weatherfield with the money. Despite this, Jim is still torn between wanting to be with his family. This increases when Liz becomes closer to him and Steve asks him to be his best man, both of which apologising for abandoning him in prison. Happier than ever, Jim slowly starts to distance himself from Hannah and the scheme. After Johnny tricks Hannah into receiving a fake bag of money, which also reveals to him that she's the blackmailer, he tells Liz who becomes suspicious of her despite Hannah's lying explanation. Still completely trusting Jim, Liz speaks to him about it and expresses her wish that she'd been a better mother as Jim acts as a shoulder to cry on, all thoughts of Hannah forgotten. He later kisses Liz, not realising that Hannah had witnessed the whole thing.
On the day of Steve and Tracy's wedding, Jim discovers that Liz has sent the money. When he is confronted by Hannah over the kiss, he says that it was simply to keep Liz sweet and that it's worked because she's sent the money. Hannah, forgiving Jim, is ecstatic and says that they can finally leave. Jim however, wanting to stay with his family, attempts to fool Hannah by telling her to leave now and that he'd follow her on in a few days, in order to avoid suspicion. Hannah refuses to leave, telling him that they started this together and they'll leave together, and so a frustrated Jim tells her that they'll stay for the wedding. When Liz tells Jim that she loves him and wants to start again, Jim makes up his mind to stay and they kiss, which is once again seen by Hannah. After Jim insults her and says that his and Liz's love is true, Hannah decides to trick Jim and reveal the scam to Liz. After asking Jim to see her in private, Hannah feigns forgiveness and says that she has decided to leave so that Jim can be with Liz. Jim is delighted that he'll soon have his family back and accepts Hannah's request of one last kiss - it's then revealed that Liz was in the bathroom the whole time and walks out to see the kiss, leaving Jim horrified.
Whilst Jim desperately tries to explain, Hannah spitefully reveals the entire scam including that she's not their daughter, and Liz leaves on the verge of tears. Jim follows but not before giving Hannah a look of pure anger, which she returns with a grin. Jim pleads with Liz when they're outside but she angrily pushes him to the ground and calls him a monster. Having lost everything again, Jim walks around by himself and is spotted by Hannah. She forgives him for what he said and tells him to get in the car. Although Jim is furious with her, he reluctantly gets in after realising she's all he has left, and the two of them leave for Belfast.
Two months later, Liz receives a phone call from the police that Jim and Hannah had been found and were arrested for their scam. However, due to a lack of evidence and the fact that Liz handed her money over willingly they could not be charged and so were allowed to walk free. Jim and Hannah's current situation remains unknown, they have been mentioned briefly by different people on the street since their departure.
Development
Lawson was offered a role in Coronation Street in 1989 but turned it down. The following year producers planned to introduce the McDonald family and the casting department approached Lawson again and he accepted the part of Jim.
In 1999, Lawson announced his intention to leave the show. He later revealed that his decision was based on Jim's "improbable plot lines". He believed that writers were struggling to find stories for him and feared his character may have been killed off had he not left. Lawson agreed to part company with the show and see what happens in the near future.
Reintroductions
Lawson returned to film guest appearances in 2003. The storyline played Jim escaping from prison to confront Liz over a supposed affair. The duo decide to run away to Ireland but the police manage to rearrest him before they are able to escape. In July 2007, it was publicised that Lawson had agreed to return to filming in October that year for a special Christmas storyline. Lawson again reprised the role so Jim could attend Steve's wedding to Becky McDonald (Katherine Kelly). Lawson has said that he is happy to return any time there are 'juicy storylines' available.
On 11 April 2014, it was announced that Lawson had again agreed to reprise the role. He was signed to an initial three-month contract with the possibility of an extension. Halina Watts from the Daily Mirror reported that Jim would still be in prison serving out his sentence for committing armed robbery, but would still "cause havoc" upon his screen return.
Reception
Jim's 2018 return storyline won the accolade for "Most Bizarre Soap Storyline" at the 2018 Digital Spy Reader Awards.
Jim has earned a reputation as being a "bad boy" character in the media. David Brown of Radio Times branded him a "fiery hard man". Claire Hodgson of the Daily Mirror said that setting fire to Gwen's furniture, threatening Liz, hangovers, fights in the Rovers Return and robbing the bank were some of Jim's "most outrageous" moments on the show. Lorna Cooper writing for MSN said that she wanted Jim back in Coronation Street full-time and brand him and Liz a "knock-off version of Elizabeth Taylor and Richard Burton."
See also
List of soap opera villains
References
External links
Jim McDonald at the Internet Movie Database
Coronation Street characters
Fictional alcohol abusers
Fictional construction workers
Fictional mechanics
Fictional British Army personnel
Fictional murderers
Fictional people from Northern Ireland
Television characters introduced in 1989
Fictional prison escapees
Fictional domestic abusers
Fictional bank robbers
Male villains
Fictional criminals in soap operas
Fictional prisoners and detainees
Male characters in television | wiki |
The KTM 50 SX Mini is a youth Motorcycle made by KTM from 2008 to present.
Model Progression
2010
New ignition cover for improved sealing
New inner clutch hub for improved reliability
New gearbox shaft for improved reliability
New water pump impeller for improved cooling and engine efficiency
2008
First model year for the 50 SX Mini
References
KTM
External links
Official KTM model information
Full About KTM 50 SX
50 SX Mini
Motorcycles introduced in 2008 | wiki |
Vriesea ospinae var. gruberi is a variety of flowering plant in the family Bromeliaceae.
References
H.Luther, J. Bromeliad Soc. 42: 118 (1992).
ospinae var. gruberi | wiki |
Melanie Roberts is a British gymnast.
Melanie Roberts may also refer to:
Melanie Roberts, see Tameside Council election, 2007
Melanie Roberts, character in Village of the Damned (1995 film)
See also
Mel Roberts (disambiguation) | wiki |
The Remix Album (Cascada-album)
The Remix Album (Lisa Stansfield-album)
The Remix Album (Prince Ital Joe & Marky Mark-album) | wiki |
The Šopka (Шопка) is a Macedonian oro from the region of Kratovo.
It is a vivid women's dance with quick and small steps and small jumps. The dancers are holding belts and begin their dance in the position of a half circle. The dance rhythm is 2/4.
See also
Music of North Macedonia
External links
Video of Šopka on YouTube
Macedonian dances | wiki |
Laundry refers to the washing of clothing and other textiles, and, more broadly, their drying and ironing as well. Laundry has been part of history since humans began to wear clothes, so the methods by which different cultures have dealt with this universal human need are of interest to several branches of scholarship. Laundry work has traditionally been highly gendered, with the responsibility in most cultures falling to women (formerly known as laundresses or washerwomen). The Industrial Revolution gradually led to mechanized solutions to laundry work, notably the washing machine and later the tumble dryer. Laundry, like cooking and child care, is still done both at home and by commercial establishments outside the home.
The word "laundry" may refer to the clothing itself, or to the place where the cleaning happens. An individual home may have a laundry room; a utility room includes but is not restricted to the function of washing clothes. An apartment building or student hall of residence may have a shared laundry facility such as a tvättstuga. A stand-alone business is referred to as a self-service laundry (launderette in British English or laundromat in North American English).
History
Watercourses
Laundry was first done in watercourses, letting the water carry away the materials which could cause stains and smells. Laundry is still done this way in the rural regions of poor countries. Agitation helps remove the dirt, so the laundry was rubbed, twisted, or slapped against flat rocks. One name for this surface is a beetling-stone, related to beetling, a technique in the production of linen; one name for a wooden substitute is a battling-block. The dirt was beaten out with a wooden implement known as a washing paddle, battling stick, bat, beetle or club. Wooden or stone scrubbing surfaces set up near a water supply were gradually replaced by portable rub boards, eventually factory-made corrugated glass or metal washboards.
Once clean, the clothes were wrung out — twisted to remove most of the water. Then they were hung up on poles or clothes lines to air dry, or sometimes just spread out on clean grass, bushes, or trees.
Washhouses
Before the advent of the washing machine, laundry was often done in a communal setting.
Villages across Europe that could afford it built a wash-house, sometimes known by the French name of lavoir. Water was channelled from a stream or spring and fed into a building, possibly just a roof with no walls. This wash-house usually contained two basins – one for washing and the other for rinsing – through which the water was constantly flowing, as well as a stone lip inclined towards the water against which the wet laundry could be beaten. Such facilities were more comfortable and convenient than washing in a watercourse. Some lavoirs had the wash-basins at waist height, although others remained on the ground. The launderers were protected to some extent from rain, and their travel was reduced, as the facilities were usually at hand in the village or at the edge of a town. These facilities were public and available to all families, and usually used by the entire village. Many of these village wash-houses are still standing, historic structures with no obvious modern purpose.
The job of doing the laundry was reserved for women, who washed all their family's laundry. Washerwomen (laundresses) took in the laundry of others, charging by the piece. As such, wash-houses were an obligatory stop in many women's weekly lives and became a sort of institution or meeting place. It was a women-only space where they could discuss issues or simply chat (cf the concept of the village pump). Indeed, this tradition is reflected in the Catalan idiom "fer safareig" (literally, "to do the laundry"), which means to gossip.
European cities also had public wash-houses. The city authorities wanted to give the poorer population, who would otherwise not have access to laundry facilities, the opportunity to wash their clothes. Sometimes these facilities were combined with public baths, see for example Baths and wash houses in Britain. The aim was to foster hygiene and thus reduce outbreaks of epidemics.
Sometimes large metal cauldrons (a "wash copper", even when not made of that metal), were filled with fresh water and heated over a fire, as hot or boiling water is more effective than cold in removing dirt. A posser could be used to agitate clothes in a tub. A related implement called a washing dolly is "a wooden stick or mallet with an attached cluster of legs or pegs" that moves the cloth through the water.
Washing machines and other devices
The Industrial Revolution completely transformed laundry technology. Christina Hardyment, in her history from the Great Exhibition of 1851, argues that it was the development of domestic machinery that led to women's liberation.
The mangle (or "wringer" in American English) was developed in the 19th century — two long rollers in a frame and a crank to revolve them. A laundry-worker took sopping wet clothing and cranked it through the mangle, compressing the cloth and expelling the excess water. The mangle was much quicker than hand twisting. It was a variation on the box mangle used primarily for pressing and smoothing cloth.
Meanwhile, 19th-century inventors further mechanized the laundry process with various hand-operated washing machines to replace tedious hand rubbing against a washboard. Most involved turning a handle to move paddles inside a tub. Then some early-20th-century machines used an electrically powered agitator. Many of these washing machines were simply a tub on legs, with a hand-operated mangle on top. Later the mangle too was electrically powered, then replaced by a perforated double tub, which spun out the excess water in a spin cycle.
Laundry drying was also mechanized, with clothes dryers. Dryers were also spinning perforated tubs, but they blew heated air rather than water.
Chinese laundries in North America
In the late 19th and early 20th century, Chinese immigrants to the United States and to Canada were well represented as laundry workers. Discrimination, lack of English-language skills, and lack of capital kept Chinese immigrants out of most desirable careers. Around 1900, one in four ethnic Chinese men in the U.S. worked in a laundry, typically working 10 to 16 hours a day.
Chinese people in New York City were running an estimated 3,550 laundries at the beginning of the Great Depression. In 1933, the city's Board of Aldermen passed a law clearly intended to drive the Chinese out of the business. Among other things, it limited ownership of laundries to U.S. citizens. The Chinese Consolidated Benevolent Association tried fruitlessly to fend this off, resulting in the formation of the openly leftist Chinese Hand Laundry Alliance (CHLA), which successfully challenged this provision of the law, allowing Chinese laundry workers to preserve their livelihoods. The CHLA went on to function as a more general civil rights group; its numbers declined strongly after it was targeted by the FBI during the Second Red Scare (1947–1957).
South Africa
From 1850 to 1910, Zulu men took on the task of laundering the clothes of Europeans, both Boers and British. "Laundering recalled the specialist craft of hide-dressing in which Zulu males engaged as izinyanga, a prestige occupation that paid handsomely." They created a guild structure, similar to a union, to guard their conditions and wages, evolving into "one, if not indeed the most, powerful group of African work-men in nineteenth-century Natal".
India
In India, laundry was traditionally done by men. A washerman was called a dhobiwallah, and dhobi became the name of their caste group.
A laundry-place is generally called a dhobi ghat; this has given rise to place names where they work or worked, including Mahalaxmi Dhobi Ghat in Mumbai, Dhoby Ghaut in Singapore and Dhobi Ghaut in Penang, Malaysia.
Philippines
Until the early 1980s, when washing machines became more affordable in the country. much of the laundry work in the Philippines was done manually, and this role was generally assigned to women. A professional laundrywoman was called a labandera.
Ancient Rome
The workers in ancient Rome who cleaned the cloth were called fullones, singular fullo (cf fulling, a process in wool-making, and Fuller's earth, used to clean). Clothes were treated in small tubs standing in niches surrounded by low walls, known as treading or fulling stalls. The tub was filled with water and a mixture of alkaline chemicals (sometimes including urine). The fuller stood in the tub and trampled the cloth, a technique known elsewhere as posting. The aim of this treatment was to apply the chemical agents to the cloth so that they could do their work, the resolving of greases and fats. These stalls are so typical of these workshops that they are used to identify fullonicae in the archaeological remains.
Laundry processes
Laundry processes include washing (usually with water containing detergents or other chemicals), agitation, rinsing, drying, pressing (ironing), and folding. The washing will sometimes be done at a temperature above room temperature to increase the activities of any chemicals used and the solubility of stains, and high temperatures kill micro-organisms that may be present on the fabric. However, it is advised that cotton be washed at a cooler temperature to prevent shrinking. Many professional laundry services are present in the market which offers at different price range.
Agitation helps remove dirt which is usually mobilised by surfactants from between fibres, however, due to the small size of the pores in fibres, the 'stagnant core' of the fibres themselves see virtually no flow. The fibres are nevertheless rapidly cleaned by diffusiophoresis carrying dirt out into the clean water during the rinsing process.
Chemicals
Various chemicals may be used to increase the solvent power of water, such as the compounds in soaproot or yucca-root used by Native American tribes, or the ash lye (usually sodium hydroxide or potassium hydroxide) once widely used for soaking laundry in Europe. Soap, a compound made from lye and fat, is an ancient and common laundry aid. Modern washing machines typically use synthetic powdered or liquid laundry detergent in place of more traditional soap.
Cleaning or dry cleaning
Dry cleaning refers to any process which uses a chemical solvent other than water. The solvent used is typically tetrachloroethylene (perchloroethylene), which the industry calls "perc". It is used to clean delicate fabrics that cannot withstand the rough and tumble of a washing machine and clothes dryer; it can also obviate labor-intensive hand washing.
Shared laundry rooms
In some parts of the world, including North America, apartment buildings and dormitories often have laundry rooms, where residents share washing machines and dryers. Usually the machines are set to run only when money is put in a coin slot.
In other parts of the world, including Europe, apartment buildings with laundry rooms are uncommon, and each apartment may have its own washing machine. Those without a machine at home or the use of a laundry room must either wash their clothes by hand or visit a commercial self-service laundry (laundromat, laundrette) or a laundry shop, such as 5àsec.
Right to dry movement
Some American communities forbid their residents from drying clothes outside, and citizens protesting this have created a "right to dry" movement. Many homeowners' associations and other communities in the United States prohibit residents from using a clothesline outdoors, or limit such use to locations that are not visible from the street or to certain times of day. Other communities, however, expressly prohibit rules that prevent the use of clotheslines. Some organizations have been campaigning against legislation which has outlawed line-drying of clothing in public places, especially given the increased greenhouse gas emissions produced by some types of electrical power generation needed to power electric clothes dryers, since driers can constitute a considerable fraction of a home's total energy usage.
Florida ("the Sunshine State") is the only state to expressly guarantee a right to dry, although Utah and Hawaii have passed solar rights legislation. A Florida law explicitly states: "No deed restrictions, covenants, or similar binding agreements running with the land shall prohibit or have the effect of prohibiting solar collectors, clotheslines, or other energy devices based on renewable resources from being installed on buildings erected on the lots or parcels covered by the deed restrictions, covenants, or binding agreements." No other state has such clearcut legislation. Vermont considered a "Right to Dry" bill in 1999, but it was defeated in the Senate Natural Resources & Energy Committee. The language has been included in a 2007 voluntary energy conservation bill, introduced by Senator Dick McCormack. Legislation making it possible for thousands of American families to start using clotheslines in communities where they were formerly banned was passed in Colorado in 2008. In 2009, clothesline legislation was debated in the states of Connecticut, Hawaii, Maryland, Maine, New Hampshire, Nebraska, Oregon, Virginia, and Vermont.
Similar measures have been introduced in Canada, in particular the province of Ontario.
Common problems
Novice users of modern laundry machines sometimes experience accidental shrinkage of garments, especially when applying heat. For wool garments, this is due to scales on the fibers, which heat and agitation cause to stick together. Other fabrics (like cotton) have their fibers stretched by mechanical force during production, and can shrink slightly when heated (though to a lesser degree than wool). Some clothes are "pre-shrunk" to avoid this problem.
Another common problem is color bleeding from dyed articles to white or pale-colored ones. Many laundry guides suggest washing whites separately from colored items. Sometimes only similar colors are washed together to avoid this problem, which is lessened by cold water and repeated washings. Sometimes this blending of colors is seen as a selling point, as with madras cloth.
Laundry symbols are included on many clothes to help consumers avoid these problems.
Synthetic fibers in laundry can also contribute to microplastic pollution.
Etymology
The word laundry comes from Middle English lavendrye, laundry, from Old French lavanderie, from lavandier.
In culture
In Homer's Odyssey, Princess Nausicaa and her handmaidens are washing laundry by the shore when they see and rescue the ship-wrecked Ulysses.
See also
List of laundry topics
Laundry hygiene
Industrial laundry
References
External links
Articles containing video clips | wiki |
Japanese festivals are traditional festive occasions often celebrated with dance and music in Japan. Many festivals have their roots in traditional Chinese festivals, but have undergone extensive changes over time to have little resemblance to their original form, despite sharing the same name and date. There are also various local festivals (e.g. Tobata Gion) that are mostly unknown outside a given prefecture.
Unlike most people in East Asia, Japanese people generally do not celebrate the Lunar New Year, its observance having been supplanted by the Western New Year's Day on January 1 in the late 19th century (see Japanese New Year); however, many continue to observe several of its cultural practices. Many Chinese residents in Japan, as well as more traditional shrines and temples, still celebrate the Lunar New Year in parallel with the Western New Year. In Yokohama Chinatown, Japan's biggest Chinatown, tourists from all over Japan come to enjoy the festival, similar to Nagasaki's Lantern Festival based in Nagasaki Chinatown.
Events within festivals
Festivals are often based around one event, with food stalls, entertainment, and carnival games to keep people entertained. Some are based around temples or shrines, others hanabi (fireworks), and still others around contests where the participants sport loin cloths (see: Hadaka Matsuri).
Local festivals (matsuri)
is the Japanese word for a festival or holiday. In Japan, festivals are usually sponsored by a local shrine or temple, though they can be secular.
There are no specific matsuri days for all of Japan; dates vary from area to area, and even within a specific area, but festival days do tend to cluster around traditional holidays such as Setsubun or Obon. Almost every locale has at least one matsuri in late summer/early autumn, usually related to the paddy harvest.
Notable matsuri often feature processions which may include elaborate floats. Preparation for these processions is usually organized at the level of neighborhoods, or machi. Prior to these, the local kami may be ritually installed in mikoshi and paraded through the streets.
One can always find in the vicinity of a matsuri booths selling souvenirs and food such as takoyaki, and games, such as Goldfish scooping. Karaoke contests, sumo matches, and other forms of entertainment are often organized in conjunction with matsuri. If the festival is next to a lake, renting a boat is also an attraction.
Favorite elements of the most popular matsuri, such as the Nada no Kenka Matsuri of Himeji or the Neputa Matsuri of Hirosaki, are often broadcast on television for the entire nation to enjoy.
List of famous matsuri
Sapporo Snow Festival (Hokkaido)
Sapporo Snow Festival is one of the largest festivals of the year in Sapporo, held in February for one week. It began in 1950 when high school students built snow statues in Odori Park, central Sapporo. The event is now very large and commercialized. About a dozen large sculptures are built for the festival along with around 100 smaller snow and ice sculptures. Several concerts and other events are also held.
Lake Towada Snow Festival
This lake festival is held in the beginning of February. Held in the town of Yasumiya, this festival is on the south side of Lake Towada (near the wooden statues). This festival is open all day, but at 5 pm one can enjoy activities such as going through a snow maze, exploring a Japanese igloo, and eat foods from Aomori and Akita prefectures. There is a fireworks show and events held on an ice stage.
Aomori Nebuta Festival
This festival is held annually and features colorful lantern floats called nebuta which are pulled through the streets of Central Aomori. This festival is held from about August 2–7 every year. This event attracts millions of visitors. During this festival, 20 large nebuta floats are paraded through the streets near Aomori JR rail station. These floats are constructed of wooden bases and metal frames. Japanese papers, called washi, are painted onto the frames. These amazing floats are finished off with the historical figures or kabuki being painted on the paper. These floats can take up to a year to complete. There is a dance portion of this festival. There are haneto dancers and they wear special costumes for this dance. Everyone is welcome to purchase their own haneto costume that they may too join in on the fun (Mishima, Aomori Nebuta Festival).
Nango Summer Jazz Festival
This event is held every year. Thousands of artists from all over Tohoku and even further regions come to Nango to perform. This is the largest open-air jazz concert held in Tohoku region. This festival began in 1989, in a small venue indoors. There was such a large response from the fans that it was expanded into a large annual festival. One must purchase tickets for this event (Bernard, 2007). This summer jazz festival doesn't cost anything but potential members of the public still need to receive a ticket to enter the event.
Cherry blossom festivals
Japan celebrates the entire season of the cherry blossoms. There are festivals in nearly every region of Japan, and some locations, food is available or a park may be decorated with lanterns.
Some locations of cherry blossom festivals include:
Yaedake Cherry Blossom Festival in Okinawa. This festival takes place from late January – mid February
Matsuyama Shiroyama Koen Cherry Blossom Festival in Matsuyama-city, Ehime. This festival takes place early April.
Matsue Jozan Koen Festival in Matsue-city, Shimane. This festival has a feature of illuminating the cherry blossom trees at night. This festival takes place late March-early April.
Tsuyama Kakuzan Koen Cherry Blossom Festival in Tsuyama-city, Okayama. Japanese tea ceremonies and music performers are held at these festivals. This festival is held early-mid April.
Takato Joshi Koen Cherry Blossom Festival in Takato-machi Ina-city, Nagano prefecture. The trees in this region have pink blossoms. This festival is held early April.
Takada Koen Cherry Blossom Festival in Joetsu-city, Niigata prefecture. This festival is held early-mid April.
Kitakai Tenshochi Cherry Blossom Festival in Kitakami-city, Iwate. This festival is held mid April-early May.
Hirosaki Cherry Blossom Festival held in Hirosaki Koen Hirosaki-city, Aomori prefecture. This festival is held late April-early May (Mishima, Cherry Blossom Festivals 2010).
Outside Japan
Following the Japanese diaspora, many places around the world celebrate similar festivals, often called . Brazil hosts the largest population in the world and some Brazilian cities host such as São Paulo and Curitiba. The United States host the 2nd largest population in the world and some American cities host such as Los Angeles, San Jose and Phoenix. Wales has adopted the term to name their yearly drift festival. It uses the Japanese name to show the sports Japanese heritage. The event takes place over 2 days at the Anglesey Track, and has been annual for 6 years.
Hadaka Matsuri
The origins of Hadaka Matsuri date back 500 years when worshippers competed to receive paper talismans called Go-o thrown by the priest. These paper talismans were tokens of the completion of New Year ascetic training by the priests. As those people receiving these paper talismans had good things happen to them, the number of people requesting them increased year by year. However, as paper is easily destroyed, the talismans were changed to the wooden ofuda that we know today.
Naoi-shinji, also known as "Hadaka Matsuri (naked festival)", started in the year 767 AD, the Nara Period. This right was founded on the fact that the governor of Owari Province (presently Aichi Prefecture) visited the Owari Ōkunitama Shrine (Konomiya shrine) to drive away evil spirits and calamities, because Emperor Shotoku ordered all the kokubun-ji* to offer invocations to dispel plagues.
It is said that the form of the festival, a struggle to touch the Naoinin or Shin-otoko (man of god), is reminiscent of the struggle in old times between the assemblage of lower-ranking Shinto priests called shanin and contributors tried to catch and set up a man for naoinin (shin-otoko), an unlucky poor man, who was unwilling to take the role.
Nationwide festivals
Fixed days
Seijin Shiki: Coming of Age Day (second Monday of January)
Hinamatsuri: Doll Festival (March 3)
Hanami: Flower Viewing (late March to early May)
Hanamatsuri: Flower Festival (April 8)
Tanabata: Star Festival (July 7)
Shichi-Go-San: festival day for children aged seven, five and three (November 15)
Ōmisoka: New Year's Eve (December 31)
Multiple days
Setsubun: division of season (beginning of each of the four seasons) (February 3)
Ennichi: temple fair (holidays related to Kami and/or Buddha)
Bunka
Japanese Cultural Festival
Date: January 1–3 (related celebrations take place throughout January)
Other Names: Oshōgatsu (O is an honorific prefix)
Information: New Year observances are the most elaborate of Japan's annual events. Before the New Year, homes are cleaned, debts are paid off, and osechi (food in lacquered trays for the New Year) is prepared or bought. Osechi foods are traditional foods which are chosen for their lucky colors, shapes, or lucky-sounding names in hopes of obtaining good luck in various areas of life during the new year. Homes are decorated and the holidays are celebrated by family gatherings, visits to temples or shrines, and formal calls on relatives and friends. The first day of the year (ganjitsu) is usually spent with members of the family.
People try to stay awake and eat toshikoshi soba, noodles to be eaten at midnight. People also visit Buddhist temples and Shinto shrines. Traditionally three are visited. This is called sansha-mairi. In the Imperial Palace at dawn on the 1st, the Emperor performs the rite of shihōhai (worship of the four-quarters), in which he offers prayers for the well-being of the nation. On January 2 the public is allowed to enter the inner palace grounds; the only other day this is possible is the Emperor's birthday (February 23). On the 2nd and 3rd days acquaintances visit one another to extend greetings (nenshi) and sip otoso (a spiced rice wine). Some games played at New Year's are karuta (a card game), hanetsuki (similar to badminton), tako age (kiteflying), and komamawashi (spinning tops). These games are played to bring more luck for the year. Exchanging New Year's greeting cards (similar to Christmas Cards) is another important Japanese custom. Also special allowances are given to children, which are called otoshidama. They also decorate their entrances with kagami mochi (two mochi rice balls placed one on top of the other, with a tangerine on top), and kadomatsu (pine tree decorations).
A later New Year's celebration, Koshōgatsu, literally means "Small New Year" and starts with the first full moon of the year (around January 15). The main events of Koshōgatsu are rites and practices praying for a bountiful harvest.
Date: March 3
Other Names: (3rd month Festival), (Peach Festival), (Girls' Festival)
Information: This is the day when families pray for the happiness and prosperity of their girls and to help ensure that they grow up healthy and beautiful. The celebration takes place both inside the home and at the seashore. Both parts are meant to ward off evil spirits from girls. Young girls put on their best kimono and visit their friends' homes. Tiered platforms for ( dolls; a set of dolls representing the emperor, empress, attendants, and musicians in ancient court dress) are set up in the home, and the family celebrates with a special meal of (diamond-shaped rice cakes) and (rice malt with sake).
Date: April
Other Names: Hanami (flower viewing), Cherry Blossom Festival
Information: Various flower festivals are held at Shinto shrines during the month of April. Excursions and picnics for enjoying flowers, particularly cherry blossoms are also common, as well as many drinking parties often to be seen in and around auspicious parks and buildings. In some areas the peach blossom, the traditional flower of Japan (the Cherry being a symbol from the Edo period symbolizing the Samurai culture), is viewed as well though these flowers earlier than the Cherry. In some places flower viewing parties are held on traditionally fixed dates. This is one of the most popular events during spring. The subject of flower viewing has long held an important place in literature, dance, and fine arts. Ikebana (flower arrangement) is also a popular part of Japanese culture and is still practiced by many people today. Some main things people do during this event are games, folk songs, folk dance, flower displays, rides, parades, concerts, kimono shows, booths with food and other things, beauty pageant, and religious ceremonies. Families go out during weekends to see the cherry blossoms, and participate in the many festivals and activities.
Date: April 8
Other Names: Flower Festival
Information: Hanamatsuri celebrates the birth of the Buddha. On this day, all temples hold 降誕会 (Gōtan-e), 仏生会 (Busshō-e), 浴仏会 (Yokubutsu-e), 龍華会 (Ryūge-e) and 花会式 (Hana-eshiki). Japanese people pour ama-cha (a beverage prepared from a variety of hydrangea) on small Buddha statues decorated with flowers, as if bathing a newborn baby. The tradition of bathing the Buddha originated in China and was introduced to Japan where it was first held in Nara in 606. Lion dancing is also a major tradition practiced during Buddha's Birthday and has become associated with the festival in Japan.
Date: July 7 / August 5–8 (Sendai)
Other Names: The Star Festival
Information: It originated from a Chinese folk legend concerning two stars-the Weaver Star (Vega) and the Cowherd Star (Altair)-who were said to be lovers who could meet only once a year on the 7th night of the 7th month provided it didn't rain and flood the Milky Way. It was named Tanabata after a weaving maiden from a Japanese legend, named Orihime who was believed to make clothes for the gods. People often write wishes and romantic aspirations on long, narrow strips of colored paper and hang them on bamboo branches along with other small ornaments.
Date: July 19
Information: One traditional custom to mark the end of the Bon Festival. Small paper lanterns containing a burning flame are either set afloat to a river, lake or sea or they are let go and float away into the night. Their light is intended to guide the way for deceased family members' spirits. Usually the person who lets the lantern go will write a message on the side.
Date: August 13–16
Information: A Buddhist observance honoring the spirits of ancestors. Usually a "spirit altar" (shōryōdana) is set up in front of the Butsudan (buddhist altar) to welcome the ancestors' souls. A priest may be asked to come and read a sutra (tanagyō). Among the traditional preparations for the ancestors' return are the cleaning of grave sites. The welcoming fire (mukaebi) built on the 13th and the send-off fire (okuribi) built on the 15th and 16th are intended to guide the ancestor's spirits back to their permanent dwelling place.
Date: October-
Information: The Japanese tradition of going to visit scenic areas where leaves have turned red in the Autumn. The tradition is said to have originated in the Heian era as a cultured pursuit.
Date: November 11
Information: The Japanese tradition of buying and eating Pocky sticks.
Date: November 15
Information: Three- and seven-year-old girls and five-year-old boys are taken to the local shrine to pray for their safe and healthy future. This festival started because of the belief that children of certain ages were especially prone to bad luck and hence in need of divine protection. Children are usually dressed in traditional clothing for the occasion and after visiting the shrine many people buy chitose-ame ("thousand-year candy") sold at the shrine.
Preparation for the New Year and Year-end fair
Date: late December
Other Names: ,
Information: Preparations for seeing in the new year were originally undertaken to greet the toshigami, or deity of the incoming year. These begin on December 13, when the house was given a thorough cleaning; the date is usually nearer the end of the month now. The house is then decorated in the traditional fashion: A sacred rope of straw (shimenawa) with dangling white paper strips (shide) is hung over the front door to prevent evil spirits from entering and to show the presence of the toshigami. It is also customary to place kadomatsu, an arrangement of tree sprigs, beside the entrance way. A special altar, known as toshidana ("year shelf"), is piled high with kagamimochi (flat, round rice cakes), sake (rice wine), persimmons, and other foods in honor of the toshigami. A fair is traditionally held in late December at shrines, temples or in local neighborhoods. This is in preparation for the new year holidays. Decorations and sundry goods are sold at the fair. Originally these year-end fairs provided opportunities for farmers, fisherfolk and mountain dwellers to exchange goods and buy clothes and other necessities for the coming year.
Date: December 31 (New Year's Eve)
Information: People do the general house cleaning (Ōsōji) to welcome coming year and not to keep having impure influences. Many people visit Buddhist temples to hear the temple bells rung 108 times at midnight (joya no kane). This is to announce the passing of the old year and the coming of the new. The reason they are rung 108 times is because of the Buddhist belief that human beings are plagued by 108 earthly desires or passions (bonnō). With each ring one desire is dispelled. It is also a custom to eat toshikoshi soba in the hope that one's family fortunes will extend like the long noodles.
See also
List of festivals in Japan
Abare Festival
Culture of Japan
Naked festival
Japanese calendar
Jinjitsu and Nanakusa-no-sekku
Subaru Cherry Blossom Festival of Greater Philadelphia
National Cherry Blossom Festival, Washington, D.C.
Kōhaku maku
Sakai Matsuri
References
Further reading
mothra.rerf.or.jp::hiroshima::about matsuri an external article covering the topic
2008 Ministry of Land, I. T. (n.d.). 2008 Chitose-Lake Shikotsu Ice Festival. Retrieved August 6, 2009, from Yokoso! Japan Weeks: http://www.yjw2008.jp/eng/info.php?no=241
Bernard, S. (July 11, 2007). Nango Holds Summer Jazz Festival. Retrieved August 9, 2009, from About.com: https://web.archive.org/web/20110612014351/http://www.misawa.af.mil/news/story_print.asp?id=123060239
Gianola, D. (February 3, 2008). Chitose Lake Shikotsu Ice Festival. Retrieved August 6, 2009, from VR Mag: http://www.vrmag.org/issue29/CHITOSE_LAKE_SHIKOTSU_ICE_FESTIVAL.html
Japan-Guide.com. (n.d.). Sapporo Snow Festival. Retrieved August 6, 2009, from Japan-Guide.com: http://www.japan-guide.com/e/e5311.html
MisawaJapan.com. (n.d.). Lake Towada Winter Festival. Retrieved August 6, 2009, from MisawaJapan.com: http://www.misawajapan.com/festivals/others/towada_winter.asp
Mishima, S. (n.d.). Aomori Nebuta Festival. Retrieved August 9, 2009, from About.com: https://web.archive.org/web/20090227134339/http://gojapan.about.com/cs/tohokuregion1/a/aomorinebuta.htm
Mishima, S. (n.d.). Cherry Blossom Festivals 2010. Retrieved August 9, 2009, from About.com: http://gojapan.about.com/cs/cherryblossoms/a/sakurafestival.htm
External links
Official sites
Festivals all over Japan—Japan Atlas
List All Japanese Festivals in the United States
Japan National Tourist Organization (photo library)
UNESCO Intangible Heritage : Yama, Hoko, Yatai, float festivals in Japan – UNESCO
Matsuri sites
Matsuri Festival in Phoenix, Arizona
Matsuri Photos of Shinto shrine (English version)
Subaru Cherry Blossom Festival of Greater Philadelphia
Matsuri Calendar(Japanese)
Private initiative sites/galleries
JCITI.COM about Nagoya, see festivals section.
Reggie.net—photographs of Neputa floats in Hirosaki.
Description of the Odawara Omatsuri festival—archived.
The Digital Matsuri Project—Japanese festival videos
Public sites/galleries
Matsuri Brisbane photographs, State Library of Queensland
Shinto festivals
Japanese culture
Shinto
Traditional holidays | wiki |
Megaceras briansaltini, named in honor of Brian Saltin, son of entomologist Jochen-P. Saltin, is a Peruvian rhinoceros beetle with a horn surprisingly similar to that of the character Dim from Pixar's animated film, A Bug's Life (created eight years before the beetle's discovery), previously unseen in nature (coined the Dim Effect by its discoverer Brett C. Ratcliffe). It remains unclear whether this is a natural feature or an uncommon mutation, as only one specimen has been found.
M. briansaltini was listed ninth in the top species of 2008 by the International Institute for Species Exploration.
References
Dynastinae
Beetles of South America
Beetles described in 2007 | wiki |
Game theory is the study of participants' behavior in strategic situations.
Game theory may also refer to:
Combinatorial game theory, the study of move combinations in games like nim, chess, and go
Game Theory (band), a 1980s American rock band
Game Theory (album), a 2006 album by hip-hop band The Roots
Game Theory (web show), a 2011–present web series by Matthew Patrick
Political Game Theory, a book by Nolan McCarty with Adam Meirowitz
See also
Game studies, the discipline of studying games in the context of entertainment and education | wiki |
José Manuel 'Manolo' Díaz Fernández (born 30 August 1968) is a Spanish professional football manager and former player who played as a forward.
Coaching career
Born in Madrid, Díaz began his managerial career at the Juvenil squad of Real Madrid, leaving the club in 2006 after the arrival of the new president Ramón Calderón. After a brief period in Mexico he returned to Spain, and was appointed at CDA Navalcarnero in summer 2008.
Díaz was named coach of Real Madrid C a year later, following Florentino Pérez's return as president. In 2011–12 he led the team to the second place in the regular season, and despite losing in the playoffs, saw them achieve promotion to Segunda División B due to administrative relegations.
On 19 November 2013, Díaz replaced the fired Alberto Toril at the helm of the B side. His first match in charge was four days later, a 0–0 home draw against CD Numancia. Late into the year, he finally took the reserves out of the last position in Segunda División, after winning 13 out of a possible 15 points and four consecutive wins.
In July 2014, Díaz was appointed at SD Ponferradina in the second division. On 31 January 2016, after the sixth loss in seven matches, he was dismissed; the campaign eventually ended in relegation.
Díaz returned to the Santiago Bernabéu Stadium on 24 June 2017, being appointed youth system coordinator. In late October 2018, as Santiago Solari was named Julen Lopetegui's successor in the first team, he replaced the former at Castilla.
On 8 September 2021, following a brief spell in the Spanish third tier with Hércules CF, Díaz was announced as the head coach of Indian Super League side SC East Bengal. He resigned at the end of the year, following a poor start to the season.
Managerial statistics
References
External links
1968 births
Living people
Footballers from Madrid
Spanish footballers
Association football forwards
Segunda División B players
Tercera División players
RSD Alcalá players
Getafe CF footballers
Spanish football managers
Segunda División managers
Segunda División B managers
Tercera División managers
Real Madrid C managers
Real Madrid Castilla managers
SD Ponferradina managers
Hércules CF managers
Indian Super League head coaches
East Bengal Club managers
Spanish expatriate football managers
Expatriate football managers in India
Spanish expatriate sportspeople in India | wiki |
A toothbrush is an oral hygiene tool used to clean the teeth, gums, and tongue. It consists of a head of tightly clustered bristles, atop of which toothpaste can be applied, mounted on a handle which facilitates the cleaning of hard-to-reach areas of the mouth. They should be used in conjunction with something to clean between the teeth where the bristles of the toothbrush cannot reach - for example floss, tape or interdental brushes.
They are available with different bristle textures, sizes, and forms. Most dentists recommend using a soft toothbrush since hard-bristled toothbrushes can damage tooth enamel and irritate the gums.
Because many common and effective ingredients in toothpaste are harmful if swallowed in large doses and instead should be spat out, the act of brushing teeth is most often done at a sink within the kitchen or bathroom, where the brush may be rinsed off afterwards to remove any debris remaining and then dried to reduce conditions ideal for germ growth (and, if it is a wooden toothbrush, mold as well).
Some toothbrushes have plant-based handles, often bamboo. However, numerous others are made of cheap plastic; such brushes constitute a significant source of pollution. Over 1 billion toothbrushes are disposed of into landfills annually in the United States alone. Bristles are commonly made of nylon (which, while not biodegradable, as plastic is, may still be recycled) or bamboo viscose.
History
Precursors
Before the invention of the toothbrush, a variety of oral hygiene measures had been used. This has been verified by excavations during which tree twigs, bird feathers, animal bones and porcupine quills were recovered.
The predecessor of the toothbrush is the chew stick. Chew sticks were twigs with frayed ends used to brush the teeth while the other end was used as a toothpick. The earliest chew sticks were discovered in Sumer in southern Mesopotamia in 3500 BC, an Egyptian tomb dating from 3000 BC, and mentioned in Chinese records dating from 1600 BC.
The Indian way of using tooth wood for brushing is presented by the Chinese Monk Yijing (635–713 CE) when he describes the rules for Monks in his book:
"Every day in the morning, a monk must chew a piece of tooth wood to brush his teeth and scrape his tongue, and this must be done in the proper way. Only after one has washed one’s hands and mouth may one make salutations. Otherwise both the saluter and the saluted are at fault.
In Sanskrit, the tooth wood is known as the dantakastha—danta meaning tooth, and kastha, a piece of wood. It is twelve finger-widths in length. The shortest is not less than eight finger-widths long, resembling the little finger in size. Chew one end of the wood well for a long while and then brush the teeth with it."
The Greeks and Romans used toothpicks to clean their teeth, and toothpick-like twigs have been excavated in Qin Dynasty tombs. Chew sticks remain common in Africa, the rural Southern United States, and in the Islamic world the use of chewing stick miswak is considered a pious action and has been prescribed to be used before every prayer five times a day. Miswaks have been used by Muslims since the 7th century. Twigs of Neem Tree have been used by ancient Indians. Neem, in its full bloom, can aid in healing by keeping the area clean and disinfected. In fact, even today, Neem twigs called datun are used for brushing teeth in India, although not hugely common.
Toothbrush
The first bristle toothbrush resembling the modern one was found in China. Used during the Tang Dynasty (619–907), it consisted of hog bristles. The bristles were sourced from hogs living in Siberia and northern China because the colder temperatures provided firmer bristles. They were attached to a handle manufactured from bamboo or bone, forming a toothbrush. In 1223, Japanese Zen master Dōgen Kigen recorded in his Shōbōgenzō that he saw monks in China clean their teeth with brushes made of horsetail hairs attached to an oxbone handle. The bristle toothbrush spread to Europe, brought from China to Europe by travellers. It was adopted in Europe during the 17th century. The earliest identified use of the word toothbrush in English was in the autobiography of Anthony Wood who wrote in 1690 that he had bought a toothbrush from J. Barret. Europeans found the hog bristle toothbrushes imported from China too firm and preferred softer bristle toothbrushes made from horsehair. Mass-produced toothbrushes made with horse or boar bristle continued to be imported to Britain from China until the mid 20th century.
In the UK, William Addis is believed to have produced the first mass-produced toothbrush in 1780. In 1770, he had been jailed for causing a riot. While in prison he decided that using a rag with soot and salt on the teeth was ineffective and could be improved. After saving a small bone from a meal, he drilled small holes into the bone and tied into the bone tufts of bristles that he had obtained from one of the guards, passed the tufts of bristle through the holes in the bone and sealed the holes with glue. After his release, he became wealthy after starting a business manufacturing toothbrushes. He died in 1808, bequeathing the business to his eldest son. It remained within family ownership until 1996. Under the name Wisdom Toothbrushes, the company now manufactures 70 million toothbrushes per year in the UK. By 1840 toothbrushes were being mass-produced in Britain, France, Germany, and Japan. Pig bristles were used for cheaper toothbrushes and badger hair for the more expensive ones.
Hertford Museum in Hertford, UK, holds approximately 5000 brushes that make up part of the Addis Collection. The Addis factory on Ware Road was a major employer in the town until 1996. Since the closure of the factory, Hertford Museum has received photographs and documents relating to the archive, and collected oral histories from former employees.
The first patent for a toothbrush was granted to H.N. Wadsworth in 1857 (U.S.A. Patent No. 18,653) in the United States, but mass production in the United States did not start until 1885. The improved design had a bone handle with holes bored into it for the Siberian boar hair bristles. Unfortunately, animal bristle was not an ideal material as it retained bacteria, did not dry efficiently and the bristles often fell out. In addition to bone, handles were made of wood or ivory. In the United States, brushing teeth did not become routine until after World War II, when American soldiers had to clean their teeth daily.
During the 1900s, celluloid gradually replaced bone handles. Natural animal bristles were also replaced by synthetic fibers, usually nylon, by DuPont in 1938. The first nylon bristle toothbrush made with nylon yarn went on sale on February 24, 1938. The first electric toothbrush, the Broxodent, was invented in Switzerland in 1954. By the turn of the 21st century nylon had come to be widely used for the bristles and the handles were usually molded from thermoplastic materials.
Johnson & Johnson, a leading medical supplies firm, introduced the "Reach" toothbrush in 1977. It differed from previous toothbrushes in three ways: it had an angled head, similar to dental instruments, to reach back teeth; the bristles were concentrated more closely than usual to clean each tooth of potentially cariogenic (cavity-causing) materials; and the outer bristles were longer and softer than the inner bristles. Other manufacturers soon followed with other designs aimed at improving effectiveness.
In spite of the changes with the number of tufts and the spacing, the handle form and design, the bristles were still straight and difficult to maneuver. In 1978 Dr. George C. Collis developed the Collis Curve toothbrush which was the first toothbrush to have curved bristles. The curved bristles follow the curvature of the teeth and safely reach in between the teeth and into the sulcular areas.
In January 2003, the toothbrush was selected as the number one invention Americans could not live without according to the Lemelson-MIT Invention Index.
Types of toothbrush
Multi-sided toothbrushes
A multi-sided toothbrush is a fast and easy way to brush the teeth.
Electric toothbrush
It has been discovered that compared to a manual brush, the multi-directional power brush might reduce the incidence of gingivitis and plaque, when compared to regular side-to-side brushing. These brushes tend to be more costly and damaging to the environment when compared to manual toothbrushes. Most studies report performances equivalent to those of manual brushings, possibly with a decrease in plaque and gingivitis. An additional timer and pressure sensors can encourage a more efficient cleaning process.
Electric toothbrushes can be classified, according to the speed of their movements as: standard power toothbrushes, sonic toothbrushes, or ultrasonic toothbrushes. Any electric toothbrush is technically a powered toothbrush. If the motion of the toothbrush is sufficiently rapid to produce a hum in the audible frequency range (20 Hz to 20,000 Hz), it can be classified as a sonic toothbrush. Any electric toothbrush with movement faster than this limit can be classified as an ultrasonic toothbrush. Certain ultrasonic toothbrushes, such as the Megasonex and the Ultreo, have both sonic and ultrasonic movements.
There are different electric toothbrush heads designed for sensitive teeth and gums, increased stain removal, or different-sized bristles for tight or gapped teeth. The hand motion with an electric toothbrush is different than a manual toothbrush. They are meant to have the bristles do the work by just placing and moving the toothbrush. Fewer back and forth strokes are needed.
Interdental brush
An interdental or interproximal ("proxy") brush is a small brush, typically disposable, either supplied with a reusable angled plastic handle or an integral handle, used for cleaning between teeth and between the wires of dental braces and the teeth.
The use of interdental brushes in conjunction with tooth brushing has been shown to reduce both the amount of plaque and the incidence of gingivitis when compared to tooth brushing alone. Although there is some evidence that after tooth brushing with a conventional tooth brush, interdental brushes remove more plaque than dental floss, a systematic review reported insufficient evidence to determine such an association.
The size of interdental brushes is standardized in ISO 16409. The brush size, which is a number between 0 (small space between teeth) and 8 (large space), indicates the passage hole diameter. This corresponds to the space between two teeth that is just sufficient for the brush to go through without bending the wire. The color of the brushes differs between producers. The same is the case with respect to the wire diameter.
End-tuft brush
The small round brush head comprises seven tufts of tightly packed soft nylon bristles, trimmed so the bristles in the center can reach deeper into small spaces. The brush handle is ergonomically designed for a firm grip, giving the control and precision necessary to clean where most other cleaning aids cannot reach. These areas include the posterior of the wisdom teeth (third molars), orthodontic structures (braces), crowded teeth, and tooth surfaces that are next to missing teeth. It can also be used to clean areas around implants, bridges, dentures and other appliances.
Chewable toothbrush
A chewable toothbrush is a miniature plastic moulded toothbrush which can be placed inside the mouth. While not commonly used, they are useful to travelers and are sometimes available from bathroom vending machines. They are available in different flavors such as mint or bubblegum and should be disposed of after use. Other types of disposable toothbrushes include those that contain a small breakable plastic ball of toothpaste on the bristles, which can be used without water.
Musical toothbrush
A musical toothbrush is a type of manual or powered toothbrush designed to make tooth brushing habit more interesting. It is more commonly introduced to children to gain their attention and positively influence their tooth brushing behavior. The music starts while child starts brushing, it continuously plays during the brushing and it ends when the child stops brushing.
Toothpaste-less toothbrush
Reusable toothbrush
Tooth brushing
Hygiene and care
It is not recommended to share toothbrushes with others, since besides general hygienic concerns, there is a risk of transmitting diseases that are typically transmittable by blood, such as Hepatitis C.
After use, it is advisable to rinse the toothbrush with water, shake it off and let the toothbrush dry.
Studies have shown that brushing to remove dental plaque more often than every 48 hours is enough to maintain gum and tooth health. Tooth brushing can remove plaque up to one millimeter below the gum line, and each person has a habitual brushing method, so more frequent brushing does not cover additional parts of the teeth or mouth.
Most dentists recommended patients brush twice a day in the hope that more frequent brushing would clean more areas of the mouth.
Tooth brushing is the most common preventive healthcare activity, but tooth and gum disease remain high, since lay people clean at most 40% of their tooth margins at the gum line. Videos show that even when asked to brush their best, they do not know how to clean effectively.
Adversity of toothbrushes
Teeth can be damaged by several factors including poor oral hygiene, but also by wrong oral hygiene. Especially for sensitive teeth, damage to dentin and gums can be prevented by several measures including a correct brushing technique.
It is beneficial, when using a straight bristled brush, not to scrub horizontally over the necks of teeth, not to press the brush too hard against the teeth, to choose a toothpaste that is not too abrasive, and to wait at least 30 minutes after consumption of acidic food or drinks before brushing.
Harder toothbrushes reduce plaque more efficiently but are more stressful to teeth and gum; using a medium to soft brush for a longer cleaning time was rated to be the best compromise between cleaning result and gum and tooth health.
A study by University College London found that advice on brushing technique and frequency given by 10 national dental associations, toothpaste and toothbrush companies, and in dental textbooks was inconsistent.
See also
Dental floss
Mouthwash
Toothbrush moustache
References
External links
American Dental Association statements on Tooth brushing
BBC h2g2 The History of Toothpaste and Toothbrushes
Dental equipment
Domestic implements
English inventions
Oral hygiene
Ancient inventions | wiki |
The Ongiara was a steamboat that served most of her 33 year lifetime as a ferry on the Niagara River.
She was built in Toronto by Melancthon Simpson, and commissioned in 1885 as the Queen City.
In 1888 she was sold to the Niagara Transportation Company,
which renamed her the Ongiara and started using her as a ferry passengers across the Niagara River, between Queenston, Ontario and Lewiston, New York.
In 1912 she was sold and employed as a tow-boat in Toronto. Finally she was sunk off Bowmanville, Ontario in 1918.
See also
Onigara (ferry boat)
References
Steamships of Canada
1885 ships | wiki |
Millie Hughes may refer to:
Millie Hughes-Fulford
Milly Hughes, a character in the film Village of the Damned | wiki |
Toothpaste is a paste or gel dentifrice used with a toothbrush to clean and maintain the aesthetics and health of teeth. Toothpaste is used to promote oral hygiene: it is an abrasive that aids in removing dental plaque and food from the teeth, assists in suppressing halitosis, and delivers active ingredients (most commonly fluoride) to help prevent tooth decay (dental caries) and gum disease (gingivitis). Owing to differences in composition and fluoride content, not all toothpastes are equally effective in maintaining oral health. The decline of tooth decay during the 20th century has been attributed to the introduction and regular use of fluoride-containing toothpastes worldwide. Large amounts of swallowed toothpaste can be toxic. Common colors for toothpaste include white (sometimes with colored stripes or green tint) and blue.
Usefulness
Toothpastes are generally useful to maintain dental health. Toothpastes containing fluoride are effective at preventing tooth decay. Toothpastes may also help to control and remove plaque build-up, promoting healthy gums. A 2016 systematic review indicated that using toothpaste when brushing the teeth does not necessarily impact the level of plaque removal. However, the active ingredients in toothpastes are able to prevent dental diseases with regular use.
Ingredients
Toothpastes are derived from a variety of components, the three main ones being abrasives, fluoride, and detergent.
Abrasives
Abrasives constitute 8-20% of a typical toothpaste. These insoluble particles are designed to help remove plaque from the teeth. The removal of plaque inhibits the accumulation of tartar (calculus) helping to minimize the risk of gum disease. Representative abrasives include particles of aluminum hydroxide (Al(OH)3), calcium carbonate (CaCO3), magnesium carbonate (MgCO3), sodium bicarbonate, various calcium hydrogen phosphates, various silicas and zeolites, and hydroxyapatite (Ca5(PO4)3OH).
Abrasives, like the dental polishing agents used in dentists' offices, also cause a small amount of enamel erosion which is termed "polishing" action. Some brands contain powdered white mica, which acts as a mild abrasive, and also adds a cosmetic glittery shimmer to the paste. The polishing of teeth removes stains from tooth surfaces, but has not been shown to improve dental health over and above the effects of the removal of plaque and calculus.
The abrasive effect of toothpaste is indicated by its RDA value. Toothpastes with RDA values above 250 are potentially damaging to the surfaces of teeth. The American National Standards Institute and American Dental Association considers toothpastes with an RDA below 250 to be safe and effective for a lifetime of use.
Fluorides
Fluoride in various forms is the most popular and effective active ingredient in toothpaste to prevent cavities. Fluoride is present in small amounts in plants, animals, and some natural water sources. The additional fluoride in toothpaste has beneficial effects on the formation of dental enamel and bones. Sodium fluoride (NaF) is the most common source of fluoride, but stannous fluoride (SnF2), and sodium monofluorophosphate (Na2PO3F) are also used. At similar fluoride concentrations, toothpastes containing stannous fluoride have been shown to be more effective than toothpastes containing sodium fluoride for reducing the incidence of dental caries and dental erosion, as well as reducing gingivitis. Some stannous fluoride-containing toothpastes also contain ingredients that allow for better stain and calculus removal. A systematic review revealed stabilised stannous fluoride-containing toothpastes had a positive effect on the reduction of plaque, gingivitis and staining, with a significant reduction in calculus and halitosis compared to other toothpastes. Furthermore, numerous clinical trials have shown gluconate chelated stannous fluoride toothpastes possess superior protection against dental erosion and dentine hypersensitivity compared to other fluoride-containing and fluoride-free toothpastes.
Much of the toothpaste sold in the United States has 1,000 to 1,100 parts per million fluoride. In European countries, such as the UK or Greece, the fluoride content is often higher; a sodium fluoride content of 0.312% w/w (1,450 ppm fluoride) or stannous fluoride content of 0.454% w/w (1,100 ppm fluoride) is common. All of these concentrations are likely to prevent tooth decay, according to a 2019 Cochrane review. Concentrations below 1,000 ppm are not likely to be preventive, and the preventive effect increases with concentration. Clinical trials support the use of high fluoride (5,000 ppm fluoride) dentifrices, for prevention of root caries in elderly adults by reducing the amount of plaque accumulated, decreasing the number of mutans streptococci and lactobacilli and possibly promoting calcium fluoride deposits to a higher degree than after the use of traditional fluoride containing dentifrices.
Surfactants
Many, although not all, toothpastes contain sodium lauryl sulfate (SLS) or related surfactants (detergents). SLS is found in many other personal care products as well, such as shampoo, and is mainly a foaming agent, which enables uniform distribution of toothpaste, improving its cleansing power.
Other components
Antibacterial agents
Triclosan, an antibacterial agent, is a common toothpaste ingredient in the United Kingdom. Triclosan or zinc chloride prevent gingivitis and, according to the American Dental Association, helps reduce tartar and bad breath. A 2006 review of clinical research concluded there was evidence for the effectiveness of 0.30% triclosan in reducing plaque and gingivitis. Another Cochrane review in 2013 has found that triclosan achieved a 22% reduction in plaque, and in gingivitis, a 48% reduction in bleeding gums. However, there was insufficient evidence to show a difference in fighting periodontitis and there was no evidence either of any harmful effects associated with the use of triclosan toothpastes for more than 3 years. The evidence relating to plaque and gingivitis was considered to be of moderate quality while for periodontitis was low quality. Recently, triclosan has been removed as an ingredient from well-known toothpaste formulations. This may be attributed to concerns about adverse effects associated with triclosan exposure. Triclosan use in cosmetics has been positively correlated with triclosan levels in human tissues, plasma and breast milk, and is considered to have potential neurotoxic effects. Long-term studies are needed to substantiate these concerns.
Chlorhexidine is another antimicrobial agent used in toothpastes, however it is more commonly added in mouthwash products. Sodium laureth sulfate, a foaming agent, is a common toothpaste ingredient that also possesses some antimicrobial activities. There are also many commercial products available in the market containing different essential oils, herbal ingredients (e.g. chamomile, neem, chitosan, Aloe vera), and natural or plant extracts (e.g. hinokitiol). These ingredients are claimed by the manufacturers to fight plaque, bad breath and prevent gum disease. A 2020 systematic metareview found that herbal toothpastes are as effective as non-herbal toothpastes in reducing dental plaque at shorter period of follow-up (4 weeks). However, this evidence comes from low-quality studies.
The stannous (tin) ion, commonly added to toothpastes as stannous fluoride or stannous chloride, has been shown to have antibacterial effects in the mouth. Research has shown that stannous fluoride-containing toothpaste inhibits extracellular polysaccharide (EPS) production in a multispecies biofilm greater than sodium fluoride-containing toothpaste. This is thought to contribute to a reduction in plaque and gingivitis when using stannous fluoride-containing toothpastes when compared to other toothpastes, and has been evidenced through numerous clinical trials. In addition to its antibacterial properties, stabilised stannous fluoride toothpastes have been shown to protect against dental erosion and dentine hypersensitivity, making it a multifunctional component in toothpaste formulations.
Flavorants
Toothpaste comes in a variety of colors and flavors, intended to encourage use of the product. The three most common flavorants are peppermint, spearmint, and wintergreen. Toothpaste flavored with peppermint-anise oil is popular in the Mediterranean region. These flavors are provided by the respective oils, e.g. peppermint oil. More exotic flavors include Anethole anise, apricot, bubblegum, cinnamon, fennel, lavender, neem, ginger, vanilla, lemon, orange, and pine. Alternatively, unflavored toothpastes exist.
Remineralizing agents
Chemical repair (remineralization) of early tooth decay is promoted naturally by saliva. However, this process can be enhanced by various remineralisation agents. Fluoride promotes remineralization, but is limited by bioavailable calcium. Casein phosphopeptide stabilised amorphous calcium phosphate (CPP-ACP) is a toothpaste ingredient containing bioavailable calcium that has been widely research to be the most clinically effective remineralization agent that enhances the action of saliva and fluoride. Peptide-based systems, hydroxyapatite nanocrystals and a variety of calcium phosphates have been advocated as remineralization agents; however, more clinical evidence is required to substantiate their effectiveness.
Miscellaneous components
Agents are added to suppress the tendency of toothpaste to dry into a powder. Included are various sugar alcohols, such as glycerol, sorbitol, or xylitol, or related derivatives, such as 1,2-propylene glycol and polyethyleneglycol. Strontium chloride or potassium nitrate is included in some toothpastes to reduce sensitivity. Two systemic meta-analysis reviews reported that arginine, and calcium sodium phosphosilicate - CSPS containing toothpastes are also effective in alleviating dentinal hypersensitivity respectively. Another randomized clinical trial found superior effects when both formulas were combined.
Sodium polyphosphate is added to minimize the formation of tartar.
Chlorohexidine mouthwash has been popular for its positive effect on controlling plaque and gingivitis, however, a systemic review studied the effects of chlorohexidine toothpastes and found insufficient evidence to support its use, tooth surface discoloration was observed as a side effect upon using it, which is considered a negative side effect that can affect patients' compliance.
Sodium hydroxide, also known as lye or caustic soda, is listed as an inactive ingredient in some toothpaste, for example Colgate Total.
Xylitol
A systematic review reported two out of ten studies by the same authors on the same population showed toothpastes with xylitol as an ingredient were more effective at preventing dental caries in permanent teeth of children than toothpastes containing fluoride alone. Furthermore, xylitol has not been found to cause any harmful effects. However, further investigation into the efficacy of toothpastes containing xylitol is required as the currently available studies are of low quality and high risk of bias.
Safety
Fluoride
Fluoride-containing toothpaste can be acutely toxic if swallowed in large amounts, but instances are exceedingly rare and result from prolonged and excessive use of toothpaste (i.e. several tubes per week). Approximately 15 mg/kg body weight is the acute lethal dose, even though as small amount as 5 mg/kg may be fatal to some children.
The risk of using fluoride is low enough that the use of full-strength toothpaste (1350–1500 ppm fluoride) is advised for all ages. However, smaller volumes are used for young children, for example, a smear of toothpaste until three years old. A major concern of dental fluorosis is for children under 12 months ingesting excessive fluoride through toothpaste. Nausea and vomiting are also problems which might arise with topical fluoride ingestion.
Diethylene glycol
The inclusion of sweet-tasting but toxic diethylene glycol in Chinese-made toothpaste led to a recall in 2007 involving multiple toothpaste brands in several nations. The world outcry made Chinese officials ban the practice of using diethylene glycol in toothpaste.
Triclosan
Reports have suggested triclosan, an active ingredient in many kinds of toothpastes, can combine with chlorine in tap water to form chloroform, which the United States Environmental Protection Agency classifies as a probable human carcinogen. An animal study revealed the chemical might modify hormone regulation, and many other lab researches proved bacteria might be able to develop resistance to triclosan in a way which can help them to resist antibiotics also.
Polyethylene glycol - PEG
PEG is a common ingredient in some of the formulas of toothpastes; it is a hydrophilic polymer that acts as a dispersant in toothpastes. Also, it is used in many cosmetic and pharmaceutical formulas, for example: ointments, osmotic laxatives, some of the nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs, other medications and household products. However, 37 cases of PEG hypersensitivity (delayed and immediate) to PEG-containing substances have been reported since 1977, suggesting that they have unrecognized allergenic potential.
Miscellaneous issues and debates
With the exception of toothpaste intended to be used on pets such as dogs and cats, and toothpaste used by astronauts, most toothpaste is not intended to be swallowed, and doing so may cause nausea or diarrhea. Tartar fighting toothpastes have been debated. Sodium lauryl sulfate (SLS) has been proposed to increase the frequency of mouth ulcers in some people, as it can dry out the protective layer of oral tissues, causing the underlying tissues to become damaged. In studies conducted by the university of Oslo on recurrent aphthous ulcers, it was found that SLS has a denaturing effect on the oral mucin layer, with high affinity for proteins, thereby increasing epithelial permeability. In a double-blind cross-over study, a significantly higher frequency of aphthous ulcers was demonstrated when patients brushed with an SLS-containing versus a detergent-free toothpaste. Also patients with Oral Lichen Planus who avoided SLS-containing toothpaste benefited.
Alteration of taste perception
After using toothpaste, orange juice and other fruit juices are known to have an unpleasant taste if consumed shortly afterwards. Sodium lauryl sulfate, used as a surfactant in toothpaste, alters taste perception. It can break down phospholipids that inhibit taste receptors for sweetness, giving food a bitter taste. In contrast, apples are known to taste more pleasant after using toothpaste. Distinguishing between the hypotheses that the bitter taste of orange juice results from stannous fluoride or from sodium lauryl sulfate is still an unresolved issue and it is thought that the menthol added for flavor may also take part in the alteration of taste perception when binding to lingual cold receptors.
Whitening toothpastes
Many toothpastes make whitening claims. Some of these toothpastes contain peroxide, the same ingredient found in tooth bleaching gels. The abrasive in these toothpastes, not the peroxide, removes the stains. Whitening toothpaste cannot alter the natural color of teeth or reverse discoloration by penetrating surface stains or decay. To remove surface stains, whitening toothpaste may include abrasives to gently polish the teeth or additives such as sodium tripolyphosphate to break down or dissolve stains. When used twice a day, whitening toothpaste typically takes two to four weeks to make teeth appear whiter. Whitening toothpaste is generally safe for daily use, but excessive use might damage tooth enamel. Teeth whitening gels represent an alternative. A recent systematic review in 2017 concluded that nearly all dentifrices that are specifically formulated for tooth whitening were shown to have a beneficial effect in reducing extrinsic stains, irrespective of whether or not a chemical discoloration agent was added. However, the whitening process can permanently reduce the strength of the teeth, as the process scrapes away a protective outer layer of enamel.
Herbal and natural toothpastes
Companies such as Tom's of Maine, among others, manufacture natural and herbal toothpastes and market them to consumers who wish to avoid the artificial ingredients commonly found in regular toothpastes. Many herbal toothpastes do not contain fluoride or sodium lauryl sulfate. The ingredients found in natural toothpastes vary widely but often include baking soda, aloe, eucalyptus oil, myrrh, camomile, calendula, neem, toothbrush tree, plant extract (strawberry extract), and essential oils. A systemic review in 2014 found insufficient evidence to determine whether the aloe vera herbal dentifrice can reduce plaque or improve gingival health, as the randomized studies were found to be flawed with high risk of bias.
According to a study by the Delhi Institute of Pharmaceutical Sciences and Research, many of the herbal toothpastes being sold in India were adulterated with nicotine.
Charcoal has also been incorporated in toothpaste formulas; however, there is no evidence to determine its safety and effectiveness. A 2020 systematic metareview of 24 comparative Randomised controlled trials, involving 1,597 adults aged 18 to 65, showed herbal toothpaste was superior over non-herbal toothpaste, but not to fluoride toothpaste.
Government regulation
In the United States toothpaste is regulated by the U.S. Food and Drug Administration as a cosmetic, except for ingredients with a medical purpose, such as fluoride, which are regulated as drugs. Drugs require scientific studies and FDA approval in order to be legally marketed in the United States, but cosmetic ingredients do not require pre-approval, except for color additives. The FDA does have labelling and requirements and bans certain ingredients.
Striped toothpaste
Striped toothpaste was invented by Leonard Marraffino in 1955. The patent (US patent , issued 1957) was subsequently sold to Unilever, who marketed the novelty under the Stripe brand-name in the early 1960s. This was followed by the introduction of the Signal brand in Europe in 1965 (UK patent 813,514). Although Stripe was initially very successful, it never again achieved the 8% market share that it cornered during its second year.
Marraffino's design, which remains in use for single-color stripes, is simple. The main material, usually white, sits at the crimp end of the toothpaste tube and makes up most of its bulk. A thin pipe, through which that carrier material will flow, descends from the nozzle to it. The stripe-material (this was red in Stripe) fills the gap between the carrier material and the top of the tube. The two materials are not in separate compartments, but they are sufficiently viscous that they will not mix. When pressure is applied to the toothpaste tube, the main material squeezes down the thin pipe to the nozzle. Simultaneously, the pressure applied to the main material causes pressure to be forwarded to the stripe material, which thereby issues out through small holes (in the side of the pipe) onto the main carrier material as it is passing those holes.
In 1990, Colgate-Palmolive was granted a patent (USPTO ) for two differently colored stripes. In this scheme, the inner pipe has a cone-shaped plastic guard around it, and about halfway up its length. Between the guard and the nozzle-end of the tube is a space for the material for one color, which issues out of holes in the pipe. On the other side of the guard is space for second stripe-material, which has its own set of holes.
In 2016, Colgate-Palmolive was granted a patent (USPTO ) for suitable sorts of differently colored toothpastes to be filled directly into tubes to produce a striped mix without any separate compartments. This required adjustment of the diffent components' behavior (rheology) so that stripes are produced when the tube is squeezed.
Striped toothpaste should not be confused with layered toothpaste. Layered toothpaste requires a multi-chamber design (e.g. USPTO ), in which two or three layers extrude out of the nozzle. This scheme, like that of pump dispensers (USPTO ), is more complicated (and thus, more expensive to manufacture) than either the Marraffino design or the Colgate designs.
The iconic depiction of a wave-shaped blob of toothpaste sitting on a toothbrush is called a “nurdle”.
History
Early toothpastes
Since 5000 BC, the Egyptians made a tooth powder, which consisted of powdered ashes of ox hooves, myrrh, powdered and burnt eggshells, and pumice. The Greeks, and then the Romans, improved the recipes by adding abrasives such as crushed bones and oyster shells. In the 9th century, Iraqi musician and fashion designer Ziryab invented a type of toothpaste, which he popularized throughout Islamic Spain. The exact ingredients of this toothpaste are unknown, but it was reported to have been both "functional and pleasant to taste". It is not known whether these early toothpastes were used alone, were to be rubbed onto the teeth with rags, or were to be used with early toothbrushes, such as neem-tree twigs and miswak. During Japan's Edo period, inventor Hiraga Gennai's Hika rakuyo (1769) contained advertisements for Sosekiko, a "toothpaste in a box." Toothpastes or powders came into general use in the 19th century.
Tooth powder
Tooth powders for use with toothbrushes came into general use in the 19th century in Britain. Most were homemade, with chalk, pulverized brick, or salt as ingredients. An 1866 Home Encyclopedia recommended pulverized charcoal, and cautioned that many patented tooth powders that were commercially marketed did more harm than good.
Arm & Hammer marketed a baking soda-based toothpowder in the United States until approximately 2000, and Colgate currently markets toothpowder in India and other countries.
Modern toothpaste
An 18th-century American and British toothpaste recipe called for burned bread. Another formula around this time called for dragon's blood (a resin), cinnamon, and burned alum.
In 1873 the Colgate company began the mass production of aromatic toothpaste in jars.
By 1900, a paste made of hydrogen peroxide and baking soda was recommended for use with toothbrushes. Pre-mixed toothpastes were first marketed in the 19th century, but did not surpass the popularity of tooth-powder until World War I.
Together with Willoughby D. Miller, Newell Sill Jenkins developed the first toothpaste containing disinfectants, branded as Kolynos. The name is a combination of two Greek words, meaning "beautifier" and "disease preventer". Numerous attempts to produce the toothpaste by pharmacists in Europe proved uneconomic. After returning to the US, he continued experimenting with Harry Ward Foote (1875-1942), professor of chemistry at Sheffield Chemical Laboratory of Yale University. After 17 years of development of Kolynos and clinical trials, Jenkins retired and transferred the production and distribution to his son Leonard A. Jenkins, who brought the first toothpaste tubes on the market on April 13, 1908. Within a few years the company expanded in North America, Latin America, Europe and the Far East. A branch operation opened in London in 1909. In 1937, Kolynos was produced in 22 countries and sold in 88 countries. Kolynos has been sold mainly in South America and in Hungary. Colgate-Palmolive took over the production of American Home Products in 1995 at a cost of one billion US dollars.
Fluoride was first added to toothpastes in the 1890s. Tanagra, containing calcium fluoride as the active ingredient, was sold by Karl F. Toellner Company, of Bremen, Germany, based upon the early work of chemist Albert Deninger. An analogous invention by Roy Cross, of Kansas City, Missouri, was initially criticized by the American Dental Association (ADA) in 1937. Fluoride toothpastes developed in the 1950s received the ADA's approval. To develop the first ADA-approved fluoride toothpaste, Procter & Gamble started a research program in the early 1940s. In 1950, Procter & Gamble developed a joint research project team headed by Joseph C. Muhler at Indiana University to study new toothpaste with fluoride. In 1955, Procter & Gamble's Crest launched its first clinically proven fluoride-containing toothpaste. On August 1, 1960, the ADA reported that "Crest has been shown to be an effective anticavity (decay preventative) dentifrice that can be of significant value when used in a conscientiously applied program of oral hygiene and regular professional care."
In 1980, the Japanese company, Sangi Co., Ltd., launched APADENT, the world's first remineralizing toothpaste to use a nano-form of hydroxyapatite, the main component of tooth enamel, rather than fluoride, to remineralize areas of mineral loss below the surface of tooth enamel (incipient caries lesions). After many years of laboratory experiments and field trials, its hydroxyapatite ingredient was approved as an active anti-caries agent by the Japanese Ministry of Health in 1993, and given the name Medical Hydroxyapatite to distinguish it from other forms of hydroxyapatite used in toothpaste, such as dental abrasives.
In 2006, BioRepair appeared in Europe with the first European toothpaste containing synthetic hydroxylapatite as an alternative to fluoride for the remineralization and reparation of tooth enamel. The "biomimetic hydroxylapatite" is intended to protect the teeth by creating a new layer of synthetic enamel around the tooth instead of hardening the existing layer with fluoride that chemically changes it into fluorapatite.
Toothpaste tubes
In 1880, Doctor Washington Sheffield of New London, CT manufactured toothpaste into a collapsible tube, Dr. Sheffield's Creme Dentifrice. He had the idea after his son traveled to Paris and saw painters using paint from tubes. In York in 1896, Colgate & Company Dental Cream was packaged in collapsible tubes imitating Sheffield. The original collapsible toothpaste tubes were made of lead.
See also
Dental floss
Mouthwash
Fluoride therapy
List of toothpaste brands
References
Further reading
On the history of toothpaste.
On the history of the marketing of toothpaste.
External links
Chemistry of Plaque Prevention with Toothpaste
Fluoride toothpaste history
Brands of toothpaste
Dentifrices
Dosage forms
Drug delivery devices
Oral hygiene
Teeth | wiki |
Bulbophyllum vaginatum is a species of orchid.
Bulbophyllum vaginatum contains the two phenanthrenes 4,9-dimethoxyphenanthrene-2,5-diol and 4,6-dimethoxyphenanthrene-2,3,7-triol, and the two dihydrophenanthrenes 4-methoxy-9,10-dihydrophenanthrene-2,3,7-triol and 4,6-dimethoxy-9,10-dihydrophenanthrene-2,3,7-triol.
References
vaginatum | wiki |
Boule bretonne is a sport popular in Brittany, France, similar to boule lyonnaise and to a lesser extent, pétanque. The method of playing varies widely among those that play it.
Rules
Boule bretonne is very similar to bocce in that it involves one team tossing out a jack, known as the 'petit', and following it with tossing of boules, points being scored for having balls ending up closest to the jack. Games are played with varying teams of various sizes, from one to four players per team.
Balls used to play are 92 to 110 mm diameter and weigh 600 grams to 1 kg. In the past, wooden balls were common, but since the 1960s, resin balls have come into favor.
The game can be played on grass, gravel, or in a courtyard. During the 20th century, courts consisting clay walkways clay two to three feet wide by fifteen to twenty feet long surrounded by a wooden border were installed in many cafes. Boules can be bounced off the side borders but are out of play if they touch the backboard.
External links
Bowls | wiki |
The 1836 United States presidential election in New Hampshire took place between November 3 and December 7, 1836, as part of the 1836 United States presidential election. Voters chose seven representatives, or electors to the Electoral College, who voted for President and Vice President.
New Hampshire voted for the Democratic candidate, Martin Van Buren, over Whig candidate William Henry Harrison. Van Buren won New Hampshire by a margin of 50.02%. As of 2020, this remains the strongest ever performance by any presidential candidate in New Hampshire since the creation of the modern Democratic party in 1828.
Results
See also
United States presidential elections in New Hampshire
References
New Hampshire
1836
1836 New Hampshire elections | wiki |
A music venue is any location used for a concert or musical performance. Music venues range in size and location, from a small coffeehouse for folk music shows, an outdoor bandshell or bandstand or a concert hall to an indoor sports stadium. Typically, different types of venues host different genres of music. Opera houses, bandshells, and concert halls host classical music performances, whereas public houses ("pubs"), nightclubs, and discothèques offer music in contemporary genres, such as rock, dance, country, and pop.
Music venues may be either privately or publicly funded, and may charge for admission. An example of a publicly funded music venue is a bandstand in a municipal park; such outdoor venues typically do not charge for admission. A nightclub is a privately funded venue operated as a profit-making business; venues like these typically charge an entry fee to generate a profit. Music venues do not necessarily host live acts; disc jockeys at a discothèque or nightclub play recorded music through a PA system.
Depending on the type of venue, the opening hours, location and length of performance may differ, as well as the technology used to deliver the music in the venue. Other attractions, such as performance art, standup comedy, or social activities, may also be available, either while music is playing or at other times. For example, at a bar or pub, the house band may be playing live songs while drinks are being served, and between songs, recorded music may be played. Some classes of venues may play live music in the background, such as a performance on a grand piano in a restaurant.
Characteristics
Music venues can be categorised in a number of ways. Typically, the genre of music played at the venue, whether it is temporary and who owns the venue decide many of the other characteristics.
Permanent or temporary venues
The majority of music venues are permanent; however, there are temporary music venues. An example of a temporary venue would be one constructed for a music festival.
Ownership
Music venues are typically either private businesses or public facilities set up by a city, state, or national government. Some music venues are also run by non-government organizations, such as music associations.
Genre
Some venues only promote and hold shows of one particular genre, such as opera houses. Stadiums, on the other hand, may show rock, classical, and world music.
Size and capacity
Music venues can be categorised by size and capacity. The smallest venues, coffeeshops and tiny nightclubs have room for tens of spectators; the largest venues, such as stadiums, can hold tens of thousands of spectators.
Indoor or outdoor
Music venues are either outdoor or indoor. Examples of outdoor venues include bandstands and bandshells; such outdoor venues provide minimal shelter for performing musicians and are usually located in parks. A temporary music festival is typically an outdoor venue. Examples of indoor venues include public houses, nightclubs, coffee bars, and stadia.
Live or recorded music
Venues can play live music, recorded music, or a combination of the two, depending on the event or time of day. Discothèques are mainly designed for prerecorded music played by a disc jockey. Live music venues have one or more stages for the performers.
Admissions policy and opening hours
Venues may be unticketed, casual entry available on the door with a cover charge, or advance tickets only. A dress code may or may not apply.
Centrality of performance
At some venues, the main focus is watching the show, such as at opera houses or classical recital halls. In some venues that also include food and beverage service, the performers may be playing background music to add to the ambiance.
Types
Amphitheater
Amphitheaters are round- or oval-shaped and usually unroofed. Permanent seating at amphitheaters is generally tiered.
Bandshell and bandstand
A bandshell is a large, outdoor performing structure typically used by concert bands and orchestras. The roof and the back half of the shell protect musicians from the elements and reflect sound through the open side and out towards the audience. Bandstand is a small outdoor structure.
Concert hall
A concert hall is a performance venue constructed specifically for instrumental classical music. A concert hall may exist as part of a larger performing arts center.
Jazz club
Jazz clubs are an example of a venue that is dedicated to a specific genre of music. A jazz club is a venue where the primary entertainment is the performance of live jazz music, although some jazz clubs primarily focus on the study and/or promotion of jazz-music. Jazz clubs are usually a type of nightclub or bar, which is licensed to sell alcoholic beverages. Jazz clubs were in large rooms in the eras of orchestral jazz and big band jazz, when bands were large and often augmented by a string section. Large rooms were also more common in the Swing era, because at that time, jazz was popular as a dance music, so the dancers needed space to move. With the transition to 1940s-era styles like bebop and later styles such as soul jazz, small combos of musicians such as quartets and trios were mostly used, and the music became more of a music to listen to, rather than a form of dance music. As a result, smaller clubs with small stages became practical.
In the 2000s, jazz clubs may be found in the basements of larger residential buildings, in storefront locations or in the upper floors of retail businesses. They can be rather small compared to other music venues, such as rock music clubs, reflecting the intimate atmosphere of jazz shows and long-term decline in popular interest in jazz. Despite being called "clubs", these venues are usually not exclusive. Some clubs, however, have a cover charge if a live band is playing. Some jazz clubs host "jam sessions" after hours or on early evenings of the week. At jam sessions, both professional musicians and advanced amateurs will typically share the stage.
Live house
In Japan, small live music clubs are known as live houses (ライブハウス), especially featuring rock, jazz, blues, and folk music, and have existed since the 1970s, now being found across the country. The term is a Japanese coinage (wasei eigo) and is mainly used in East Asia. The oldest live house is Coffee House Jittoku (拾得, after the Chinese monk Shide "Foundling") in Kyoto, founded in 1973 in an old sake warehouse. Soon afterwards, the idea spread through Japan. In recent years, similar establishments started to appear in big cities in South Korea and China; many of them are also locally called "live houses."
Opera house
An opera house is a theatre venue constructed specifically for opera. It consists of a stage, an orchestra pit, audience seating, and backstage facilities for costumes and set building. While some venues are constructed specifically for operas, other opera houses are part of larger performing arts centers. Indeed the term opera house itself is often used as a term of prestige for any large performing-arts center.
The Teatro San Carlo in Naples, opened in 1737, introduced the horseshoe-shaped auditorium, the oldest in the world, a model for the Italian theater. On this model were built subsequent theaters in Italy and Europe, among others, the court theater of the Palace of Caserta, which became the model for other theaters.
Given the popularity of opera in 18th and 19th century Europe, opera houses are usually large, often containing more than 1,000 seats. Traditionally, Europe's major opera houses built in the 19th century contained between about 1,500 to 3,000 seats, examples being Brussels' La Monnaie (after renovations, 1,700 seats), Odessa Opera and Ballet Theater (with 1,636), Warsaw's Grand Theatre (the main auditorium with 1,841), Paris' Palais Garnier (with 2,200), the Royal Opera House in London (with 2,268), and the Vienna State Opera (the new auditorium with 2,280). Modern opera houses of the 20th century such as New York's Metropolitan Opera House (with 3,800) and the War Memorial Opera House in San Francisco (with 3,146) are larger. Many operas are better suited to being presented in smaller theaters, such as Venice's La Fenice with about 1,000 seats.
In a traditional opera house, the auditorium is U-shaped, with the length of the sides determining the audience capacity. Around this are tiers of balconies, and often, nearer to the stage, are boxes (small partitioned sections of a balcony). Since the latter part of the 19th century, opera houses often have an orchestra pit, where many orchestra players may be seated at a level below the audience, so that they can play without overwhelming the singing voices. This is especially true of Wagner's Bayreuth Festspielhaus where the pit is partially covered. The size of an opera orchestra varies, but for some operas, oratorios and other works, it may be very large; for some romantic period works (or for many of the operas of Richard Strauss), it can be more than 100 players. Similarly, an opera may have a large cast of characters, chorus, dancers and supernumeraries. Therefore, a major opera house will have extensive dressing room facilities. Opera houses often have on-premises set and costume building shops and facilities for storage of costumes, make-up, masks, and stage properties, and may also have rehearsal spaces.
Major opera houses throughout the world often have highly mechanized stages, with large stage elevators permitting heavy sets to be changed rapidly. At the Metropolitan Opera, for instance, sets are often changed during the action, as the audience watches, with singers rising or descending as they sing. This occurs in the Met's productions of operas such as Aida and Tales of Hoffmann. London's Royal Opera House, which was remodeled in the late 1990s, retained the original 1858 auditorium at its core, but added completely new backstage and wing spaces as well as an additional performance space and public areas. Much the same happened in the remodeling of Milan's La Scala opera house between 2002 and 2004.
Although stage, lighting and other production aspects of opera houses often make use of the latest technology, traditional opera houses have not used sound reinforcement systems with microphones and loudspeakers to amplify the singers, since trained opera singers are normally able to project their unamplified voices in the hall. Since the 1990s, however, some opera houses have begun using a subtle form of sound reinforcement called acoustic enhancement.
Public houses and nightclubs
A pub, or public house, is an establishment licensed to sell alcoholic drinks, which traditionally include beer (such as ale) and cider. It is a social drinking establishment and a prominent part of British, Irish, Breton, New Zealand, Canadian, South African, and Australian cultures. In many places, especially in villages, a pub is the focal point of the community. In his 17th-century diary, Samuel Pepys described the pub as "the heart of England". Most pubs focus on offering beers, ales and similar drinks. As well, pubs often sell wines, spirits, and soft drinks, meals and snacks. Pubs may be venues for pub songs and live music. During the 1970s pubs provided an outlet for a number of bands, such as Kilburn and the High Roads, Dr. Feelgood, and The Kursaal Flyers, who formed a musical genre called pub rock that was a precursor to Punk music.
A nightclub is an entertainment venue and bar that usually operates late into the night. A nightclub is generally distinguished from regular bars, pubs or taverns by the inclusion of a stage for live music, one or more dance floor areas and a DJ booth, where a DJ plays recorded music. The upmarket nature of nightclubs can be seen in the inclusion of VIP areas in some nightclubs, for celebrities and their guests. Nightclubs are much more likely than pubs or sports bars to use bouncers to screen prospective clubgoers for entry. Some nightclub bouncers do not admit people with informal clothing or gang apparel as part of a dress code. The busiest nights for a nightclub are Friday and Saturday night. Most clubs or club nights cater to certain music genres, such as house music or hip hop. Many clubs have recurring club nights on different days of the week. Most club nights focus on a particular genre or sound for branding effects.
Stadiums and arenas
A stadium is a place or venue for (mostly) outdoor sports, concerts, or other events and consists of a field or stage either partly or completely surrounded by a tiered structure designed to allow spectators to stand or sit and view the event. Although concerts, such as classical music, had been presented in them for decades, beginning in the 1960s stadiums began to be used as live venues for popular music, giving rise to the term "stadium rock", particularly for forms of hard rock and progressive rock. The origins of stadium rock are sometimes dated to when The Beatles played Shea Stadium in New York in 1965. Also important was the use of large stadiums for American tours by bands in the later 1960s, such as The Rolling Stones, Grand Funk Railroad, and Led Zeppelin. The tendency developed in the mid-1970s as the increased power of amplification and sound systems allowed the use of larger and larger venues. Smoke, fireworks and sophisticated lighting shows became staples of arena rock performances. Key acts from this era included Journey, REO Speedwagon, Boston, Foreigner, Styx, Kiss, Peter Frampton, and Queen. In the 1980s, arena rock became dominated by glam metal bands, following the lead of Aerosmith and including Mötley Crüe, Quiet Riot, W.A.S.P., and Ratt. Since the 1980s, rock, pop, and folk stars, including the Grateful Dead, Madonna, Britney Spears, Beyoncé, and Taylor Swift, have undertaken large-scale stadium based concert tours.
Theater
A theater or playhouse is a structure where theatrical works or plays are performed, or other performances such as musical concerts may be produced. A theatre used for opera performances is called an opera house. The theater serves to define the performance and audience spaces. The facility is traditionally organized to provide support areas for performers, the technical crew and the audience members. There are as many types of theaters as there are types of performance. Theaters may be built specifically for a certain types of productions, they may serve for more general performance needs or they may be adapted or converted for use as a theater. They may range from open-air amphitheaters to ornate, cathedral-like structures to simple, undecorated rooms or black box theaters. Some theaters may have a fixed performing area (in most theaters this is known as the stage), while some theaters, such as "black box theaters", may not. For the audience, theaters may include balconies or galleries, boxes, typically considered the most prestigious area of the house, and "house seats", known as "the best seats in the house", giving the best view of the stage.
See also
Art space
Auditorium
Concert hall
Cultural centre
History of music
Music festival
Music venues in the Netherlands
List of concert venues
References
External links
Theatres
Buildings and structures by type
Dance venues | wiki |
San Marino – United Kingdom relations date back to 1899, when the United Kingdom and San Marino signed an extradition treaty.
History
In 1899, the United Kingdom and San Marino signed an extradition treaty and a British consul general was appointed to San Marino in 1900.
During the Second World War, after neighbouring Italy declared war on the United Kingdom, San Marino was reported to have joined Italy in declaring war on Britain. However, the Sammarinese government later denied these reports.
Then, when Italy surrendered, San Marino declared neutrality. On 26 June 1944, the Allied Forces under British command erroneously bombed San Marino in the belief that it was harbouring German forces. On 21 September 1944, San Marino declared war on Germany.
Reparations
At UN-sponsored talks between 17 and 22 July 1961, the British government agreed to pay San Marino reparations to the sum of £80,000 for their part in the erroneous wartime bombing of the republic after the latter had filed a claim for 732 million lire.
Diplomacy
The United Kingdom maintains a Consulate General to San Marino in Rome. San Marino maintains a Consulate General to the United Kingdom in London.
See also
Foreign relations of the United Kingdom
Foreign relations of San Marino
Britons in San Marino
References
Bilateral relations of the United Kingdom
United Kingdom | wiki |
Viceregal Lodge may refer to:
Residences of the Lord Lieutenant of Ireland
Áras an Uachtaráin, Dublin (1780s–1922)
Chapelizod House, County Dublin (1680s)
Residences of the Viceroy of India
Rashtrapati Niwas, Shimla (1888)
Rashtrapati Bhavan, New Delhi; "Viceroy's House" 1931–50
Viceregal Lodge, New Delhi (1912 - 1931), now residence of Vice Chancellor, University of Delhi
See also
Viceroy
Official residence | wiki |
Injigo (program)
Injigo (časopis) | wiki |
North & South is a strategy action game released in 1989 for the Amiga, and Atari ST and ported to the Nintendo Entertainment System, Amstrad CPC, MSX, MS-DOS, Commodore 64 and ZX Spectrum. It was developed and published by Infogrames.
North & South is an offshoot of the Belgian comic series Les Tuniques Bleues (by Raoul Cauvin and Louis Salverius/Willy Lambillotte, from Dupuis) which is based on the American Civil War. The player basically acts out the Civil War, choosing to play as either the North or the South. The player may choose to start the game year from 1861 (the year the Civil War erupted) to 1864. Each year has a different array of armies and states that each side starts with.
North & South contains humorous elements, such as parodies of national anthems, which are accessible when the player selects one of the different languages supported by the game: (English, French, Spanish, German or Italian).
Gameplay
Taking a simplified board interface, the game features a strategic map of the United States separated into states and territories, where army units are moved around. In each state which has a railway station, there is a fort, the capture of which leads to the player overtaking the whole state. Otherwise, capturing a state involves simple movement, unless there is an enemy army present on the state's title. Armies can be reinforced in two ways. By turning on an option at the main menu the player controlling the state of North Carolina will get periodic reinforcements by ship. Also, railways generate money which in turn generates soldiers. Moving their army units, the player may expand westwards into unoccupied territory. If two antagonistic armies clash, it will result in a battle.
Normally, battle is resolved in a real time action element. However, there is an option on the main menu where the player can turn off in-game missions and battles so that game-play is as in a board game. Whenever opposing armies meet in board-game mode, the results of the battles are left to chance, with the outcome weighted towards the larger army. Either army may retreat from these battles. Whenever a side attempts to capture an enemy fort or rob a train, the result is also randomised.
Battle
The battle screen, one of the action elements in the game, is different from the strategic map. Each player starts on opposite sides of the screen and controls an army consisting of infantry, cavalry and artillery. A standard army consists of six infantry, three cavalry and one cannon. Armies can be increased by up to three times their standard size by merging them together. Each team can only have six infantry, three cavalry and three cannons on the battlefield at one time. A human player can only control one class of units at any one time (although once the cavalry starts a charge, they can be left moving automatically forward in a straight line while the player focuses on either the cannon or infantry). A computer-controlled opponent can move all three classes of units at once, but their infantry and cavalry are not very aggressive. All units in the same class move and fire simultaneously. The infantry can move in any direction including backwards and have a short-range weapon.
Cavalry are melee units that are much faster than infantry, but can not move backwards. Cavalry, will instead return to the battle field every time they reach the end of it after a few seconds. Cavalry that returns in this way will stop moving when returning to their start position on the left-right axis, unhindered by any movement on the up-down axis. It is to note that Cavalry, once movement has started, will not stop moving forwards unless the player actively pulls the horse reigns by pushing backwards with the control method of choice. Cannons can only move vertically and not sideways. Each cannon can only be fired nine times in a battle before they automatically withdraw from battle. If an army wins after their cannons have withdrawn from battle, their cannons will be available for the next battle. If however, the rest of the army is killed after the cannons have withdrawn, the cannons will be also lost. In the middle of the battle map, there may be a river or a chasm, in which case a bridge serves as a choke point where the fighters are likely to meet. The bridge can be destroyed by cannons. One hit will leave a hole in the bridge where units can fall in and die instantly, while two hits on a bridge will destroy it.
In every battlefield where there is either a river or canyon, there is a narrow, indestructible passage across. The cannons are long-range weapons, but aiming – or rather determining the exact range – is not always easy. Care has to be taken when firing cannons to avoid friendly fire. A battle usually is a deathmatch, although a player may retreat. If the attacking army retreats, they will return to the state that were in at the beginning of that turn. If the defending army decides to retreat, they will move to an adjacent state that is still under their control, surrendering that state the battle was on to their enemy. The defenders can not retreat if there are no adjacent states that they own. Retreating will result in the loss of any cannons that the army has. The army of the computer-controlled opponent will retreat if all of its cannons have been destroyed and its enemy has more than three times the units than it has.
Events
On the states that have a train station, the player must do a short side-scrolling mission through a fort to capture that state. Here, the player controls a single soldier who runs towards the goal (before the clock reaches the end) while meeting obstacles such as enemy soldiers, dynamite crates or dogs, with only the help of knives or punches that send enemies towards the sky, Asterix style. On occasions, the player also gets the opportunity to capture an enemy train in a similar manner, but an attacker running alongside a train too long will just see it leave; it is possible to climb on the train. Successfully capturing an enemy train gets its gold.
If an option is turned on, a storm cloud will sit on one state each turn. The cloud will move to an adjacent state twice each month, once before each player's turn. Any army on the state with the cloud will not be able to move on that turn.
If the option on the main menu is turned on, there will be two non-player sides that pose a threat to the player's armies. A Native American who lives to the west of the territory might hurl a giant tomahawk randomly at one of the westernmost states (Kansas or Nebraska), destroying the army unfortunate enough to be garrisoned there. Similarly, a sombrero-clad Mexican living to the southwest might suddenly wake up from his siesta and toss a bomb into Texas, result being the same.
If the option is turned on, the side that controls North Carolina has a chance each turn that free reinforcements will arrive at the state via ship.
Reception
Computer Gaming World gave North & South one-plus stars out of five for wargamers and three out of five for arcade gamers. In 2011, Wirtualna Polska ranked it as the tenth best Amiga game.
Remakes
In June 2012, Microïds (Anuman Interactive’s adventure game label) released The Bluecoats: North vs South, a remake for iOS and Android compatible devices and for Windows.
The iOS version received a metascore of 60 on Metacritic.
Another remake, titled North & South: The Game, was released for iOS on November 6, 2012 by bitComposer Entertainment AG
In 27 October 2020 The Bluecoats: North & South released firstly for Nintendo Switch by Microïds.
References
External links
1989 video games
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Multiplayer and single-player video games | wiki |
The Holland-on-Sea Residents' Association is a residents' association based in Holland-on-Sea, England.
References
External links
[http://www.hollandresidents.co.uk
Locally based political parties in England
Politics of Essex | wiki |
"If You Love Somebody" is a song written by Chris Farren and Jeffrey Steele, and recorded by American country music artist Kevin Sharp. It was released in July 1997 as the third single from his debut album Measure of a Man. The song reached number 4 on the Billboard Hot Country Singles & Tracks chart in October 1997.
Critical reception
Deborah Evans Price, of Billboard magazine reviewed the song favorably, saying that the record grabs the listener immediately and doesn't let go thanks to the "energetic percussion that opens this track and gives way to a spree of sassy fiddle lines." She goes on to say that the song is a fine example of the "vibrancy and passion he can bring to a great uptempo cut."
Chart performance
"If You Love Somebody" debuted at number 65 on the U.S. Billboard Hot Country Singles & Tracks for the week of July 26, 1997.
Year-end charts
References
1997 singles
Kevin Sharp songs
Songs written by Jeffrey Steele
Asylum Records singles
Songs written by Chris Farren (country musician)
Song recordings produced by Chris Farren (country musician)
1996 songs | wiki |
Martin Condon, born 1857 in Hawkins County, was Knoxville, Tennessee's first Irish Catholic mayor. Prior to becoming mayor, Condon was a wholesale grocery businessman.
See also
List of mayors of Knoxville, Tennessee
References
External links
The career of Knoxville's first Irish Catholic mayor
American people of Irish descent
People from Knoxville, Tennessee
Mayors of Knoxville, Tennessee
1857 births
Year of death missing | wiki |
Blagg may refer to:
Blagg (surname), an English surname
Blagg (crater), a lunar crater | wiki |
Micromenodon is an extinct genus of sphenodontian from the Late Triassic Doswell Formation of Virginia. It contains a single species, Micromenodon pitti.
References
Sphenodontia
Triassic species
Triassic reptiles
Triassic reptiles of North America
Fossil taxa described in 2021 | wiki |
"Holdin' Onto Something" is a song written by Tom Shapiro and Thom McHugh, and recorded by American country music artist Jeff Carson. It was released in March 1996 as the fourth single from his debut album Jeff Carson. The song reached number 6 on the Billboard Hot Country Singles & Tracks chart in June 1996. Before its release, it was the b-side to the album's third single, "The Car".
It was also recorded by John Michael Montgomery on his 1995 self-titled album.
Chart performance
References
1996 singles
Jeff Carson songs
John Michael Montgomery songs
Songs written by Tom Shapiro
Curb Records singles
1995 songs
Songs written by Thom McHugh | wiki |
Anti-Catholicism in the United Kingdom dates back to Roman times. Attacks on the Church from a Protestant angle mostly began with the English and Irish Reformations which were launched by King Henry VIII and the Scottish Reformation which was led by John Knox. Within England, the Act of Supremacy 1534 declared the English crown to be "the only supreme head on earth of the Church in England" in place of the Pope. Any act of allegiance to the latter was considered treasonous because the papacy claimed both spiritual and political power over its followers. Ireland was brought under direct English control starting in 1536 during the Tudor conquest of Ireland. The Scottish Reformation in 1560 abolished Catholic ecclesiastical structures and rendered Catholic practice illegal in Scotland. Today, anti-Catholicism remains common in the United Kingdom, with particular relevance in Scotland and Northern Ireland.
Anti-Catholicism among many of the English was grounded in the fear that the pope sought to reimpose not just religio-spiritual authority over England but also secular power in alliance with arch-enemy France or Spain. In 1570, Pope Pius V sought to depose Queen Elizabeth who ruled England and Ireland with the papal bull Regnans in Excelsis, which declared her a heretic and purported to dissolve the duty of all Elizabeth's subjects of their allegiance to her. This rendered Elizabeth's subjects who persisted in their allegiance to the Catholic Church politically suspect, and made the position of her Catholic subjects largely untenable if they tried to maintain both allegiances at once. The Recusancy Acts, legally obligating English citizens to adhere to Anglicanism, date from Elizabeth's reign. Later, assassination plots in which professing Catholics were the prime movers fuelled anti-Catholicism in England. In 1603, James VI of Scotland became also James I of England and Ireland.
The Glorious Revolution of 1689 involved the overthrow of King James II, who converted to Catholicism before he became king and favoured the Catholics, and his replacement by son-in-law William III, a Dutch Protestant. The Act of Settlement 1701, which was passed by the Parliament of England, stated the heir to the throne must not be a "Papist" and that an heir who is a Catholic or who marries one will be excluded from the succession to the throne "for ever." This law was extended to Scotland through the Act of Union which formed the Kingdom of Great Britain. The Act was amended in 2013 as regards marriage to a Catholic and the ecumenical movement has contributed to reducing sectarian tensions between Christians in the country.
Beginnings
Notable early martyrs include St Alban, and Thomas Becket, although anti-clericalism can be found in medieval writers like Chaucer. See also Æbbe the Younger, a nun killed by the Vikings, and Alcuin, who describes a bloody Viking attack on Lindisfarne.
Mention should also be made of critics of Church corruption like John Wyclif, and his followers the Lollards.
English Reformation
The Act of Supremacy issued by King Henry VIII in 1534 declared the king to be "the only supreme head on earth of the Church in England" in place of the pope. Any act of allegiance to the latter was considered treasonous because the papacy claimed both spiritual and political power over its followers. It was under this act that Thomas More and John Fisher were executed and became martyrs to the Catholic faith.
The Act of Supremacy (which asserted England's independence from papal authority) was repealed in 1554 by Henry's devoutly Catholic daughter Queen Mary I when she reinstituted Catholicism as England's state religion. She executed many Protestants by burning. Her actions were reversed by a new Act of Supremacy passed in 1559 under her successor, Elizabeth I, along with an Act of Uniformity which made worship in Church of England compulsory. Anyone who took office in the English church or government was required to take the Oath of Supremacy; penalties for violating it included hanging and quartering. Attendance at Anglican services became obligatory—those who refused to attend Anglican services, whether Roman Catholics or Protestants (Puritans), were fined and physically punished as recusants.
Elizabethan regime
In the time of Elizabeth I, the persecution of the adherents of the reformed religion, both Anglicans and Protestants alike, which had occurred during the reign of her elder half-sister Queen Mary I was used to fuel strong anti-Catholic propaganda in the hugely influential Foxe's Book of Martyrs. Those who had died in Mary's reign, under the Marian Persecutions, were effectively canonised by this work of hagiography. In 1571, the Convocation of the Church of England ordered that copies of the Book of Martyrs should be kept for public inspection in all cathedrals and in the houses of church dignitaries. The book was also displayed in many Anglican parish churches alongside the Holy Bible. The passionate intensity of its style and its vivid and picturesque dialogues made the book very popular among Puritan and Low Church families, Anglican and Protestant nonconformist, down to the nineteenth century. In a period of extreme partisanship on all sides of the religious debate, the partisan church history of the earlier portion of the book, with its grotesque stories of popes and monks, contributed to anti-Catholic prejudices in England, as did the story of the sufferings of several hundred reformers (both Anglican and Protestant) who had been burned at the stake under Mary and Bishop Bonner.
English anti-Catholicism was grounded in the fear that the Pope sought to reimpose not just religio-spiritual authority but also secular power over England, a view which was vindicated by hostile actions of the Vatican. In 1570, Pope Pius V sought to depose Elizabeth with the papal bull Regnans in Excelsis, declaring her a heretic and dissolving Catholics' duty of allegiance to her. This engendered a state of war between the Pope and England, escalating to extended hostilities and culminating in a failed 1588 invasion by Spanish forces.
Elizabeth's resultant persecution of Catholic Jesuit missionaries led to many executions at Tyburn. Priests like Edmund Campion who suffered there as traitors to England are considered martyrs by the Catholic Church, and a number of them were canonized as the Forty Martyrs of England and Wales. In the 20th century, a "Shrine of the Martyrs at Tyburn" was established at the Catholic Tyburn Convent in London.
17th- and 18th-century polemics
Later several accusations fuelled strong anti-Catholicism in England including the Gunpowder Plot, in which Guy Fawkes and other Catholic conspirators were found guilty of planning to blow up the English Parliament on the day the King was to open it. The Great Fire of London in 1666 was blamed on the Catholics and an inscription ascribing it to 'Popish frenzy' was engraved on the Monument to the Great Fire of London, which marked the location where the fire started (this inscription was only removed in 1831). The 'Popish Plot' involving Titus Oates further exacerbated Anglican-Catholic relations.
The beliefs that underlie the sort of strong anti-Catholicism once seen in the United Kingdom were summarized by William Blackstone in his Commentaries on the Laws of England:
As to papists, what has been said of the Protestant dissenters would hold equally strong for a general toleration of them; provided their separation was founded only upon difference of opinion in religion, and their principles did not also extend to a subversion of the civil government. If once they could be brought to renounce the supremacy of the pope, they might quietly enjoy their seven sacraments, their purgatory, and auricular confession; their worship of relics and images; nay even their transubstantiation. But while they acknowledge a foreign power, superior to the sovereignty of the kingdom, they cannot complain if the laws of that kingdom will not treat them upon the footing of good subjects..
— Bl. Comm. IV, c.4 ss. iii.2, p. *54
The gravamen of this charge, then, is that Catholics constitute an imperium in imperio, a sort of fifth column of persons who owe a greater allegiance to the Pope than they do to the civil government, a charge very similar to that repeatedly leveled against Jews. Accordingly, a large body of British laws such as the Popery Act 1698, collectively known as the Penal Laws, imposed various civil disabilities and legal penalties on recusant Catholics.
A change of attitude was eventually signalled by the Papists Act 1778 in the reign of King George III. Under this Act, an oath was imposed, which besides being a declaration of loyalty to the reigning sovereign, contained an abjuration of Charles Edward Stuart, the Pretender to the British throne, and of certain doctrines attributed to Roman Catholics (doctrines such as those stating that excommunicated princes may lawfully be murdered, that no faith should be kept with heretics, and that the Pope has temporal as well as spiritual jurisdiction in the realm). Those taking this oath were exempted from some of the provisions of the Popery Act. The section as to taking and prosecuting priests were repealed, as also the penalty of perpetual imprisonment for keeping a school. Catholics were also enabled to inherit and purchase land, nor was a Protestant heir any longer empowered to enter and enjoy the estate of his Catholic kinsman. However, the passing of this act was the occasion of the anti-Catholic Gordon riots (1780) in which the violence of the mob was especially directed against Lord Mansfield who had balked at various prosecutions under the statutes now repealed. The anti-clerical excesses of the French Revolution and the consequent emigration to England of Catholic priests from France led to a softening of opinion towards Catholics on the part of the English Anglican establishment, resulting in the Roman Catholic Relief Act 1791 which allowed Catholics to enter the legal profession, relieved them from taking the Oath of Supremacy, and granted toleration for their schools and places of worship The repeal of the Penal Laws culminated in the Roman Catholic Relief Act 1829.
19th century and early 20th century
Despite the Emancipation Act, however, anti-Catholic attitudes persisted throughout the 19th century, particularly following the sudden massive Irish Catholic migration to England during the Great Famine.
The forces of anti-Catholicism were defeated by the unexpected mass mobilization of Catholic activists in Ireland, led by Daniel O'Connell. The Catholics had long been passive but now there was a clear threat of insurrection that troubled Prime Minister Wellington and his aide Robert Peel. The passage of Catholic emancipation in 1829, which allowed Catholics to sit in Parliament, opened the way for a large Irish Catholic contingent. Lord Shaftesbury (1801–1885), a prominent philanthropist, was a pre-millennial evangelical Anglican who believed in the imminent second coming of Christ, and became a leader in anti-Catholicism. He strongly opposed the Oxford movement in the Church of England, fearful of its high church Catholics features. In 1845, he denounced the Maynooth Grant which funded the Catholic seminary in Ireland that would train many priests.
The re-establishment of the Roman Catholic ecclesiastical hierarchy in England in 1850 by Pope Pius IX, was followed by a frenzy of anti-Catholic feeling, often stoked by newspapers. Examples include an effigy of Cardinal Wiseman, the new head of the restored hierarchy, being paraded through the streets and burned on Bethnal Green, and graffiti proclaiming 'No popery!' being chalked on walls. Charles Kingsley wrote a vigorously anti-Catholic book Hypatia (1853). The novel was mainly aimed at the embattled Catholic minority in England, who had recently emerged from a half-illegal status.
New Catholic episcopates, which ran parallel to the established Anglican episcopates, and a Catholic conversion drive awakened fears of 'papal aggression' and relations between the Catholic Church and the establishment remained frosty. At the end of the nineteenth century one contemporary wrote that "the prevailing opinion of the religious people I knew and loved was that Roman Catholic worship is idolatry, and that it was better to be an Atheist than a Papist".
The Liberal party leader William Ewart Gladstone had a complex ambivalence about Catholicism. He was attracted by its international success in majestic traditions. More important, he was strongly opposed to the authoritarianism of its pope and bishops, its profound public opposition to liberalism, and its refusal to distinguish between secular allegiance on the one hand and spiritual obedience on the other. The danger came when the pope or bishops attempted to exert temporal power, as in the Vatican decrees of 1870 as the climax of the papal attempt to control churches in different nations, despite their independent nationalism. His polemical pamphlet against the infallibility declaration of the Catholic Church sold 150,000 copies in 1874. He urged Catholics to obey the crown and disobey the pope when there was disagreement. on the other hand, when religion ritualistic practices in the Church of England came under attack as too ritualistic and too much akin to Catholicism, Gladstone strongly opposed passage of the Public Worship Regulation Bill in 1874.
Benjamin Disraeli, the long-time Conservative leader, wrote many novels. One of the last was Lothair (1870) – it was "Disraeli's ideological Pilgrim's Progress". It tells a story of political life with particular regard to the roles of the Anglican and Roman Catholic churches. It reflected anti-Catholicism of the sort that was popular in Britain, and which fuelled support for Italian unification (the "Risorgimento").
Post-war period and ecumenism
Since World War II anti-Catholic feeling in England has much abated. Ecumenical dialogue between Anglicans and Catholics culminated in the first meeting of an Archbishop of Canterbury with a Pope since the Reformation when Archbishop Geoffrey Fisher visited Rome in 1960. Since then, dialogue has continued through envoys and standing conferences.
Residual anti-Catholicism in England is represented by the burning of an effigy of the Catholic conspirator Guy Fawkes at local celebrations on Guy Fawkes Night every 5 November. This celebration has, however, largely lost any sectarian connotation and the allied tradition of burning an effigy of the Pope on this day has been discontinued – except in the town of Lewes, Sussex. The "Calvinistic Methodists" represented a militant core of anti-Catholics.
As a result of the 1701 Act of Settlement, any member of the British royal family who joins the Catholic Church must renounce the throne. The Succession to the Crown Act 2013 allows members to marry a Roman Catholic without incurring this ban.
Opposition to the State visit by Pope Benedict XVI to the United Kingdom can be found on that page.
Ireland under British control
Ireland's Catholic majority was subjected to persecution from the time of the English Reformation under Henry VIII. This persecution intensified when the Gaelic clan system was completely destroyed by the governments of Elizabeth I and her successor, James I. Land was appropriated either by the conversion of native Anglo-Irish aristocrats or by forcible seizure. Many Catholics were dispossessed and their lands given to Anglican and Protestant settlers from Britain. However, the first plantation in Ireland was a Catholic plantation under Queen Mary I; for more see Plantations of Ireland.
To cement the power of the Anglican Ascendancy, political and land-owning rights were denied to Ireland's Catholics by law, following the Glorious Revolution in England and consequent turbulence in Ireland. The Penal Laws, established first in the 1690s, assured Church of Ireland control of political, economic and religious life. The Mass, ordination, and the presence in Ireland of Catholic Bishops were all banned, although some did carry on secretly. Catholic schools were also banned, as were all voting franchises. Violent persecution also resulted, leading to the torture and execution of many Catholics, both clergy and laity. Since then, many have been canonised and beatified by the Vatican, such as Saint Oliver Plunkett, Blessed Dermot O'Hurley, and Blessed Margaret Ball.
Although some of the Penal Laws restricting Catholic access to landed property were repealed between 1778 and 1782, this did not end anti-Catholic agitation and violence. Catholic competition with Protestants in County Armagh for leases intensified, driving up prices and provoking resentment of Anglicans and Protestants alike. Then in 1793, the Roman Catholic Relief Act enfranchised forty shilling freeholders in the counties, thus increasing the political value of Catholic tenants to landlords. In addition, Catholics began to enter the linen weaving trade, thus depressing Protestant wage rates. From the 1780s the Protestant Peep O'Day Boys grouping began attacking Catholic homes and smashing their looms. In addition, the Peep O'Day Boys disarmed Catholics of any weapons they were holding. A Catholic group called the Defenders was formed in response to these attacks. This climaxed in the Battle of the Diamond on 21 September 1795 outside the small village of Loughgall between Peep O' Day boys and the Defenders. Roughly 30 Catholic Defenders but none of the better armed Peep O'Day Boys were killed in the fight. Hundreds of Catholic homes and at least one Church were burnt out in the aftermath of the skirmish. After the battle Daniel Winter, James Wilson, and James Sloan changed the name of the Peep O' Day Boys to the Orange Order devoted to maintaining the Protestant ascendency.
Although more of the Penal Laws were repealed, and Catholic Emancipation in 1829 ensured political representation at Westminster, significant anti-Catholic hostility remained especially in Belfast where the Catholic population was in the minority. In the same year, the Presbyterians reaffirmed at the Synod of Ulster that the Pope was the anti-Christ, and joined the Orange Order in large numbers when the latter organisation opened its doors to all non-Catholics in 1834. As the Orange order grew, violence against Catholics became a regular feature of Belfast life. Towards the end of the nineteenth and early twentieth century when Irish Home Rule became imminent, Protestant fears and opposition towards it were articulated under the slogan "Home Rule means Rome Rule".
Constituent countries
Scotland
In the 16th century, the Scottish Reformation resulted in Scotland's conversion to Presbyterianism through the Church of Scotland. The revolution resulted in a powerful hatred of the Roman Church. High Anglicanism also came under intense persecution after Charles I attempted to reform the Church of Scotland. The attempted reforms caused chaos, however, because they were seen as being overly Catholic in form, being based heavily on sacraments and ritual.
Over the course of later medieval and early modern history violence against Catholics has broken out, often resulting in deaths, such as the torture and execution of Jesuit Saint John Ogilvie.
In the last 150 years, Irish migration to Scotland increased dramatically. As time has gone on Scotland has become much more open to other religions and Catholics have seen the nationalisation of their schools and the restoration of the Church hierarchy. Even in the area of politics, there are changes. The Orange Order has grown in numbers in recent times. This growth is, however, attributed by some to the rivalry between Rangers and Celtic football clubs as opposed to actual hatred of Catholics.
Historian Tom Devine, who grew up in a family with Irish Catholic roots in the west of Scotland, described his youth as follows:
However, although Devine accepts that anti-Catholic attitudes do exist in some areas of Scotland, especially in West Central Scotland, he has argued that discrimination against Catholics in Scotland's economic, social and political life is no longer systemic in the way it once was. Devine cited survey and research data collected in the 1990s which indicated that there was little difference in the social class of Catholics and non-Catholics in contemporary Scotland, and highlighted increased Catholic representation in politics and the professions, describing the change as a "silent revolution". Devine has suggested that a number of factors are responsible for this change: radical structural changes in the Scottish economy, with the decline of manufacturing industries where sectarian prejudices were ingrained; the increase of foreign investment in high-tech industry in Silicon Glen and the post-war expansion of the public sector; the construction of the welfare state and growth of educational opportunities, which provided avenues for social mobility and increased interfaith marriages with Catholics.
Sectarianism was a part of the 1994 Monklands East by-election.
Although there is a popular perception in Scotland that anti-Catholicism is football related (specifically directed against fans of Celtic F.C.), statistics released in 2004 by the Scottish Executive showed that 85% of sectarian attacks were not football related. Sixty-three percent of the victims of sectarian attacks are Catholics, but when adjusted for population size this makes Catholics between five and eight times more likely to be a victim of a sectarian attack than a Protestant.
Due to the fact that many Catholics in Scotland today have Irish ancestry, there is considerable overlap between anti-Irish attitudes and anti-Catholicism. For example, the word "Fenian" is regarded by authorities as a sectarian-related word in reference to Catholics.
In 2003, the Scottish Parliament passed the Criminal Justice (Scotland) Act 2003 which included provisions to make an assault motivated by the perceived religion of the victim an aggravating factor.
Northern Ireland
The state of Northern Ireland came into existence in 1921, following the Government of Ireland Act 1920. Though Catholics were a majority on the island of Ireland, comprising 73.8% of the population in 1911, they were a third of the population in Northern Ireland.
On 21 July 1920, rioting broke out in Belfast, starting in the shipyards and spreading to residential areas. The violence was partly in response to the IRA killing in Cork of a northern RIC police officer Gerald Smyth, and also because of competition for jobs due to the high unemployment rates. Protestant Loyalists marched on the Harland and Wolff shipyards in Belfast and forced over 11,000 Catholic and left-wing Protestant workers from their jobs. This sectarian action is often referred to as the Belfast Pogrom. The sectarian rioting that followed resulted in about 20 deaths in just three days.
In 1934, Sir James Craig, the first Prime Minister of Northern Ireland, said, "Since we took up office we have tried to be absolutely fair towards all the citizens of Northern Ireland... They still boast of Southern Ireland being a Catholic State. All I boast of is that we are a Protestant Parliament and a Protestant State."
In 1957, Harry Midgley, the Minister of Education in Northern Ireland, said, in Portadown Orange Hall, "All the minority are traitors and have always been traitors to the Government of Northern Ireland."
The first Catholic to be appointed a minister in Northern Ireland was Dr Gerard Newe, in 1971.
In 1986, at the annual conference of the Democratic Unionist Party, MP for Mid Ulster William McCrea interrupted councillor Ethel Smyth when she said she regretted the death of Sean Downes, a 24-year-old Catholic civilian who had been killed by a plastic bullet fired by the RUC during an anti-internment march in Andersontown in 1984. McCrea shouted, "No. No. I'll not condemn the death of John Downes [sic]. No Fenian. Never. No". In Northern Ireland, Fenian is used by some as a derogatory word for Roman Catholics.
The Troubles in Northern Ireland were characterised by bitter sectarian antagonism and bloodshed between Irish Republicans, a majority of whom are Catholic, and Loyalists the overwhelming majority of whom are Protestant. A Catholic church in Harryville, Ballymena was the site of a series of long-lasting protests by Loyalists in the late 1990s. Church services were often cancelled due to the level of intimidation and violence experienced by those attending. Some Catholics were injured when trying to attend mass and their cars parked nearby were also vandalised.
Some of the most savage attacks were perpetrated by a Protestant gang dubbed the Shankill Butchers, led by Lenny Murphy who was described as a psychopath and a sadist. The gang gained notoriety by torturing and murdering an estimated thirty Catholics between 1972 and 1982. Most of their victims had no connection to the Provisional Irish Republican Army or any other republican groups but were killed for no other reason than their religious affiliation. Murphy's killing spree is the theme of the British film Resurrection Man (1998).
The Glenanne gang or Glenanne group was a secret informal alliance of Ulster loyalists who carried out shooting and bombing attacks against Catholics and Irish nationalists in the 1970s, during the Troubles. Most of its attacks took place in the "murder triangle" area of counties Armagh and Tyrone in Northern Ireland. It also launched some attacks elsewhere in Northern Ireland and in the Republic of Ireland. The gang included British soldiers from the Ulster Defence Regiment (UDR), police officers from the Royal Ulster Constabulary (RUC), and members of the Mid-Ulster Brigade of the Ulster Volunteer Force (UVF). Twenty-five British soldiers and police officers were named as purported members of the gang.
Since the ceasefire, sectarian killings have largely ceased, though occasional sectarian murders are still reported and bad feelings between Catholics and Protestants linger.
See also
Anti-Catholicism in literature and media
Anti-Catholicism in the United States
Anti-clericalism
Henry VIII of England
References
Further reading
Álvarez-Recio, Leticia, and Bradley L. Drew, eds. Fighting the Antichrist: A Cultural History of Anti-Catholicism in Tudor England (2011)
Arnstein, Walter L. Protestant versus Catholic in Mid-Victorian England: Mr. Newdegate and the Nuns (University of Missouri Press, 1982).
Arnstein, Walter L. "The Murphy Riots: A Victorian Dilemma," Victorian Studies (1975) 19#1 pp. 51–71 in JSTOR
Brewer, John D., and Gareth I. Higgins. "Understanding anti-Catholicism in Northern Ireland." Sociology (1999) 33#2 pp. 235–255.
Brewer, John, and Gareth Higgins. Anti-Catholicism in Northern Ireland: The Mote and the Beam (Springer, 1998).
Bush, Jonathan. "Papists" and Prejudice: Popular Anti-Catholicism and Anglo-Irish Conflict in the North East of England, 1845–70 (Cambridge Scholars Publishing, 2014).
Bush, Jonathan. "The priest and the parson of Hartlepool: Protestant-Catholic conflict in a nineteenth-century industrial town." British Catholic History 33#1 (2016): 115–134.
Clifton, Robin. "The popular fear of Catholics during the English Revolution." Past & Present 52 (1971): 23–55. in JSTOR
Coffey, John. Persecution and Toleration in Protestant England 1558–1689 (Routledge, 2014).
Haydon, Colin. Anti-Catholicism in Eighteenth-Century England, C. 1714–80: A Political and Social Study (1993)
Haydon, Colin. "Eighteenth-Century English Anti-Catholicism: Contexts, Continuity and Diminution." in John Wolffe, ed., Protestant-Catholic Conflict from the Reformation to the Twenty-first Century (Palgrave Macmillan UK, 2013), 46–70. Table of contents
Hoeveler, Diane Long. The Gothic Ideology: Religious Hysteria and Anti-Catholicism in British Popular Fiction, 1780–1880 (U of Wales Press, 2014).
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The Star-Spangled Banner, az Amerikai Egyesült Államok himnusza
The Star-Spangled Banner (Whitney Houston-dal) | wiki |
Abstract expressionism is a post–World War II art movement in American painting, developed in New York City in the 1940s. It was the first specifically American movement to achieve international influence and put New York at the center of the Western art world, a role formerly filled by Paris.
Although the term "abstract expressionism" was first applied to American art in 1946 by the art critic Robert Coates, it had been first used in Germany in 1919 in the magazine Der Sturm, regarding German Expressionism. In the United States, Alfred Barr was the first to use this term in 1929 in relation to works by Wassily Kandinsky.
Style
Technically, an important predecessor is surrealism, with its emphasis on spontaneous, automatic, or subconscious creation. Jackson Pollock's dripping paint onto a canvas laid on the floor is a technique that has its roots in the work of André Masson, Max Ernst, and David Alfaro Siqueiros. The newer research tends to put the exile-surrealist Wolfgang Paalen in the position of the artist and theoretician who fostered the theory of the viewer-dependent possibility space through his paintings and his magazine DYN. Paalen considered ideas of quantum mechanics, as well as idiosyncratic interpretations of the totemic vision and the spatial structure of native-Indian painting from British Columbia and prepared the ground for the new spatial vision of the young American abstracts. His long essay Totem Art (1943) had considerable influence on such artists as Martha Graham, Isamu Noguchi, Pollock, Mark Rothko and Barnett Newman. Around 1944 Barnett Newman tried to explain America's newest art movement and included a list of "the men in the new movement." Paalen is mentioned twice; other artists mentioned are Gottlieb, Rothko, Pollock, Hofmann, Baziotes, Gorky and others. Robert Motherwell is mentioned with a question mark. Another important early manifestation of what came to be abstract expressionism is the work of American Northwest artist Mark Tobey, especially his "white writing" canvases, which, though generally not large in scale, anticipate the "all-over" look of Pollock's drip paintings.
The movement's name is derived from the combination of the emotional intensity and self-denial of the German Expressionists with the anti-figurative aesthetic of the European abstract schools such as Futurism, the Bauhaus, and Synthetic Cubism. Additionally, it has an image of being rebellious, anarchic, highly idiosyncratic and, some feel, nihilistic. In practice, the term is applied to any number of artists working (mostly) in New York who had quite different styles, and even to work that is neither especially abstract nor expressionist. California abstract expressionist Jay Meuser, who typically painted in the non-objective style, wrote about his painting Mare Nostrum, "It is far better to capture the glorious spirit of the sea than to paint all of its tiny ripples." Pollock's energetic "action paintings", with their "busy" feel, are different, both technically and aesthetically, from the violent and grotesque Women series of Willem de Kooning's figurative paintings and the rectangles of color in Rothko's Color Field paintings (which are not what would usually be called expressionist, and which Rothko denied were abstract). Yet all four artists are classified as abstract expressionists.
Abstract expressionism has many stylistic similarities to the Russian artists of the early 20th century such as Wassily Kandinsky. Although it is true that spontaneity or the impression of spontaneity characterized many of the abstract expressionists' works, most of these paintings involved careful planning, especially since their large size demanded it. With artists such as Paul Klee, Kandinsky, Emma Kunz, and later on Rothko, Newman, and Agnes Martin, abstract art clearly implied expression of ideas concerning the spiritual, the unconscious, and the mind.
Why this style gained mainstream acceptance in the 1950s is a matter of debate. American social realism had been the mainstream in the 1930s. It had been influenced not only by the Great Depression, but also by the Mexican muralists such as David Alfaro Siqueiros and Diego Rivera. The political climate after World War II did not long tolerate the social protests of these painters. Abstract expressionism arose during the war and began to be showcased during the early forties at galleries in New York such as The Art of This Century Gallery. The post-war McCarthy era was a time of artistic censorship in the United States, but if the subject matter were totally abstract then it would be seen as apolitical, and therefore safe. Or if the art was political, the message was largely for the insiders.
While the movement is closely associated with painting, collagist Anne Ryan and certain sculptors in particular were also integral to abstract expressionism. David Smith, and his wife Dorothy Dehner, Herbert Ferber, Isamu Noguchi, Ibram Lassaw, Theodore Roszak, Phillip Pavia, Mary Callery, Richard Stankiewicz, Louise Bourgeois, and Louise Nevelson in particular were some of the sculptors considered as being important members of the movement. In addition, the artists David Hare, John Chamberlain, James Rosati, Mark di Suvero, and sculptors Richard Lippold, Raoul Hague, George Rickey, Reuben Nakian, and even Tony Smith, Seymour Lipton, Joseph Cornell, and several others were integral parts of the abstract expressionist movement. Many of the sculptors listed participated in the Ninth Street Show, a famous exhibition curated by Leo Castelli on East Ninth Street in New York City in 1951. Besides the painters and sculptors of the period the New York School of abstract expressionism also generated a number of supportive poets, including Frank O'Hara and photographers such as Aaron Siskind and Fred McDarrah, (whose book The Artist's World in Pictures documented the New York School during the 1950s), and filmmakers—notably Robert Frank—as well.
Although the abstract expressionist school spread quickly throughout the United States, the epicenters of this style were New York City and the San Francisco Bay area of California.
Art critics of the post–World War II era
In the 1940s there were not only few galleries (The Art of This Century, Pierre Matisse Gallery, Julien Levy Gallery and a few others) but also few critics who were willing to follow the work of the New York Vanguard.
There were also a few artists with a literary background, among them Robert Motherwell and Barnett Newman, who functioned as critics as well.
While the New York avant-garde was still relatively unknown by the late 1940s, most of the artists who have become household names today had their well-established patron critics: Clement Greenberg advocated Jackson Pollock and the color field painters like Clyfford Still, Mark Rothko, Barnett Newman, Adolph Gottlieb and Hans Hofmann; Harold Rosenberg seemed to prefer the action painters such as Willem de Kooning and Franz Kline, as well as the seminal paintings of Arshile Gorky; Thomas B. Hess, the managing editor of ARTnews, championed Willem de Kooning.
The new critics elevated their protégés by casting other artists as "followers" or ignoring those who did not serve their promotional goal.
In 1958, Mark Tobey became the first American painter since Whistler (1895) to win top prize at the Venice Biennale.
Barnett Newman, a late member of the Uptown Group, wrote catalogue forewords and reviews, and by the late 1940s became an exhibiting artist at Betty Parsons Gallery. His first solo show was in 1948. Soon after his first exhibition, Barnett Newman remarked in one of the Artists' Sessions at Studio 35: "We are in the process of making the world, to a certain extent, in our own image." Utilizing his writing skills, Newman fought every step of the way to reinforce his newly established image as an artist and to promote his work. An example is his letter on April 9, 1955, "Letter to Sidney Janis: — it is true that Rothko talks the fighter. He fights, however, to submit to the philistine world. My struggle against bourgeois society has involved the total rejection of it."
Strangely, the person thought to have had most to do with the promotion of this style was a New York Trotskyist: Clement Greenberg. As long-time art critic for the Partisan Review and The Nation, he became an early and literate proponent of abstract expressionism. The well-heeled artist Robert Motherwell joined Greenberg in promoting a style that fit the political climate and the intellectual rebelliousness of the era.
Greenberg proclaimed abstract expressionism and Pollock in particular as the epitome of aesthetic value. He supported Pollock's work on formalistic grounds as simply the best painting of its day and the culmination of an art tradition going back via Cubism and Cézanne to Monet, in which painting became ever-'purer' and more concentrated in what was 'essential' to it, the making of marks on a flat surface.
Pollock's work has always polarised critics. Rosenberg spoke of the transformation of painting into an existential drama in Pollock's work, in which "what was to go on the canvas was not a picture but an event". "The big moment came when it was decided to paint 'just to paint'. The gesture on the canvas was a gesture of liberation from value—political, aesthetic, moral."
One of the most vocal critics of abstract expressionism at the time was The New York Times art critic John Canaday. Meyer Schapiro and Leo Steinberg along with Greenberg and Rosenberg were important art historians of the post-war era who voiced support for abstract expressionism. During the early-to-mid-sixties younger art critics Michael Fried, Rosalind Krauss, and Robert Hughes added considerable insights into the critical dialectic that continues to grow around abstract expressionism.
History
World War II and the Post-War period
During the period leading up to and during World War II, modernist artists, writers, and poets, as well as important collectors and dealers, fled Europe and the onslaught of the Nazis for safe haven in the United States. Many of those who didn't flee perished. Among the artists and collectors who arrived in New York during the war (some with help from Varian Fry) were Hans Namuth, Yves Tanguy, Kay Sage, Max Ernst, Jimmy Ernst, Peggy Guggenheim, Leo Castelli, Marcel Duchamp, André Masson, Roberto Matta, André Breton, Marc Chagall, Jacques Lipchitz, Fernand Léger, and Piet Mondrian. A few artists, notably Picasso, Matisse, and Pierre Bonnard remained in France and survived.
The post-war period left the capitals of Europe in upheaval, with an urgency to economically and physically rebuild and to politically regroup. In Paris, formerly the center of European culture and capital of the art world, the climate for art was a disaster, and New York replaced Paris as the new center of the art world. Post-war Europe saw the continuation of Surrealism, Cubism, Dada, and the works of Matisse. Also in Europe, Art brut, and Lyrical Abstraction or Tachisme (the European equivalent to abstract expressionism) took hold of the newest generation. Serge Poliakoff, Nicolas de Staël, Georges Mathieu, Vieira da Silva, Jean Dubuffet, Yves Klein, Pierre Soulages and Jean Messagier, among others are considered important figures in post-war European painting. In the United States, a new generation of American artists began to emerge and to dominate the world stage, and they were called Abstract Expressionists.
Gorky, Hofmann, and Graham
The 1940s in New York City heralded the triumph of American abstract expressionism, a modernist movement that combined lessons learned from Matisse, Picasso, Surrealism, Miró, Cubism, Fauvism, and early Modernism via great teachers in America such as Hans Hofmann from Germany and John D. Graham from Ukraine. Graham's influence on American art during the early 1940s was particularly visible in the work of Gorky, de Kooning, Pollock, and Richard Pousette-Dart among others. Gorky's contributions to American and world art are difficult to overestimate. His work as lyrical abstraction was a "new language. He "lit the way for two generations of American artists". The painterly spontaneity of mature works such as The Liver is the Cock's Comb, The Betrothal II, and One Year the Milkweed immediately prefigured Abstract expressionism, and leaders in the New York School have acknowledged Gorky's considerable influence. The early work of Hyman Bloom was also influential. American artists also benefited from the presence of Piet Mondrian, Fernand Léger, Max Ernst, and the André Breton group, Pierre Matisse's gallery, and Peggy Guggenheim's gallery The Art of This Century, as well as other factors. Hans Hofmann in particular as teacher, mentor, and artist was both important and influential to the development and success of abstract expressionism in the United States. Among Hofmann's protégés was Clement Greenberg, who became an enormously influential voice for American painting, and among his students was Lee Krasner, who introduced her teacher, Hofmann, to her husband, Jackson Pollock.
Pollock and Abstract influences
During the late 1940s, Jackson Pollock's radical approach to painting revolutionized the potential for all Contemporary art that followed him. To some extent, Pollock realized that the journey toward making a work of art was as important as the work of art itself. Like Picasso's innovative reinventions of painting and sculpture near the turn of the century via Cubism and constructed sculpture, with influences as disparate as Navajo sand paintings, surrealism, Jungian analysis, and Mexican mural art, Pollock redefined what it was to produce art. His move away from easel painting and conventionality was a liberating signal to the artists of his era and to all that came after. Artists realized that Jackson Pollock's process—the placing of unstretched raw canvas on the floor where it could be attacked from all four sides using artist materials and industrial materials; linear skeins of paint dripped and thrown; drawing, staining, brushing; imagery and non-imagery—essentially took art-making beyond any prior boundary. Abstract expressionism in general expanded and developed the definitions and possibilities that artists had available for the creation of new works of art.
The other abstract expressionists followed Pollock's breakthrough with new breakthroughs of their own. In a sense the innovations of Pollock, de Kooning, Franz Kline, Rothko, Philip Guston, Hans Hofmann, Clyfford Still, Barnett Newman, Ad Reinhardt, Richard Pousette-Dart, Robert Motherwell, Peter Voulkos, and others opened the floodgates to the diversity and scope of all the art that followed them. The radical Anti-Formalist movements of the 1960s and 1970s including Fluxus, Neo-Dada, Conceptual art, and the feminist art movement can be traced to the innovations of abstract expressionism. Rereadings into abstract art, done by art historians such as Linda Nochlin, Griselda Pollock and Catherine de Zegher critically shows, however, that pioneer women artists who have produced major innovations in modern art had been ignored by the official accounts of its history, but finally began to achieve long overdue recognition in the wake of the abstract expressionist movement of the 1940s and 1950s. Abstract expressionism emerged as a major art movement in New York City during the 1950s and thereafter several leading art galleries began to include the abstract expressionists in exhibitions and as regulars in their rosters. Some of those prominent 'uptown' galleries included: the Charles Egan Gallery, the Sidney Janis Gallery, the Betty Parsons Gallery, the Kootz Gallery, the Tibor de Nagy Gallery, the Stable Gallery, the Leo Castelli Gallery as well as others; and several downtown galleries known at the time as the Tenth Street galleries exhibited many emerging younger artists working in the abstract expressionist vein.
Action painting
Action painting was a style widespread from the 1940s until the early 1960s, and is closely associated with abstract expressionism (some critics have used the terms action painting and abstract expressionism interchangeably). A comparison is often drawn between the American action painting and the French tachisme.
The term was coined by the American critic Harold Rosenberg in 1952 and signaled a major shift in the aesthetic perspective of New York School painters and critics. According to Rosenberg the canvas was "an arena in which to act". While abstract expressionists such as Jackson Pollock, Franz Kline and Willem de Kooning had long been outspoken in their view of a painting as an arena within which to come to terms with the act of creation, earlier critics sympathetic to their cause, like Clement Greenberg, focused on their works' "objectness." To Greenberg, it was the physicality of the paintings' clotted and oil-caked surfaces that was the key to understanding them as documents of the artists' existential struggle.
Rosenberg's critique shifted the emphasis from the object to the struggle itself, with the finished painting being only the physical manifestation, a kind of residue, of the actual work of art, which was in the act or process of the painting's creation. This spontaneous activity was the "action" of the painter, through arm and wrist movement, painterly gestures, brushstrokes, thrown paint, splashed, stained, scumbled and dripped. The painter would sometimes let the paint drip onto the canvas, while rhythmically dancing, or even standing in the canvas, sometimes letting the paint fall according to the subconscious mind, thus letting the unconscious part of the psyche assert and express itself. All this, however, is difficult to explain or interpret because it is a supposed unconscious manifestation of the act of pure creation.
In practice, the term abstract expressionism is applied to any number of artists working (mostly) in New York who had quite different styles, and even applied to work which is not especially abstract nor expressionist. Pollock's energetic action paintings, with their "busy" feel, are different both technically and aesthetically, to De Kooning's violent and grotesque Women series. Woman V is one of a series of six paintings made by de Kooning between 1950 and 1953 that depict a three-quarter-length female figure. He began the first of these paintings, Woman I, in June 1950, repeatedly changing and painting out the image until January or February 1952, when the painting was abandoned unfinished. The art historian Meyer Schapiro saw the painting in de Kooning's studio soon afterwards and encouraged the artist to persist. De Kooning's response was to begin three other paintings on the same theme; Woman II, Woman III and Woman IV. During the summer of 1952, spent at East Hampton, de Kooning further explored the theme through drawings and pastels. He may have finished work on Woman I by the end of June, or possibly as late as November 1952, and probably the other three women pictures were concluded at much the same time. The Woman series are decidedly figurative paintings.
Another important artist is Franz Kline. As with Jackson Pollock and other abstract expressionists, Kline was labelled an "action painter" because of his seemingly spontaneous and intense style, focusing less, or not at all, on figures or imagery, but on the actual brushstrokes and use of canvas; as demonstrated by his painting Number 2 (1954).
Automatic writing was an important vehicle for action painters such as Kline (in his black and white paintings), Pollock, Mark Tobey and Cy Twombly, who used gesture, surface, and line to create calligraphic, linear symbols and skeins that resemble language, and resonate as powerful manifestations from the Collective unconscious. Robert Motherwell in his Elegy to the Spanish Republic series painted powerful black and white paintings using gesture, surface and symbol evoking powerful emotional charges.
Meanwhile, other action painters, notably de Kooning, Gorky, Norman Bluhm, Joan Mitchell, and James Brooks, used imagery via either abstract landscape or as expressionistic visions of the figure to articulate their highly personal and powerful evocations. James Brooks' paintings were particularly poetic and highly prescient in relationship to Lyrical Abstraction that became prominent in the late 1960s and the 1970s.
Color field
Clyfford Still, Barnett Newman, Adolph Gottlieb and the serenely shimmering blocks of color in Mark Rothko's work (which is not what would usually be called expressionist and which Rothko denied was abstract), are classified as abstract expressionists, albeit from what Clement Greenberg termed the Color field direction of abstract expressionism. Both Hans Hofmann and Robert Motherwell can be comfortably described as practitioners of Action painting and Color field painting. In the 1940s Richard Pousette-Dart's tightly constructed imagery often depended upon themes of mythology and mysticism; as did the paintings of Gottlieb, and Pollock in that decade as well.
Color Field painting initially referred to a particular type of abstract expressionism, especially the work of Rothko, Still, Newman, Motherwell, Gottlieb, Ad Reinhardt and several series of paintings by Joan Miró. Greenberg perceived Color Field painting as related to but different from Action painting. The Color Field painters sought to rid their art of superfluous rhetoric. Artists like Motherwell, Still, Rothko, Gottlieb, Hans Hofmann, Helen Frankenthaler, Sam Francis, Mark Tobey, and especially Ad Reinhardt and Barnett Newman, whose masterpiece Vir heroicus sublimis is in the collection of MoMA, used greatly reduced references to nature, and they painted with a highly articulated and psychological use of color. In general, these artists eliminated recognizable imagery, in the case of Rothko and Gottlieb sometimes using symbols and signs as a replacement of imagery. Certain artists quoted references to past or present art, but in general color field painting presents abstraction as an end in itself. In pursuing this direction of modern art, artists wanted to present each painting as one unified, cohesive, monolithic image.
In distinction to the emotional energy and gestural surface marks of abstract expressionists such as Pollock and de Kooning, the Color Field painters initially appeared to be cool and austere, effacing the individual mark in favor of large, flat areas of color, which these artists considered to be the essential nature of visual abstraction, along with the actual shape of the canvas, which later in the 1960s Frank Stella in particular achieved in unusual ways with combinations of curved and straight edges. However, Color Field painting has proven to be both sensual and deeply expressive albeit in a different way from gestural abstract expressionism.
Although abstract expressionism spread quickly throughout the United States, the major centers of this style were New York City and California, especially in the New York School, and the San Francisco Bay area. Abstract expressionist paintings share certain characteristics, including the use of large canvases, an "all-over" approach, in which the whole canvas is treated with equal importance (as opposed to the center being of more interest than the edges). The canvas as the arena became a credo of Action painting, while the integrity of the picture plane became a credo of the Color field painters. Younger artists began exhibiting their abstract expressionist related paintings during the 1950s as well including Alfred Leslie, Sam Francis, Joan Mitchell, Helen Frankenthaler, Cy Twombly, Milton Resnick, Michael Goldberg, Norman Bluhm, Grace Hartigan, Friedel Dzubas, and Robert Goodnough among others.
Although Pollock is closely associated with Action Painting because of his style, technique, and his painterly touch and his physical application of paint, art critics have likened Pollock to both Action painting and color field painting. Another critical view advanced by Greenberg connects Pollock's allover canvasses to the large-scale Water Lilies of Claude Monet done during the 1920s. Art critics such as Michael Fried, Greenberg and others have observed that the overall feeling in Pollock's most famous works – his drip paintings – read as vast fields of built-up linear elements. They note that these works often read as vast complexes of similarly-valued paint skeins and all-over fields of color and drawing, and are related to the mural-sized Monets which are similarly constructed of close-valued brushed and scumbled marks that also read as fields of color and drawing. Pollock's use of all-over composition lend a philosophical and a physical connection to the way the color field painters like Newman, Rothko and Still construct their unbroken and in Still's case broken surfaces. In several paintings that Pollock painted after his classic drip painting period of 1947–1950, he used the technique of staining fluid oil paint and house paint into raw canvas. During 1951 he produced a series of semi-figurative black stain paintings, and in 1952 he produced stain paintings using color. In his November 1952 exhibition at the Sidney Janis Gallery in New York City Pollock showed Number 12, 1952, a large, masterful stain painting that resembles a brightly colored stained landscape (with an overlay of broadly dripped dark paint); the painting was acquired from the exhibition by Nelson Rockefeller for his personal collection.
While Arshile Gorky is considered to be one of the founding fathers of abstract expressionism and a surrealist, he was also one of the first painters of the New York School who used the technique of staining. Gorky created broad fields of vivid, open, unbroken color that he used in many of his paintings as grounds. In Gorky's most effective and accomplished paintings between the years 1941–1948, he consistently used intense stained fields of color, often letting the paint run and drip, under and around his familiar lexicon of organic and biomorphic shapes and delicate lines. Another abstract expressionist whose works in the 1940s call to mind the stain paintings of the 1960s and the 1970s is James Brooks. Brooks regularly used stain as a technique in his paintings from the late 1940s. Brooks began diluting his oil paint in order to have fluid colors with which to pour and drip and stain into the mostly raw canvas that he used. These works often combined calligraphy and abstract shapes. During the final three decades of his career, Sam Francis' style of large-scale bright abstract expressionism was closely associated with Color field painting. His paintings straddled both camps within the abstract expressionist rubric, Action painting and Color Field painting.
Having seen Pollock's 1951 paintings of thinned black oil paint stained into raw canvas, Frankenthaler began to produce stain paintings in varied oil colors on raw canvas in 1952. Her most famous painting from that period is Mountains and Sea. She is one of the originators of the Color Field movement that emerged in the late 1950s. Frankenthaler also studied with Hans Hofmann.
Hofmann's paintings are a symphony of color as seen in The Gate, 1959–1960. He was renowned not only as an artist but also as a teacher of art, both in his native Germany and later in the US. Hofmann, who came to the United States from Germany in the early 1930s, brought with him the legacy of Modernism. As a young artist in pre-First World War Paris, Hofmann worked with Robert Delaunay, and he knew firsthand the innovative work of both Picasso and Matisse. Matisse's work had an enormous influence on him, and on his understanding of the expressive language of color and the potentiality of abstraction. Hofmann was one of the first theorists of color field painting, and his theories were influential to artists and to critics, particularly to Clement Greenberg, as well as to others during the 1930s and 1940s. In 1953 Morris Louis and Kenneth Noland were both profoundly influenced by Helen Frankenthaler's stain paintings after visiting her studio in New York City. Returning to Washington, DC., they began to produce the major works that created the color field movement in the late 1950s.
In 1972 then Metropolitan Museum of Art curator Henry Geldzahler said:
In the 1960s after abstract expressionism
In abstract painting during the 1950s and 1960s, several new directions, like the Hard-edge painting exemplified by John McLaughlin, emerged. Meanwhile, as a reaction against the subjectivism of abstract expressionism, other forms of Geometric abstraction began to appear in artist studios and in radical avant-garde circles. Greenberg became the voice of Post-painterly abstraction; by curating an influential exhibition of new painting that toured important art museums throughout the United States in 1964. Color field painting, Hard-edge painting and Lyrical Abstraction emerged as radical new directions.
Abstract expressionism and the Cold War
Since the mid-1970s it has been argued that the style attracted the attention, in the early 1950s, of the CIA, who saw it as representative of the US as a haven of free thought and free markets, as well as a challenge to both the socialist realist styles prevalent in communist nations and the dominance of the European art markets. The book by Frances Stonor Saunders, The Cultural Cold War—The CIA and the World of Arts and Letters, (published in the UK as Who Paid the Piper?: CIA and the Cultural Cold War) details how the CIA financed and organized the promotion of American abstract expressionists as part of cultural imperialism via the Congress for Cultural Freedom from 1950 to 1967. Notably Robert Motherwell's series Elegy to the Spanish Republic addressed some of those political issues. Tom Braden, founding chief of the CIA's International Organizations Division (IOD) and ex-executive secretary of the Museum of Modern Art said in an interview, "I think it was the most important division that the agency had, and I think that it played an enormous role in the Cold War."
Against this revisionist tradition, an essay by Michael Kimmelman, chief art critic of The New York Times, called Revisiting the Revisionists: The Modern, Its Critics and the Cold War, asserts that much of that information concerning what was happening on the American art scene during the 1940s and 50s, as well as the revisionists' interpretation of it, is false or decontextualized. Other books on the subject include Art in the Cold War, by Christine Lindey, which also describes the art of the Soviet Union at the same time, and Pollock and After, edited by Francis Frascina, which reprinted the Kimmelman article.
Consequences
Canadian painter Jean-Paul Riopelle (1923–2002), a member of the Montreal-based surrealist-inspired group Les Automatistes, helped introduce a related style of abstract impressionism to the Parisian art world from 1949. Michel Tapié's groundbreaking book, Un Art Autre (1952), was also enormously influential in this regard. Tapié was also a curator and exhibition organizer who promoted the works of Pollock and Hans Hofmann in Europe. By the 1960s, the movement's initial effect had been assimilated, yet its methods and proponents remained highly influential in art, affecting profoundly the work of many artists who followed. Abstract expressionism preceded Tachisme, Color Field painting, Lyrical Abstraction, Fluxus, Pop Art, Minimalism, Postminimalism, Neo-expressionism, and the other movements of the sixties and seventies and it influenced all those later movements that evolved. Movements which were direct responses to, and rebellions against abstract expressionism began with Hard-edge painting (Frank Stella, Robert Indiana and others) and Pop artists, notably Andy Warhol, Claes Oldenburg and Roy Lichtenstein who achieved prominence in the US, accompanied by Richard Hamilton in Britain. Robert Rauschenberg and Jasper Johns in the US formed a bridge between abstract expressionism and Pop art. Minimalism was exemplified by artists such as Donald Judd, Robert Mangold and Agnes Martin.
However, many painters, such as Jules Olitski, Joan Mitchell and Antoni Tàpies continued to work in the abstract expressionist style for many years, extending and expanding its visual and philosophical implications, as many abstract artists continue to do today, in styles described as Lyrical Abstraction, Neo-expressionist and others.
In the years after World War II, a group of New York artists started one of the first true schools of artists in America, bringing about a new era in American artwork: abstract expressionism. This led to the American art boom that brought about styles such as Pop Art. This also helped to make New York into a cultural and artistic hub.
Major sculpture
List of abstract expressionists
Abstract expressionist artists
Significant artists whose mature work defined American abstract expressionism:
Albert Alcalay (1917–2008)
Charles Alston (1907–1977)
Ruth Asawa (1926–2013)
Alice Baber (1928–1982)
William Baziotes (1912–1963)
James Bishop (1927–2021)
Norman Bluhm (1921–1999)
Louise Bourgeois (1911–2010)
Ernest Briggs (1923–1984)
James Brooks (1906–1992)
David Budd (1927–1991)
Fritz Bultman (1919–1985)
Hans Burkhardt (1904–1994)
Jack Bush (1909–1977)
Charles Cajori (1921–2013)
Lawrence Calcagno (1913–1993)
Alexander Calder (1898–1976)
Nicolas Carone (1917–2010)
Giorgio Cavallon (1904–1989)
John Chamberlain (1927–2011)
Ed Clark (1926–2019)
Joseph Cornell (1903–1972)
Dorothy Dehner (1901–1994)
Jean Dubuffet (1901–1985)
Elaine de Kooning (1918–1989)
Willem de Kooning (1904–1997)
Beauford Delaney (1901–1979)
Robert De Niro, Sr. (1922–1993)
Richard Diebenkorn (1922–1993)
Mark di Suvero (born 1933)
James Budd Dixon (1900–1967)
Enrico Donati (1909–2008)
Edward Dugmore (1915–1996)
Friedel Dzubas (1915–1994)
Jimmy Ernst (1920–1984)
Herbert Ferber (1906–1991)
John Ferren (1905–1970)
Perle Fine (1905–1988)
Sam Francis (1923–1994)
Jane Frank (1918–1986)
Helen Frankenthaler (1928–2011)
Sonia Gechtoff (1926–2018)
Michael Goldberg (1924–2007)
Robert Goodnough (1917–2010)
Arshile Gorky (1904–1948)
Joseph Goto (1916–1994)
Adolph Gottlieb (1903–1974)
Morris Graves (1910–2001)
Cleve Gray (1918–2004)
Philip Guston (1913–1980)
Raoul Hague (1904–1993)
David Hare (1917–1992)
Grace Hartigan (1922–2008)
Hans Hofmann (1880–1966)
Paul Horiuchi (1906–1999)
John Hultberg (1922–2005)
Paul Jenkins (1923–2012)
Gerome Kamrowski (1914–2004)
Matsumi Kanemitsu (1922–1992)
Minoru Kawabata (1911–2001)
James Kelly (1913–2003)
Earl Kerkam (1891–1965)
Franz Kline (1910–1962)
Albert Kotin (1907–1980)
Lee Krasner (1908–1984)
Walter Kuhlman (1918–2009)
Ibram Lassaw (1913–2003)
Alfred Leslie (born 1927)
John Harrison Levee (1924–2017)
Norman Lewis (1901–1979)
Richard Lippold (1915–2002)
Seymour Lipton (1903–1986)
Frank Lobdell (1921–2013)
Morris Louis (1912–1962)
Conrad Marca-Relli (1913–2000)
Nicholas Marsicano (1908–1991)
Mercedes Matter (1913–2001)
Hugh Mesibov (1916–2016)
Fred Mitchell (1923-2013)
Joan Mitchell (1925–1992)
Robert Motherwell (1915–1991)
Louise Nevelson (1899–1988)
Barnett Newman (1905–1970)
Isamu Noguchi (1904–1988)
Kenzo Okada (1902–1982)
John Opper (1908–1994)
Charlotte Park (1910–2010)
Ray Parker (1922–1990)
Phillip Pavia (1912–2005)
Jackson Pollock (1912–1956)
Fuller Potter (1910–1990)
Richard Pousette-Dart (1916–1992)
Ad Reinhardt (1913–1967)
Milton Resnick (1917–2004)
Robert Richenburg (1917–2006)
George Rickey (1904–2002)
Jean-Paul Riopelle (1923–2002)
William Ronald (1926–1998)
James Rosati (1911–1988)
Ralph Rosenborg (1913–1992)
Theodore Roszak (1907–1981)
Mark Rothko (1903–1970)
Anne Ryan (1889–1954)
Louis Schanker (1903–1981)
Jon Schueler (1916–1992)
Charles Seliger (1926–2009)
Harold Shapinsky (1925–2004)
Thomas Sills (1914–2000)
Janet Sobel (1893–1968)
David Smith (1906–1965)
Theodoros Stamos (1922–1997)
Richard Stankiewicz (1922–1983)
Joe Stefanelli (1921–2017)
Hedda Sterne (1910–2011)
Clyfford Still (1904–1980)
George Stillman (1921–1997)
Reuben Tam (1916–1991)
Alma Thomas (1891–1978)
Mark Tobey (1890–1976)
Bradley Walker Tomlin (1899–1953)
Cy Twombly (1928–2011)
Jack Tworkov (1900–1982)
Esteban Vicente (1903–2001)
Peter Voulkos (1924–2002)
Corinne Michelle West (1908–1991)
John von Wicht (1888–1970)
Hale Woodruff (1900–1980)
Emerson Woelffer (1914–2003)
Taro Yamamoto (1919–1994)
Manouchehr Yektai (1922–2019)
Other artists
Significant artists whose mature work relates to the American abstract expressionist movement:
Satoru Abe (born 1926)
Bumpei Akaji (1921–2002)
Olga Albizu (1924–2005)
Karel Appel (1921–2006)
Mino Argento (born 1927)
Rosemarie Beck (1923–2003)
William Brice (1921–2008)
Alexander Bogen (1916–2010)
Charles Ragland Bunnell (1897–1968)
Gretna Campbell (1922–1987)
Mary Callery (1903–1977)
Chu Teh-Chun (1920–2014)
Edward Clark (1926–2019)
Alfred L. Copley (1910–1992) (aka L. Alcopley)
Edward Corbett (1919–1971)
Jean-Michel Coulon (1920–2014)
Sari Dienes (1898–1992)
Jacques Démoulin (1905-1991)
Isami Doi (1903–1965)
Lynne Mapp Drexler (1928–1999)
Jean Dubuffet (1901–1985)
Lucio Fontana (1899–1968)
Alice Garver (1924–1966)
Herbert Gentry (1919–2003)
Sam Gilliam (1933–2022)
Joseph Glasco (1925–1996)
John D. Graham (1881–1961)
Stephen Greene (1918–1999)
Elaine Hamilton (1920–2010)
Hans Hartung (1904–1989)
Saburo Hasegawa (1906–1957)
Al Held (1928–2005)
Raymond Hendler (1923–1998)
Gino Hollander (1924–2015)
John Hoyland (1934–2011)
Ralph Iwamoto (1927–2013)
William Ivey (1919–1992)
Jasper Johns (born 1930)
Karl Kasten (1916–2010)
Keichi Kimura (1914–1988)
Sueko Kimura (1912–2001)
Hilma af Klint (1862–1944)
Frances Kornbluth (1920–2014)
André Lanskoy (1902–1976)
John Levee (1924–2017)
Michael Loew (1907–1985)
Agnes Martin (1912–2004)
Knox Martin (1923–2022)
Georges Mathieu (1921–2012)
Herbert Matter (1907–1984)
Emiko Nakano (1925–1990)
George McNeil (1908–1995)
Jean Messagier (1920–1999)
Jay Meuser (1911–1963)
George Miyasaki (1935–2013)
Seong Moy (1921–2013)
Jan Müller (1922–1958)
Robert Natkin (1930–2010)
Tetsuo Ochikubo (1923–1975)
Frank Okada (1931–2000)
Jerry Okimoto (1924–1998)
Jules Olitski (1922–2007)
Pat Passlof (1928–2011)
Irene Rice-Pereira (1902–1971)
Earle M. Pilgrim (1923–1976)
Robert Rauschenberg (1925–2008)
Larry Rivers (1923–2002)
Julio Rosado del Valle (1922–2008)
Jack Roth (1927–2004)
Tadashi Sato (1923–2005)
Jon Schueler (1916–1992)
Pablo Serrano (1908–1985)
Sarai Sherman (1922–2013)
Morita Shiryū (1912–1999)
Vieira da Silva (1907–1992)
Aaron Siskind (1903–1991)
Tony Smith (1912–1980)
Syd Solomon (1917–2004)
Pierre Soulages (1919–2022)
Nicolas de Staël (1914–1955)
Frank Stella (born 1936)
Ary Stillman (1891–1967)
Kumi Sugai (1919–1996)
Stuart Sutcliffe (1940–1962)
Augustus Vincent Tack (1870–1949)
Toshiko Takaezu (1922–2011)
Antoni Tàpies (1923–2012)
Harry Tsuchidana (born 1932)
Tony Tuckson (1921–1973)
Nína Tryggvadóttir (1913–1968)
Bram van Velde (1895–1981)
Don Van Vliet (1941–2010)
Cora Kelley Ward (1920–1989)
Ulfert Wilke (1907–1987)
Wols (1913–1951)
Tseng Yu-ho (1924–2017)
Zao Wou Ki (1920–2013)
See also
Related styles, trends, schools, and movements
Abstract art
Abstract Imagists
Action painting
American Abstract Artists
Arte Povera
Asemic writing
Avant-garde
CoBrA
Color field painting
History of painting
Informalism
Les Automatistes
Les Plasticiens
Lyrical Abstraction
Lyricism
Minimalism
New European Painting
New York School
Organic Surrealism
9th Street Art Exhibition
Painters Eleven
Pop art
Post-painterly abstraction
Tachisme
Tenth Street galleries
The Irascibles
Western Painting
Other related topics
Bluebeard, by Kurt Vonnegut, is a fictional autobiography written by fictional abstract expressionist Rabo Karabekian.
Ismail Gulgee (artist whose work reflects abstract expressionist influence in South Asia during the Cold War, especially 'action painting')
Michel Tapié (critic and exhibition organizer important to the dissemination of abstract expressionism in Europe, Japan, and Latin America)
References
Books
Belgrad, Daniel. The Culture of Spontaneity. Improvisation and the Arts in Postwar America University of Chicago Press, Chicago & London, 1998.
Anfam, David. Abstract Expressionism (New York & London: Thames & Hudson, 1990).
Craven, David, Abstract expressionism as cultural critique: dissent during the McCarthy period (Cambridge; New York: Cambridge University Press, 1999.)
Marika Herskovic, American Abstract and Figurative Expressionism: Style Is Timely Art Is Timeless (New York School Press, 2009.)
Marika Herskovic, American Abstract Expressionism of the 1950s An Illustrated Survey, (New York School Press, 2003.)
Marika Herskovic, New York School Abstract Expressionists Artists Choice by Artists, (New York School Press, 2000.)
Papanikolas, Theresa and Stephen Salel, Stephen, Abstract Expressionism, Looking East from the Far West, Honolulu Museum of Art, 2017,
Serge Guilbaut. How New York Stole the Idea of Modern Art, University of Chicago Press, 1983.
Bibliography
Anfam, David. Abstract Expressionism—A World Elsewhere. New York: Haunch of Venison, 2008, Haunchofvenison.com
Greenberg, Clement. "'American-Type' Painting". In Art and Culture: Critical Essays. Boston: Beacon Press, 1961. 208–29.
Jachec, Nancy. The Philosophy and Politics of Abstract Expressionism 1940–1960. Cambridge University Press: Cambridge, 2000
O'Connor, Francis V. Jackson Pollock [exhibition catalogue] (New York, Museum of Modern Art, [1967])
Saunders, Frances Stonor, The cultural cold war: the CIA and the world of arts and letters (New York: New Press: Distributed by W.W. Norton & Co., 2000)
Tapié, Michel. Hans Hofmann: peintures 1962 : 23 avril-18 mai 1963. (Paris: Galerie Anderson-Mayer, 1963.) [exhibition catalogue and commentary]
Tapié, Michel. Pollock (Paris, P. Facchetti, 1952)
External links
Jackson Pollock
Louis Schanker
Philip Guston
Perle Fine
Albert Kotin
James Brooks Abstract Expressionist painter 1906–1992
American Abstract Artists
Clyfford Still Museum
Abstract expressionism
Abstract art
Avant-garde art
Congress for Cultural Freedom
Contemporary art movements
Modern art
American art | wiki |
The Dudaim () was an Israeli folk duo.
Dudaim or Duda'im may also refer to:
, Negev Desert, Israel
(Nakhal Duda'im, Naẖal Duda'im), Negev Desert, Israel
a hill ijn Haifa district, Israel
Dudaim melon, a variant of Cucumis melo (melon) | wiki |
The Dolphin South End Runners (DSE) is the oldest and largest running club in San Francisco, founded in 1966, by the legendary and infamous Walt Stack who was also its first president. DSE holds organized races nearly every weekend in and around San Francisco. These races are low key and open to runners and walkers of all ages and abilities.
The DSE has been named BEST Running Club in the 2009 Mind & Body contest on the BayList on SFGate.com.
References
External links
Official DSE site
DSE Facebook page
Organizations established in 1966
Sports organizations based in San Francisco
Road running in the United States
Running clubs in the United States
1966 establishments in California | wiki |
The Son of Hannibal may refer to:
The Son of Hannibal (novel), a 1914 German novel by Ludwig Wolff
The Son of Hannibal (1918 film), a German silent film based on the novel
The Son of Hannibal (1926 film), a German silent film, remake of the 1918 film | wiki |
Xerochlorella is a genus of green algae in the class Trebouxiophyceae.
References
Trebouxiophyceae genera
Trebouxiophyceae | wiki |
Drisheen () is a type of blood pudding made in Ireland. It is distinguished from other forms of Irish black pudding by having a gelatinous consistency. It is made from a mixture of cow's, pig's or sheep's blood, milk, salt and fat, which is boiled and sieved and finally cooked using the main intestine of an animal (typically a pig or sheep) as the sausage skin. The sausage may be flavoured with herbs, such as tansy, or served with tansy sauce. The recipe for drisheen varies widely from place to place and it also differs depending on the time of year. Drisheen is a cooked product but it usually requires further preparation before eating. How this is done varies widely from place to place.
In the Irish cities of Cork and Limerick, the dish is often paired with tripe, where it is known as "packet and tripe". In Limerick the combination of tripe and drisheen is considered a meal particular to and strongly associated with Limerick.
In culture
Drisheen is mentioned in James Joyce's Ulysses, Finnegans Wake and A Portrait of the Artist as a Young Man. It is also described in celebrated travel writer H. V. Morton's 1930 book, In Search of Ireland.
See also
Offal
Blood sausage
List of Irish dishes
List of sausages
References
External links
A modern recipe
Cork Slang
Recipe for Packet and Tripe
Irish cuisine
Savory puddings
Blood sausages
Irish meat dishes | wiki |
Emilia Cucciniello, vero nome di Milly D'Abbraccio – attrice pornografica italiana, sorella di Mariangela
Mariangela Cucciniello, vero nome di Mariangela D'Abbraccio – attrice e cantante italiana, sorella di Emilia (Milly) | wiki |
The director of staff of the United States Space Force (SF/DS) is a position in the United States Space Force held by a lieutenant general. The officeholder oversees the administration and organization of the Office of the Chief of Space Operations, synchronizing policy, plans, positions, procedures, and cross-functional issues within the headquarters staff.
The organizational structure of the Space Force headquarters was first proposed in February 2020 with a director of staff. By July 2020, Major General B. Chance Saltzman was performing the duties in an acting capacity. On July 29, 2020, then-Major General Nina Armagno was nominated for the director of staff position. She was promoted on August 17, 2020, then becoming the inaugural director of staff of the U.S. Space Force.
Organization
Director of Staff: Lt Gen Nina Armagno
Deputy Director of Staff: Wade S. Yamada
List of directors of staff
Timeline
See also
Director of Staff of the United States Air Force
Space Staff
United States Space Force
References
United States Space Force generals
Office of the Chief of Space Operations personnel | wiki |
Le championnat du monde de volley-ball masculin,
Le championnat du monde de volley-ball féminin.
Voir aussi
Un championnat du monde. | wiki |
A pothole is a surface disruption in a roadway, caused by fatigue and erosion.
Pothole may also refer to:
A small deep hole dug to look for buried public utilities, see vacuum excavation
Pothole (geology), a phenomenon encountered in the platinum mining industry in South Africa
Pothole (landform), evorsion, swirlhole, or giant's kettle, a smooth, bowl-shaped or cylindrical hollow created by water erosion of bedrock
Pothole, or panhole, a shallow solution basin, or closed depression, found on flat or gently sloping rock
Pothole, a shallow depression, often containing an intermittent pond or marsh and serving as a nesting place for waterfowl in the Prairie Pothole Region of North America
Pothole, or pit cave, a predominantly vertical cave system
The Pothole (Seinfeld)
See also
Potholes, California
Potholes (film), a 1928 Soviet silent film
Pothole, the upper section of Bull Shoals Lake, Missouri
Potholes Reservoir, Washington state
Potholing, or caving, spelunking | wiki |
Liff or LIFF may refer to:
People with the family name
Biff Liff (1919-2015), Tony Award-winning American Broadway manager and producer.
Vincent Liff (1915-2003), American film director from West Hartford, Connecticut.
Other
Liff, Angus, village in Scotland
The Meaning of Liff, a book by Douglas Adams and John Lloyd
LIFF as abbreviation
Ladakh International Film Festival, India
Layered Image File Format
Leeds International Film Festival, West Yorkshire, England
Leiden International Film Festival, The Netherlands
Ljubljana International Film Festival, Slovenia
London Independent Film Festival, London, England | wiki |
Hasidus may refer to:
the Hasidic movement in Judaism
a beetle of the weevil genus in the tribe Madarini, see Hasidus (weevil) | wiki |
Мітіо Каку, Мічіо Каку (англ. Michio Kaku, /ˈmiːtʃioʊ ˈkɑːkuː/; також Мічіо Кайку) — американський науковець японського походження у галузі теоретичної фізики та екології, футуролог.
Каку (Риуге), Каку (ест. Kaku) — село в Естонії, входить до складу волості Риуге, повіту Вирумаа. | wiki |
The Butterfly Tree is a 2017 Australian drama film directed by Priscilla Cameron. It had its premiere at the 2017 Melbourne International Film Festival, and was screened in the Discovery section at the 2017 Toronto International Film Festival.
Plot
Evelyn is an ex-burlesque queen who puts a curse on single dad Al and his son Fin with her zest for life. When both Al and Fin learn they are competing for Evelyn's love, their competition brings back memories over the death of Fin's mother.
Cast
Melissa George as Evelyn
Ewen Leslie as Al
Ed Oxenbould as Fin
Sophie Lowe as Shelley
Reception
The Butterfly Tree received mixed reviews from critics and audiences, earning a 46% approval rating on Rotten Tomatoes, based on 13 reviews with an average score of 5.71/10.
Accolades
References
External links
2017 films
2017 drama films
Australian drama films
2010s English-language films
2010s Australian films | wiki |
Cold pack cheese, also known as club cheese or crock cheese, is a type of cheese spread that is created by blending natural cheeses without the use of heat.
Cold pack cheese was first made by a Wisconsin tavern owner for snacking. It is often made using Cheddar or Swiss cheeses as a base, using added spices, fruits, vegetables, or nuts as flavoring. Common flavorings include almonds, port wine, horseradish, and smoked flavor. However, a wide variety of cheeses may be used in creating this spread.
As with most cheese spreads, cold pack cheese is a soft spreadable blend of cheeses that can be used in a variety of applications. It can be used as an ingredient in sandwiches, on top of hot foods, such as potatoes, as a base for a cheese sauce, or simply on its own, served with crackers as an appetizer.
See also
List of spreads
Notes
Processed cheese
Cuisine of Wisconsin | wiki |
Мунцевичи — название населённых пунктов в Белоруссии:
Мунцевичи — деревня в Поставском районе Витебской области.
Мунцевичи — хутор в Ивьевском районе Гродненской области. | wiki |
A core enzyme consists of the subunits of an enzyme that are needed for catalytic activity, as in the core enzyme RNA polymerase.
An example of a core enzyme is a RNA polymerase enzyme without the sigma factor (σ). This enzyme consists of only two alpha (2α), one beta (β), one beta prime (β') and one omega (ω). This is just one example of a core enzyme. DNA Pol I can also be characterized as having core and holoenzyme segments, where the 5'exonuclease can be removed without destroying enzyme functionality.
References
Enzymes | wiki |
In human anatomy, the bronchial arteries supply the lungs with oxygenated blood, and nutrition. Although there is much variation, there are usually two bronchial arteries that run to the left lung, and one to the right lung, and are a vital part of the respiratory system.
Structure
There are typically two left and one right bronchial arteries.
The left bronchial arteries (superior and inferior) usually arise directly from the thoracic aorta.
The single right bronchial artery usually arises from one of the following:
1) the thoracic aorta at a common trunk with the right 3rd posterior intercostal artery
2) the superior bronchial artery on the left side
3) any number of the right intercostal arteries mostly the third right posterior.
Function
The bronchial arteries supply blood to the bronchi and connective tissue of the lungs. They travel with and branch with the bronchi, ending about at the level of the respiratory bronchioles. They anastomose with the branches of the pulmonary arteries, and together, they supply the visceral pleura of the lung in the process.
Note that much of the oxygenated blood supplied by the bronchial arteries is returned via the pulmonary veins rather than the bronchial veins. As a consequence, blood returning to the left heart is slightly less oxygenated than blood found at the level of the pulmonary capillary beds.
Each bronchial artery also has a branch that supplies the esophagus.
Comparison with pulmonary arteries
It is easy to confuse the bronchial arteries with the pulmonary arteries, because they both supply the lungs with blood, but there are important differences:
Clinical significance
Bronchial artery is considered dilated when its diameter is more than 2 mm. Several causes of bronchial artery dilatations are: congenital heart or lung diseases, obstructions of pulmonary artery, and lung inflammation.
The bronchial arteries are typically enlarged and in chronic pulmonary thromboembolic hypertension.
With modern surgical techniques, bronchial anastomoses heal well without bronchial artery reconnection. Largely for this reason, bronchial artery circulation is usually sacrificed during lung transplants, instead relying on the persistence of a microcirculation (presumably arising from the deoxygenated pulmonary circulation) to provide perfusion to the airways.
Aneurysms of the bronchial artery may mimic aortic aneurysms. Bronchial artery embolisation (BAE) is catheter insertion into a bronchial artery to treat hemoptysis (coughing blood).. Most lung tumors are supplied by the bronchial artery, and they can be treated by chemoembolization (injecting chemotherapy and particles directly into the tumor-feeding artery).
The bronchial arteries and their supply of nutrients to the lungs are also attributed to the observation that an occluded (either ligated or by an embolus) pulmonal artery very rarely results in lung infarction. The bronchial arteries can maintain a supply of oxygenated blood to lung tissue.
See also
Bronchial veins
Pulmonary thromboendarterectomy
References
External links
- "Branches of the ascending aorta, arch of the aorta, and the descending aorta."
Bronchial arteries - anatquest.nlm.nih.gov.
Arteries of the thorax | wiki |
A rock garden is a type of garden that features extensive use of rocks or stones, along with plants native to rocky or alpine environments.
Rock garden may also refer to:
Alpine garden, a domestic or botanical garden specialising in the collection and cultivation of alpine plants growing naturally at high altitudes around the world
An area of exposed rocks on a wilderness watercourse, such as the Back River
Japanese rock garden, also called a zen garden, creates a miniature stylized landscape
Rock Garden of Chandigarh, India, a sculpture garden
Rock Garden, Darjeeling, West Bengal, India, a road-side picnic ground around a natural waterfall
Rock Garden (album), a 2006 album by Ty Tabor
Rock Garden, a music venue located in Covent Garden, London during the late 1970s and 1980s
See also
Rock the Garden, an annual summer music festival in Minneapolis, Minnesota, US
Rockery (disambiguation) | wiki |
Crubeens (from Irish crúibín, meaning "pig's trotter") are an Irish dish made of boiled pigs' feet. They are traditionally eaten by hand, like corn on the cob. The Irish singer Liam Clancy references them in a preamble to the song The Galway Races, and they are mentioned in the lyrics of some versions as an example of food available at a horse race. Crubeens can include the pigs' calves, and can be consumed fried, broiled, baked, or otherwise prepared.
See also
List of Irish dishes
References
External links
Cruibini (Grilled Pigs' Trotters) recipe
Irish cuisine
Pig's trotters
Irish meat dishes | wiki |
Alpha Mapping is a technique in 3D computer graphics involving the use of texture mapping to designate the amount of transparency/translucency of areas in a certain object.
Alpha mapping is used when the given object's transparency is not consistent: when the transparency amount is not the same for the entire object and/or when the object is not entirely transparent. If the object has the same level of transparency everywhere, one can either use a solid-color alpha texture or an integer value.
The alpha map is often encoded in the alpha channel of an RGBA texture used for coloring instead of being a standalone greyscale texture.
See also
Mask (computing)#Image masks
3D imaging
Texture mapping
Visual effects | wiki |
This Tiny World () is a 1972 Dutch short documentary film about antique mechanical toys, produced by Charles and Martina Huguenot van der Linden. It won an Oscar in 1973 for Documentary Short Subject.
References
External links
1972 films
1970s Dutch-language films
Dutch short documentary films
1972 independent films
Best Documentary Short Subject Academy Award winners
Dutch independent films
1972 documentary films
1972 short films
1970s short documentary films
Films about toys
Antiques
Mechanical toys | wiki |
Castle Downs may refer to:
Castle Downs, Cornwall, the site of an important hillfort in Cornwall, England
Castle Downs, Edmonton, a suburb of Edmonton, Canada | wiki |
Waterboard may refer to:
Water board, an organisation charged with the supply of water and care of water levels
Waterboarding, a form of torture consisting of immobilizing the victim and pouring water over the face and into the breathing passages
Water cure, a form of torture in which the victim is forced to drink large quantities of water in a short time
Surfboard, a narrow plank used in surfing | wiki |
A volute is a spiral, scroll-like ornament that forms the basis of the Ionic order, found in the capital of the Ionic column. It was later incorporated into Corinthian order and Composite column capitals. Four are normally to be found on an Ionic capital, eight on Composite capitals and smaller versions (sometimes called helix) on the Corinthian capital.
The word derives from the Latin voluta ("scroll"). It has been suggested that the ornament was inspired by the curve of a ram's horns, or perhaps was derived from the natural spiral found in the ovule of a common species of clover native to Greece. Alternatively, it may simply be of geometrical origin.
The ornament can be seen in Renaissance and Baroque architecture and is a common decoration in furniture design, silverware and ceramics. A method of drawing the complex geometry was devised by the ancient Roman architect Vitruvius through the study of classical buildings and structures.
See also
Scrollwork
Ionic order
Spiral
References
External links
Columns and entablature
Ornaments (architecture)
Ancient Roman architectural elements | wiki |
Constituent Assembly may refer to the Constituent Assembly in the following countries;
Constituent Assembly of Georgia
Constituent Assembly of India
Constituent Assembly of Italy
Constituent Assembly of Lithuania
Constituent Assembly of Luxembourg
Constituent Assembly of Nepal
Constituent Assembly of Pakistan
Constituent Assembly of the Republic of Montenegro
Constituent Assembly of Tunisia
Constituent Assembly of Turkey
Constituent Assembly (Philippines) | wiki |
The following is a list of notable people diagnosed with Crohn's disease. Crohn's disease is a type of inflammatory bowel disease that may affect any part of the gastrointestinal tract from mouth to anus, causing a wide variety of symptoms. It primarily causes abdominal pain, diarrhea (which may be bloody if inflammation is at its worst), vomiting (can be continuous), or weight loss, but may also cause complications outside the gastrointestinal tract such as skin rashes, arthritis, inflammation of the eye, tiredness, and lack of concentration.
References
Crohn's disease | wiki |
Thermal diffusion may refer to:
A thermal force on a gas due to a temperature gradient, also called thermal diffusion or Thermal transpiration.
It is used to drive a gas pump with no moving parts called a Knudsen pump.
It is the currently accepted theory for the rotation of the Crookes radiometer.
Diffusion in a temperature gradient, also called thermodiffusion or thermophoresis.
It can be used as an obsolete method of making enriched uranium (see enriched uranium § thermal diffusion).
Thermal diffusion can be used to measure fluid flow, including perfusion and rCBF at one location over time.
Brownian motion (at a constant non-zero absolute temperature).
See also:
Molecular diffusion
Heat conduction (i.e., diffusion of heat) | wiki |
Clean and Unclean may refer to:
Clean and unclean animals, religious views on clean and unclean animals
Tumah and taharah, ritual "purity" and "impurity" under Jewish law | wiki |
"Someone Like You" is a 1986 dance single by Sylvester. The song was written by Len Barry and McKinley Horton. It was produced by Ken Kessie and Morey Goldstein. The single was Sylvester's second and last entry to reach number one on the dance charts, where it stayed for one week. "Someone like You", also went to number nineteen on the soul chart, and was Sylvester's highest chart entry, since 1978.
The single sleeve was designed by artist Keith Haring.
Track listing
US 7" single
"Someone Like You" - 4:10
"Someone Like You" (Larry Levan mix) - 4:30
US 12" Maxi-Single
"Someone Like You" - 6:11
"Someone Like You" (Joseph Watt remix) - 5:46
"Someone Like You" (Larry Levan mix) - 5:58
"Someone Like You (Dub)" (Larry Levan mix) - 6:35
References
1986 singles
1986 songs
Sylvester (singer) songs
Songs written by Len Barry
Warner Records singles
Singles with cover art by Keith Haring | wiki |
Pinsa or PINSA may refer to:
Pensa, Burkina Faso
Pinsa or pinza, a type of pizza
Proceedings of the Indian National Science Academy (PINSA)
Pinsa (bread), a Roman flatbread | wiki |
The Sugar Busters diet is a diet focused on eliminating foods containing refined carbohydrates such as refined sugar, white flour, and white rice, as well as naturally occurring carbohydrates rating high on the glycemic index such as potatoes and carrots.
Sugar Busters was created by H. Leighton Steward, Sam S. Andrews, Morrison C. Bethea, and Luis A. Balart.
The diet is classified as a fad diet, and though its results compare with those of other low-calorie diets, it brings an increased risk of heart disease.
The original Sugar Busters! Cut Sugar to Trim Fat was self-published by the authors in 1995 and became a local hit in their hometown of New Orleans, after which Ballantine Books republished the book nationally. The Ballantine edition hit #1 on the New York Times bestseller list in June 2001. An updated The New Sugar Busters! Cut Sugar to Trim Fat was published in 2003.
See also
List of diets
References
1995 non-fiction books
Fad diets
Low-carbohydrate diets
Self-published books | wiki |
Unipolar emotions refer to emotional responses to things that are either entirely positive or entirely negative, with no in-between. These emotional reactions become distinguished over time, causing the good things (like the "good old times") to be remembered better than they were, and the bad things recalled even worse than they might have been.
References
Emotions | wiki |
Guaranty Trust Company may refer to:
Guaranty Trust Holding Company PLC, a multinational financial services group headquartered in Lagos, Nigeria
Morgan Guaranty Trust, formed by the 1959 merger of the Guaranty Trust Company of New York and J.P. Morgan & Co.
Guaranty Trust Co. v. York, a 1945 United States Supreme Court case | wiki |
Shui Xian (traditional/simplified Chinese: 水仙, pinyin: shuǐxiān) is a cultivar of Camellia sinensis as well as an oolong tea traditionally from the Wuyi Mountains in Fujian, China. The infused color is a deep amber which is characteristic for many other Wuyi oolong teas. This tea is also grown in Taiwan.
Varieties
Lao Cong Shui Xian (): A Shui Xian made from old bushes that may be as old as 200 years. The taste and appearance will signify it as an even darker Oolong.
Aged Shui Xian (): A Shui Xian that may have been aged for a few decades and rebaked.
Zhangping Shui Xian (): A Shui Xian bush that is grown in Zhangping, Longyan, Fujian province and is typically processed as a green oolong.
See also
Wuyi tea
References
Wuyi tea
Oolong tea
Chinese teas
Chinese tea grown in Fujian
Cultivars of tea grown in China | wiki |
Keep Going may refer to:
"Keep Going", a 2015 song by Rachael Yamagata
"Keep Going", a 2019 song by Syn Cole
"Keep Going", a 2008 song by T-Pain from Three Ringz
"Keep Going", a 2009 song by Taio Cruz from Rokstarr
Keep Going, a 2020 album by Larry June and Harry Fraud
Keep Going, a 2014 album by Pakho Chau
Keep Going, a 2003 album by Stephen Duffy & The Lilac Time
Keep Going, a 2019 mixtape by Mike Posner | wiki |
Eagle, in comics, may refer to:
Eagle (British comics), a British children's comic from the 1950s and 1960s, revived in the 1980s
Eagle Comics, a US publisher of comic books reprinting 2000 AD stories
Eagle (Wildstorm), a Wildstorm character from the series Red Menace
Eagle, another Wildstorm character from the series Wildsiderz
Eagle Award (comics), a British comic award also known simply as an Eagle
Eagle: The Making of an Asian-American President, a manga by Kaiji Kawaguchi
Richard Eagle, main character of the title Eagle, a black-and-white futuristic and mystical comic series, published by Crystal Comics then Apple Comics
It may also refer to:
American Eagle (comics), a number of characters
Angry Eagle, a Marvel Comics character and member of the X-People
Blue Eagle (comics), a superhero
Eagleman (comics), a DC Comics character
Eaglet, the sidekick of the Nedor Comics American Eagle
Golden Eagle (comics), a DC Comics character
Phantom Eagle, two characters from Fawcett and Marvel Comics
See also
Eagle (disambiguation)
References | wiki |
A pet peeve is a minor annoyance that can instill great frustration in an individual.
Pet Peeve may also refer to:
Pet Peeve (1954 film), a 1954 Tom and Jerry cartoon
Pet Peeve (novel), the twenty-ninth book of the Xanth series | wiki |
Digital art refers to any artistic work or practice that uses digital technology as part of the creative or presentation process. It can also refer to computational art that uses and engages with digital media.
Since the 1960s, various names have been used to describe digital art, including computer art, multimedia art and new media art.
History
John Whitney, a pioneer of computer graphics, developed the first computer-generated art in the early 1960s by utilizing mathematical operations to create art. In 1963, Ivan Sutherland invented the first user interactive computer-graphics interface known as Sketchpad.
Andy Warhol created digital art using an Amiga where the computer was publicly introduced at the Lincoln Center, New York, in July 1985. An image of Debbie Harry was captured in monochrome from a video camera and digitized into a graphics program called ProPaint. Warhol manipulated the image by adding color by using flood fills.
Art that uses digital tools
Digital art can be purely computer-generated (such as fractals and algorithmic art) or taken from other sources, such as a scanned photograph or an image drawn using vector graphics software using a mouse or graphics tablet. Artworks are considered digital paintings when created similarly to non-digital paintings but using software on a computer platform and digitally outputting the resulting image as painted on canvas.
Amidst varied opinions on the pros and cons of digital technology on the arts, there seems to be a strong consensus within the digital art community that it has created a "vast expansion of the creative sphere", i.e., that it has greatly broadened the creative opportunities available to professional and non-professional artists alike.
Computer-generated visual media
Digital visual art consists of either 2D visual information displayed on an electronic visual display or information mathematically translated into 3D information viewed through perspective projection on an electronic visual display. The simplest is 2D computer graphics which reflect how you might draw using a pencil and a piece of paper. In this case, however, the image is on the computer screen, and the instrument you draw with might be a tablet stylus or a mouse. What is generated on your screen might appear to be drawn with a pencil, pen, or paintbrush. The second kind is 3D computer graphics, where the screen becomes a window into a virtual environment, where you arrange objects to be "photographed" by the computer. Typically 2D computer graphics use raster graphics as their primary means of source data representations, whereas 3D computer graphics use vector graphics in the creation of immersive virtual reality installations. A possible third paradigm is to generate art in 2D or 3D entirely through the execution of algorithms coded into computer programs. This can be considered the native art form of the computer, and an introduction to the history of which is available in an interview with computer art pioneer Frieder Nake. Fractal art, Datamoshing, algorithmic art, and real-time generative art are examples.
Computer-generated 3D still imagery
3D graphics are created via the process of designing imagery from geometric shapes, polygons, or NURBS curves to create three-dimensional objects and scenes for use in various media such as film, television, print, rapid prototyping, games/simulations, and special visual effects.
There are many software programs for doing this. The technology can enable collaboration, lending itself to sharing and augmenting by a creative effort similar to the open source movement and the creative commons in which users can collaborate on a project to create art.
Pop surrealist artist Ray Caesar works in Maya (a 3D modeling software used for digital animation), using it to create his figures as well as the virtual realms in which they exist.
Computer-generated animated imagery
Computer-generated animations are animations created with a computer from digital models created by 3D artists or procedurally generated. The term is usually applied to works created entirely with a computer. Movies make heavy use of computer-generated graphics; they are called computer-generated imagery (CGI) in the film industry. In the 1990s and early 2000s, CGI advanced enough that, for the first time, it was possible to create realistic 3D computer animation, although films had been using extensive computer images since the mid-70s. A number of modern films have been noted for their heavy use of photo-realistic CGI.
Digital painting
Digital painting mainly refers to the process of creating paintings on computer software based on computers or graphic tables. Through pixel simulation, digital brushes in digital software (see the software in Digital painting) can imitate traditional painting paints and tools, such as oil, acrylic acid, pastel, charcoal, and airbrush. Users of the software can also customize the pixel size to achieve a unique visual effect (customized brushes).
Artificial intelligence art
Artists have used artificial intelligence to create artwork since at least the 1960s. Since their design in 2014, some artists have created artwork using a generative adversarial network (GAN), which is a machine learning framework that allows two "algorithms" to compete with each other and iterate. It is usually used to let the computer find the best solution by itself. It can be used to generate pictures that have visual effects similar to traditional fine art. The essential idea of image generators is that people can use text descriptions to let AI convert their text into visual picture content. Anyone can turn their language into a painting through a picture generator. And some artists can use image generators to generate their paintings instead of drawing from scratch, and then they use the generated paintings as a basis to improve them and finally create new digital paintings. This greatly reduces the threshold of painting and challenges the traditional definition of painting art.
Generation Process
Generally, the user can set the input, and the input content includes detailed picture content that the user wants. For example, the content can be a scene's content, characters, weather, character relationships, specific items, etc. It can also include selecting a specific artist style, screen style, image pixel size, brightness, etc. Then picture generators will return several similar pictures generated according to the input (generally, 4 pictures are given now). After receiving the results generated by picture generators, the user can select one picture as a result he wants or let the generator redraw and return to new pictures.
In addition, it is worth mentioning the whole process: it is also similar to the "generator" and "discriminator" modules in GANs.
Awards and recognition
In both 1991 and 1992, Karl Sims won the Golden Nica award at Prix Ars Electronica for his 3D AI animated videos using artificial evolution.
In 2009, Eric Millikin won the Pulitzer Prize along with several other awards for his artificial intelligence art that was critical of government corruption in Detroit and resulted in the city's mayor being sent to jail.
In 2018 Christie's auction house in New York sold an artificial intelligence work, "Edmond de Bellamy" for US$432,500. It was created by a collective in Paris named "Obvious".
In 2019, Stephanie Dinkins won the Creative Capital award for her creation of an evolving artificial intelligence based on the "interests and culture(s) of people of color."
Also in 2019, Sougwen Chung won the Lumen Prize for her performances with a robotic arm that uses AI to attempt to draw in a manner similar to Chung.
In 2022, an amateur artist using Midjourney won the first-place $300 prize in a digital art competition at the Colorado State Fair.
Also in 2022, Refik Anadol created an artificial intelligence art installation at the Museum of Modern Art in New York, based on the museum's own collection.
Art made for digital media
In contemporary art, the term digital art is used primarily to describe visual art that is made with digital tools, and also is highly computational, and explicitly engages with digital technologies. Art historian Christiane Paul writes that it "is highly problematic to classify all art that makes use of digital technologies somewhere in its production and dissemination process as digital art since it makes it almost impossible to arrive at any unifying statement about the art form.
Digital installation art
Digital installation art constitutes a broad field of activity and incorporates many forms. Some resemble video installations, particularly large-scale works involving projections and live video capture. By using projection techniques that enhance an audience's impression of sensory envelopment, many digital installations attempt to create immersive environments. Others go even further and attempt to facilitate a complete immersion in virtual realms. This type of installation is generally site-specific, scalable, and without fixed dimensionality, meaning it can be reconfigured to accommodate different presentation spaces.
Noah Wardrip-Fruin's "Screen" (2003) is an example of interactive digital installation art which makes use of a Cave Automatic Virtual Environment to create an interactive experience. Scott Snibbe's "Boundary Functions" is an example of augmented reality digital installation art, which response to people who enter the installation by drawing lines between people, indicating their personal space.
Internet art and net.art
Internet art is digital art that uses the specific characteristics of the internet and is exhibited on the internet.
Digital art and blockchain
Blockchain, and more specifically NFTs, are associated with digital art since the NFTs craze of 2020 and 2021. Digital art is a common use case for NFTs. By minting a piece of digital art the owner of the NFT is proven to be the owner of the art piece. While the technology received many critics and has many flaws related to plagiarism and fraud (due to its almost completely unregulated nature), auction houses like Sotheby's, Christie's and various museums and galleries in the world started collaborations and partnerships with digital artists, selling NFTs associated with digital artworks (via NFT platforms) and showcasing those artworks (associated to the respective NFTs) both in virtual galleries and real life screens, monitors and TVs.
Art theorists and historians
Notable art theorists and historians in this field include Oliver Grau, Jon Ippolito, Christiane Paul, Frank Popper, Jasia Reichardt, Mario Costa, Christine Buci-Glucksmann, Dominique Moulon, Robert C. Morgan, Roy Ascott, Catherine Perret, Margot Lovejoy, Edmond Couchot, Fred Forest and Edward A. Shanken.
Scholarship and archives
In addition to the creation of original art, research methods that utilize AI have been generated to quantitatively analyze digital art collections. This has been made possible due to large-scale digitization of artwork in the past few decades. Although the main goal of digitization was to allow for accessibility and exploration of these collections, the use of AI in analyzing them has brought about new research perspectives.
Two computational methods, close reading and distant viewing, are the typical approaches used to analyze digitized art. Close reading focuses on specific visual aspects of one piece. Some tasks performed by machines in close reading methods include computational artist authentication and analysis of brushstrokes or texture properties. In contrast, through distant viewing methods, the similarity across an entire collection for a specific feature can be statistically visualized. Common tasks relating to this method include automatic classification, object detection, multimodal tasks, knowledge discovery in art history, and computational aesthetics. Whereas distant viewing includes the analysis of large collections, close reading involves one piece of artwork.
Whilst 2D and 3D digital art is beneficial as it allows the preservation of history that would otherwise have been destroyed by events like natural disasters and war, there is the issue of who should own these 3D scans i.e., who should own the digital copyrights.
Subtypes
Art game
ASCII art
Chip art
Computer art scene
Computer music
Crypto art
Cyberarts
Digital illustration
Digital imaging
Digital literature
Digital painting
Digital photography
Digital poetry
Digital sculpture
Digital architecture
Electronic music
Evolutionary art
Fractal art
Generative art
Generative music
GIF art
Immersion (virtual reality)
Interactive art
Internet art
Motion graphics
Music visualization
Photo manipulation
Pixel art
Render art
Software art
Systems art
Textures
Related organizations and conferences
Artfutura
Artmedia
Austin Museum of Digital Art
Computer Arts Society
EVA Conferences
Los Angeles Center for Digital Art
Lumen Prize
onedotzero
Rhizome
V&A Digital Futures
See also
Algorithmic art
Computer art
Computer graphics
Electronic art
Generative art
Graphic arts
New media art
Theatre of Digital Art
Virtual art
References
External links
Dreher, Thomas. "History of Computer Art"
Zorich, Diane M. "Transitioning to a Digital World" | wiki |
War Drum Studios LLC, doing business as Grove Street Games since 2020, is an American video game developer based in Gainesville, Florida. The company was founded as War Drum Studios in October 2007 by Thomas Williamson and Michael Owen. It is known for developing mobile game ports, including several based on Rockstar Games properties.
History
Grove Street Games was founded as War Drum Studios by Thomas Williamson and Michael Owen. Williamson had been the technology director for Artificial Studios and Owen a programmer at Gainesville Regional Utilities. After Williamson left Artificial Studios in 2007, he and Owen established War Drum Studios in Gainesville, Florida, on October 1, 2007. They became the chief executive officer and chief technology officer, respectively. The company immediately began doing contract work, starting with porting Ghostbusters: The Video Game from the Wii to the PlayStation 2. By August 2011, War Drum Studios had five employees. Around that time, the company was developing an original game, Chess: Revolution, alongside a free derivative codenamed Little Green Robots that starred the mascot of the Android operating system as chess pieces.
In 2019, War Drum Studios named Morgan Hughes as chief operating officer. Hughes had joined the company as an intern in 2008 and had been the art director since 2010. In August 2020, War Drum Studios rebranded as Grove Street Games, adopting the name of Gainesville's Grove Street neighborhood in which the company was based. Later that year, the company became a member of the Coalition for App Fairness.
Games developed
References
External links
2007 establishments in Florida
Companies based in Gainesville, Florida
Video game companies established in 2007
Video game companies of the United States
Video game development companies | wiki |
Development or developing may refer to:
Arts
Development hell, when a project is stuck in development
Filmmaking, development phase, including finance and budgeting
Development (music), the process thematic material is reshaped
Photographic development
Development (album), a 2002 album by Nonpoint
Business
Business development, a process of growing a business
Career development
Corporate development, a position in a business
Energy development, activities concentrated on obtaining energy from natural resources
Green development, a real estate concept that considers social and environmental impact of development
Land development, altering the landscape in any number of ways
Land development bank, a kind of bank in India
Leadership development
New product development
Organization development
Professional development
Real estate development
Research and development
Training and development
Fundraising, also called "development"
Biology and medicine
Adult development, between adolescence and the end of life
Child development, between birth and the end of adolescence
Development (journal), an academic journal in developmental biology
Developmental biology, the study of the process by which organisms grow and develop
Developmental psychology, the scientific study of how and why human beings change over the course of their life
Drug development, the entire process of bringing a new drug or device to the market
Embryogenesis, or development, the process by which the embryo is formed
Human development (biology), the process of growing to maturity
Neural development, the processes that generate, shape, and reshape the nervous system
Personal development, or self-help
Prenatal development, the process in which a human embryo or fetus gestates during pregnancy
Tooth development or odontogenesis
Youth development
Computing
Artificial development, an area of computer science and engineering
Software development, the development of a software product
Web development, work involved in developing a web site
Mobile app development, act or process by which a mobile app is developed
Video game development
Social science
Community development, practices to improve various aspects of communities
Development communication
Developing country, a nation with a lesser developed industrial base
Development aid, financial aid given by governments and other agencies
Development geography, a branch of geography which refers to the standard of living and quality of life of inhabitants
Development studies, examines socioeconomic growth and development, especially in developing countries, and may overlap with postcolonial studies
Development theory
Economic development, the process by which a nation improves the economic, political, and social well-being of its people
European Development Fund, the main instrument for European Union (EU) aid for development
Human Development Index, used to rank countries by level of human development
Human development (humanity), the science that seeks to understand how and why people of all ages and circumstances change or remain the same over time
International development, usually level of economic development
Regional development, aid and assistance to regions which are less economically developed
Rural development, the process of improving the quality of life and economic well-being of people living in rural areas
Sociocultural evolution, how cultures and societies have changed over time
Sustainable development
Other uses
Development (differential geometry), rolling one smooth surface over another
Development (topology), a countable collection of open coverings
Development, a term used in chess
Development of doctrine, a term used by John Henry Newman to describe Catholic teachings
Driver development program, a program used by racing teams to develop younger drivers
See also
Develop (disambiguation)
Elaboration | wiki |
Islamic Supreme Council of America (ISCA) ist eine muslimische Organisation in den USA.
ISCA vertritt traditionelle gemäßigte islamische Regeln, und lehnt extremistische Formen des Islam, wie den Wahhabismus und andere islamistische Richtungen ab.
Scheich Hisham Kabbani, Mitbegründer und Vorsitzender des ISCA verdächtigt andere Organisationen wie den Council on American-Islamic Relations (CAIR) und den American Muslim Council des Extremismus.
Weblinks
Islamic Supreme Council of America official website
American Muslim organizations incite modern day lynch mob
Exposing Islamic extremism in America
Muslimische Organisation (Vereinigte Staaten) | wiki |
Mobile may refer to:
Places
Mobile, Alabama, a U.S. port city
Mobile County, Alabama
Mobile, Arizona, a small town near Phoenix, U.S.
Mobile, Newfoundland and Labrador
Arts, entertainment, and media
Music
Groups and labels
Mobile (band), a Canadian rock band
Mobiles (band), a 1980s British band
Other uses in music
Mobile (album), a 1999 album by Brazilian Paulinho Moska
"Mobile" (song), a 2003 song by Avril Lavigne from Let Go
"Mobile", a song by Gentle Giant from the album Free Hand
Other uses in arts, entertainment, and media
Mobile (sculpture), a kinetic sculpture constructed to take advantage of the principle of equilibrium
Mobile (TV series), a British ITV drama
"Mobile", a short story by J. G. Ballard, later renamed "Venus Smiles"
Mobile, a feature of the game GunBound
Mobile Magazine, a publication on portable electronics
Military and law enforcement
Garde Mobile, historic French military unit
Mobile Brigade Corps (Brimob), the special police force of Indonesia
Mobile forces, especially:
Motorized infantry
Mounted infantry
Operation Mobile, Canadian Forces operations in the 2011 military intervention in Libya
Science
Motility
Motion (physics), the ability to move or be moved
Technology
Mobile computing, a generic term describing one's ability to use technology in mobile environments
Mobile device, such as a smartphone, tablet, or computer designed for mobile computing
Mobile game, a video game played on a mobile phone, smartphone, PDA or handheld computer
Mobile network operator, a company which provides mobile phone network access and services
Mobile operating system, the various underlying systems to power and run phones
Mobile phone, a portable telephone that can make and receive calls
Mobile radio, wireless communications systems and devices which are based on radio frequencies
Mobile rig
Mobile station, user equipment and software needed for communication with a wireless telephone network
Mobile Web, the World Wide Web as accessed from mobile devices using Mobile Web Browser
Mobile TV, TV services viewed via a mobile device
See also
Mabila, a Native American people of Alabama
Mauvilla (disambiguation)
Mavilla (disambiguation)
Mobil, a major oil company
Mobile station (disambiguation)
Mobility (disambiguation) | wiki |
Do It All Night may refer to:
"Do It All Night" (Prince song), a 1981 song by Prince
Do It All Night (album), a 1978 album by Curtis Mayfield, or the title song | wiki |
Yellow & Green might refer to:
Yellow & Green (Ron Carter album), 1976
Yellow & Green (Baroness album), 2012
Yellow-and-green lorikeet (citrine lorikeet or Trichoglossus flavoviridis), a parrot of Indonesia
See also
Yellow
Green | wiki |
Citizen Law Enforcement Analysis and Reporting, also known as CLEAR, is a system of relational databases used by the Chicago Police Department (CPD) in Chicago, Illinois. These databases allow law enforcement officials to easily cross-reference available information in investigations and to analyze crime patterns using a geographic information system (GIS). CLEAR includes a network of remotely operated cameras that exhibit a small amount of artificial intelligence, in that they can sense gunshots, loiterers, and suspicious activity, and alert the CPD.
Uses
The unified CLEAR system is used for a wide variety of tasks:
Checking driver's licenses
Checking names or addresses
Checking for outstanding arrest warrants
Communication between police officers
Entering evidence into an electronic tracking database
Retrieving information for a mission
Checking investigative reports
Origins
In the 1990s, the Chicago Police Department developed the Criminal History Records Information System (CHRIS). This system was immediately unpopular with officers – so much so that a detective's newsletter warned that the IT employees who had developed the system had better "watch out" on the streets. The Police Department soon teamed with Oracle Corporation to create CLEAR, a set of web-based applications to increase the functionality and usability of the CHRIS system. CHRIS remains as a backbone, but CLEAR serves as the user interface.
Criticisms
A number of groups have expressed concerns about CLEAR, particularly regarding privacy and discrimination. Critics have charged that the system uses racial profiling, and that constant electronic monitoring evokes images of a Big Brother–like world.
Some individuals have raised concerns about the cameras used in the CLEAR system. Designed to be visible so as to deter criminal activities, the cameras sit in large checkered boxes with flashing blue lights. Neighbors have complained that these boxes flash light into their bedrooms at night, scare away customers from local businesses, and stigmatize the local community.
References
External links
CLEAR Program Evaluation
IMEDGE System used for digitizing paper records and more here
GIS Description (WORD)
Government of Chicago | wiki |
Jaime Balmes (1810–1848) was a Spanish Catholic priest known for his political and philosophical writing.
Balmes may also refer to:
"Balmes (A Better Life)", a 2001 song by German DJ Ian Pooley
Abraham de Balmes (died 1523), Italian Jewish physician and translator
José Balmes (1927–2016), Spanish-Chilean painter
SS Balmes, a Spanish steamship that caught fire in 1913
See also
Balme, Italy | wiki |
This list of software for protein model error verification is a compilation of bioinformatics software frequently employed to check experimental and theoretical models of protein structures for errors.
Lists of software
Structural bioinformatics software | wiki |
"Everyday of My Life" is a song by Australian band Little River Band, released in April 1976 as the first and only single from the group's second studio album, After Hours. The song peaked at number 29 on the Australian Kent Music Report singles chart.
Track listings
7" (EMI 11116)
Side A. "Everyday of My Life" - 3:40
Side B. "Days On the Road" - 3:45
Charts
References
1976 singles
Little River Band songs
1976 songs
EMI Records singles | wiki |
Democracy at work may refer to:
Concepts
Democracy
Workplace democracy
Co-determination
Organizations
Democracy at Work, a nonprofit founded by Richard D. Wolff
Books
Democracy at work: A cure for capitalism, a 2012 book by Richard D. Wolff
Democracy at work: Citizens and their governments, a 2007 book by Fredrik Liljeblad
Democracy at work, a book by Stephen Abel
Democracy at work, a 1985 book by Tom Schuller
Democracy at work: The report of the Norwegian industrial democracy program a 1976 book by Fred E. Emery
Democracy at work: A citizen's guide, a 2016 book by Wil Mara
Democracy at work: Changing world markets and the future of labor unions, a 1991 book by Lowell Turner
Democracy at work: Contract, status and post-industrial justice, a 2022 book by Ruth Dukes & Wolfgang Streeck
Democracy at work: A book for active trade unionists, a 1977 book by BBC
Democracy at work: A comparative sociology of environmental regulation in the United Kingdom, France, Germany, and the United States, a 2000 book by Richard Münch | wiki |
Ski patrol is an organization that provides Emergency Medical and rescue services to participants of on-snow sports such as cross-country skiing, skiing, snowboarding, etc., either at a ski area or in a backcountry setting.
Ski Patrol may also refer to:
Ski Patrol (1940 film), a 1940 American war film
Ski Patrol (1990 film), a 1990 American film
"Ski Patrol", an instructional video for new members of the ski patrol by Happy Tree Friends
Ski Patrol (band)
See also
Military patrol, a winter sport from which olympic biathlon was developed | wiki |
The world's busiest airports by passenger traffic are measured by total passengers (data from Airports Council International), defined as passengers enplaned plus passengers deplaned plus direct-transit passengers. Hartsfield–Jackson Atlanta International Airport has been the world's busiest airport every year since 2000; with all airports combined London has the world's busiest city airport system by passenger count. As of 2016, seven countries have at least two airports in the top 50; the United States of America has 16, China has 8 (including Hong Kong), and the United Kingdom, Japan, Germany, India and Spain have two airports each.
2009 statistics
Airports Council International's final full year figures are as follows:
2008 statistics
Airports Council International's final full year figures are as follows:
2007 statistics
Airports Council International's final full year figures are as follows:
2006 statistics
Airports Council International's final full year figures are as follows:
Notes
Includes figures for Bangkok International Airport from 1 January 2006 to 27 September 2006.
2005 statistics
Airports Council International's final full year figures are as follows:
2004 statistics
Airports Council International's final full year figures are as follows:
2003 statistics
Airports Council International's final full year figures are as follows:
2002 statistics
Airports Council International's final full year figures are as follows:
2001 statistics
Airports Council International's final full year figures are as follows:
2000 statistics
Airports Council International's final full year figures are as follows:
See also
List of busiest airports by international passenger traffic
List of busiest airports by cargo traffic
List of busiest airports by aircraft movements
List of the busiest airports in the United States
List of the busiest airports in Europe
References
External links
Airports Council International Statistics and Data Centre
Busiest airports by passenger traffic
Passenger traffic 2000-2009 | wiki |
Divine Lust is a Broadway musical created by and featuring Damian Perkins and Glenda Benevides.
External links
Divine Lust - a musical created by Damian Perkins and Glenda Benevides
Broadway musicals | wiki |
A list of orders, deliveries, and current and previous operators of the Airbus A300 .
Data of planes that are still in operation through February 2023.
References
Operators
Airbus A300 | wiki |
Olyra may refer to:
Olyra (fish), a genus of catfishes
Olyra (plant), a genus of Bambusoideae
Olyra (moth), a genus of moths that was replaced by Euwallengrenia | wiki |
Irish stepdance is a style of performance dance with its roots in traditional Irish dance. It is generally characterized by a stiff upper body and fast and precise movements of the feet. It can be performed solo or in groups. Aside from public dance performances, there are also stepdance competitions all over the world. These competitions are often called Feiseanna (singular Feis). In Irish dance culture, a Feis is a traditional Gaelic arts and culture festival. Costumes are considered important for stage presence in competition and performance Irish stepdance. In many cases, costumes are sold at high prices and can even be custom made. Males and females can both perform Irish stepdance but for the most part in today's society, the dance remains predominantly female. This means that the costumes are mainly dresses. Each dress is different, with varying colors and patterns, designed to attract the judge's eye in competitions and the audience's eye in performance. General appearance beside the costume is also equally important. Dancers would typically curl their hair before each competition. Many dancers invest in curled wigs that match their hair color. Poodle Socks are worn with the dresses and shoes. These are white socks that stretch to mid-calf with distinctive ribbing.
Riverdance, an Irish step-dancing performance in the 1994 Eurovision Song Contest that later became a hugely successful theatrical production, greatly contributed to its popularity. Once Riverdance became a large production, it changed the way that Irish dance was performed and viewed. Now that entrepreneurs could capitalize on Irish culture, they were able to tweak it to the audience's liking. This meant adding a theatrical flair to the performance, including arm movements (as opposed to the previously rigid top half that dancers maintained) as well as sexualizing the dance and the costumes. To many, this was a betrayal of tradition, but to some, it was a way of expanding Irish culture and became widely accepted. Following after Riverdance was Lord of the Dance and many other theatrical productions based on Irish stepdance. Michael Flatley, an Irish stepdancer, became a well-known name within these shows.
Two types of shoes are worn in Irish stepdance; hard shoes, which make sounds similar to tap shoes, and soft shoes (called Ghillies), which are similar to ballet slippers. The dances for soft shoe and hard shoe are generally different and go by different names. Different music with varying beats are played based on the dance, though they all share basic moves and rhythms. Most competitive stepdances are solo dances, though many step dancers also perform and compete in the traditional set and céilí dances. Competition is organized by several organizations, and there are competitions from the local level to world championships.
History
Early history (prehistory–1927)
The dancing traditions of Ireland are likely to have grown in tandem with Irish traditional music. Its first roots may have been in Pre-Christian Ireland, but Irish dance was also partially influenced by dance forms on the Continent, especially the quadrille dances. Some of the earliest recorded references to Irish dance are to the Rinnce Fada or "long dance", towards the end of the 17th century, which was performed largely on social occasions. Traveling dancing masters taught all over Ireland beginning around the 1750s and continuing as late as the early 1900s.
By the late 19th century, at least three related styles of step dance had developed in Ireland. The style practised in Munster saw dancers on the balls of their feet, using intricate percussive techniques to create complex rhythm. On the other hand, a tradition developed in Ulster saw dancers instead using their heel to create a persistent drumming effect, and primarily performing in pairs. The Connemara style, later described as sean-nós dance, combined heel and ball movements with the swaying of the torso and vigorous movement of the arms.
The foundation of the Gaelic League in 1893, an Irish nationalist body formed with the purpose of preserving traditional Irish language and culture, radically altered the cultural status of step dance. Frank Hall has described this as the moment in which "step-Dancing in Ireland became 'Irish dancing'", and as therefore the most significant single event in the development of the dance form. Although informal competitions had long been held between towns and students of different dance masters, the first organised feis was held in 1897 by the League. The League began to codify and promote the form of step dance which was practiced in southern areas. This codification, practised from the early 1920s, greatly narrowed the range of traditional Irish dances acceptable in popular culture.
Codification and organisation (1927–1994)
In 1927, the Gaelic League set up An Coimisiún Le Rincí Gaelacha (CLRG, the Irish Dancing Commission), a separate body dedicated to the organisation and standardisation of Irish dance. CLRG created certifications for dance teachers and began to hold examinations for adjudicators of feisanna.
In the 19th century, the Irish diaspora had spread Irish dance all over the world, especially to North America and Australia. However, schools and feiseanna were not established until the early 1900s: in America these tended to be created within Irish-American urban communities, notably in Chicago. The first classes in stepdancing were held there by the Philadelphia-born John McNamara.
According to the BBC's A Short History of Irish Dance, "The nature of the Irish dance tradition has changed and adapted over the centuries to accommodate and reflect changing populations and the fusion of new cultures. The history of Irish dancing is as a result a fascinating one. The popular Irish dance stage shows of the past ten years have reinvigorated this cultural art, and today Irish dancing is healthy, vibrant, and enjoyed by people across the globe."
Sometime in that decade or the one following, a dance teacher had his students compete with arms held firmly down to their sides, hands in fists, to call more attention to the intricacy of the steps. The adjudicator approved by placing the students well. Other teachers and dancers quickly followed the new trend. Movement of the arms is sometimes incorporated into modern Irish stepdance, although this is generally seen as a hybrid and non-traditional addition and is only done in shows and performances, not competitions.
The first television broadcast of Irish stepdance, on CBS in 1945, contributed to the increased popularity of a stepdance style originating in Ulster. This style, which incorporated balletic movements and high elevation on the toes, gradually usurped the Munster style with fast, low footwork which had prevailed up to that point.
Post-Riverdance era (1994–present)
The success of Riverdance and other dance shows in the late 20th century influenced the choreography and presentation of stepdance in both competitive and public performance environments. This included the use of simpler costumes and hairstyles for public performance in imitation of the Riverdance styles, and the development of new dance styles, such as hard shoe dances performed to music typically associated with soft shoes. In competitive dance, movements from flamenco and figure skating began to be incorporated into traditional steps, although such developments were criticised by elements of the competitive dancing community.
Dances
Technique
The techniques involved in Irish stepdance are essentially similar across each of the individual dance styles. The basic style of modern step dance used in competitive contexts evolved from the stylistic features of traditional step dance in Munster. This style is largely performed on the balls of the feet with toes pointed outwards. Competitive dancers are judged on posture, timing, rhythm and execution, which in practice means a rigid torso, rapid and intricate footwork, and legs and feet crossed over each other, with knees close together.
Irish stepdances can be placed into two categories. Solo stepdances, which are danced by a single dancer, and group stepdances, which are coordinated with 2 or more dancers.
Solo dance
Reel, slip jig, hornpipe, and jig are all types of Irish stepdances and are also types of Irish traditional music. These fall into two broad categories based on the shoes worn: 'hard shoe' and 'soft shoe' dances. Reels, which are in or time, and slip jigs, which are in time and considered to be the lightest and most graceful of the dances, are soft shoe dances. Hornpipes, which can be in or time, are danced in hard shoes. Three jigs are danced in competition; the light jig, the single jig, which is also called the Hop jig, and the treble jig, which is also called double jig. Light and single jigs are in time, and are soft shoes dances, while the treble jig is hard shoe, danced in a slow . The last type of jig is the slip jig, which is danced in time. There are many dances, which steps vary between schools. The traditional set dances (danced in hardshoe) like St. Patrick's Day and the Blackbird, among others, are the only dances that all schools have the same steps.
The actual steps in Irish stepdance are usually unique to each school or dance teacher. Steps are developed by Irish dance teachers for students of their school. Each dance is built out of the same basic elements, or steps, but the dance itself is unique, and new dances are being choreographed continuously. For this reason, videotaping of competitions is forbidden under the rules of An Coimisiun.
Each step is a sequence of foot movements, leg movements and leaps, which lasts for 8 bars of music. It is traditional for each step to be performed first on the right foot and then on the left foot. This practice leads to a large proportion of dancers exhibiting a preference for their right leg over their left in dance movements. Hard shoe dancing includes clicking (striking the heels of the shoes against each other), trebles (the toe of the shoe striking the floor), stamps (the entire foot striking the floor), and an increasing number of complicated combinations of taps from the toes and heels.
There are two types of hard shoe dance, the solo dances, which are the hornpipe and treble jig, and the traditional set dances, also called set dances, which are also solo dances, despite having the same name as the social dances. Traditional set dances use the same choreography regardless of the school whereas contemporary sets are choreographed by the teachers. The music and steps for each traditional set was set down by past dance masters and passed down under An Coimisiún auspices as part of the rich history of stepdancing, hence the "traditional."
There are about 30 traditional sets used in modern stepdance, but the traditional sets performed in most levels of competition are St. Patrick's Day, the Blackbird, Job of Journeywork, Garden of Daisies, King of the Fairies, and Jockey to the Fair. The remaining traditional set dances are primarily danced at championship levels. These tunes vary in tempo to allow for more difficult steps for higher level dancers. An unusual feature of the set dance tune is that many are "crooked", with some of the parts, or sections, of the tunes departing from the common 8 bar formula. The crooked tune may have a part consisting of 7½ bars, fourteen bars, etc. For example, the "St. Patrick's Day" traditional set music consists of an eight-bar "step," followed by a fourteen-bar "set."
Group dance
The group dances are called céilí dances or, in the less formal but common case, figure dances. Competitive céilís are more precise versions of the festive group dances traditionally experienced in social gatherings.
There is a list of 30 céilí dances that have been standardised and published in An Coimisiun's Ar Rince Ceili (which replaced Ár Rinncidhe Foirne in 2015) as examples of traditional Irish folk dances. Standardized dances for 4, 6 or 8 dancers are also often found in competition. Most traditional céilí dances in competition are significantly shortened in the interests of time. Many stepdancers never learn the entire dance, as they will never dance the later parts of the dance in competition.
Other céilí dances are not standardised. In local competition, figure dances may consist of two or three dancers. These are not traditional book dances and are choreographed as a blend of both traditional céilí dancing and solo dancing. Standardized book dances for 16 dancers are also rarely offered. Figure Choreography competitions held at major oireachtasi (championships) involve more than 8 dancers and are a chance for dance schools to show off novel and intricate group choreography. An Coimisiún has also introduced a "dance drama" category, which combines physical theatre with Irish dance. A 200-word story is read and followed by a six-minute dance performance including costumes, mime and facial expression.
Some dance schools recognised by An Coimisiún Le Rincí Gaelacha place as much emphasis on céilí dancing as on solo dancing, meticulously rehearsing the dances as written in the book and striving for perfect interpretation. In competition, figure dancers are expected to dance their routine in perfect unison, forming seamless yet intricate figures based on their positions relative to each other.
Costume
The development of Irish stepdance costumes occurred throughout the 20th century alongside the dance style itself. Costumes were thus heavily influenced by the rules and competitive structures put in place by An Coimisiún and other organisations. In more recent years, costumes changed dramatically and departed significantly from traditional designs.
Competitive costumes
Judges at competitions critique the dancers primarily on their performance, but they also take into account presentation. In every level of competition the dancers must wear either hard shoes or soft shoes. Boys and girls wear very distinctive costumes. Girls must wear white poodle socks or black tights.
Competition dresses have changed in many ways since Irish Dance first appeared. Several generations ago the appropriate dress was simply your "Sunday Best". In the 1980s ornately embroidered velvet became popular. Other materials include gaberdine and wool. Today many different fabrics are used, including lace, sequins, silk, embroidered organzas and more. Some dresses, mainly solo dresses, have flat backed crystals added for stage appeal. Swarovski is being used more frequently. Velvet is also becoming popular again, but in multiple colours with very different, modern embroidery. The commission dresses have stiff skirts which can be stiffened with Vilene and are intricately embroidered.
Costumes can be simple for the beginning female dancer; they often wear a simple dance skirt and plain blouse or their dancing school's costume. The certain colours and emblem that are used on the dresses represents the dance school to differentiate it from other dance schools. These are similar to a solo dress, but are simple with only a few colours, while are still more pounds, depending on the fabric, and may require some getting used to. School costumes are not decorated with crystals.
At advanced levels where dancers can qualify for Major competitions, solo costumes help each dancer show their sense of style, and enable them to stand out among a crowd. The dancers can have a new solo dress specially tailored for them with their choice of colours, fabrics, and designs. Popular designers include Gavin Doherty, Conor O’Sullivan, and Elevation. Some dancers will even design the dress themselves. The dancer can also buy second hand from another dancer. Since the dresses are handmade with pricey materials, unique designs, and are measured to each dancer's body type, the dresses can cost between $600 and $4,000.
Along with having the handcrafted dresses, championship commission dancers have wigs and crowns or decorative headbands. In commission schools female dancers have the choice to wear either a wig or curl their hair, but usually in championship levels, girls choose to wear a wig, as wigs are more convenient and popular. Dancers get synthetic ringlet wigs that match their hair color or go with an extremely different shade (a blonde dancer wearing a black wig or vice versa). The wigs can range from $20.00 to $150. Usually the crowns match the colours and materials of the dresses, but some dancers choose to wear tiaras, or tiaras with a fabric crown. The championship competitions are usually danced on stages with a lot of lighting. To prevent looking washed out, dancers often wear stage makeup and tan their legs. A rule was put in place in January 2005 for Under 10 dancers forbidding them to wear fake tan, and in October 2005 it was decided that Under 12 dancers who were in the Beginner and Primary levels would not be allowed to wear fake tan or make up.
The boys used to wear jackets and kilts, but now more commonly perform in black trousers with a colorful vest and tie and, more frequently, a vest with embroidery and crystals.
Festival costumes
The festival style differs, styling more towards a simple unified design, not using much detail or diamonds. Irish dance festivals (also called "shows") have dancers wear their hair either in a wig or down, depending on the age and level of the dancer.
Shoes
Three types of shoes are worn in competitive step dancing: hard shoes and two kinds of soft shoe.
Hard shoes
Hard shoes, also known as the heavy shoes or jig shoes, are leather shoes in the style of an Oxford shoe but with a toe piece similar to the cleat on a tap shoe as well an extended heel, both of which enable the production of rhythmic sounds.
Early 20th century dancers used a variety of shoes, including both those made of cowhide, which minimised sound production, and hobnail boots, which produced loud percussive sounds. At this time, it was common for women to perform jigs and hornpipes in ordinary lightweight shoes, because their dances did not involve rhythmic percussion, but from the 1930s onward both men and women began to wear heavy leather shoes. Although in Ireland, hard shoes were used only for heavy jigs and hornpipes, in Australia until the 1950s it was common practice to perform all dances in such heavy shoes.
After An Coimisiún Le Rince Gaelacha banned the use of metal heel or toe pieces in the 1940s, ordinary shoes were modified with nails, coins or gravel in order to improve the clarity of sound and to emphasise the rhythms of the heavy dances. At this time, it was also common for heel and toe pieces to be improvised with several layers of leather stitched together in a tapered shape.
From the 1980s, toe pieces and heels were developed made from fibreglass or plastics, in response to lighter shoe leather with inferior sound production qualities, and with the aim of minimising damage caused to floors by nails. The lightweight nature of such materials allowed dancers to achieve more elevation in their steps, and furthermore enabled entirely new movements to be incorporated into dances, such as pointe work in the balletic style on the very tip of the toe piece. A further innovation, the "bubble heel", which added an inwards protrusion to the hollow plastic heel, created a far louder sound when clicking the heels together than was possible in traditional leather-heeled shoes. An Coimisiún later outlawed bubble heels in competition, but plastic heels continued to enable "click" movements. Dancing en pointe was popularised further by the introduction of shoes with modified, more flexible soles. The sound production qualities of shoes were further augmented by the radio microphones built into the toe for shows such as Riverdance.
At the end of the 20th century, a further development occurred in shoe design: the "flexi" sole, which removed the rigid "spine" from the base of the shoe, in an attempt to enable greater flexibility in the feet. However, concerns were raised by dance regulators that the lack of support would have an adverse impact on dancers' feet.
It is common for an intricate but entirely cosmetic buckle to be added to hard shoes for competition, in the shape of a shamrock or other appropriate form.
Commercially available hard shoes are priced at between and $150.
Soft shoes
Until the early 20th century, reels and slip jigs were performed in ordinary walking shoes, as with heavy jigs and hornpipes. Beginning at the dancing competition of the 1924 Tailteann Games in Dublin, a style of ballet pump held on by a looped piece of elastic was introduced for these dances. The increased popularity of these shoes over the following decades contributed to a more balletic style in the slip jig which eventually led to this dance being performed exclusively by women.
In the latter half of the 20th century, the pumps changed to a low cut type with crossed laces similar to the Scottish ghillie. This modern type of shoe, however, differs from the traditional Scottish footwear with a shorter toe box and round laces. A number of variations on this type are available, including variants with softer leather and split soles. This change was motivated by a desire to highlight the position of feet to adjudicators, as the usual black colour of the pumps contrasted with the exposed white of the poodle socks. The flexible nature of these shoes enables rapid and graceful movement as well as elevation in the dancer's performance.
These soft shoes cost around $40 when purchased new.
Until the 1970s, it was common for men to wear the pumps as well, particularly when competing in the slip jig, but at this time, An Coimisiún introduced legislation restricting their use to boys under the age of 11. Consequently, a new style of shoe was adopted for men similar to the contemporary hard shoe, with the toe piece and ankle strap removed but the fibreglass heel retained. This second type of soft shoe, often known as the "reel shoe", is worn exclusively by male dancers, although younger male dancers are occasionally encouraged to begin in jazz shoes which are similar apart from the heel.
Competitive step dance
Organisations
From the late 1800s, when the Gaelic League began to organise cultural festivals to promote the cause of Irish nationalism, Irish step dance developed a competitive element. Throughout the 20th century, structures for competition developed and spread across the world.
Several organisations, many of which at various stages separated from the Gaelic League's An Coimisiún Le Rincí Gaelacha, independently organise Irish dancing competitions, both in Ireland and elsewhere. In addition to An Coimisiún, Irish step dance is regulated by An Comhdháil na Múinteoirí le Rincí Gaelacha, Cumann Rince Náisiúnta, the World Irish Dance Association, the Festival Irish Dance Teachers Association, and others.
A number of smaller organisations are described as "open platform", meaning that dancers and teachers may affiliate with and compete under other open platform organisations. Open platform organisations also adhere to broad mission statements rather than strict hierarchy, in an attempt to appeal to dance teachers wishing to remain independent. An Coimisiún and An Comhdháil are primarily closed to competitors from other organisations, but operate open platform competitions in areas with fewer members.
Accreditation
Irish step dance organisations generally require their teachers and adjudicators to be qualified by the governing body. Most follow the structure set by An Coimisiún, the most important qualifications of which are the TCRG (qualification to teach) and the ADCRG (qualification to adjudicate). These qualifications are awarded by examinations which test practical and theoretical knowledge of traditional and original steps for both step dance and ceili dancing. An Comhdháil and some other organisations recognise the qualifications awarded by An Coimisiún, but An Coimisiún only recognises teachers and adjudicators qualified under their own examinations.
Events
A feis (, plural feiseanna) is a competitive step dance event. The word "feis" means "festival" in Irish, and traditionally consists of dancing competitions as well as competition in music and traditional crafts. Many modern feiseanna, however, are solely Irish dancing events. At a feis, several grades of competition are typically offered, in accordance with regional practice and the rules of the governing organisation. These grades may be based on a dancer's level of experience or their previous results in feiseanna. A feis competition is generally judged by between one and three adjudicators, depending on the size of the event and local organisation rules. Dancers compete in sections of one solo dance at a time, and feiseanna may also include competitions for ceili dances.
An oireachtas (plural oireachtais or oireachtasi) or championship competition is a larger and usually annual Irish dancing competition. The first oireachtas, established by the Gaelic League, was inspired by the Welsh eisteddfod and was conceived as an Irish national festival. An oireachtas is often the highest-level competition for a region or country, such as Oireachtas Rince Na hEirann (The All-Ireland Championships) or the North American Irish Dancing Championships. Oireachtais operate at only one level of competition and are judged by multiple adjudicators. In An Coimisiún oireachtais, dancers perform three dances in consecutive rounds and are placed according to their cumulative scores. Like feiseanna, oireachtais may include competitions for ceili dances.
Many of the larger organisations operate an annual World Championships for their organisation's dancers. The largest and oldest of these is An Coimisiún's Oireachtas Rince Na Cruinne, which was established in 1970, and involves up to 3000 competing dancers who have qualified at regional and national oireachtais.
In performance
At the 1897 general meeting of the Gaelic League, displays of dancing were observed to be more popular than the speeches and debates. The public performance of step dance, therefore, evolved with the organisation of social dances as a means for the Gaelic League to ensure both ongoing popularity and financial stability for its revolutionary activities.
Riverdance was the interval act in the 1994 Eurovision Song Contest, held in Dublin, which contributed to the popularity of Irish stepdance, and is still considered a significant watershed in Irish culture. Its roots are in a three-part suite of baroque-influenced traditional music called "Timedance", composed and recorded for the 1981 contest, which was also hosted in Dublin. This first performance featured American-born Irish dancing champions Jean Butler and Michael Flatley, the RTÉ Concert Orchestra and the Celtic choral group Anúna with a score written by Bill Whelan. Riverdance'''s success includes an eight-week sell out season at Radio City Music Hall, New York, with the sales of merchandise resulting in Radio City Music Hall merchandise sale's record smashed during the first performance, sell-out tours at King's Hall, Belfast, Northern Ireland, and The Green Glens Arena, Millstreet, Co. Cork, Ireland, plus a huge three and a half-month return to The Apollo in Hammersmith with advance ticket sales of over .
After Flatley left Riverdance, he created other Irish dance shows including Lord of the Dance, Celtic Tiger Live and Feet of Flames, the last-named being an expansion of Lord of the Dance.
In the media
A 2007 RTÉ reality television program, Celebrity Jigs 'n' Reels, combined traditional stepdance with modern music and choreography in a competitive format which paired celebrities with professional dancers. Competitors were judged by well-known stepdancers including Jean Butler and Colin Dunne.
The 2011 Sue Bourne documentary film Jig followed eight dancers as they prepared for An Coimisiún's 2010 World Championships in Glasgow. On its release, the film was praised for attention to technical aspects of stepdance, but criticised for failing to explain the historical and socio-political context of the event.
TLC acquired the rights to the documentary in preparation for a new television show about the competitive Irish stepdance world in America, for which the working title is Irish Dancing Tweens. The series, which will be produced by Sirens Media, features several dance schools. Each episode will focus on individual dancers during rehearsals, preparation, travel, and during competitions. Eight episodes of the series have been ordered.
In 2014, BBC One produced a six-part documentary series called Jigs and Wigs: The Extreme World of Irish Dancing, which featured "the unusual individuals and the stories" of stepdance. The series was noted for its focus on the extreme elements of the modern Irish stepdance world, and the increasing financial pressures on competitors. Reviewers also noted that Jigs and Wigs'' presented a stepdance world increasingly divorced from perceived Celtic traditions.
See also
Festival Irish dance
Sean-nós dance in United States
Step dance
The Keltic Dreams
References
Bibliography
External links
The History of Irish Dance
Irish Step Dancing
Beginners Guide to Irish Dancing
Male Irish Step Dancing costumes
Video of male Irish Step Dancing costumes
Another video of male Irish Step Dancing costumes
Website about male Irish Step Dancing costumes
Female Irish Step Dancing costumes
History of female Irish dance dress costumes
Making an Irish dance solo dress at home
Uses of shoes | wiki |
Thrive Africa is a Ghanaian nonprofit registered charitable body, founded in United Kingdom in 2009 with the aim of assisting local communities across Ghana to improve living standards and educational level through a range of self-sustainable projects.
The charity annually recruits volunteers from across the world and coordinates their efforts to implement development projects, allowing its supporters to not only to promote the advancement of education and relief of poverty, but also to gain personal experience in the development sector.
History
Thrive Africa was founded in 2009 as a registered charity in United Kingdom and Ghana. In 2012 its management was fully transferred to Ghana.
Notable projects
Every year Thrive Africa donate tens of thousands of books working closely with its partner Book-Cycle, the UK charity. It recruits volunteers, who help local communities to establish school libraries and organise health and sanitation workshops.
From 2011 Thrive Africa's volunteers have worked in orphanages, building libraries, building farms for caregivers of HIV/AIDS orphans, running sports lessons and educational workshops, donating clothes and kits for football players.
In 2010 British Government and its development partners made the decision that Ghana should become fully self-sufficient and do without outside help by 2020. Nevertheless, about one third of people in this country live below the poverty line (less than $1.25 a day). Therefore, the Thrive Africa's management aimed at work with the local Ghanaian communities to create long term and self-sustainable projects.
References
External links
Thrive Africa's channel on YouTube
ThriveAfrica reviews on Review Centre
Foreign charities operating in Ghana
Organizations established in 2009
Development charities based in the United Kingdom
Educational charities based in the United Kingdom
Community-building organizations
Charities based in Ghana | wiki |
Gentoo může znamenat:
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Gentoo/FreeBSD – port Gentoo Linuxu na jádro FreeBSD
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Magnetic induction may refer to:
electromagnetic induction – a physical phenomenon where a changing magnetic field produces an electric field
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Yahoel or Jehoel (, also spelled Jehoel in some English texts, and Yaoel in French sources) is the name of an angel appearing in the Old Church Slavonic manuscripts of the Apocalypse of Abraham, a pseudepigraphical work dating from after the siege of Jerusalem (70). He is an associate of Michael (Apoc.Abr.10:17) charged to restrain Leviathan and destroy idolaters (10:10–14).
Another later pseudepigraphical rabbinical work ascribed to Ishmael ben Elisha, Hebrew 3 Enoch 48d, gives Yahoel as one of the 70 names of Metatron, which makes sense in light of the character and role of Yahoel in the Apocalypse of Abraham.
In the 13th Century kabbalistic Berith Menucha of Abraham Merimon of Granada Yahoel is the angel over fire.
Several popular dictionaries of angels, such as Gustav Davidson A dictionary of angels: including the fallen angels (1967) repeat the claim that Jehoel was (in unidentified Jewish texts) the chief angel of the Seraphim. No source for this claim is forthcoming.
See also
Angels in Judaism
List of angels in theology
References
Individual angels
Michael (archangel)
Jewish mysticism
Angels in Judaism | wiki |
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